NATIONAL RESEARCH SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS 2023

ARCHITECTURE, URBANISM AND THE BUILT

ENVIRONMENT

GITAM School of Architecture

GITAM (Deemed to be University), Hyderabad
19th – 20th May 2023

TOWARDS A CIRCULAR ECONOMY IN SUSTAINABLE

ARCHITECTURE: A CASE-BASED ANALYSIS OF BUILDING
PRACTICES IN INDIA

Aleesha Antony, Avani Institute of Design, Kozhikode, Kerala

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

“Waste and pollution are not accidents; they are consequences of decisions made at the
design stage.” -Ellen MacArthur Foundation

The world economy today operates on a linear economic model, established during
industrialization in the mid-1700s. While this model has made mass-produced goods more
affordable, it has led to significant global challenges such as the depletion of finite resources,
environmental degradation, and significant waste issues. To address the need for sustainable
production models, several alternate schools of thought, including Industrial Ecology, Cradle
to Cradle, Performance Economy, Biomimicry, and Blue Economy, have been developed.
One such upcoming model for a sustainable future is Circular Economy, which aims to
design out waste and pollution, keep products and materials in use, and regenerate natural
systems. This paper aims to evaluate current sustainable architecture practices in India
through the framework of a circular economy. The framework aims to analyse material,
technique, and spatial planning of a building and evaluate both direct and indirect
parameters. The paper concludes with an analysis of selected eco-effective ways of building
in India's social and cultural context, aiming to achieve long-term sustainability by critically
evaluating through the lens of circularity.

Keywords: Circular Economy, Waste, Sustainable Architecture, Design

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1. INTRODUCTION

The term circular economy, linguistically, is an antonym of a linear economy, in the sense
that it aims for closed-loop product flows (Murray, 2015). The Ellen MacArthur Foundation,
a charity dedicated to promoting the global transition to the circular economy, understands
the concept as an economic model “based on the principles of designing out waste and
pollution, keeping products and materials in use, and regenerating natural systems” (Ellen
MacArthur Foundation 2019). The Foundation developed the system or ‘butterfly’ diagram
(Figure 1) based on the notion that material flows can be divided into two interacting loops:
the technical and biological resource cycles.

Figure 1. Circular Economy Butterfly Diagram developed by Ellen McArthur Foundation

The concept of Circular Economy goes beyond traditional notions of sustainability by

focusing on the positive restoration of the environment within the industry (Nakajima 2000;
Pitt 2011; Cooper 1999a, b). Its concept of redesigning systems of manufacture and service
supply focuses on achieving value from such redesign rather than simply improving resource
utilization (Murray, 2015).

India is now the second largest market for green buildings. This trend is completely market-
driven and has been achieved with very little government support (Turab, 2012). In an
Annual ranking report from the US Green building council (USGBC), India ranked third
among the top 10 countries for LEED green buildings. But green Building Certificates in
India including the LEED certification measure sustainability on the basis of energy
efficiency and preservation of the natural environment (PTI, 2018). Although this does make
the problem less bad, to achieve long-term solutions there is a need to critically evaluate
these sustainable building practices through the lens of circularity. A Circular Economy aims
to decouple economic growth from resource consumption. Instead, products and assets are

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designed and built to be more durable and to be repaired, refurbished, reused and
disassembled. This maintains components and their materials at the highest useful purpose as
long as feasible which minimizes resource waste (ARUP, 2016). Circular Economy is a
global concept that has been greatly adapted in Europe and China. Environmental agendas
and green buildings in India are often based on the precedents of developed countries. As the
framework for achieving circularity is defined in the context of India, there is also a need to
incorporate the critical dimension of social and cultural sustainability (Mathur).

1.1 Limits of Linear Consumption

Over the last 150 years, our industrial economy has been dominated by a one-way model of
production and consumption in which goods are manufactured from raw materials, sold,
used, and then incinerated or discarded as waste (Wautelet 2018,1). The limitations of this
model was realised as early as 1798, by Thomas Malthus in his famous ‘An essay on the
Principle of Production’. In his book, he expressed concern that the human population was
growing too rapidly to be absorbed by available arable land and that this would lead to
poverty and famine (Dobbs et al. 2011). Criticism against his theory justifies why his
premonition has not come to fruition yet, as he could not accurately predict the effect of
technological and scientific advancements that improved both our agricultural yield (e.g.:
green revolution, globalisation) and health (e.g.: vaccines, contraception) (UNAT 2020).
Therefore, his calculations using a geometric progression of population growth and an
arithmetic progression of food production have also not played out at the rate he predicted
(UNAT 2020). Contemporary economist and game theorist, Kenneth Binnmore in his essay,
‘Malthus Economics: Right or wrong?’ argues how despite the incongruences in calculations,
Malthus’ principle argument remains true to this day, in the fact that the common sense
precepts on the nature of production remain valid whatever technology may be applied
(Binnmore 2018). Industrial innovations came to solve the needs and demands of the growing
population with a hefty price for the environment.

Many ecological economists, including Kenneth Boulding in his paper ‘The economics of the
coming Spaceship Earth’, recognised this pattern of linear consumption and production
where the inputs of parts are not linked to the outputs of parts (Boulding 1966). He picturizes
the world economy as a ‘cowboy economy’, an open system in which the natural
environment is typically perceived as limitless: no limit exists on the capacity of the outside
to supply or receive energy and material flows. This linear economy is characterised both by
environmental impacts such as pollution and by social impacts such as exploitative and
violent behaviours (Wautelet 2018,2-3). In contrast he proposed a ‘spaceman economy’, “in
which the earth has become a single spaceship, without unlimited reservoirs of anything,
either for extraction or for pollution, and in which, therefore, man must find his place in a
cyclical ecological system which is capable of continuous reproduction of material form even
though it cannot escape having inputs of energy” (Boulding 1966). It is claimed that Kenneth
Boulding’s Spaceship Earth Theory, conceptualised in 1966, is the originator of the school of
thought leading to Circular Economy concepts (Murray, Skene, and Haynes 2015).

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In the 1970s, an international team of researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology began a study of the implications of continued worldwide growth. They
identified five factors that ultimately limit growth; industrialization, population growth,
agricultural production, non-renewable resource depletion and deteriorating environment.
The data was computed on a world model and tested on behaviour of the model under various
assumptions (Meadows, Meadows, Randers, and Behrens 1972, 21). The findings of this
research was published in 1972 as a book called “The Limits to Growth” and led to the
formation of The Club of Rome. Although both Malthusian theorists and the Club of Rome
recognized the urgency of the problem of Population explosion, the latter had a more hopeful
message when they found a possible solution to the problem by saying, “Man can create a
society in which he can live indefinitely on earth if he imposes limits on himself and his
production of material goods to achieve a state of global equilibrium with population and
production in carefully selected balance.”(Meadows, Meadows, Randers, and Behrens 1972).
Despite these arguments and the growing environmental concerns of the 20th century, the
dominant thesis and hope remained that the market would ride to the rescue by providing
sufficient supply and productivity (Dobbs et al. 2011).

1.2 Criticisms against Circular Economy

Many scholars have criticized the lack of ability of the concept of circular economy to engage
with civil society as it does not have any cultural or social lenses. There are three critical
perspectives on the concept of circular economy seen in previous research (Mah 2021):

1. Korhonen and co-authors’ critique that the concept has significant material and
political limits (Korhonen, Honkasalo, and Seppälä, 2018). The limitations of materials and
technology make it difficult to change the way things are currently done. It also demands
high levels of complex socio-political organization of material and energy done by
companies and governments.

2. Hobson, Kertsy & Lynch argue that the circular economy reduces citizens to
consumers (Hobson, Kersty, and Lynch 2016). While it may provide radical change in the
business world, it doesn't acknowledge the social complexities.

3. O’Niell points to the inequities and injustices associated not only with waste
generation and disposal, but with the solutions to those problems too (O’Neill, 2019). Global
transition propositions like the Circular economy concept can drive people of lower
economic strata out of livelihoods and require inclusion.

1.3 The Need for Design for Circularity

Designers play a very important role in the global transition to a circular economy as there is
a need to redesign products and systems in order to improve resource utilisation and facilitate
easy reuse, repair, disassembly, remanufacture and recycling. This ‘design-to-redesign
thinking’ is the cornerstone of the concept of circular economy and requires much innovation
in design. This approach ensures that materials and components are maintained at their
highest useful purpose for as long as possible. Right now more than ever, there is a need for

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the application of Circular Economy in Design fields, as end-of-pipe methods of resolving

this are only delaying the negative outcomes.

Taking the example of the global construction industry itself we see how there is great
potential for the economy through proper utilisation of resources that are not taken an
advantage of yet. The construction industry is a major contributor to solid waste generation
across the world. Surveys conducted in several countries have found that the amount of waste
generated by the construction and demolition (C&D) activity is as high as 20% to 30% of the
total waste entering landfills throughout the world (Ellen McArthur Foundation 2013). In the
US, out of the 26% of C&D waste generated, less than one-third is recycled, reused or
recovered in any manner. A lot of the rest of the currently discarded waste has the potential to
be recovered as shown in the figure below.

Figure 2. US C&D Waste (Source: Ellen McArthur Foundation)

Construction waste management (CWM) has become a major environmental concern in most
of the Indian municipalities as the CW generated in India is 150 MT and accounts for 35%–
40% of the global C & D waste annually (Jain, 2021, Kolaventi et al., 2019). The share of
C&D waste in the total waste generation of the country is approximately 25-30%. Out of this
25%, only 1% of the C&D waste is recovered formally, the rest are discarded in landfills. The
composition of the discarded materials includes soil, sand and gravel (36%), concrete (23%),
metals (5%), bitumen (2%), wood (2%) and other materials (1%) (Miranda, Tike, and
Vadake, 2017).

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Figure 3. India C&D Waste (Adapted from source data: Miranda, Tike, Vadake, 2017)

When looking at the statistics of waste recovery in India is it also important to consider a
large informal waste economy that is dependent on the generation of waste especially C&D
waste for their livelihoods. The informal waste economy is commonly reduced to the end-
product of consumption and the starting point of reprocessing industries (Harriss-White,
2018). The labels of ‘scavenger’, ‘kabbadiwala’, ‘waste picker’ and ‘waste recoveree’ or
‘recycling traders’ are terms used to describe the actors in this sector in India. These actors
have been credited by activist research literature to already realize the concept of circular
economy to some degree without any formal structure through disassembly and recycling
which reduces resource wastage and creates environmental protection. But at the same time,
this “petty privatization” or “privatization from below” as Rajyashree N Reddy terms it, is
critiqued to have failed in adopting environmentally sound techniques, providing
occupational safety for the waste workers and offer equitable terms of employment (Reddy
2013). It is also important to acknowledge the caste-stratified oppression that has been a
interlocked with this economy in India (Harriss-White, 2018). Practices like ‘manual
scavenging’ which is removing excreta by hand is illegal in India, yet performed by about
300,000 households, almost exclusively by lower caste women in N. India (Human Rights
Watch, 2014).

The traditional Indian economy has long incorporated the principles of reusing, repurposing,
and recycling. However, with the growing population and increased demand for resources, it
is now necessary to formalize these practices on both macro and micro scales. Although the
concept of Circular Economy is primarily a technologically driven economic and business
model in Europe and other Western countries, its adoption in emerging economies with large
and diverse populations, such as India, must take into account the interplay of such informal
economies and possible integration into circular economic frameworks.

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2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The methodology of this research paper is a case-based approach, which involves the analysis
of real-world examples of sustainable architecture practices in India. The study will first gain
an understanding of the concept of circular economy and related schools of thought in order
to achieve new insight. The research attempts to identify parameters to form a framework for
evaluating the circularity of sustainable building practices from secondary case studies of
prime examples of circular design. These parameters will then be applied to selected building
practices in India in order to analyse their level of circularity.

The paper aims to evaluate using both direct parameters derived from an established body of
knowledge regarding the concept of circular economy and indirect parameters that may be an
effect of these direct parameters. The parameters derived are based on three main aspects of
material, technique and spatial planning of a building. This case-based methodology will
allow for a thorough examination of the current state of sustainable architecture practices in
India and how they align with the principles of a circular economy. The data collected from
the case studies will be analysed and interpreted to draw conclusions from analysis of
selected eco-effective ways of building in the social and cultural context of India today and
make recommendations for future sustainable architecture practices in India.

Figure 4. Methodology (Source: Author)

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2.1 Parameters for Evaluation

There are six identified parameters that come under direct and indirect parameters. Ideal
examples are selected to demonstrate the evaluation criteria and illustrate the parameters
being considered.

Figure 5. Framework for Evaluation (Source: Author)

2.1.1 Dematerializing Waste

The parameter of dematerializing waste aims to assess whether a building utilizes existing
waste in alternate forms in its construction materials. A notable example of this is the POLLI-
Brick, which is a multifunctional product made from 100% recycled PET. Initially used as a
drinking bottle, it can be repurposed as a building material. The designers changed the usual
round shape to a modular three-dimensional honeycomb form that makes the bottle extremely
strong as a beverage container, but also suitable for the construction sector (Hebel,
Wisniewska, and Heisel 2014, 136-139). Modular construction of facades and structural
elements has been done using these blocks. It is important to note that simply downcycling
materials into forms of lesser value is not considered a productive method of
dematerialization.

Figure 6. POLLI-BRICK (Source: Hebel, Wisniewska, and Heisel, 2014, 137)

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2.1.2 Regenerative ability and Recyclability

Regenerative ability refers to the capacity of construction materials to biodegrade over time.
When assessing these materials, it is crucial to consider the ease of separating technical and
biological nutrients. The use of synthetic adhesives, such as glue, or the mixing of
biodegradable materials with non-biodegradable materials like plastic can reduce the
regenerative ability of the building. HempFlax is a biodegradable material developed from
hemp fibres that has high regenerative ability. The product employs natural textiles and
fabrics from previous production and are shredded and pressed to obtain panels (ARUP,
2017).

Figure 7. HempFlax (Source: ARUP)

2.1.3 Longevity

Longevity is informed by the predicted lifespan of a building or material used for

construction. The parameter evaluates if the materials and techniques used reflect the needs
of the building within its lifespan. Bacteria-based self-healing concrete is an example of
material technology recently being developed by Microlab at Delft University of Technology
in order to increase the longevity of concrete. Increasing the durability of concrete by
reducing crack formation can prevent corrosion of steel members and keep the structural
integrity. The parameter not only assesses the longevity of the building intended for a single
lifespan, but also takes into consideration the lifespan of the materials used in the building
after its initial use.

Figure 8. Self-healing Concrete (Source: ARUP)

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2.1.4 Reusability

The assessment of a building's reusability parameter involves determining the extent to which
the building can be repurposed after its initial use, which may include reusing entire
components of the building, such as in the case of modular prefab construction. Alternatively,
reusability may be evaluated at the material level, which requires effective dismantling
connections to be in place to ensure successful implementation.

Figure 9. Modular Construction of Huoshenshan Hospital, China (Source: BBC, 2020)

2.1.5 Energy Optimizing

The Energy Optimizing parameter includes both active and passive systems aimed at
reducing a building's carbon footprint. A recent example of this is the use of dye-sensitized
solar cells integrated into concrete, which was developed by Architect Thorsten Klooster and
artist Heike Klussmann at the University of Kassel in Germany. This innovative technology
reduces a building's reliance on non-renewable energy sources such as fossil fuels. The
technology is based on the principle discovered by Michael Gretzel in 1992, which involves
transforming solar energy into electrical current using organic dyes extracted from grape
juice. The development of this technology is a promising step towards enhancing the energy
efficiency of buildings and reducing their environmental impact.

Figure 10. Dye sensitised solar cells integrated concrete (Source: Hebel, Wisniewska, and Heisel, 2014, 149)

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2.1.6 Spatial Adaptability

This parameter evaluates the spatial configuration and design of the building to extend the
life of the building sustainably. Spatial adaptability is a crucial aspect of building
sustainability, encompassing multi-functionality and reconfiguration. A prime example of
this is the Expandable House project by Urban Rural Systems (Figure 11), which
demonstrates how spatial adaptability can promote sustainable development in rural
communities. This parameter evaluates a building's capacity to transform, expand, or contract
as needed over time, reducing the need for demolition and extending the building's lifespan if
designed for adaptability.

Figure 11. Spatial Adaptability of Expandable House by Urban Rural Systems (Source: Archdaily, 2018)

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Analysis of ‘Koodaram’: Kochi-Muziris Biennale Pavilion 2018

Figure 12. (Source: Anagram Architects)

Koodaram’ was a 760 sq.m Temporary Pavilion built for the Kochi-Muziris Biennale 2018
designed by Anagram Architects located in Cabral Yard, Fort Kochi. The identified strategy
for circularity was to make the structure easily salvageable by the formal and informal waste
economy. The materials were planned on being used for low cost housing after its use in the
pavilion. But this idea did not see to fruition due to financial constraints. Since the building
only needs to be operating for 6 months, the building was designed with the principle of
‘remaining light on the ground’ - allowing minimum impact on the land it stands on.

3.1.1 Dematerializing Waste

Figure 13. (Adapted from Source: Anagram Architects) Figure 14. (Source: Author)

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There has been use of many eco-efficient building materials like Aerocon blocks and
polycarbonate walls. These allow for use less material than conventional building material
like concrete. Since the building is meant for a use of 6 months these materials are ideal for
its life span and after use can be dismantled for reuse. Aerocon blocks, for example, have a
density of 600kg/cu.m unlike regular concrete block which has 2240kg/cu.m density. This
means that Aerocon blocks use 73% less material than the latter.

Wall panelling is also designed to be easily fixed and removed. For example, the retaining
wall in the figure above is observed to be of a bamboo thatched framework and an
architectural element of wall panelling which are fixed with simple nut and bolt connections.

3.1.2. Regenerative ability and Recyclability

Figure 15. (Source: Anagram Architects) Figure 16. (Source: Author)

The two primary materials used are - Bamboo and Steel. Bamboo is less efficient than steel
but has lower embodied energy. Therefore, steel structural members are used only where
necessary, and the roof is supported by bamboo members. Bamboo being a biodegradable
material, is capable of returning to the environment making it regenerative. Steel on the other
hand is designed to be easily cut in lengths and salvaged.

3.1.3. Longevity

Figure 17. (Source: Anagram Architects) Figure 18. (Source: Author)

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When using materials like steel with high embodied energy and longer lifespan, they have
made the members easy to dismantle by having welded, bolted and tied connections. The
simple form of the building and its placement on site is also done to have minimum impact
on the ground it stands on - an ideology they follow in all designs - "Lightness on the
landscape".

3.1.4. Reusability

Figure 19. (Source: Anagram Architects) Figure 20. Welding, bolting & tying (Source: Author)

The connections at joineries are made by welding, bolting and tying making it designed for
reusability, the other materials like Aerocon blocks, acrylic sheet and perforated metals are
also made for easy detachability.

3.1.5. Energy Optimizing

Figure 21. (Source: Anagram Architects) Figure 22. (Source: Author)

The pavilion is designed to allow a lot of light into it despite it having to fulfil the programme
of theatre, it is not designed as a Black Box. This ensures the daylight is not wasted and
controlled lighting need not be provided all the time. This also takes the focus away from the
performer and brings it to the people. Energy efficient air-conditioning systems are used in
the pavilion as it was an unavoidable requirement.

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3.1.6. Spatial Adaptability

Figure 23. (Source: Anagram Architects) Figure 24. (Source: Author)

The open plan and flexible large space extend the program of the pavilion from more than a
theatre allowing it to a multifunctional space of engagement. The program of the building as
a temporary pavilion also demands this need for spatial adaptability throughout the Biennale.
The spatial planning is done such that it accommodates various kinds of performances also
by allowing the position of the stage to create a extroverted or introverted setting as shown in
Figure 24.

3.2. Overview of Bhoomija Creations Office

Figure 25. Bhoomija Creations Office (Source: Bhoomija Creations)

The Bhoomija Creations Office Building was selected for study to understand how the
principles of circularity could be used to understand sustainability in a building intended for
permanent use unlike the previous case study. Ar. Guruprasad Rane provided insight into
their process and philosophy for the design of this building in the interview conducted. The
identified strategy of Circularity was to design the building as a non-monolithic structure that
can organically grow with time. This strategy has been brought to design by using steel roof

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frame supported on rammed earth walls that could be lifted and removed as a whole if
required. Rammed earth as a material has a low carbon footprint and its biodegradability
allows for regenerative ability of the building. Circularity is accommodated in the making of
the building in the simplest and most natural ways like leftovers the v-board used for the
flooring of the waiting area is not wasted and instead used for the skirting of the discussion
room. The building is an example of how vernacular techniques and ways of construction are
naturally circular and therefore energy-efficient.

4. CONCLUSION

Figure 26. (Source: Anagram Architects) Figure 27. Qualitative Evaluation of 'Koodaram' (Source: Author)

The evaluation of the building using parameters such as dematerialization of waste,

regenerative ability and recyclability, longevity, reusability, energy optimizing, and spatial
adaptability provides valuable insights for designing sustainable buildings. The figure above
(Figure 27) shows the relative qualitative evaluation of the Koodaram Pavilion using the
derived parameters. Through the evaluation we see how the identified strategy for Circularity
– Design for Salvageability is achieved through different design strategies.

The conceptualization of "Koodaram" was designed to be circular, but the Biennale

Foundation faced financing difficulties, preventing it from serving as a viable model for the
circular economy. Currently, the contracting company holds the dismantled steel members,
while the bamboo members have yet to find a second use. In addition, most of the other
materials used in the construction may end up as typical construction waste in a landfill,
rather than being repurposed. This unfortunate outcome highlights the challenge of
implementing circular economy principles in real-world construction projects and
underscores the need for more sustainable financing models to support such initiatives.

In conclusion, the evaluation of sustainable building practices using parameters such as waste
reduction, energy optimization, and the regenerative and recyclable potential of materials
highlights the need for prioritizing these aspects in sustainable building design. While the
concept of circular economy originated and was popularized in European ideologies, its
implementation in the Indian economy requires accounting for cultural and social
complexities, such as the large informal waste economy. An attempt to address this
complexity can be seen in the conceptualization of the 'Koodaram' Project by Anagram
Architects.

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Furthermore, the report also aims to bring to attention an example of vernacular construction
techniques employed that naturally creates a form of design for circularity that is not
generally recognized within the general body of knowledge on this topic. It also emphasizes
the importance of extending design strategies that fulfil these parameters discussed in the
paper, from buildings that require to be temporary to buildings that require to be permanent,
to mitigate the impact of construction and demolition waste on the environment. The report
also highlights the importance of designing for spatial adaptability, an indirect but often
overlooked parameter, in achieving sustainability through design.

This paper demonstrates how architecture that accommodates this framework of design can
successfully achieve sustainability through design. Overall, it emphasizes the significance of
sustainable building practices and encourages the adoption of circular design principles in the
future of Sustainable Architecture in India.

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