CHAPTER 2

Anemia
Definition of Anemia
‰ Deficiency in the oxygen-carrying capacity
of the blood due to a diminished
erythrocyte mass.
‰ May be due to:
‰ Erythrocyte loss (bleeding)
‰ Decreased Erythrocyte production
‰ low erythropoietin
‰ Decreased marrow response to erythropoietin
‰ Increased Erythrocyte destruction
(hemolysis)
Measurements of Anemia
† Hemoglobin = grams of hemoglobin per 100 mL of
whole blood (g/dL)
† Hematocrit = percent of a sample of whole blood
occupied by intact red blood cells
† RBC = millions of red blood cells per microL of whole
blood
† MCV = Mean corpuscular volume
„ If > 100 → Macrocytic anemia
„ If 80 – 100 → Normocytic anemia
„ If < 80 → Microcytic anemia
† RDW = Red blood cell distribution width
„ = (Standard deviation of red cell volume ÷ mean cell
volume) × 100
„ Normal value is 11-15%
„ If elevated, suggests large variability in sizes of RBCs
Laboratory Definition of Anemia
† Hgb:
† Women: <12.0
† Men: < 13.5
† Hct:
† Women: < 36
† Men: <41
Symptoms of Anemia
† Decreased oxygenation
„ Exertional dyspnea
„ Dyspnea at rest
„ Fatigue
„ Bounding pulses
„ Lethargy, confusion
† Decreased volume
„ Fatigue
„ Muscle cramps
„ Postural dizziness
„ syncope
Special Considerations in
Determining Anemia
† Acute Bleed
† Drop in Hgb or Hct may not be shown until 36
to 48 hours after acute bleed (even though
patient may be hypotensive)
† Pregnancy
† In third trimester, RBC and plasma volume are
expanded by 25 and 50%, respectively.
† Labs will show reductions in Hgb, Hct, and RBC
count, often to anemic levels, but according to
RBC mass, they are actually polycythemic
† Volume Depletion
† Patient’s who are severely volume depleted may
not show anemia until after rehydrated
RBC Life Cycle
† In the bone marrow, erythropoietin
enhances the growth of differentiation of
burst forming units-erythroid (BFU-E) and
colony forming units-erythroid (CFU-E) into
reticulocytes.
† Reticulocyte spends three days maturing in
the marrow, and then one day maturing in
the peripheral blood.
† A mature Red Blood Cell circulates in the
peripheral blood for 100 to 120 days.
† Under steady state conditions, the rate of
RBC production equals the rate of RBC loss.
Normal Peripheral Smear
Causes of Anemia --
Erythrocyte Loss
† Bleeding
† Chronic (gastrointestinal, menstrual)
† Acute/Hemodynamically significant:
„ Gastrointestinal
„ Retroperitoneal
Anemia due to
Low Erythropoietin
† Kidney Disease
„ Normochromic, normocytic
„ Low reticulocyte count
„ Frequently, peripheral smear in uremic
patients show “burr cells” or echinocytes
„ Target hemoglobin for patients on
dialysis is 11 to 12 g/dL
† Administer erythropoietin or darbopoietin
weekly
† Good Iron stores must be maintained
Echinocytes (“burr cells”)
Anemia due to Decreased
Response to Erythropoietin
† Iron-Deficiency
† Vitamin B12 Deficiency
† Folate Deficiency
† Anemia of Chronic Disease
Anemia due to Decreased
Response to Erythropoietin
† Iron Deficiency
„ Can result from:
„ Pregnancy/lactation
„ Normal growth
„ Blood loss
„ Intravascular hemolysis
„ Gastric bypass
„ Malabsorption
ƒ Iron is absorbed in proximal small bowel; decreased
abosrption in celiac disease, inflammatory bowel
disease
„ May manifest as PICA
† Tendency to eat ice, clay, starch, crunchy materials
„ May have pallor, koilonychia of the nails, beeturia
„ Peripheral smear shows microcytic, hypochromic
red cells with marked anisopoikilocytosis.
Iron Deficiency Anemia
Iron Deficiency Anemia -
koilonychia
Iron Deficiency Anemia – Lab
Findings
† Serum Iron
† LOW (< 60 micrograms/dL)
† Total Iron Binding Capacity (TIBC)
† HIGH ( > 360 micrograms/dL)
† Serum Ferritin
† LOW (< 20 nanograms/mL)
† Can be “falsely”normal in inflammatory
states
Treatment of Iron Deficiency
Anemia
† Oral iron salts
„ Ferrous sulfate – 325 mg po Q Day
† Side effects: constipation, black stools,
positive hemmoccult test
„ Vitamin C can facilitate iron absorption.
Anemia due to Decreased
Response to Erythropoietin
† Cobalamin (Vitamin B12) Deficiency
† Macrocytic anemia
† Lab Values
„ Cobalamin level < 200 pg/mL
„ Elevated serum methylmalonic acid
„ Elevated serum homocysteine
† Vit. B12 is needed for DNA synthesis
† Binds to intrinsic factor in the small bowel in order to be
absorbed
ƒ Pernicious anemia: antibodies to intrinsic factor
ƒ Diagnosed by checking antibody levels (rather than Schilling
test)
† Deficiency can result in neuropsychiatric symptoms
ƒ Spastic ataxia, psychosis, loss of vibratory sense, dementia
ƒ Frequently not reversible with cobalamin replacement
† Smear shows macrocytosis with hypersegmentation of
polymorphonuclear cells, with possible basophilic stippling.
Vitamin B12 Deficiency
Treatment of Vitamin B12
Deficiency
† Vitamin B12 – 1000 micrograms intramuscularly
monthly
-OR-
† Vitamin B12 – 1000-2000 micrograms po QDaily
Anemia due to Decreased
Response to Erythropoietin
† Folate Deficiency
„ Macrocytic anemia
„ Lab Values
„ Low folate
„ Increased serum homocystine
„ NORMAL methylmalonic acid
„ Often occurs with decreased oral intake, increased utilization,
or impaired absorption of folate
„ Folate is normally absorbed in duodenum and proximal jejunum –
deficiency found in celiac disease, regional enteritis,
amyloidosis
„ Deficiency frequently in alcoholics, because enzyme required for
deglutamation of folate is inhibited by alcohol.
„ Deficiency often found in pregnant women, persons with
desquamating skin disorders, patients with sickle cell
anemia (and other conditions associated with rapid cell division
and turnover)
„ Smear shows macrocytosis with hypersegmented neutrophils
Folate Deficiency
Treatment of Folate Deficiency
† Folate – 1 to 5 mg po Qday
† Vit. B12 deficiency must be excluded in
folate-deficient patients, because
supplemental folate can improve the
anemia of Vit. B12 deficiency but not the
neurologic sequelae.
Vitamin B12 Deficiency Versus
Folate Deficiency
Vitamin B 12 Folate Deficiency
Deficiency
MCV > 100 > 100
Smear Macrocytosis with Macrocytosis with
hypersegmented hypersegmented
neutrophils neutrophils

Pernicious anemia Yes NO

Homocystine Elevated Elevated

Methylmalonic Acid Elevated NORMAL

Anemia due to Decreased
Response to Erythropoietin
† Anemia of Chronic Disease
† Usually normocytic, normochromic (but
can become hypochromic, microcytic over
time)
† Occurs in people with inflammatory
conditions such as collage vascular disease,
malignancy or chronic infection.
† Iron replacement is not necessary
† May benefit from erythropoietin
supplementation.
Anemia due to Decreased
marrow response
† Thalassemia
† Microcytic anemia
† Defects in either the alpha or beta chains of
hemoglobin, leading to ineffective
erythropoiesis and hemolysis
„ α-thalassemia:
ƒ Prevalent in Africa, Mediterranean, Middle
East, Asia
„ β-thalassemia:
ƒ Prevalent in Mediterranean, South East Asia,
India, Pakistan
† Smear shows microcytosis with target cells
Thalassemia
Anemia due to Destruction of
Red Blood Cells
† Hemoglobinopathies
† Sickle Cell Anemia
† Aplastic Anemia
† Decrease in all lines of cells – hemoglobin,
hematocrit, WBC, platelets
† Parvovirus B19, EBV, CMV
† Acquired aplastic anemia
† Hemolytic Anemia
 Hemolytic Anemias
† Hereditary spherocytosis † Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia
† Glucose-6-phosphate „ Warm-antibody mediated
dehydrogenase (G6PD) † IgG antibody binds to erythrocyte
Deficiency surface
† most common
† Most common enzyme defect in
erythrocytes † Diagnosed by POSITIVE Coomb’s
Test (detectgs IgG or complement
† X-linked on the cell surgace)
† Brisk hemolysis when patients † Can be caused drugs
exposed to oxidative stress from † Treated with corticosteroids or
drugs, infections or toxins. splenectomy if refractory
† Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic „ Cold agglutinin Disease
Purpura (TTP) † IgM antibodies bind to erythrocyte
† Thrombocytopenia and surface
microangiopathic hemolytic † Does not respond to corticosteroids,
anemia, fever, renal but usually mild.
insufficiency, neurologic † Infections
symptoms „ Malaria
† Schistocytes on smear „ Babesiosis
† Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome „ Sepsis
† Thrombocytopenia, † Trauma
Microangiopathic hemolytic „ Includes some snake, insect bites
anemia, renal insufficiency
Sickle Cell Anemia
Spherocytosis
TTP / HUS – microangiopathic
hemolysis with schistocytes
Malaria
Babesiosis
Lab Analysis in Hemolytic Anemia
† Increased indirect bilirubin
† Increased LDH
† Increased reticulocyte count
† Normal reticulocyte count is 0.5 to 1.5%
† > 3% is sign of increased reticulocyte
production, suggestive of hemolysis
† Reduced or absent haptoglobin
† < 25 mg /dL suggests hemolysis
† Haptoglobin binds to free hemoglobin
released after hemolysis
Evaluating the Patient with Anemia
† Check Hemoglobin/Hematocrit
„ If female, is Hgb < 12 or Hct < 36?
„ If male, is Hgb < 13.5 or Hct < 41?

„ If Yes, Patient has ANEMIA!

„ If No, they are fine and this lecture was
not necessary.
Evaluating the patient with Anemia
† Any history of medical problems that
could cause anemia?
„ Sickle cell Disease?
„ Thalassemia?
„ Renal Disease?
„ Hereditary Spherocytosis?
Evaluating the Patient with Anemia
† Are the other cell lines also low?
„ If WBC and platelets are both low, consider
APLASTIC ANEMIA!
„ Check medication list
ƒ NSAIDS (phenylbutazone), Sulfonamides,
Acyclovir, Gancyclovir, chloramphenicol, anti-
epileptics (phenytoin, carbamazepine, valproic
acid), nifedipine
ƒ Check parvovirus B19 IgG, IgM
ƒ Consider hepatitis viruses, HIV
„ If Platelets are low consider TTP or HUS!
„ Must check smear for schistocytes (for sign of
microangiopathic hemolytic anemia)
„ If renal failure, E. Coli O157:H7 exposure → HUS
„ If renal failure, neurologic changes, fever → TTP
Evaluating the Patient with Anemia
† Is the patient bleeding?!
„ Any bright red blood per rectum
(hematochezia) or black tarry stools
(melena)?
† Check stool guaiac, may consider
sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy
„ Any abdominal pain, or recent femoral
vein/artery manipulation?
† Consider retroperitoneal hematoma
Evaluating the Patient with Anemia
† If other cell lines are okay, what is the MCV and RDW?
„ If MCV < 80, then it’s a microcytic anemia
† Check serum iron, ferritin, TIBC
„ If iron-deficiency anemia, look for sources of chronic bleeding –
heavy menstrual bleeding, consider colonoscopy
† Consider lead poisoning, copper deficiency, thalassemias
„ If MCV 80-100, then it’s a normocytic anemia
† Any inflammatory conditions that could result in anemia of
chronic disease?
† Consider checking indirect bili, LDH, haptoglobin, reticulocyte
count
„ If MCV > 100, then it’s a macrocytic anemia
† Check Vit. B 12, folate
† Consider liver disease, alcoholism, myelodysplastic syndrome
† Check medications: hydoxyurea, AZT, methotrexate
Evaluating the Patient with Anemia
† Any jaundice, elevated bilirubin,
suspicious for hemolysis?
„ Check for increased indirect bilirubin,
increased LDH, decreased haptoglobin,
increased reticulocyte count
„ Any sign of infection? Malaria?
Babesiosis?
„ Is Coombs test positive?
„ If yes, may be warm antibody hemolytic
anemia; Consider drug as cause
Case #1
† A 41-year old male with a history of
HIV with a CD4 count of 150 who
presents with a Hgb of 11, Hct of 33,
which is down from a Hgb of 14 with
a Hct of 42.
Case #1
† Denies hematochezia, melena, any
source of bleeding
† Denies any yellowing of the skin
† No recent fevers, nausea or vomiting.
Case #1
† PMH: HIV/AIDS
„ No history of sickle cell disease, cancer, anemia
† Allergies: Sulfa
† Meds:
„ Efavirenz
„ Emtricitabine
„ Tenofovir
„ Dapsone
† Social History:
„ No recent travel, no recent sick exposures, lives alone;
occassional alcohol use, no tobacco use, no IV drug use;
Works as attorney
† Family History:
„ No family history of cancer
Case #1
† P.E.: 37.8, 123/68, 73, 16, 99% on RA
† Gen: Alert and oriented x 3; in NAD;
† HEENT: no scleral icterus, no
lymphadenopathy
† CV: RRR
† Resp: LCTA
† Abd.: soft, nontender
† Ext.: no LE edema
Case # 1
† LABS:
„ WBC: 4.3 „ Tot. Protein: 5.3
„ Hgb: 11 „ Albumin: 3.1
„ Hct: 33 „ Total Bili: 1.4
„ Platelets: 224 „ Dir. Bili: 0.2
„ Sodium: 137 „ AST: 23
„ Potassium: 3.8 „ ALT: 42
„ Chloride: 101 „ Alk. Phos: 122
„ CO2: 25
„ Glucose: 102 „ Haptoglobin: 20
„ Reticulocyte count:
3.2%
Case #1
† What lab test do you want to make
sure patient has had already or might
you want to check?
† What might you see on peripheral
smear if his total bilirubin was
elevated, and his platelets were low?
Case #2
† A 34- year old woman presents to your
office with a 1-week history of generalized
weakness, easy fatiguability and shortness
of breath. One hour ago, she developed a
headache a left hemiparesis. Two days
ago, she noted easy bruisability and
bleeding guyms. Three days ago, she
developed a fever. A history reveals that
she had no previous serious illnesses and
review of systems is normal.
Case #2
† Physical Exam:
„ Temp: 40°, 120/70, 70, 16, 96% on RA
„ Gen: Alerti oriented, in NAD, but appears weak
„ HEENT: petechiae on soft palate with some
fresh blood on gingiva
„ CV: RRR; II/VI high-pitched holosystolic murmur
„ Resp: LCTA bilaterally
„ Neuro: mild left hemiparesis with hyperactive
reflexes and positive babinkski on the left
„ Skin: scattered pupuric lesions on lower
extremities
Case # 2
† Hgb: 6 g/dL † Total Bili: 3.0
† MCV: 80 † Direct Bili: 0.2
† RDW: 20% † LDH: 3500
† WBC: 15 † UA: 2+ protein,
† Reticulocyte count: 30-40 RBCs, 5
200 WBCs
† Platelet: 9
† Creatinine: 1.0
Case #2
Case # 2
† The most likely diagnosis of this
patient’s disorder is:
(A)Acute leukemia
(B)Bacterial endocarditis
(C)Thromboci thrombocytopenic purpura
(D)Hemolytic uremic syndrome
(E)Systemic Lupus erythematosus
Case # 3
† A 64-year old woman is hospitalized
because of progressive SOB and
palpitations over the past few weeks. She
has also noticed a yellow tinge to her eyes
during this time. She occasionally drinks
wine excessively but says that she has
abstained since the onset of her symptoms.
For the last 6 months she has not eaten
meat or fish, and her diet has consisted
mostly of toast with margarine, tea, and an
occassional banana. She says her social
security checks do not stretch as far as
they used to.
Case # 3
† Physical Exam:
„ Vitals: Pulse: 110, RR: 22
„ General: pale, blue-eyed, gray-haired
disheveled female with mild scleral
icterus.
„ CV: RRR
„ Resp: crackles that do not clear with
coughing are heard at both lung bases
„ Ext: mild pitting edema at both ankles
„ Neuro Exam: Normal
Case #3
† Labs:
„ Hgb: 5.1 g/dL
„ MCV: 112
„ RDW: 21%
„ Platelets: 109
„ WBC: 4.6
Case #3
† Which of the following blood levels
are most likely in this patient?
Vitamin Folate Methylmalonic Homocysteine
B12 Acid
(A) Low Normal High High
(B) Low Normal Normal High
(C) Normal Low High Normal
(D) Normal Low Normal High

(D) Normal Normal Normal Normal