Geosciences 12 00394 v2

geosciences
Article
Earthquake-Induced Flow-Type Slope Failure in Weathered
Volcanic Deposits—A Case Study: The 16 April 2016 Takanodai
Landslide, Japan
Gabriele Chiaro 1, * , Takashi Kiyota 2 , Muhammad Umar 3 and Claudio Cappellaro 1
1 Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering, University of Canterbury,

Christchurch 8041, New Zealand
2 Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan
3 Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences,
Lahore 54770, Punjab, Pakistan
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract: The aim of this paper is to provide new insight into the catastrophic mobility of the
earthquake-induced flow-type Takanodai landslide that occurred on 16 April 2016, which had fatal
consequences. A geological and geotechnical interpretation of the site conditions and experimental
investigations of the mechanical behavior of weathered Kusasenrigahama (Kpfa) pumice are used
to characterize the landslide failure mechanism. The results of large-strain undrained torsional
shear tests indicate that Kpfa pumice has the potential to rapidly develop very large shear strains
upon mobilization of its cyclic resistance. To evaluate the actual field performance, a series of new
liquefaction triggering analyses are carried out. The liquefaction triggering analyses indicate that
Citation: Chiaro, G.; Kiyota, T.; Umar,
Kpfa pumice did not liquefy during the Mw 6.2 foreshock event, and the hillslope remained stable.
M.; Cappellaro, C.
Instead, it liquefied during the Mw 7.0 mainshock event, when the exceedance of the cyclic resistance
Earthquake-Induced Flow-Type
of the Kpfa pumice deposit and subsequent flow-failure type of response can be considered the main
Slope Failure in Weathered Volcanic
cause of the landslide. Moreover, the combination of large cyclic stress ratios (CSR = 0.21–0.35)—
Deposits—A Case Study: The 16
April 2016 Takanodai Landslide,
significantly exceeding the cyclic resistance ratio CRR = 0.09–0.13)—and static shear stress ratios
Japan. Geosciences 2022, 12, 394. (α = 0.15–0.25) were critical factors responsible for the observed flow-type landslide that traveled
https://doi.org/10.3390/ more than 0.6 km over a gentle sloping surface (6◦ –10◦ ).
geosciences12110394
Keywords: weathered volcanic soil; Takanodai landslide; flow-type failure; torsional shear tests;
Academic Editors:
stability analyses; liquefaction triggering
Jesus Martinez-Frias
and Mohamed Shahin
Received: 4 October 2022

Accepted: 19 October 2022 1. Introduction
Published: 25 October 2022
On 16 April 2016, a relatively gentle slope (12◦ –15◦ ) located within the Mt. Aso Vol-
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral canic Caldera, in the Prefecture of Kumamoto (Kyushu Island, Japan), failed catastrophically
with regard to jurisdictional claims in due to severe ground shaking induced by the moment magnitude Mw 7.0 2016 Kumamoto
published maps and institutional affil- Earthquake [1–4]. The resulting flow-type slide, which involved weathered volcanic soil
iations. deposits on a gentle slope, destroyed seven houses (causing five fatalities), damaged critical
lifelines and local roads in the small residential Takanodai Housing Complex (Minamiaso
Village), and threatened the neighboring Tokyu Country Town community.
Earthquake-induced flow-type landslides in volcanic deposits have occurred many
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
times in the past [5,6]. Despite many research efforts, their mechanisms are still only poorly
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
understood, making it difficult to predict in advance their occurrence and destructive
This article is an open access article
consequences on the natural and built environment. Some of the major limitations in the
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
evaluation of flow-type landslide hazard in similar settings are the lack of experimental data
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
available on the cyclic and dynamic response of volcanic deposits, and the fundamental
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ differences in behavior between such problematic soils and well-understood “textbook”
4.0/). soils (e.g., hard-grained quartz sands). The recent Takanodai flow-type landslide case
Geosciences 2022, 12, 394. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences12110394 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/geosciences

Geosciences 2022, 12, 394 2 of 21
history emphasizes the current need to better understand the seismic response of volcanic
soil deposits, and provides a critical opportunity to attain invaluable information toward
such improved understanding.
Between April and October 2016, as a part of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers
(JSCE) “Kumamoto Earthquake Damage Reconnaissance Mission”, the New Zealand Soci-
ety for Earthquake Engineering “Learn from Earthquake—Kumamoto Mission”, and the
“J-Rapid Japan-NZ Collaborative Kumamoto Project”, a research team involving the first
two authors carried out post-earthquake damage reconnaissance surveys and geotechnical
field investigations in the area of the Mt. Aso Caldera affected by the earthquake [3,4]. The
research team carried out a comprehensive investigation program consisting of geological
and geotechnical characterization of the Takanodai landslide site involving sampling of
volcanic soils for subsequent geotechnical laboratory testing and static and time-history
seismic slope stability analyses. The results of the slope stability analyses are presented in
Chiaro et al. [7,8]. Preliminary analyses of laboratory data from torsional simple shear tests
performed by the authors are given in Chiaro et al. [9] and Umar et al. [10].
Due to its engineering significance, the Takanodai landslide has also been studied
by other investigators [2,11–13]. Other laboratory studies on Kpfa pumice, identified
as the critical soil unit associated with the slope failure, include undrained cyclic and
dynamic ring-shear tests of saturated specimens [2], undrained cyclic triaxial tests of
both undisturbed and reconstituted saturated specimens [11], monotonic and cyclic direct
shear box tests on both saturated and unsaturated [12], and constant vertical stress and
constant volume cyclic direct shear tests [13]. Dang et al. [2] and Kasama et al. [12] used
their experimental data to calibrate numerical models for the simulation of triggering and
runout of the landslide.
This paper contributes to the abovementioned previous research efforts with a com-
parative analysis of experimental data from monotonic and cyclic torsional simple shear
tests to highlight fundamental differences in the cyclic response of the Kpfa pumice at the
Takanodai landslide site, as well as of hard-grained, liquefiable sands. Laboratory tests are
carried out using a testing device capable of reaching very large shear strains to assess the
potential of the tested soils to undergo flow-type failure upon triggering of liquefaction. Liq-
uefaction triggering analyses are then carried out with an analytical procedure, accounting
for the combined effects of earthquake-induced cyclic shear stress and driving static shear
stress due to sloping ground conditions. Limitations on the applicability of the procedure
to volcanic soils, and recommendations for future developments are then discussed.
2. The Takanodai Landslide: Characteristics and Field Observations

2.1. Geology of the Mt. Aso Volcanic Caldera
The landslide site is located nearby the Minami-Aso Township, within the Mt. Aso
Caldera, on Kyushu Island in southern Japan (Figure 1). A series of active volcanic vents
constitutes the inner caldera of Mt. Aso, the highest peak being Mt. Taka (1592 m above
sea level), and it is encircled by the outer caldera, whose diameter varies between 18 and
25 km. To the west, the outer caldera is cut through by the Shirakawa River [4].
The rocks in the area of the landslide site, on the western side of the inner caldera, are
mainly volcanic rocks of late Pleistocene age and consist of non-alkaline felsic and mafic
volcanic rocks, comprising ignimbrite, volcanic breccia, and some basalt lava flows [14].
The lower slopes of the inner caldera have usually milder angles (<10◦ ) and consist of
ignimbrites and lava flows overlain by a cover, which can be many meters thick, of volcanic
deposits, including pumice. The upper slopes can instead be very steep (>60◦ ), and the
overlying soil deposits tend to be shallower, with thicknesses of up to 10 m [4].
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21

Figure 1. (a) Map of the epicentral area with location of landslide site, K‐Net strong motion stations,
Figure 1. (a) Map of the epicentral area with location of landslide site, K-Net strong motion stations,
and epicenters of main seismic events (base map from Google Earth; epicentral locations according
and epicenters of main seismic events (base map from Google Earth; epicentral locations according to
to AIST [15]); the dashed red rectangles approximate the surface projection of the source model for
AIST [15]); the dashed red rectangles approximate the surface projection of the source model for the
the Mw7.0 event [16]. (b) Location of the landslide site in southern Japan.
Mw 7.0 event [16]. (b) Location of the landslide site in southern Japan.
2.2. 2016 Kumamoto Earthquake Sequence
2.2. 2016 Kumamoto Earthquake Sequence
In April 2016, a series of earthquakes affected the area of the Kumamoto prefecture,
In April 2016, a series of earthquakes affected the area of the Kumamoto prefecture,
Japan. The seismic sequence comprised three events with moment magnitude M
Japan. The seismic sequence comprised three events with moment magnitude Mw equal w equal
to
to or greater than 6.0 [1–4]:
or greater than 6.0 [1–4]:
• 14 April 2016 event (foreshock), M
14 April 2016 event (foreshock), Mww6.2;
6.2;
• 15 April 2016 event (foreshock), M
15 April 2016 event (foreshock), Mww6.0;
6.0;
• 16 April 2016 event (main shock), M
16 April 2016 event (main shock), Mw 7.0.
w7.0.
Epicentral locations for these seismic events are shown in Figure 1. The figure also
Epicentral locations for these seismic events are shown in Figure 1. The figure also
shows the approximate surface projection of the finite source model for the Mww7.0 main
shows the approximate surface projection of the finite source model for the M 7.0 main
shock as modeled by Asano and Iwata [16]; other studies on the source rupture
shock as modeled by Asano and Iwata [16]; other studies on the source rupture process process for
this seismic event have adopted similar source models (e.g., [17,18]). The landslide site
for this seismic event have adopted similar source models (e.g., [17,18]). The landslide site was
located
was aboutabout
located 27 km 27
from the
km epicenter
from of the main
the epicenter of event, but its
the main Joyner–Boore
event, distance RJB
but its Joyner–Boore
(i.e., the shortest distance between the site and surface projection of a three-dimensional
distance RJB (i.e., the shortest distance between the site and surface projection of a three‐
rupture) was less than 2 km. The epicentral distances for the 14 April Mw 6.2 and 15 April
dimensional rupture) was less than 2 km. The epicentral distances for the 14 April M w6.2
Mw 6.0 events were about 25 and 30 km, respectively.
and 15 April M w6.0 events were about 25 and 30 km, respectively.
Figure 1 shows the location of three K-Net strong motion stations (KMM004, KMM005,
Figure 1 shows the location of three K‐Net strong motion stations (KMM004,
and KMM007); all strong motion stations were located 12 km away from the landslide site.
KMM005, and KMM007); all strong motion stations were located 12 km away from the
Stations KMM004 and KMM007 are underlain by 13–15 m of volcanic ash deposits over
landslide site. Stations KMM004 and KMM007 are underlain by 13–15 m of volcanic ash
volcanic rock, while station KMM005 is underlain by 6 m of sand and 5 m of volcanic ash
deposits over volcanic rock, while station KMM005 is underlain by 6 m of sand and 5 m
overlying volcanic rock (K-net [19]). Intensity measures and source-to-site distances for the
of volcanic ash overlying volcanic rock (K‐net [19]). Intensity measures and source‐to‐site
ground motions recorded by these strong motion stations for the three largest earthquakes
distances for the ground motions recorded by these strong motion stations for the three
of the Kumamoto seismic sequence are summarized in Table 1.
largest earthquakes of the Kumamoto seismic sequence are summarized in Table 1.

Geosciences 2022, 12, 394 4 of 21
Table 1. Intensity measures of recorded strong ground motions at K-Net stations for main events of
Kumamoto earthquake sequence.
Date and M w R† PGA †† Sa (1 s) †† Ia †† D5–95 †† CAV ††

Station
of Event (km) (g) (g) (m/s) (s) (m/s)
14 April 2016, 6.2 KMM004 36 0.04 0.03 0.03 27.6 2.40
KMM005 16 0.21 0.18 0.28 11.6 6.24
KMM007 31 0.18 0.05 0.58 15.7 8.62
15 April 2016, 6.0 KMM004 42 0.01 0.02 0.00 41.2 1.00
KMM005 22 0.05 0.05 0.03 12.8 1.72
KMM007 35 0.08 0.02 0.10 16.2 3.40
16 April 2016, 7.0 KMM004 7 0.31 0.53 1.84 12.0 14.83
KMM005 0 0.51 0.41 3.79 11.7 22.47
KMM007 13 0.35 0.24 1.79 14.9 16.60
R = source-to-site distance (see note † below); PGA = peak ground acceleration; Sa (1 s) = spectral acceleration at 1 s
period; Ia = Arias intensity; D5–95 = significant duration; CAV = cumulative absolute velocity. † For the 16 April
Mw 7.0 event, the source-to-site distance was taken as the Joyner–Boore distance RJB , while, for the other two
events, the epicentral distance is reported. †† Reported values of intensity measures are geometric mean values of
EW and NS components of strong motion record.
2.3. Field Damage Observations at Takanodai Landslide Site

The Takanodai landslide took place on the gentler lower slopes of the inner caldera
and involved the surface cover of volcanic deposits. These soils are known to be sensitive
to pore-water pressure changes and earthquake loading, and there have been numerous
past studies on rainfall-induced (e.g., [20]) and earthquake-induced (e.g., [6]) landslides in
these materials.
As displayed in Figure 2a, the Takanodai landslide traveled in three different directions
from a common source. The main slip (cross-section A–A’, Figure 2a,b) had a length of
about 600 m, a width of 100 m, and a thickness of 5–10 m. Field observations suggest
that this was a shallow mobile earth slide. The presence of relatively large intact blocks of
soil (Figure 3a,b) that traveled toward the slope toe on a 6◦ –10◦ angle clearly indicates a
translational movement of the soil mass, characterized by a flow-type failure. Numerous
tension cracks above the head scarp and at the hilltop, adjacent to the Aso Volcanological
Laboratory, were also observed (Figure 3c). Traces of an orange pumiceous soil were visible
on the identified slip surface (Figure 3d), which consisted of a stiff clay-like ash deposit.
As schematically shown in Figure 4a, the soil profile at the Takanodai landslide site
consists of an alternating sequence of volcanic deposits: (1) black volcanic ash with high
organic matter (OL), (2) brown volcanic ash (AC), (3) weathered orange Kusasenrigahama
pumice (Kpfa), (4) stiff brown volcanic ash (Tp), and (5) soft/weathered volcanic rock.
Borehole logs in the area indicate that the thickness of the Kpfa pumice layer varies between
0 and 1 m [4,11].
From the field observations, it was inferred that the brown volcanic ash deposits
(AC and Tp), within which the Kpfa layer was sandwiched, are less permeable than the
Kfpa pumice. The earthquakes were preceded by heavy rainfalls, and water seepage was
evident within the pumice soil layer at the time of the first field survey in early May 2016 [4].
This suggests that the Kpfa pumice likely had a high degree of saturation at the time of the
Kumamoto earthquakes [4,11].
Following the May 2016 field damage survey, it was hypothesized that the Kpfa
pumice was the critical layer associated with the slope failure. Therefore, disturbed and
undisturbed samples of the orange Kpfa pumice were retrieved for index testing and to
evaluate the undrained response of this soil using torsional simple shear tests. Additional
samples of the black (OC) and brown (AC and Tp) ash deposits were also collected to
evaluate the unit weight of these deposits (Table 2).
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Geosciences 2022, 12, 394 5 of 21

Figure 2. Takanodai landslide (N 32.8851; E 131.0049): (a) schematic plan view; (b) cross‐section A–
Figure 2. Takanodai landslide (N 32.8851; E 131.0049): (a) schematic plan view; (b) cross-section A–A’
Figure 2. Takanodai landslide (N 32.8851; E 131.0049): (a) schematic plan view; (b) cross‐section A–
A’ of the main slip.
ofA’ of the main slip.
the main slip.

Figure 3. Photos of the Takanodai landslide site: (a) view looking uphill; (b) view looking downhill;
(c) tension cracks observed at the hilltop; (d) identified slip surface on intact stiff clay (Tp) with
(c) tension
(c) tension cracks
cracks observed
observed atat the
the hilltop;
hilltop; (d)
(d) identified
identified slip
slip surface
surface on
on intact
intact stiff
stiff clay
clay (Tp)
(Tp) with
with
remnants of Kpfa pumice layer. The inset (e) shows locations and direction of photos (a–d) with
respect to the landslide; refer to Figure 2 for symbols used in map. Photos were taken in May 2016.

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Figure 4. (a) Schematic soil profile and (b) matching volcanic soil deposits, as observed in wall o
Figure 4. (a) Schematic soil profile and (b) matching volcanic soil deposits, as observed in wall of
trial pit
trial pit excavated
excavated on northern
on the the northern
side ofside of the landslide
the landslide (location
(location shown shown
in Figure in Figure
2); photo 2); photo wa
was taken
taken in May 2016.
in May 2016.
Table 2. Soil types identified at the Takanodai investigation site with measured in situ bulk
Table 2. Soil types identified at the Takanodai investigation site with measured in situ bulk uni
unit weight.
weight.
Soil Type
Soil Type Symbol †
Symbol † Bulk Unit Weight (kN/m3 ) ††
Bulk Unit Weight (kN/m 3) ††
Black ash
Black ash OL (1)
OL (1) 11.2 11.2
Brown ash AC (1) 12.9
Brown ash
Black ash AC (1)
OL (2) 11.2 12.9
Black ash
Brown ash OL (2)
AC (2) 19.2 11.2
Orange pumice
Brown ash KpfaAC (2) 11.3 19.2
Stiff brown ash Tp 19.2
Orange pumice
Soft rock — Kpfa 22.0 11.3
Stiff brown ash
As reported in † Hazarika et al. [11] and †† Chiaro et al. [7]. Tp 19.2
Soft rock ‐‐‐ 22.0
3. Laboratory Testing
As reported in of Kpfa Pumice †† Chiaro et al. [7].
† Hazarika et al. [11] and
3.1. Test Material

3. Laboratory Testing of Kpfa Pumice
Kpfa pumice samples were collected from the main slide of the Takanodai landslide
(sampling locations shown in Figure 2a). The pumice had a specific gravity of 2.3 (average
3.1. Test Material
value) and in situ dry density of approximately 600 kg/m3 ; the in-situ water content at
Kpfa pumice samples were collected from the main slide of the Takanodai landslide
the time of sampling was 117%. Figure 4a compares its particle size distribution curve
(sampling locations shown in Figure 2a). The pumice had a specific gravity of 2.3 (average
(orange curve) with that of the other soil layers OL, AC and Tp. A photo of an intact sample
value) and in situ dry density of approximately 600 kg/m
of Kpfa pumice overlaying brown stiff clay (Tp) is shown in Figure 3; the in‐situ water content at the
5b, while scanning
electron microscope (SEM) images are presented in Figure 5c,d. The Kpfa pumice is a
time of sampling was 117%. Figure 4a compares its particle size distribution curve (orange
pyroclastic soil that consists of silt and sand grains in a semi-continuous anisotropic matrix
curve) with that of the other soil layers OL, AC and Tp. A photo of an intact sample o
of halloysite material (Figure 5c,d). Kasama et al. [12] report that the particles of Kpfa
Kpfa pumice overlaying brown stiff clay (Tp) is shown in Figure 5b, while scanning elec
pumice are less resistant than those of hard-grained silica sands (such as Toyoura sand),
tron microscope (SEM) images are presented in Figure 5c,d. The Kpfa pumice is a pyro
and they can be crushed with fingers.
clastic soil that consists of silt and sand grains in a semi‐continuous anisotropic matrix o
halloysite material (Figure 5c,d). Kasama et al. [12] report that the particles of Kpfa pumice
are less resistant than those of hard‐grained silica sands (such as Toyoura sand), and they
can be crushed with fingers.
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7 of 21

Figure 5. Volcanic soils investigated in this study: (a) particle size distribution curves (PSD for OL,
Figure 5. Volcanic soils investigated in this study: (a) particle size distribution curves (PSD for
AC and Tp are adopted from Kasama et al. [12]; (b) photo of an intact sample of Kpfa pumice over‐
OL, AC and Tp are adopted from Kasama et al. [12]; (b) photo of an intact sample of Kpfa pumice
laying Tp clay; (c,d) SEM images of Kpfa pumice.
overlaying Tp clay; (c,d) SEM images of Kpfa pumice.
3.2. Test Apparatus
3.2. Test Apparatus
AA torsional shear apparatus on hollow cylindrical specimens is recognized to be a
torsional shear apparatus on hollow cylindrical specimens is recognized to be a
good tool to properly evaluate liquefaction soil response [21,22]. In particular, it offers the
good tool to properly evaluate liquefaction soil response [21,22]. In particular, it offers
possibility to
the possibility reproduce
to reproduce simple
simpleshear conditions that are a
shear conditions that are close representation
a close representation of field
of
stress conditions during earthquakes [23–26]. Moreover, in torsional shear tests on hollow
field stress conditions during earthquakes [23–26]. Moreover, in torsional shear tests on
cylindrical specimens, it is also currently possible to achieve higher strain levels by in‐
hollow cylindrical specimens, it is also currently possible to achieve higher strain levels by
creasing the amount of torsional shear displacement that is applied to the soil specimen
increasing the amount of torsional shear displacement that is applied to the soil specimen
through the rotation of the top cap [21,27]. For instance, Yasuda et al. [27] investigated the
through the rotation of the top cap [21,27]. For instance, Yasuda et al. [27] investigated
properties of liquefied sand under undrained monotonic torsional shear conditions up to
the properties of liquefied sand under undrained monotonic torsional shear conditions
large strains levels of about 50%. Later, Kiyota et al. [21] conducted undrained cyclic tor‐
up to large strains levels of about 50%. Later, Kiyota et al. [21] conducted undrained
sional simple shear tests up to double amplitude shear strain exceeding 50%. In the latter
cyclic torsional simple shear tests up to double amplitude shear strain exceeding 50%.
In the latter
tests, a tests, a for the
correction correction for the
effects effects of membrane resistance
of membrane resistance on measured
on measured shear
shear stress was
stress was carefully applied [21]. Kiyota et al. [22] reported that the maximum amounts
carefully applied [21]. Kiyota et al. [22] reported that the maximum amounts of liquefac‐
of liquefaction-induced
tion‐induced ground displacement
ground displacement observed observed in model
in relevant relevant model
tests and tests
field and field
observa‐
observations are consistent with the limiting value to initiate strain localization observed
tions are consistent with the limiting value to initiate strain localization observed in tor‐
in torsional shear tests [21]. Therefore, as long as the shear deformation remains uniform,
sional shear tests [21]. Therefore, as long as the shear deformation remains uniform, the
the results of torsional shear tests can be effectively used to estimate the extent of large
results of torsional shear tests can be effectively used to estimate the extent of large defor‐
deformation that will occur in the field during earthquakes [22].
mation that will occur in the field during earthquakes [22].
To evaluate the strength, deformation, and cyclic resistance characteristics of Kpfa
To evaluate the strength, deformation, and cyclic resistance characteristics of Kpfa
pumice under simple shear conditions, monotonic and cyclic undrained shear tests were
pumice under simple shear conditions, monotonic and cyclic undrained shear tests were
carried out using a fully automated torsional shear apparatus available at the Institute
carried out using a fully automated torsional shear apparatus available at the Institute of
of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, Japan (Figure 6a). This device is capable of
Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, Japan (Figure 6a). This device is capable of achiev‐
achieving single-amplitude
ing single‐amplitude (i.e., one-way)
(i.e., one‐way) shear shear strains
strains γSA exceeding
γSA exceeding 50%
50% (or (or double-
double‐ampli‐
amplitude, i.e., peak-to-peak, shear strains γDA exceeding 100%) on hollow cylindrical


Geosciences 2022, 12, 394 8 of 21
tude, i.e., peak‐to‐peak, shear strains γDA exceeding 100%) on hollow cylindrical speci‐
specimens ranging in dimensions from height H = 200 mm, inner diameter dii = 60 mm, and
mens ranging in dimensions from height H = 200 mm, inner diameter d = 60 mm, and
outer diameter d
outer diameter do o= = 100 mm to H = 300 mm, d
100 mm to H = 300 mm, dii = 90 mm, and d
= 90 mm, and doo = 150 mm [28].
= 150 mm [28].
f or vol ume change
Transducers:
Transducers:
Loadi ng shaft( φ30mm)
Loading shaft (φ30mm) ①Two-component l oad cel l
② 1 Two –component load cell
② Di spl acement transducer f or l arge verti cal di spl acement
Beari ng house 2 Large vertical displacement transducer
③H i gh capaci ty di f f erenti al pressure tr ansducer
Bearing house f or conf i ni ng stress
3 High capacity differential pressure transducer (confining pressure)
Cel l pressure
Cell pressure ④ Low capaci ty di f f erenti al pressure transducer
4 Low capacity differential pressure transducer (volume change)
f or vol ume change
① Fz
Pressure cel l
Pressure cell T
Back pressure
Back pressure
Top cap
Top cap
Specimen
Speci men po pi
Porous
Porous
Do=15cm
Do=15cm
stone urette
BBurette
Di = 9cm stone
Di= 9cm
H =30cm
z
H=30cm
Pedestal
Pedestal
④
0 10 20 ( cm)
(a) (b)

Figure
Figure Large-strain
6.6. torsional
Large‐strain shear
torsional apparatus
shear used in
apparatus this in
used study:
this (a) schematic
study: illustrationillustration
(a) schematic (adapted
from Kiyota et al. [21]; (b) external forces and stress components acting on a hollow cylindrical
(adapted from Kiyota et al. [21]; (b) external forces and stress components acting on a hollow cylin‐
specimen [29].
drical specimen [29].
InIn a a
hollow
hollow cylinder
cylinder torsional
torsional shear apparatus,
shear fourfour
apparatus, independent loading
independent components
loading compo‐
can be applied: vertical load (F z ), torque (T), inner cell pressure (pi ), and outer
nents can be applied: vertical load (Fz), torque (T), inner cell pressure (pi), and outer cell cell pressure
(ppressure (p
o ). The ensuing stress components (Figure 6b), i.e., axial stress (σz ), radial
o). The ensuing stress components (Figure 6b), i.e., axial stress (σ
stress (σr ),
z), radial stress
circumferential stress (σ θ ), and torsional shear stress (τ zθ ), can be derived
(σr), circumferential stress (σθ), and torsional shear stress (τzθ), can be derived as follows as follows [30]:
[30]: Fz po ro2 − pi ri2
σz = + (1)
π ro2 −𝐹ri2 2

r𝑝o2 −
𝑟 ri 𝑝 𝑟
𝜎 (1)
𝜋 𝑟 po r𝑟o + pi ri 𝑟 𝑟
σr = (2)
ro + ri
𝑝 𝑟 𝑝𝑟
𝜎 po ro − pi ri (2)
σθ = 𝑟 𝑟 (3)
ro − ri
𝑝 𝑟 3T 𝑝 𝑟
𝜎 =
τ = τzθ (4)
(3)
2π𝑟 ro3 −𝑟ri3
where ro and ri are the outer and inner radii of the specimen, respectively. The average
3𝑇
𝜏 as𝜏
torsional shear strain (γzθ ) is defined (4)
2𝜋 𝑟 𝑟
2θ ro3 − ri3
where ro and ri are the outer and inner radii of the specimen, respectively. The average
γ = γzθ = (5)
2H ro2 − ri2

torsional shear strain (γzθ) is defined as
2𝜃 𝑟 and𝑟H is the specimen height.

where θ is the circumferential angular displacement
The average principal stresses 𝛾 𝛾
σ1 (major),
σ2 (intermediate), (5)
σ3 (minor), and the mean
2𝐻 𝑟 𝑟
stress p are given by
where θ is the circumferential angular displacement and H is the specimen height.
s
The average principal stresses σ (major), σσz − σθ 2
2 (intermediate), σ
3 (minor), and the mean
σ1 σz +1σ θ 2
stress p are given by = ± + τzθ (6)
σ3 2 2

Geosciences 2022, 12, 394 9 of 21
σ2 = σr (7)
σ1 + σ2 + σ3
p= (8)
3
The device is capable of performing both drained tests, with measurements of volu-
metric strains, and undrained tests, when drainage is prevented and pore-water pressures
u are recorded. Thus, the effective mean stress (p0 ) can be evaluated as
p0 = p − u (9)
It should be noted that, in this study, pi and po were kept equal to each other. Measured
shear stress and effective mean stress were corrected in real time for the effects of membrane
forces, as reported in Chiaro [29].
3.3. Test Procedure

All the undrained torsional shear tests presented herein were conducted on recon-
stituted Kpfa pumice specimens. Previous studies have shown that common specimen
preparation methods such as wet tamping, wet pluviation, and dry pluviation are not
suitable to prepare volcanic soil specimens (e.g., [31]). Wet tamping usually results in
particle crushing. During water pluviation, soil grains tend to float instead of sediment-
ing into the mold, due to air confined in the inner grain pores. Limitations of the air
pluviation method have also been encountered because soil particles tend to segregate
due to significant variations in individual grain densities. For these reasons, in this study,
specimens were prepared in 15 layers of equal thickness using an ad hoc technique, namely,
under-compaction dry tamping. This specimen preparation technique is similar to the
under-compaction wet tamping technique proposed by Ladd [32] to prepare homogeneous
reconstitute sand specimens, with the exception that the material is compacted under dry
conditions. Using this technique, (i) the dry mass required to build each layer was weighed
out, (ii) loose soil layers were prepared by gently pouring the soil into a split mold, and
(iii) the target dry density (ρd ) of 600 ± 30 kg/m3 was achieved by gently tamping the
loose soil. The lower layers were compacted to a density slightly less than the desired one
as compaction of the upper layers would cause the lower layers to be further compacted
and reach the desired density [32]. This allowed preparing homogeneous medium-size
hollow cylindrical specimens (ro = 75 mm; ri = 45 mm; H = 300 mm) with uniform density
while minimizing particle crushing.
Dual-porosity volcanic soils have high internal grain porosity; therefore, their satura-
tion is challenging and requires a thorough de-airing procedure [31,33]. In this study, the
double vacuum method proposed by Ampadu [34] was adopted, followed by application
of a back pressure of 200 kPa. In this way, a satisfactory degree of saturation was achieved
in all tests, with Skempton’s B-values greater than 0.95. After completing the saturation pro-
cess, the pumice specimens were isotropically consolidated to a target effective mean stress
(p0 0 ) of 100 kPa. Target values of both density and mean effective stress are representative
of the in-situ conditions [7].
Because of the limited amount of soil available, only four strain rate-controlled
(0.5%/min shear strain rate) tests were carried out. As summarized in Table 3, they
consisted of two monotonic undrained torsional shear tests (Aso#1 and Aso#2) and two
cyclic undrained torsional shear tests (Aso#3 and Aso#4).
In monotonic test Aso#2, a static shear stress (τstatic ) of 25 kPa was applied by pre-
shearing the specimen under drained monotonic shear conditions, prior to switching to
monotonic undrained shearing), to evaluate the effect of sloping ground conditions [35,36].
In the cyclic tests, only level-ground conditions were considered, and no τstatic was applied.
During cyclic loading, the loading direction was reversed every time the cyclic shear stress
(τcyclic ) amplitude reached a target value of 20 kPa (test Aso#3) or 25 kPa (test Aso#4).
To simulate as closely as possible the simple shear stress condition that a soil element
Geosciences 2022, 12, 394 10 of 21
undergoes in the field during earthquake shaking [37,38], in all tests, the top cap was
mechanically prevented from displacing vertically during the shearing.
Table 3. Undrained cyclic torsional simple shear tests performed in this study on Kpfa pumice.
Loading Dry Density Cyclic Shear Stress Static Shear Stress

Test
Conditions ρd (kg/m3 ) τcyclic (kPa) τstatic (kPa)
Aso#1 570 — 0
Monotonic
Aso#2 600 — 25
Aso#3 630 20 0
Cyclic
Aso#4 580 25 0
Initial effective mean stress (p0 0 ) = 98 ± 2 kPa.
3.4. Test Results

3.4.1. Monotonic Undrained Shear Response 11 of 21

Figure 7 shows the results of monotonic test Aso#1 in terms of (a) the stress–strain rela-
tionship (τ–γ), and (b) the effective stress path (τ–p0 ). The simulated monotonic undrained
[29]. Relatively high effective critical state friction angles (ϕ
torsional shear response of Toyoura sand at 25% and 45% relative CS’ = 38°) were also reported
density (Dr ) under an
0
by Picarelli et al. [45] in triaxial compression tests on reconstituted (moist‐tamped) speci‐
initial isotropic consolidation stress of p0 = 100 kPa is also shown for comparison. The
mens of sand‐sized volcanic air‐fall deposits from Italy which, analogously to the test on
Toyoura sand results were obtained from element-level test simulations performed with
Kpfa
the pumice
T-sand modelshown in Figure
calibrated from7, large-strain
exhibited undrained instability
torsional simple shearwith
testsa on
flow‐type re‐
air-pluviated
sponse.
Toyoura sand (Chiaro et al. [39–41]).

Figure 7. Monotonic undrained torsional shear behavior of Kpfa pumice and its comparison with
Toyoura sand: (a) stress–strain relationships; (b) effective stress paths.
3.4.2. Monotonic Undrained Response under Initial Static Shear
From the stress–strain response (Figure 7a) one can note that, after an initial peak
stress The presence of a driving static shear stress τ static in sloping ground conditions may
state (P) at 2.5% shear strain, the specimen exhibits strain-softening behavior (with
significantly influence the undrained response of soils, under both monotonic and cyclic
decreasing shear strength as shear strains increase) to a transient minimum in shear strength
shear loading conditions [29]. To evaluate the effects of τ
(“quasi-steady state” Q [42]) at 40% shear strain, whenstatic on the undrained behavior of
about 80% of the initial effective
Kpfa pumice, specimen Aso#2 was pre‐sheared by applying an initial shear stress τ
confining stress has been lost due to the development of excess pore-water pressures. static = At
25 kPa
larger (Figure
shear 8) before
strains, undrained
the specimen monotonic
recovers shearing.
a fraction of itsIn this case,
pre-flow the strength
shear specimen before
re‐
sponse was
reaching analogous
the final failureto that (F),
state observed
when ain continuous
test Aso#1 shear(τstatic band
= 0): after
formed the all
peak shear
around the
strength (P) was mobilized, a marked decrease in shear strength was observed with the
specimen. In the effective stress space (Figure 5b), attainment of the peak state (P) is
development of large strains (P–Q), followed by a small recovery of shear strength before
followed by the occurrence of unstable behavior, thus identifying a point on the instability
specimen failure (F). Although the shear stresses mobilized at the occurrence of instability
line IL (e.g., [43]). From there, the mean effective stress continues to decrease until reaching
(P), at the quasi‐steady state (Q), and at failure differ between the two tests, the mobilized
the failure envelope (FL).
effective friction angles at these states were the same (Table 4).
The simulations on Toyoura sand can be taken as reference for the typical undrained
behavior of hard-grained sand (e.g., [44]). Toyoura sand at Dr = 25% exhibits flow failure,
with an initial peak at about 1% shear strain followed by a sudden loss of strength and
stiffness. At a nearly zero effective stress state, due to the development of very large excess
pore-water pressures, loose Toyoura sand quickly accumulates very large shear strains.
by Picarelli et al. [45] in triaxial compression tests on reconstituted (moist‐tamped) speci‐
mens of sand‐sized volcanic air‐fall deposits from Italy which, analogously to the test on
Kpfa pumice shown in Figure 7, exhibited undrained instability with a flow‐type re‐
sponse.
Geosciences 2022, 12, 394 11 of 21
Medium-density (Dr = 45%) Toyoura sand exhibits instead a limited flow type of response.
After the mobilization of an initial peak shear strength, a temporary loss in strength is
observed (quasi-steady state) with accumulation of about 5% shear strain, followed by
strain hardening and rapid recovery of shear strength.
The response observed in test Aso#1 on Kpfa pumice can be likened to that of loose
(Dr = 25%) Toyoura sand, i.e., a flow type of response. Nevertheless, the Kpfa pumice
specimen developed significant shear strains despite a high value for the effective friction
angle mobilized during flow (at state Q) of φQ 0 = 42.6◦ ; this value of φ0 is significantly
larger than those mobilized by loose Toyoura sand during flow (at failure, φF 0 = 34◦ ) and by
medium-density Toyoura sand in the quasi-steady state (φQ 0 = 31◦ ), with limited flow [29].
Relatively high effective critical state friction angles (φCS 0 = 38◦ ) were also reported
by
Picarelli et al. [45] in triaxial compression tests on reconstituted (moist-tamped) specimens
of sand-sized volcanic air-fall deposits from Italy which, analogously to the test on Kpfa
pumice shown in Figure 7, exhibited undrained instability with a flow-type response.
The presence of a driving static shear stress τstatic in sloping ground conditions may
The presence of a driving static shear stress τstatic in sloping ground conditions may
shear loading conditions [29]. To evaluate the effects of τstatic on the undrained behavior of
shear loading conditions [29]. To evaluate the effects of τstatic on the undrained behavior
Kpfa pumice, specimen Aso#2 was pre‐sheared by applying an initial shear stress τ
of Kpfa pumice, specimen Aso#2 was pre-sheared by applying an initial shear stress static =
25 kPa (Figure 8) before undrained monotonic shearing. In this case, the specimen
τstatic = 25 kPa (Figure 8) before undrained monotonic shearing. In this case, the specimen re‐
sponse
response was
wasanalogous
analogousto tothat
thatobserved
observedin
intest
test Aso#1
Aso#1 (τ(τstatic = 0): after the peak shear
static = 0): after the peak shear
(P), at the quasi‐steady state (Q), and at failure differ between the two tests, the mobilized
(P), at the quasi-steady state (Q), and at failure differ between the two tests, the mobilized

Figure 8. Comparisons
Figure 8. Comparisons between
between the
the monotonic
monotonic undrained
undrained behavior
behavior of Kpfa
of Kpfa pumice
pumice in torsional
in torsional shear
shear tests with and without initial static shear: (a) stress–strain relationships; (b) effective stress
tests with and without initial static shear: (a) stress–strain relationships; (b) effective stress paths.
paths.
Table 4. Mobilized shear stresses and effective friction angles at relevant states in undrained mono-
tonic torsional simple shear tests with and without initial static shear on Kpfa pumice.
Peak State Quasi-Steady State Failure State

Test
(P) (Q) (F)
τP (kPa) φP 0 (◦ ) τQ (kPa) φQ 0 (◦ ) τF (kPa) φF 0 (◦ )
Aso#1 28.2 26.1 21.1 42.6 23.6 52.4
Aso#2 34.0 26.1 25.0 42.6 27.3 52.4
otonic torsional simple shear tests with and without initial static shear on Kpfa pumice.
Peak State Quasi‐Steady State Failure State

Test
(P) (Q) (F)
τP (kPa) ϕP’ (°) τQ (kPa) ϕQ’ (°) τF (kPa) ϕF’ (°)
Aso#1 28.2 26.1 21.1 42.6 23.6 52.4 12 of 21
Aso#2 34.0 26.1 25.0 42.6 27.3 52.4
The presence of a driving shear stress (such as in sloping ground conditions) greater
The presence of a driving shear stress (such as in sloping ground conditions) greater
than the quasi-steady state shear strength creates conditions favorable to the generation
than the quasi‐steady state shear strength creates conditions favorable to the generation
ofof landslides with significant runout distances. These could occur after a triggering event,
landslides with significant runout distances. These could occur after a triggering event,
such
such asas
anan
earthquake, causes
earthquake, transient
causes loads
transient greater
loads than than
greater the available peak shear
the available peak strength,
shear
strength, after which strain softening would occur, as observed in the two monotonic tests
after which strain softening would occur, as observed in the two monotonic tests (Aso#1
(Aso#1 and Aso#2) presented.
and Aso#2) presented.
3.4.3. Cyclic Undrained Shear Response

3.4.3. Cyclic Undrained Shear Response
Cyclic undrained torsional shear tests were carried out using two cyclic stress ratio
Cyclic undrained torsional shear tests were carried out using two cyclic stress ratio
(CSR = τcyclic /p 0 0
(CSR = τ cyclic/p 0 ) amplitudes of 0.20 and 0.25. Figure 9 shows (a) the stress paths (τ–p )
0′) amplitudes of 0.20 and 0.25. Figure 9 shows (a) the stress paths (τ–p’) with
with the corresponding (d) stress–strain (τ–γ) response and (c) excess pore-water pressure
the corresponding (d) stress–strain (τ–γ) response and (c) excess pore‐water pressure gen‐
eration relationships (u
generation relationshipse–γ) for the two tests.
(ue –γ) for the two tests.
60 60 60
1.3 0.92
Torsional shear stress,  (kPa)

Kpfa pumice Medium-dense Toyoura sand Dense Toyoura sand

FL
(a) 1 1 (b) (c)

40 SL 40 40
QS CSR=0.25 D r=48.1% Dr=72.9%
CSR = 0.20 CSR = 0.20
20 20 20
0 0 0
-20 -20 -20

CSR=0.20
-40 QS
Monotonic -40 -40
FL SL (Aso#1)
-60 -60 -60

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Effective mean stress, p' (kPa) Effective mean stress, p' (kPa) Effective mean stress, p' (kPa)
60 60 60

(d) (e) (f)

40 40 40
20 20 20
Monotonic
0 0 0
Flow
-20 -20 -20
Monotonic 3
-40 Aso#3 (d = 630 kg/m ) -40 -40
3
Aso#4 (d = 580 kg/m )
-60 -60 -60
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 -60 -45 -30 -15 0 15 30 45 60 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Torsional shear strain,  (%) Torsional shear strain,  (%) Torsional shear strain,  (%)
120 120 120
Exc. pore water pressure, ue (kPa)
Full liquefaction state (ue=p0') Initial liquefaction state (ue=p0') Initial liquefaction state (ue=p0')
(g) (h) (i)
100 100 100
Flow
80 80 80
Monotonic 60 60
60
 u e ( ) 40 40
40
20 20
20 ue() : dilation ue(+)
ue(+): contraction 0 0
0
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 -60 -45 -30 -15 0 15 30 45 60 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Torsional shear strain,  (%) Torsional shear strain,  (%) Torsional shear strain,  (%)
Figure 9.9. Cyclic
Figure Cyclic undrained
undrained torsional
torsional shear
shearbehavior
behaviorof ofKpfa
Kpfapumice
pumiceand andair‐pluviated
air-pluviatedToyoura
Toyoura
sand: (a–c) effective stress paths; (d–f) stress–strain relationships; (g–i) excess pore‐water pressure
sand: (a–c) effective stress paths; (d–f) stress–strain relationships; (g–i) excess pore-water pressure
generation vs. shear strain.
generation vs. shear strain.
In both tests, Kpfa pumice exhibited a cyclic liquefaction type of response [37,46]. The

effective stress path (Figure 9a) progressively moved toward the left as excess pore-water
pressures accumulated in the initial part of the test, when shear strains remained small
(γ < 2–3%). However, as the excess pore-water pressure ratio ru = ∆u/p0 0 reached values of
0.75–0.80 (Figure 9g), in both tests, shear strains abruptly increased (“flow”) from γ = 2–3%
to values larger than γ = 15% in a single half-cycle of loading. Only then, the specimen
attained zero-p0 conditions (i.e., initial liquefaction [47]), with shear strains rapidly growing
to γ > 50% in the last stages of the test. Hyodo et al. [31] reported a similar behavior for
effective stress path (Figure 9a) progressively moved toward the left as excess pore‐water
pressures accumulated in the initial part of the test, when shear strains remained small (γ
< 2‒3%). However, as the excess pore‐water pressure ratio ru = Δu/p0′ reached values of
0.75–0.80 (Figure 9g), in both tests, shear strains abruptly increased (“flow”) from γ = 2‒
3% to values larger than γ = 15% in a single half‐cycle of loading. Only then, the specimen
Geosciences 2022, 12, 394 13 of 21
attained zero‐p’ conditions (i.e., initial liquefaction [47]), with shear strains rapidly growing
to γ > 50% in the last stages of the test. Hyodo et al. [31] reported a similar behavior for
loose specimens of Shirasu soil (a crushable volcanic soil from southern Kyushu, Japan)
loose specimens of Shirasu soil (a crushable volcanic soil from southern Kyushu, Japan)
subject to cyclic undrained triaxial loading conditions.
subject to cyclic undrained triaxial loading conditions.
As shown by Figure 9a, in cyclic test Aso#4 with the higher CSR value of 0.25 (greater
than As shown
the by Figure
large‐strain 9a, in
shear cyclic test
strength Aso#4
τF), flow with initiated when CSR
the higher the value of 0.25
effective (greater
stress path
than the large-strain shear strength τ
touched the stress path of the undrained F ), flow initiated when the effective stress path touched
monotonic test with a similar density. In test
the stress path of the undrained monotonic test with a similar density.
Aso#3, where the amplitude of the cyclic stress is less than τ In test Aso#3, where
F, the stress path moved to‐
the amplitude of the cyclic stress is less than τ , the stress path
ward the failure envelope, and large strains quickly developed when the mobilized fric‐
F moved toward the failure
envelope, and large strainsQquickly
tion angle was equal to ϕ developed when the mobilized friction angle was equal
’ (i.e., the stress path crossed the QSSL).
0 (i.e., the stress path crossed the QSSL).
to φQ Figure 9 also presents the results of undrained cyclic torsional shear tests on two air‐
Figurespecimens
pluviated 9 also presents the results
of Toyoura sand of undrained
with cyclic torsional
relative densities of 48% shear tests
(Figure on two
9b–h) and
air-pluviated specimens of Toyoura sand with relative densities
73% (Figure 9c–i). These sand specimens were tested at the same CSR value of 0.20. In of 48% (Figure 9b–h) and
73% (Figure
these 9c–i).
tests, the These sand
Toyoura sand specimens
specimens were testeda atcyclic
exhibited the same CSR type
mobility valueof
ofresponse
0.20. In
these tests, the Toyoura sand specimens exhibited a cyclic mobility
[37,46]. Excess pore‐water pressures increased with each loading cycle, causing the effec‐ type of response [37,46].
Excess pore-water pressures increased with each loading cycle, causing
tive stress paths (Figure 9b,c) to move leftward until when p’ = 0 kPa; this process was the effective stress
paths (Figure 9b,c) togradual
move leftward until when 0
p = 0 strains.
kPa; thisThis
process was
accompanied by a accumulation of shear type of accompanied
response can by be
a gradual accumulation of shear strains. This type of response can be contrasted with that
contrasted with that exhibited by the Kpfa pumice specimens, which underwent an abrupt
exhibited by the Kpfa pumice specimens, which underwent an abrupt and uncontrolled
and uncontrolled increase in shear strains in the final part of the cyclic tests.
increase in shear strains in the final part of the cyclic tests.
3.4.4. Cyclic Resistance
3.4.4. Cyclic Resistance
The resistance to liquefaction or to cyclic strain accumulation of sands is convention‐
The resistance to liquefaction or to cyclic strain accumulation of sands is conventionally
ally defined as the number of cycles to attain a reference value of shear strain (γ
defined as the number of cycles to attain a reference value of shear strain (γSA orSAγ or γ DA)
DA ) or
or excess pore water pressure ratio r u caused by undrained cyclic shear loading. Figure 10
excess pore water pressure ratio ru caused by undrained cyclic shear loading. Figure 10
reports the liquefaction resistance curve of Kpfa pumice corresponding to the attainment
reports the liquefaction resistance curve of Kpfa pumice corresponding to the attainment
of γ
of DA = 7.5%. In the same figure, liquefaction resistance curves for medium‐density (Dr =
γDA = 7.5%. In the same figure, liquefaction resistance curves for medium-density
45% ± 5%) and dense (D
(D r = 67% ± 3%) air‐pluviated Toyoura sand from torsional simple
r = 45% ± 5%) and dense (Dr = 67% ± 3%) air-pluviated Toyoura sand from torsional
shear tests
simple shear[13] are reported
tests for comparison.
[13] are reported From From
for comparison. Figure 10, the cyclic
Figure resistance
10, the cyclic ratio
resistance
(CRR(CRR
ratio 15 = CSR causing liquefaction at 15 cycles of loading) of the pumice was estimated as
15 = CSR causing liquefaction at 15 cycles of loading) of the pumice was estimated
0.22.
as Despite
0.22. Despitethe
thedifferences
differencesin incyclic
cyclicbehavior
behaviordescribed
described in
in the previous sections,
the previous sections, the
the
CRR of crushable Kpfa pumice fell between those of hard‐grained medium‐density to
CRR15 of crushable Kpfa pumice fell between those of hard-grained medium-density to
15
dense Toyoura sand (0.18–0.24).
dense Toyoura sand (0.18–0.24).

Figure 10. Liquefaction resistance curves for Kpfa pumice (this study) and air‐pluviated Toyoura
Figure 10. Liquefaction resistance curves for Kpfa pumice (this study) and air-pluviated Toyoura
sand [48] attained by undrained cyclic torsional simple shear tests (100 kPa mean effective stress).
sand [48] attained by undrained cyclic torsional simple shear tests (100 kPa mean effective stress).
4. Liquefaction Assessment of the Takanodai Landslide during the

Kumamoto Earthquakes
4.1. Outline of the Procedure
This section presents and discusses liquefaction triggering analyses for the Kpfa
pumice layer on the Takanodai hillslope for different seismic events of the 2016 Ku-
mamoto earthquake sequence. The cyclic resistance estimated for the Kpfa pumice in
the laboratory with the torsional simple shear tests presented above is compared against
estimates of the cyclic stress ratio induced by the earthquake according to a state-of-the-
Geosciences 2022, 12, 394 14 of 21
practice procedure [49,50]. According to the liquefaction assessment procedure of Idriss

and Boulanger [50], the factor of safety against liquefaction triggering is given by
CRR Mw =7.5,σv0 =100 kpa

FL = 0.9 MSF · Kσ · Kα (10)
CSR Mw ,σv0
where CRR Mw =7.5,σv0 =100 kPa is the liquefaction resistance for a given soil layer at 100 kPa
initial effective vertical stress for a reference moment magnitude Mw 7.5 earthquake (corre-
sponding to approximately 15 cycles of loading by a cyclic sinusoidal shear stress history
with constant amplitude), CSR Mw ,σv0 is the seismic demand induced by an earthquake
with given moment magnitude Mw in a soil deposit under initial vertical effective stress
σv 0 , MSF is a magnitude scaling factor, Kσ and Kα account for the effects of, respectively,
initial consolidation stress and static shear stress on liquefaction resistance, and the factor
0.9 accounts for the effects of multi-dimensional shaking (e.g., [51]). At a depth z below the
ground surface, CSR can be estimated as
τcyclic PGA σv
CSR Mw ,σv0 = = 0.65 r , (11)
σv0 g σv0 d
where PGA is the geometric mean peak ground acceleration of the two horizontal com-
ponents of ground motion, g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2 ), and σv and
σv 0 are the initial vertical total and effective stresses, respectively. The nondimensional
stress reduction coefficient (rd ) accounts for the flexibility of the soil column and is given
by Equation (12) [50].
rd = exp[α(z) + β(z)· Mw ] (12)
z
α(z) = −1.012 − 1.126 sin + 5.133 (13)
11.73
z
β(z) = 0.106 + 0.118 sin + 5.142 (14)
11.28
In this study, MSF is defined by Equation (15) [49].

Mw
MSF = 6.9 exp − − 0.058 ≤ 1.8 (15)
4
For the purposes of liquefaction assessment with Equation (10), the cyclic resistance at
15 cycles of Kpfa pumice obtained from cyclic torsional simple shear (CRR N =15, p0 =100kPa )
was converted from isotropic conditions in the laboratory to anisotropic (i.e., K0 ) in-situ
stress state conditions [52,53] assuming K0 = 0.5:
(1 + 2K0 )
CRR Mw=7.5,σv0 =100kPa = CRR N =15, p0 =100 kPa (16)
3
4.2. Evaluation of Kσ for Kpfa Pumice

In quartz sands, an increase in overburden pressure causes a more contractive soil
response, resulting in a decrease in CRR. This effect is taken into account in Equation (10)
by means of the empirical scaling factor Kσ [54,55] applied to the reference CRR value
at σv 0 = 100 kPa. Figure 11 shows Kσ as a function of vertical effective stress for a clean
sand with Dr = 63% (black dashed line), as adopted in the empirical liquefaction triggering
procedure of Idriss and Boulanger [50]. For quartz sands, one can note that Kσ gradually
decreases from 1.1 to 0.9 as the confining stress increases from 50 kPa to 300 kPa. These
values of Kσ can be contrasted against those computed from the cyclic triaxial test data
presented by Hyodo et al. [31] for Shirasu crushable volcanic soil at two values of relative
density. For the looser Shirasu soil (Dr = 50%), Kσ slightly increases from 0.9 at 50 kPa
to 1.1 at 300 kPa; the trends are, therefore, opposite to those for quartz sands. In the case
of the denser Shirasu soil (Dr = 90%), CRR15 at 50 kPa is about 70% greater than CRR15
standard reference pressure of 100 kPa (i.e., Kσ = 1.7), while, when passing from 100 kPa
to 300 kPa of confining stress, CRR15 remains unchanged (i.e., Kσ = 1). The data from Hyodo
et al. [31] suggest that values of Kσ based on tests on quartz sand may not be applicable to
soils with crushable grains similar to Kpfa pumice.
In the subsequent liquefaction triggering assessment of the Kpfa pumice layer, to ac‐
Geosciences 2022, 12, 394 15 of 21
count for the potential effect of particle crushability on CRR of Kpfa pumice at different
confining pressure levels, the overburden correction factor reported in Figure 11 for looser
Shirasu soil (Dr = 50%) is adopted. For the soil profile shown in Figure 4 and its geometrical
variation along the hillslope [2,8], values of effective vertical stress (σ
at the standard reference pressure of 100 kPa (i.e., Kσ = 1.7), while,v’) acting on the Kpfa
when passing from
pumice layer at the Takanodai landslide site are estimated to vary in the range of 60 kPa
100 kPa to 300 kPa of confining stress, CRR15 remains unchanged (i.e., Kσ = 1). The data
from Hyodo et al. [31] suggest that values of Kσ based on tests on quartz sand mayσ values
(at the toe of the source area) and 120 kPa (at the hilltop), with corresponding K not be
between 0.86 and 1.02 (as estimated from Figure 11).
applicable to soils with crushable grains similar to Kpfa pumice.

Figure 11. Overburden stress correction factor K
Figure 11. Overburden stress correction factor σK for clean sand [50] and for crushable Shirasu vol‐
σ for clean sand [50] and for crushable Shirasu
canic soil (based on experimental data from Hyodo et al. [31]).
volcanic soil (based on experimental data from Hyodo et al. [31]).
4.3. Evaluation of K α for Kpfa Pumice
In the subsequent liquefaction triggering assessment of the Kpfa pumice layer, to
account for the potential effect of particle crushability on CRR of Kpfa pumice at different
The effect of static shear stress ratio (α) on cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) is accounted
confining pressure levels, the overburden
for by means of a scaling factor K correction factor reported in Figure 11 for looser
α = CRRα/CRRα=0, where CRRα is the value of CRR for a
Shirasu soil (Dr = 50%) is adopted.
given value of α, and CRR For the soil profile shown in Figure 4 and its geometrical
α=0 refers to the reference level ground condition (α = 0). Exper‐
variation along the hillslope [2,8], values of effective vertical stress (σv 0 ) acting on the Kpfa
imental results on different quartz sands at confining pressure less than 300 kPa show that
pumice layer at the Takanodai landslide site are estimated to vary in the range of 60 kPa
cyclic resistance tends to increase with increasing α in dense sands, and to decrease with
(at the toe of the source area) and 120 kPa (at the hilltop), with corresponding Kσ values
increasing α in loose sands. This is shown in Figure 12a using simple shear tests results
between 0.86 and 1.02 (as estimated from Figure 11).
[23,25] and in Figure 12b using torsional simple shear test results [28]. The authors are not
aware of experimental data to estimate values of K
4.3. Evaluation of Kα for Kpfa Pumice α for crushable volcanic soils; for this
reason, the subsequent analyses employ the Kα values for Toyoura sand as simulated by
The effect of static shear stress ratio (α) on cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) is accounted
the T‐sand model [39–41] for air‐pluviated Toyoura sand with Dr = 62% in torsional simple
for by means of a scaling factor Kα = CRRα /CRRα=0 , where CRRα is the value of CRR
shear conditions at σv’ = 100 kPa. In these conditions, CRR15,α=0 = 0.22 for both Toyoura
for a given value of α, and CRRα=0 refers to the reference level ground condition (α = 0).
sand and Kpfa pumice (Figure 10). The relationship between Kα and α is shown in Figure
Experimental results on different quartz sands at confining pressure less than 300 kPa show
that cyclic resistance tends to increase with increasing α in dense sands, and to decrease
with increasing α in loose sands. This is shown in Figure 12a using simple shear tests
results [23,25] and in Figure 12b using torsional simple shear test results [28]. The authors
are not aware of experimental data to estimate values of Kα for crushable volcanic soils; for
this reason, the subsequent analyses employ the Kα values for Toyoura sand as simulated
by the T-sand model [39–41] for air-pluviated Toyoura sand with Dr = 62% in torsional
simple shear conditions at σv 0 = 100 kPa. In these conditions, CRR15,α=0 = 0.22 for both
Toyoura sand and Kpfa pumice (Figure 10). The relationship between Kα and α is shown
in Figure 13a and is consistent with the laboratory test data reproduced in Figure 12b. One
can observe from Figure 13a that Kα first decreases with increasing α (detrimental effect of
τstatic ) and then increases (beneficial effect of τstatic ). The resulting values of CRR15 after
application of the scaling factor Kα are plotted in Figure 13b.
tion of the scaling factor Kα are plotted in Figure 13b.
Assuming infinite slope conditions, α can be calculated as follows [56]:
𝜎
𝜎
𝛼𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽,
𝛽, (17)
11 2𝐾
2𝐾 /3
/3 𝜎
𝜎
(17)
where β is the angle of inclination of the slope. For the Takanodai landslide site, consider‐
where β is the angle of inclination of the slope. For the Takanodai landslide site, consider‐
Geosciences 2022, 12, 394 16 of 21
ing β = 6° and 10°, Equation (17) returns values of α for the Kpfa pumice layer of 0.15 and
ing β = 6° and 10°, Equation (17) returns values of α for the Kpfa pumice layer of 0.15 and
0.25, respectively; the corresponding Kαα values vary between 0.68 and 1.00 (Figure 13a).
0.25, respectively; the corresponding K values vary between 0.68 and 1.00 (Figure 13a).

Figure 12. Relationship between K
Figure 12. Relationship between Kααα factor and static shear stress ratio: (a) simple shear tests [23,25];
Figure 12. Relationship between K factor and static shear stress ratio: (a) simple shear tests [23,25];
factor and static shear stress ratio: (a) simple shear tests [23,25];
(b) torsional simple shear tests [28].

Figure 13. Cyclic resistance of Kpfa pumice evaluated by T‐sand model: (a) K
Figure 13. Cyclic resistance of Kpfa pumice evaluated by T‐sand model: (a) K vs. α relationship; (b)
vs. α relationship; (b)
13. Cyclic resistance of Kpfa pumice evaluated by T-sand model: (a)αK
Figure α vs. α relationship;
CRR1515 vs. α relationship.
CRR vs. α relationship.
(b) CRR15 vs. α relationship.
4.4. Liqueafction Assessment: Results and Discussion
Figures 14 and 15, and Table 5 summarize the results of the liquefaction assessment
Figures 14 and 15, and Table 5 summarize the results of the liquefaction assessment
σv
for the two largest events of the Kumamoto earthquake sequence, namely, the M
for the two largest events of the Kumamoto earthquake sequence, namely, the M
αfield = tanβ, w6.2 14
w 6.2 14
(17)
[( 1 + 2K0 )/3]σv0
April 2016 and the Mww 7.0 16 April 2016. To compare CSR and CRR values, these should
April 2016 and the M 7.0 16 April 2016. To compare CSR and CRR values, these should
be referred to the same earthquake magnitude (i.e., number of equivalent loading cycles).
be referred to the same earthquake magnitude (i.e., number of equivalent loading cycles).
where β is the angle of inclination of the slope. For the Takanodai landslide site, considering
On this purpose, the CSR* values shown in Table 5 and Figures 14 and 15 were obtained
On this purpose, the CSR* values shown in Table 5 and Figures 14 and 15 were obtained
β = 6 and 10◦ , Equation (17) returns values of α for the Kpfa pumice layer of 0.15 and 0.25,
◦
by scaling CSR given by Equation (11) as follows:
by scaling CSR given by Equation (11) as follows:
respectively; the corresponding Kα values vary between 0.68 and 1.00 (Figure 13a).

Figures 14 and 15, and Table 5 summarize the results of the liquefaction assessment for
the two largest events of the Kumamoto earthquake sequence, namely, the Mw 6.2 14 April
2016 and the Mw 7.0 16 April 2016. To compare CSR and CRR values, these should be
referred to the same earthquake magnitude (i.e., number of equivalent loading cycles). On
this purpose, the CSR* values shown in Table 5 and Figures 14 and 15 were obtained by
scaling CSR given by Equation (11) as follows:
CSR Mw ,σv0
CSR∗ = CSR Mw =7.5,σv0 =100kPa = (18)
MSF · Kσ
α = 0.15‒0.25
α = 0.15‒0.25 Kσ σ = 0.86
K = 0.86 Kσ σ = 1.02
K = 1.02
14 April 2016 Mww6.2
14 April 2016 M 6.2 KMM004
KMM004 0.04
0.04 0.09‒0.13
0.09‒0.13 0.02
0.02 4.5‒6.5
4.5‒6.5 0.02
0.02 4.5‒6.5
4.5‒6.5
(MSF = 1.41)
(MSF = 1.41) KMM005
KMM005 0.21
0.21 0.09‒0.13
0.09‒0.13 0.11
0.11 0.8‒1.2
0.8‒1.2 0.09
0.09 1.0‒1.4
1.0‒1.4
16 April 2016 Mww7.0
16 April 2016 M 7.0 KMM004
KMM004 0.31
0.31 0.09‒0.13
0.09‒0.13 0.21
0.21 0.4‒0.6
0.4‒0.6 0.18
0.18 0.5‒0.7
0.5‒0.7
(MSF = 1.14)
(MSF = 1.14)
KMM005
KMM005 0.51
0.51 0.09‒0.13
0.09‒0.13 0.35
0.35 0.3‒0.4
0.3‒0.4 0.29
0.29 0.3‒0.4
0.3‒0.4
17 of 21
Includes the effects of multidirectional shaking and anisotropic in‐situ stress;
††
Includes the effects of multidirectional shaking and anisotropic in‐situ stress;
* CSR from Eqn. (18).
* CSR from Eqn. (18).
0.5
0.5 0.5
0.5
K=0.86
K =0.86 14 April
April 2016
2016 M
Mw6.2
6.2 K=1.02
K =1.02 14 April
April 2016
2016 M
Mw6.2
6.2
(a) 14 (b) 14
(a) 
w
(b)

w
0.4
0.4 0.4
0.4 PGAmax= = 0.21
0.21 gg
PGAmax=
PGA = 0.21
0.21 gg PGA
max max
PGAmin=
PGA = 0.04
0.04 gg PGA
PGA min= 0.04 gg
=
min
0.04
min
0.3
CRR
CRR
0.3 0.3
CSR*, CRR
CSR*, CRR
0.3
0.2 0.2
CSR*,
CSR*,
0.2 Liquefaction
Liquefaction 0.2
PGAmax
PGA
0.1
0.1
max
0.1
0.1 PGAmax
PGA max
PGAmin
PGA No Liquefaction
No Liquefaction No Liquefaction
No Liquefaction
min PGAmin
PGA
0.0
0.0 0.0
0.0
min
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
max
max
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
min
min
max
max
min
min

 

Figure 14. Results of liquefaction triggering analyses for the Takanodai landslide site considering
the strong motion records of the 14 April 2016 M
the strong motion records of the 14 April 2016 M
the strong motion records of the 14 April 2016 wwM 6.2 for (a) K
6.2 for (a) K = 0.86 (toe of source area) and (b) K
Kσ = 0.86 (toe of source area) andσσ
σ = 0.86 (toe of source area) and (b) K
w 6.2 for (a)
σ
= 1.02 (hilltop). The shaded areas in each plot indicate the range of estimated values of α vs. CSR*
(b) Kσ = 1.02 (hilltop). The shaded areas in each plot indicate the range of estimated values of α vs.
used in the analyses to account for uncertainty in the input parameters.
CSR* used in the analyses to account for uncertainty in the input parameters.
0.5
0.5 0.5
0.5
K=0.86
K =0.86 16 April
April 2016
2016 M
Mw7.0
7.0 K=1.02
K =1.02 16 April
April 2016
2016 M
Mw7.0
7.0
(a) 16 (b) 16
(a) 
w (b) 
w
0.4
0.4 Liquefaction 0.4
0.4 PGAmax= = 0.51
0.51 gg
Liquefaction PGAmax=
PGA = 0.51
0.51 gg PGA
PGAmax
PGA max max
max
PGAmin== 0.31
0.31 gg Liquefaction
Liquefaction PGAmin= = 0.31
0.31 gg
PGA PGA min
min
0.3 PGAmax
CRR
0.3
CRR
0.3 PGA
CSR*, CRR
0.3
CSR*, CRR
max
PGAmin
PGA
0.2 0.2 PGAmin
CSR*,
min
CSR*,
0.2 0.2 PGA min
0.1
0.1 0.1
0.1
max
min
max
min
max
min
max
min
0.0
0.0 0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0 0.1
0.1 0.2
0.2 0.3
0.3 0.4
0.4 0.5
0.5 0.0
0.0 0.1
0.1 0.2
0.2 0.3
0.3 0.4
0.4 0.5
0.5

 

the strong motion records of the 16 April 2016 Mww7.0 for (a) K
the strong motion records of the 16 April 2016 M 7.0 for (a) Kσσ = 0.86 (toe of source area) and (b) K
= 0.86 (toe of source area) and (b) Kσσ
the strong motion records of the 16 April 2016 Mw 7.0 for (a) Kσ = 0.86 (toe of source area) and
(b) Kσ = 1.02 (hilltop). The shaded areas in each plot indicate the range of estimated values of α vs.
CSR* used in the analyses to account for uncertainty in the input parameters.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
Table 5. Summary of liquefaction triggering analyses.
This study re‐examined the case study of the Takanodai landslide that occurred in
This study re‐examined the case study of the Takanodai landslide that occurred in
Earthquake Minami Aso during the 2016 Kumamoto earthquakes. It employed the results of advanced
PGA (g) CRR † ·Kα CSR * FL CSR * FL
StationMinami Aso during the 2016 Kumamoto earthquakes. It employed the results of advanced
laboratory tests
laboratory tests on
on a
a pumiceous
= 0.15–0.25
α pumiceous soil (Kpfa
soil (Kpfa pumice)
Kσpumice)
= 0.86 which previous
which previous investigations
investigations
Kσ = 1.02 had
had
14 April 2016 Mw 6.2 identified as the critical layer associated with the slope failure, and it performed liquefac‐
identified as the critical layer associated with the slope failure, and it performed liquefac‐
KMM004 0.04 0.09–0.13 0.02 4.5–6.5 0.02 4.5–6.5
(MSF = 1.41) tion triggering analyses to assess the in situ performance of the critical layer for two earth‐
KMM005 0.21 0.09–0.13 0.11 0.8–1.2 0.09 1.0–1.4
tion triggering analyses to assess the in situ performance of the critical layer for two earth‐
16 April 2016 Mw 7.0 quake scenarios of the 2016 seismic sequence. The following conclusions can be drawn:
KMM004 0.31 0.09–0.13 0.21 0.4–0.6 0.18
quake scenarios of the 2016 seismic sequence. The following conclusions can be drawn: 0.5–0.7
(MSF = 1.14) KMM005 0.51 0.09–0.13 0.35 0.3–0.4 0.29 0.3–0.4
† Includes the effects of multidirectional shaking and anisotropic in-situ stress; * CSR from Equation (18).

For both seismic events, CSR* values were computed considering both lower-bound
(Figures 14a and 15a) and upper-bound values (Figures 14b and 15b) of Kσ . CRR values
were scaled to include the effects of multidirectional shaking and of anisotropic in situ
stress conditions (Equations (10) and (16)).
For both earthquake scenarios, in the calculation of CSR, the geometric mean PGA val-
ues recorded at the stations KMM005 (located outside the Mt. Aso Caldera, above the
rupture surface) and KMM004 (located within the Mt. Aso Caldera, along the faultline
Geosciences 2022, 12, 394 18 of 21
projection of the main event) (Figure 1) were selected to account for uncertainty in the
estimate of PGA values in the absence of direct strong motion measurements at the site.
In this case of the 14 April 2016 foreshock, the source-to-site distance of the landslide site
is comprised between the source-to-site distances of the two stations. For the main shock
event, due to its location in the proximity of the northern end of the rupture surface, the
site likely underwent fault-rupture directivity effects (which were noted in strong motion
records, e.g., [16–18]) with ground accelerations greater than those recorded at station
KMM004 (which is located further away from the rupture surface).
Figure 14 shows that, for upper-bound estimates of Kσ (Figure 15b), the cyclic demand
associated with the Mw 6.2 14 April 2016 earthquake, represented by the green shading, did
not exceed the cyclic resistance of Kpfa pumice, represented by the blue line, and it was,
therefore, insufficient to trigger liquefaction. The factor of safety against liquefaction (FL )
varies between 1.0 and 6.5 (Table 5), indicating that the seismic demand was significantly
lower than the cyclic resistance of the Kfpa pumice deposit. Yet, for the lower-bound
estimates of Kσ (Figure 15a), the analyses indicate that liquefaction was still possible under
strong accelerations (FL = 0.8–6.5), but only if the actual CSR at the landslide site exceeded
0.09. The Mw 7.0 16 April 2016 earthquake, however, resulted in greater PGAs which were
sufficient to trigger liquefaction, as shown in Figure 15. Concurring low values of Kσ
and Kα (Figure 15a) resulted in CSR values significantly higher than CRR of the pumice
layer, as indicated by the yellow shading (FL = 0.3–0.7). It is, therefore, likely that the
combination of large inertial forces induced by the main shock earthquake and the presence
of a driving initial static shear stress triggered liquefaction in the Kpfa pumice layer, which
subsequently initiated a flow-type landslide. The results of these analyses appear, therefore,
be consistent with the observed evidence, with the slope at Takanodai remaining stable
during the first event, but failing with catastrophic consequences during the main shock.
One should note some limitations of the present analyses. The estimate of CRR
for the pumice layer employed in the calculations was derived from laboratory tests on
reconstituted soil specimens, prepared in the laboratory. However, soil fabric and structure
(i.e., the arrangement of soil particles at the micro and macroscale, e.g., [57]) are primary
factors influencing the cyclic strength of soils [58], and they are uniquely associated with
the adopted specimen preparation method or the in-situ formation process of a soil deposit.
The use of high-quality sampling technique which could provide soil specimens suitable for
testing in the laboratory (e.g., [59,60]) would, therefore, provide a significant contribution
to the present analyses.
The results of the analyses are significantly influenced by the values adopted for the
factors Kσ and Kα for Kpfa pumice, which, in this case, were based on studies on other
soils: a different crushable volcanic soil for Kσ , and a hard-grained sand for Kα . No studies
have addressed so far (at the best of the authors’ knowledge) the influence of static shear
stress on the cyclic response of pumiceous soils. Such investigations would provide a
useful contribution for the assessment of the seismic stability of slopes of these peculiar
soil deposits.
5. Conclusions
This study re-examined the case study of the Takanodai landslide that occurred in
Minami Aso during the 2016 Kumamoto earthquakes. It employed the results of advanced
laboratory tests on a pumiceous soil (Kpfa pumice) which previous investigations had
identified as the critical layer associated with the slope failure, and it performed liquefaction
triggering analyses to assess the in situ performance of the critical layer for two earthquake
scenarios of the 2016 seismic sequence. The following conclusions can be drawn:
• Laboratory investigations
Large-strain undrained torsional shear tests confirmed that Kpfa pumice has the
tendency to show post-peak flow-type failure behavior characterized by an abrupt develop-
ment of large shear strains exceeding 50% or more when subjected to monotonic shearing.
Geosciences 2022, 12, 394 19 of 21
The presence of an initial driving shear stress may significantly contribute to the observed
flow-type failure and associated large deformation.
Under cyclic shear stress condition, tested specimens exhibited a progressive build-up
of excess pore water pressure and shear strains. Following the attainment of shear strains
of 2–3%, the specimens exhibited a flow-type failure with a rapid development of large
(>15%) shear strains.
• Liquefaction triggering analyses
The results of liquefaction triggering analyses are consistent with the response ob-
served in situ, when the slope at Takanodai remained stable during the Mw 6.2 14 April 2016
earthquake but failed as a result of the Mw 7.0 16 April 2016 earthquake. The concurring ef-
fect of high cyclic stress ratios (CSR = 0.21–0.35) induced by the earthquake and static shear
stress ratios (α = 0.15–0.25) were the critical factors—leading to the seismic demand exceed-
ing the liquefaction resistance of the Kpfa pumice layer (CRR = 0.09–0.13)—responsible for
the observed liquefaction-induced flow-type landslide.
• Future research needs
The experimental results and triggering analyses highlight the role that factors such as
Kσ and Kα play in the undrained cyclic response and seismic slope stability of pumiceous
deposits. Nevertheless, very few experimental studies have been performed on these topics,
and extensive research work is, therefore, needed in these largely unexplored research areas.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, G.C. and T.K.; methodology, G.C., T.K., M.U. and C.C.;
laboratory investigation, M.U.; writing—original draft preparation, G.C. and C.C.; writing—review
and editing, T.K. and M.U.; project administration, G.C. and T.K.; funding acquisition, G.C. and T.K.
All authors read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the NZSEE through the “Learning from Earthquake” Kumamoto-
mission, and the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST) through the J-Rapid Program (Interna-
tional Urgent Collaborative Projects Regarding the 2016 Kumamoto Earthquake).
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or
in the decision to publish the results.
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geosciences

1 Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering, University of Canterbury,

Received: 4 October 2022

Geosciences 2022, 12, 394. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences12110394 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/geosciences

2. The Takanodai Landslide: Characteristics and Field Observations

Date and M w R† PGA †† Sa (1 s) †† Ia †† D5–95 †† CAV ††

2.3. Field Damage Observations at Takanodai Landslide Site

Geosciences 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 21

3.1. Test Material

2𝜃 𝑟 and𝑟H is the specimen height.

3.3. Test Procedure

Loading Dry Density Cyclic Shear Stress Static Shear Stress

3.4. Test Results

Peak State Quasi-Steady State Failure State

Peak State Quasi‐Steady State Failure State

3.4.3. Cyclic Undrained Shear Response

Torsional shear stress,  (kPa)

Torsional shear stress,  (kPa)

Kpfa pumice Medium-dense Toyoura sand Dense Toyoura sand

(a) 1 1 (b) (c)

-20 -20 -20

-60 -60 -60

Torsional shear stress,  (kPa)

(d) (e) (f)

Exc. pore water pressure, ue (kPa)

4. Liquefaction Assessment of the Takanodai Landslide during the

practice procedure [49,50]. According to the liquefaction assessment procedure of Idriss

CRR Mw =7.5,σv0 =100 kpa

4.2. Evaluation of Kσ for Kpfa Pumice

4.4. Liqueafction Assessment: Results and Discussion

0.2 0.2 PGA min

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