Lecture 5 Essence, Characteristics and Types of Written Communication

Organization Schemes
The organization scheme used to create three categories focuses on nutrition and the process by which
Gatorade’s ingredients are used by the body. The conclusion creates two categories of consumers. This organization
scheme can promote active listening and allow the audience to follow, but the speaker must take into account the
possibility that an audience member might think, “Oh no, not again.” To set this presentation apart from others the
audience might have heard, the speaker could include a phrase like, “Is Gatorade always for you? Not necessarily.
Let’s look at…” which gains attention and penetrates a stereotype.
When you write a document or give a presentation, you may not be able to anticipate all the ways an audience
might organize the information you present or how they might use it, but by investing time in seeing it from their
perspective, you can improve your organization and be a more effective communicator.
For example, suppose you are assigned the task of writing a cost-benefit analysis report on a specific product
currently in development. Do you already know the essential points you need to include and the common industry
standards for this type of report? You may not know, but you have written an essay before and appreciate the need
for organization. Your ability to organize information, taking something that you know or have experienced and
applying it to new information, helps you make sense of your world.

Gestalt Principles of Organization

In the early twentieth century, some psychologists thought we could examine parts of things, much as a scientist
would examine an atom, and make a whole and complete picture regardless of context. Their theory was that
the setting and scene would not influence the picture or perspective. In response to this view, other psychologists
developed what they called Gestalt principles—the German word “Gestalt” referring to the unified whole.
According to Gestalt theory, context matters, and the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. What you see and
how you see it matters, and you yourself play a role in that perception of organization.
In the fifth of the Note3.1“IntroductoryExercises” for this chapter, you were asked to connect nine dots with four
straight lines, without retracing any line. Did you find a solution? (A common solution appears at the end of
this chapter.) The key to solving this puzzle is finding a way to “think outside the box”—in this case, to take your
pencil outside the implied square, or box, formed by the three rows of dots. The physical configuration of the
dots contributed to the illusion of the “box.” But in fact there is no box, and our tendency to see one where one
does not exist creates barriers to solving the puzzle. Gestalt theory states that we will perceive the nine dots as
belonging to a whole—a group or set having a certain shape—whether or not that whole actually exists.
Gestalt principles apply not only to images or objects, but also to ideas and concepts. You can associate two or
more bits of information in predictable ways, but your perspective can influence your view of the overall idea. We
don’t always have all the information we need to draw a conclusion, literally drawing a series of relationships to
form a whole picture in our minds, so we often fill in the gaps. We guess and make logical leaps, even suspend
disbelief, all in an effort to make sense of our experiences.
In your presentations, if you jump from topic to topic or go off on a tangent, what happens to the listener’s ability
to listen and follow you effectively? Why make barriers for your audience when you’ve worked so hard to get
their attention? How does this relate to Gestalt principles? By failing to recognize our natural tendency to want
ideas, shapes, or words to make sense, the author is confusing the reader. What happens when the reader is
confused? He or she moves on to something else, and leaves your writing behind. The opposite of clear and concise,
confused, and poorly organized writing can distract and defeat even the most motivated of readers. Table
3.2“GestaltPrinciplesofOrganization” lists some of the Gestalt organization principles.
Table 3.2 Gestalt Principles of Organization
Principle Definition Example

Organization based on Next to me on the beach, I see my daughter playing with her pail and shovel; in
Proximity relationship of space to the middle distance, a trio of kayakers paddle by; farther away, I see several
objects power boats, and in the far distance, the green shore of Long Island.

I am beginning to notice a pattern in the absentee rate in our department. For

Drawing connections
the past year, more workers have been absent on the first Friday of the month
Continuity between things that
than on other days. I expect we will again have many absences next Friday, as
occur in sequence
it is the first Friday of the month.

To make appliquéd candles, (Ruffman, 2007) you will need the following:

1. Decorative material to appliqué: floral (fresh flowers, pine needles, or

leaves), homey (dried beans or grains) or folksy (small nuts and
bolts)
Grouping things or
Similarity concepts by properties 2. Candle body: fat candles (at least 4” diameter to keep dried flowers
they share away from flame), natural colored wax (sheets or chunks of beeswax
or paraffin)
3. Tools: a microwave flower press, a ½-inch paintbrush, a tin pie plate,
a chip carving knife or v-tool

Armored personnel carriers include the Stryker, LAV, Pandur, M113 Armored
Noting ways in which
Uniformity/ Personnel Carrier, Amphibious Assault Vehicle, Expeditionary Fighting
concepts or objects are
Homogeneity Vehicle, Grizzly APC, Rhino Runner, Bison (armored personnel carrier), and
alike
Mamba APC.

Emphasis on a single On a rock in Copenhagen Harbor stands the small statue of The Little
Figure and
item that stands out Mermaid, a memorial to one of Denmark’s most beloved citizens, Hans
Ground
from its surroundings Christian Andersen.

Balancing objects or Representing the conservative viewpoint was Wall Street Journal
Symmetry ideas equally from one correspondent John Emshwiller; the liberal viewpoint was argued by New York
side to the other Times columnist Paul Krugman.

Tendency to use
previous knowledge to The wording of the memo was, “It is important for all employees to submit
Closure fill in the gaps in an their health insurance enrollment selections no than November 1,” but everyone
incomplete idea or understood that it should have said, “no later than November 1.”
picture
Let’s examine some of the commonly used Gestalt principles: proximity, continuation, similarity, and closure.
It makes sense that we would focus first on things around us and the degree to which they are close to us and
to each other. Proximity is the perceptual organization of information based on physical relationship of space
to objects. In creating a scene for a play or movie, a stage designer knows that the audience will tend to pay attention
to objects in the foreground, unless special emphasis is added to objects farther away. This principle extends to
people and daily life. Just because someone is walking down the street next to someone else, this does not
necessarily mean they have a connection to each other—they are simply in close proximity.
We also see a similar tendency in the principle of continuity. We like things to be orderly, and our brain will see
lines and movement where none exist. Examine Figure3.5“Continuity”. What you see? Do you perceive two lines
crossing one another? Or an X? The principle of continuity predicts that you would demonstrate a tendency to
perceive continuous figures. The two lines cross one another, and you might even say from top to bottom or the
reverse, when there is no motion indicated.
Continuity can also lead to a well-known logical fallacy, or false belief, involving sequence and cause-effect
relationships. If something happens after something else, does that mean that the first event caused the second
event? You wish for rain and it rains. Connected? Logic and common sense would say no. You have a dream about
a plane crash, and the next day there is a major airline crash. Did your dream cause the crash? Obviously not.
When objects or events are similar, we tend to group them together in our minds, again making the assumption
that they are related by their common characteristics. Similarity is the perceptual organization of information based
on perceived points of common characteristics across distinct items. For example, a horse, a mule, and a donkey
are distinct, but we perceive them as being similar to one another.
The principle of closure underscores our tendency to use previous knowledge to fill in the gaps in an incomplete
idea or picture. If you are talking to a friend on your cell phone and the connection breaks up for a few seconds, you
may miss some words, but you can grasp the main idea by automatically guessing what was said. You do this based
on your previous history of communicating with your friend on similar topics. Do you always guess correctly? Of
course not.
When we say we see a star, we don’t really see one because there is no star. The five Pac-Man shapes in that
arrangement, however, allow our mind to say, “If this was connected to this and that was connected to that, there
would be a star.” Sometimes the sense we make does not match reality, and we see a star where there is no star.
Sometimes we “fill in the blanks” without even being aware of it. When we speak on a topic and fail to clearly
articulate a point or substantiate an assertion, we leave a “hole” in our presentation that the listener may or may
not be aware of, but will predictably fill. This tendency to jump to conclusions may seem like a disadvantage, but
it is only a disadvantage if you are unaware of it. If fact, it’s a positive ability that allows us to infer and guess
correctly, often in times of crisis when time is limited. But we don’t always guess correctly. If your goal is to
communicate your message to the audience, then by definition you don’t want a “pothole” to interrupt, distract,
or create a barrier that leads to misinterpretation.
Interpretation
After selection and organization, interpretation is the third step in the perception process. From your past
experiences combined with your current expectations, you assign meaning to the current stimuli. If the word
“college” for you has meaning, then what comes to mind? If a high school student has to take the PSAT (Preliminary
Scholastic Aptitude Test) in the morning, what does that word mean to him? Will his state of anxiety and
anticipation over the importance of the exam and the unknown word of college influence how he responds to
that word? If his parents ask, “Where are you planning on going to college?” when he is simply focused on the
test that may influence his options, the word itself may take on a whole new meaning. It may invite issues of control
(“Which college? You are going to the college we went to, right?”) or of self-esteem (“Am I good enough to go to
college?”) to become associated with the word “college.”
The word itself may shift in terms of meaning across time. Let’s say the high school student did well on the
PSAT and went to the same college as his parents. Is it the same college, or just the same location and buildings?
It may have a tradition, but it is at the same time new and ever-changing, just like the students that arrive each year.
Fast forward a couple of years and the college may represent a place where you studied, made friends, and came
to know yourself. In a few more years, you may choose to become a member of the alumni association. The meaning
of the word “college” can shift intrapersonally across time, and can mean different things to different groups.
Let’s rewind and look back at a test gone bad, taken by a less than adequately prepared student from a household
where there may not be sufficient resources to make the dream of college come true. The image of college may
remain an image instead of a reality; a goal not attained. Structural barriers like socioeconomic status, parental and
peer influences, and the need to work to support yourself or your family can all influence your decisions and
perspective.

Differences in Perception
Someone may say what you consider to be a simple exclamatory sentence—“Earn college credit while studying
abroad!”—but a thought may come to mind: “How will I fit in as an outsider in a foreign country?” What makes
you a member of a group? How you distinguish between those who belong in our family, group, or community and
those who do not is central to our study of communication. Learning to see issues and experiences from multiple
perspective can be a challenging task, but the effort is worth it. Increased understanding about each other can
positively impact our communication and improve the degree to which we can share and understand meaning
across languages, cultures, and divergent perspectives.

Why Don’t We All See Eye to Eye?

People perceive things differently. We choose to select different aspects of a message to focus our attention
based on what interests us, what is familiar to us, or what we consider important. Often, our listening skills could
use improvement. Listening and thinking are directly related. When you are reading, what do you hear? When you
are talking with someone, what do you hear? If the sound of your thoughts or voice is at least one of your answers,
then communication is not occurring. Try to read this paragraph again without interruption. Your tendency might
be to skim over the words, or to focus on key vocabulary, but if you allow your thoughts to stray from the text you
are reading, even for a moment, you are interrupting your processing of the written word, or reading. Interruptions
will impair your ability to understand and retain information, and make studying even harder.
 In order to better understand perception, we will examine how you choose to pay attention, remember, and
interpret messages within the communication process.

Individual Differences in Perception

Why do people perceive things in different ways? To answer the question, recall that we all engage in selection,
or choosing some stimuli while ignoring others. We exist as individuals within a community, regardless of whether
we are conscious of it. Do you like 80s music? Prefer the Beatles? Nothing before 2005? Your tastes in music
involve the senses, and what you choose to experience is influenced by your context and environment. Your habits,
values, and outlook on life are influenced by where you come from and where you are.
The attributes that cause people to perceive things differently are known as individual differences. Let’s
examine several of the most important ones.
Physical characteristics influence how we perceive and respond to information. You may be asked to design a
sign that says, “Watch your head,” which will be placed next to a six foot six inch overhang that is above floor
level. While a few very tall people will have to worry about hitting their heads on the overhang, most people in the
world are not that tall. Tall and short individuals will perceive this sign differently.
Your psychological state can also influence what you read and listen to, and why you do so. The emergency
procedures binder on the wall next to the first aid kit doesn’t mean much to you until a coworker falls and
suffers some bad cuts and bruises. If you were asked to design the binder and its contents, could you anticipate a
psychological state of anxiety that would likely be present when someone needed the information? If so, then you
might use clear bullet lists, concise, declarative sentences, and diagrams to communicate clearly.
Your cultural background plays a significant role in what and how you perceive your world. You may be from
a culture that values community. For example, the message across the advertisement reads: Stand out from the
crowd. Given your cultural background, it may not be a very effective slogan to get your attention.
Our perceptual set involves our attitudes, beliefs, and values about the world. Perhaps you’ve heard the phrase,
“Looking at the world through rose-colored glasses” and can even think of someone as an example. We experience
the world through mediated images and mass communication. We also come to know one another interpersonally
in groups. All these experiences help form our mental expectations of what is happening and what will happen.
Think about your brand preferences, your choice of transportation, your self-expression through your clothing,
haircut, and jewelry—all these external symbols represent in some way how you view yourself within your
community and the world. We can extend this perspective in many ways, both positive and negative, and see that
understanding the perspective of the audience takes on new levels of importance.
Getting to Know Your Audience
Writing to your audience’s expectations is key to your success, but how do you get a sense of your readers?
Research, time, and effort. At first glance you may think you know your audience, but if you dig a little deeper you
will learn more about them and become a better speaker.
Examine Figure3.7“IcebergModel”, often called the iceberg model. When you see an iceberg on the ocean, the
great majority of its size and depth lie below your level of awareness. When you write a document or give a
presentation, each person in your reading or listening audience is like the tip of an iceberg. You may perceive
people of different ages, races, ethnicities, and genders, but those are only surface characteristics. This is your
challenge. When you communicate with a diverse audience, you are engaging in intercultural communication. The
more you learn about the audience, the better you will be able to navigate the waters, and your communication
interactions, safely and effectively.
Theodore Roosevelt pointed out that “the most important single ingredient in the formula of success is knowing
how to get along with people.” Knowing your audience well before you speak is essential. Here are a few questions
to help guide you in learning more about your audience:
 • How big is the audience?
• What are their backgrounds, gender, age, jobs, education, and/or interests?
• Do they already know about your topic? If so, how much?
• Will other materials be presented or available? If so, what are they, what do they cover, and how do
they relate to your message?
• How much time is allotted for your presentation, or how much space do you have for your written
document? Will your document or presentation stand alone or do you have the option of adding
visuals, audio-visual aids, or links?
Demographic Traits
Demographic traits refer to the characteristics that make someone an individual, but that he or she has in common
with others. For example, if you were born female, then your view of the world may be different from that
of a male, and may be similar to that of many other females. Being female means that you share this “femaleness”
trait with roughly half the world’s population.
How does this demographic trait of being female apply to communication? For example, we might find that
women tend to be more aware than the typical male of what it means to be capable of becoming pregnant, or to go
through menopause. If you were giving a presentation on nutrition to a female audience, you would likely include
more information about nutrition during pregnancy and during menopause than you would if your audience were
male.
We can explore other traits by considering your audience’s age, level of education, employment or career status,
and various other groups they may belong to. Imagine that you are writing a report on the health risks associated
with smoking. To get your message across to an audience of twelve-year-olds, clearly you would use different
language and different examples than what you would use for an audience of adults age fifty-five and older. If
you were writing for a highly educated audience—say, engineering school graduates—you would use much more
scholarly language and rigorous research documentation than if you were writing for first-year college students.
Writing for readers in the insurance industry, you would likely choose examples of how insurance claims are
affected by whether or not a policyholder smokes, whereas if you were writing for readers who are athletes, you
would focus on how the human body reacts to tobacco. Similarly, if you were writing for a community newsletter,
you would choose local examples, whereas if your venue was a Web site for parents, you might choose examples
that are more universal.
Audiences tend to be interested in messages that relate to their interests, needs, goals, and motivations.
Demographic traits can give us insight into our audience and allow for an audience-centered approach to your
assignment that will make you a more effective communicator (Beebe, 1997).

Improving Your Perceptions of Your Audience

The better you can understand your audience, the better you can tailor your communications to reach them. To
understand them, a key step is to perceive clearly who they are, what they are interested in, what they need,
and what motivates them. This ability to perceive is important with audience members from distinct groups,
generations, and even cultures. William Seiler and Melissa Beall offer us six ways to improve our perceptions, and
therefore improve our communication, particularly in public speaking; they are listed in Table3.3“Perceptual
StrategiesforSuccess”.
Table 3.3 Perceptual Strategies for Success

Perceptual Strategy Explanation

Become an active We need to actively seek out as much information as possible. Placing yourself in the new culture,
perceiver group, or co-culture can often expand your understanding.

Recognize each We all perceive the world differently. Recognize that even though you may interact with two
person’s unique frame people from the same culture, they are individuals with their own set of experiences, values, and
of reference interests.

Recognize that
The world is changing and so are we. Recognizing that people and cultures, like communication
people, objects, and
process itself, are dynamic and ever changing can improve your intercultural communication.
situations change

Become aware of the As we explored in Chapter2“Delivering YourMessage”, perception is an important aspect of the
role perceptions play communication process. By understanding that our perceptions are not the only ones possible can
in communication limit ethnocentrism and improve intercultural communication.

The adage “A mind is like a parachute—it works best when open” holds true. Being open to
Keep an open mind
differences can improve intercultural communication.

Check your By learning to observe, and acknowledging our own perceptions, we can avoid assumptions,
perceptions expand our understanding, and improve our ability to communicate across cultures.
Fairness in Communication
Finally, consider that your audience has several expectations of you. No doubt you have sat through a speech
or classroom lecture where you asked yourself, “Why should I listen?” You have probably been assigned to read
a document or chapter and found yourself wondering, “What does this have to do with me?” These questions are
normal and natural for audiences, but people seldom actually state these questions in so many words or say them
out loud.
In a report on intercultural communication, V. Lynn Tyler offers us some insight into these audience expectations,
which can be summarized as the need to be fair to your audience. One key fairness principle is reciprocity, or a
relationship of mutual exchange and interdependence. Reciprocity has four main components: mutuality,
nonjudgmentalism, honesty, and respect.
Mutuality means that the speaker searches for common ground and understanding with his or her audience,
establishing this space and building on it throughout the speech. This involves examining viewpoints other
than your own and taking steps to insure the speech integrates an inclusive, accessible format rather than an
ethnocentric one.
Nonjudgmentalism involves willingness to examine diverse ideas and viewpoints. A nonjudgmental
communicator is open-minded, and able to accept ideas that may be strongly opposed to his or her own beliefs and
values.
Another aspect of fairness in communication is honesty: stating the truth as you perceive it. When you
communicate honestly, you provide supporting and clarifying information and give credit to the sources where you
obtained the information. In addition, if there is significant evidence opposing your viewpoint, you acknowledge
this and avoid concealing it from your audience.
Finally, fairness involves respect for the audience and individual members—recognizing that each person has
basic rights and is worthy of courtesy. Consider these expectations of fairness when designing your message and
you will more thoroughly engage your audience.

Listening and Reading for Understanding

As the popular author and Hollywood entrepreneur Wilson Mizner said, “A good listener is not only popular
everywhere, but after a while he knows something.” Learning to listen to your conversational partner, customer,
supplier, or supervisor is an important part of business communication. Too often, instead of listening we mentally
rehearse what we want to say. Similarly, when we read, we are often trying to multitask and therefore cannot read
with full attention. Inattentive listening or reading can cause us to miss much of what the speaker is sharing with
us.
Communication involves the sharing and understanding of meaning. To fully share and understand, practice
active listening and reading so that you are fully attentive, fully present in the moment of interaction. Pay attention
to both the actual words and for other clues to meaning, such as tone of voice or writing style. Look for
opportunities for clarification and feedback when the time comes for you to respond, not before.
Active Listening and Reading
You’ve probably experienced the odd sensation of driving somewhere and, having arrived, have realized you don’t
remember driving. Your mind may have been filled with other issues and you drove on autopilot. It’s dangerous
when you drive like that, and it is dangerous in communication. Choosing to listen or read attentively takes effort.
People communicate with words, expressions, and even in silence, and your attention to them will make you
a better communicator. From discussions on improving customer service to retaining customers in challenging
economic times, the importance of listening comes up frequently as a success strategy.
Here are some tips to facilitate active listening and reading:
• Maintain eye contact with the speaker; if reading, keep your eyes on the page.
• Don’t interrupt; if reading, don’t multitask.
• Focus your attention on the message, not your internal monologue.
• Restate the message in your own words and ask if you understood correctly.
• Ask clarifying questions to communicate interest and gain insight.

When the Going Gets Through

Our previous tips will serve you well in daily interactions, but suppose you have an especially difficult subject to
discuss, or you receive a written document delivering bad news. In a difficult situation like this, it is worth taking
extra effort to create an environment and context that will facilitate positive communication.
Here are some tips that may be helpful:
• Set aside a special time. To have a difficult conversation or read bad news, set aside a special time
when you will not be disturbed. Close the door and turn off the TV, music player, and instant
messaging client.
• Don’t interrupt. Keep silent while you let the other person “speak his piece.” If you are reading, make
an effort to understand and digest the news without mental interruptions.
• Be nonjudgmental. Receive the message without judgment or criticism. Set aside your opinions,
attitudes, and beliefs.
• Be accepting. Be open to the message being communicated, realizing that acceptance does not
necessarily mean you agree with what is being said.
• Take turns. Wait until it is your turn to respond, and then measure your response in proportion to the
message that was delivered to you. Reciprocal turn-taking allows each person have his say.
• Acknowledge. Let the other person know that you have listened to the message or read it attentively.
• Understand. Be certain that you understand what your partner is saying. If you don’t understand, ask
for clarification. Restate the message in your own words.
• Keep your cool. Speak your truth without blaming. A calm tone will help prevent the conflict from
escalating. Use “I” statements (e.g., “I felt concerned when I learned that my department is going to
have a layoff”) rather than “you” statements (e.g., “you want to get rid of some of our best people”).
Finally, recognize that mutual respect and understanding are built one conversation at a time. Trust is difficult to
gain and easy to lose. Be patient and keep the channels of communication open, as a solution may develop slowly
over the course of many small interactions. Recognize that it is more valuable to maintain the relationship over the
long term than to “win” in an individual transaction.

Effective Business Writing. Getting Started.

Something we often hear in business is, “Get it in writing.” This advice is meant to prevent misunderstandings
based on what one person thought the other person said. But does written communication—getting it in writing—
always prevent misunderstandings?
According to a Washington Post news story, a written agreement would have been helpful to an airline customer
named Mike. A victim of an airport mishap, Mike was given vouchers for $7,500 worth of free travel. However,
in accordance with the airline’s standard policy, the vouchers were due to expire in twelve months. When Mike
saw that he and his wife would not be able to do enough flying to use the entire amount before the expiration
date, he called the airline and asked for an extension. He was told the airline would extend the deadline, but later
discovered they were willing to do so at only 50 percent of the vouchers’ value. An airline spokesman told the
newspaper, “If [Mike] can produce a letter stating that we would give the full value of the vouchers, he should
produce it” (Oldenburg, 2005).
Yet, as we will see in this chapter, putting something in writing is not always a foolproof way to ensure accuracy
and understanding. A written communication is only as accurate as the writer’s knowledge of the subject and
audience, and understanding depends on how well the writer captures the reader’s attention.
This chapter addresses the written word in a business context. We will also briefly consider the symbols, design,
font, timing, and related nonverbal expressions you make when composing a page or document. Our discussions
will focus on effective communication of your thoughts and ideas through writing that is clear, concise, and
efficient.

Oral versus Written Communication

The written word often stands in place of the spoken word. People often say “it was good to hear from you” when
they receive an e-mail or a letter, when in fact they didn’t hear the message, they read it. Still, if they know you
well, they may mentally “hear” your voice in your written words. Writing a message to friends or colleagues can
be as natural as talking to them. Yet when we are asked to write something, we often feel anxious and view writing
as a more effortful, exacting process than talking would be.
Oral and written forms of communication are similar in many ways. They both rely on the basic communication
process, which consists of eight essential elements: source, receiver, message, channel, receiver, feedback,
environment, context, and interference. Table4.1“EightEssentialElementsofCommunication” summarizes these
elements and provides examples of how each element might be applied in oral and written communication.

Table 4.1 Eight Essential Elements of Communication

Element of
Definition Oral Application Written Application
Communication

A source creates and Jay makes a telephone call to

1. Source Jay writes an e-mail to Heather.
communicates a message. Heather.

A receiver receives the

2. Receiver
Heather listens to Jay. Heather reads Jay’s e-mail.
message from the source.
3. Message The message is the
stimulus or meaning Jay asks Heather to participate Jay’s e-mail asks Heather to participate
produced by the source in a conference call at 3:15. in a conference call at 3:15.
for the receiver.

A channel is the way a

4. Channel message travels between The channel is the telephone. The channel is e-mail.
source and receiver.

Feedback is the message

5. Feedback the receiver sends in Heather replies with an e-mail saying
Heather says yes.
response to the source. yes.

The environment is the

Heather is traveling by train on
physical atmosphere Heather is at her desk when she
6. Environment a business trip when she
where the communication receives Jay’s e-mail.
receives Jay’s phone call.
occurs.

The context involves the Heather expects Jay to send an Heather expects Jay to dial and connect
psychological e-mail with the call-in the call. Jay expects Heather to check
7. Context
expectations of the source information for the call. Jay her e-mail for the call-in information so
and receiver. expects to do so, and does. that she can join the call.

Also known as noise, Heather calls in at 3:15, but she

interference is anything has missed the call because she Heather waits for a phone call from Jay
8. Interference
that blocks or distorts the forgot that she is in a different at 3:15, but he doesn’t call.
communication process. time zone from Jay.
As you can see from the applications in this example, at least two different kinds of interference have the
potential to ruin a conference call, and the interference can exist regardless of whether the
communication to plan the call is oral or written. Try switching the “Context” and “Interference”
examples from Oral to Written, and you will see that mismatched expectations and time zone confusion
can happen by phone or by e-mail. While this example has an unfavorable outcome, it points out a way
in which oral and written communication processes are similar.
Another way in which oral and written forms of communication are similar is that they can be
divided into verbal and nonverbal categories. Verbal communication involves the words you say, and
nonverbal communication involves how you say them—your tone of voice, your facial expression, body
language, and so forth. Written communication also involves verbal and nonverbal dimensions. The
words you choose are the verbal dimension. How you portray or display them is the nonverbal dimension,
which can include the medium (e-mail or a printed document), the typeface or font, or the appearance of
your signature on a letter. In this sense, oral and written communication are similar in their approach even
as they are quite different in their application.
The written word allows for a dynamic communication process between source and receiver, but is
often asynchronous, meaning that it occurs at different times. When we communicate face-to-face, we
get immediate feedback, but our written words stand in place of that interpersonal interaction and we lack
that immediate response. Since we are often not physically present when someone reads what we have
written, it is important that we anticipate the reader’s needs, interpretation, and likely response to our
written messages.
Suppose you are asked to write a message telling clients about a new product or service your
company is about to offer. If you were speaking to one of them in a relaxed setting over coffee, what
would you say? What words would you choose to describe the product or service, and how it may fulfill
the client’s needs? As the business communicator, you must focus on the words you use and how you
use them. Short, simple sentences, in themselves composed of words, also communicate a business style.
In your previous English classes you may have learned to write eloquently, but in a business context, your
goal is clear, direct communication. One strategy to achieve this goal is to write with the same words and
phrases you use when you talk. However, since written communication lacks the immediate feedback
that is present in an oral conversation, you need to choose words and phrases even more carefully to
promote accuracy, clarity, and understanding.