THE EARTH’S HYDROSPHERE

 The Earth’s liquid water constitutes the Hydrosphere.

 The vast majority of Earth’s water is in the oceans (salt

water), with smaller, but geologically important,

quantities of fresh water in lakes, rivers, and ground

water.

 The components of the hydrosphere, as well as the

Cryosphere (frozen water), the atmosphere, and the

biosphere, participate in the global hydrologic cycle.

 THE EARTH’S HYDROSPHERE
 Earth’s water supply has had, since Earth was created,

major influences on Earth’s climate, its landscape and

mineralogy, the composition of its atmosphere, and on

the origin and evolution of life.

 The total mass of Earth’s water is about 300 times

the mass of the atmosphere.

 Without water, which facilitates the formation of

carbonate rock, the atmospheric content of CO2

would be far higher than it is.

THE EARTH’S HYDROSPHERE: Distribution of Water on
Earth

Volume Percent of Total

OCEANS 1,350 x 1015 m3 97.3

CRYOSPHERE 29 x 1015 m3 2.1

(Glaciers & Polar Ice)
UNDERGROUND 8.4 x 1015 m3 0.6
(Aquifers)
LAKES & RIVERS 0.2 x 1015 m3 0.01
ATMOSPHERE 0.013 x 1015 m3 0.001
BIOSPHERE 0.0006 x 1015 m3 4 x 10-5
Distribution of Water on Earth
The Hydrologic Cycle
The Hydrologic Cycle
 The water on earth stays
consistent, it is believed to have
been consistent throughout the
life of the planet

 There are five processes by

which water moves throughout
each of the earth’s spheres
 Condensation

 Precipitation

 Infiltration

 Runoff

 evapotranspiration
Typical Elevation Profile of Oceanic Margins
Echo Sounders for Measuring Ocean Depths and Floor Profiles
Major Topographic Divisions and Profile of the North
Atlantic Ocean Basin
The World’s Ocean Floors
Oceans

 Oceans are responsible for keeping

the planet from burning up by the
sun’s heat and it is the planet’s
largest source of heat

 The large mass of liquid serves as a

buffer for the sun’s heat and it
keeps earth in a state of
homeostasis by not allowing any
drastic changes in temperature

 hy would it be important to keep the

earth’s temperature at a relatively
constant state?
The Ocean and the Atmosphere
 The oceans are the earth’s main

reservoirs of readily available carbon

dioxide (CO2).

 Why do you think that this would be

important to the earth’s atmosphere?

 Carbon dioxide is an important

greenhouse gas

 CO2 is important in the process of

photosynthesis in plants

 It is the deep circulation that allows

the creates the cycle that allows the

entrapment of CO2 at the deeper,
colder regions of the ocean
 Ocean Currents
 Ocean currents:

 pull CO2 down to the deeper

portions of the ocean

 carry warm waters from equatorial

regions to those neared to the poles

 These currents are sent in motion by:

 prevailing winds

 Coriolis force, which isthe force

created by the rotation of the
earth

 account for 1/4 of the heat

transport on the earth
 Oceanic Levels

The ocean is divided into

three levels

These levels are determined

by the level of penetration
by the sun’s light
 Oceanic Zonation

EUPHOTIC ZONE
(Sunlit)
 The most shallow of the zones only reaches the
depth of 600 feet warmest temperatures
 temperatures are nearly UNIFORM (due to rapid
transfer of heat) thickness and temperatures
FLUCTUATE lots of light penetrates
 Oceanic Zonation
DISPHOTIC ZONE
(Twilight)

This middle zone reaches the depths of 3000 feet

 cooler waters
 more fluctuation in temperature
 some light penetrates
 Oceanic Zonation
APHOTIC ZONE
(Midnight)

This deepest zone takes up 90% of the space in the

ocean
 coldest temperatures
 most saline
 most dense
 completely devoid of light
 Currents, Waves & Shorelines
 currents carried on the
surface of the water are
called waves

 when waves meet the land

shorelines are created

 the interaction between

the sea and the land causes
some erosion of the land
which creates sediment

 sediment is carried into the

ocean from the waves
 Sediment and Shorelines
 Sediment is part of the lithosphere
and is deposited on the ocean floor
as the waves pull back from the shore

there are two types of shorelines

created by sediment deposition

sediment poor shorelines

 more of the sediment is pulled

away from the shoreline and
deeper into the ocean floor

sediment rich shorelines

 more of the sediment deposits

on the shore
 Shorelines
Shoreline types are assigned by
the physical characteristics of the
upper tidal zone (the area that
shows during high tide)

standard classifications of
shorelines are used for ecological
catastrophes and how vulnerable
the shoreline is to damaging
effects

beaches are made of assorted

sediments and they are
categorized according to their
substrate
Environment shoreline classifications

non-permeable shorelines

 bedrock

 man-made solid structures & ice Shoreline Classification

permeable shorelines

 sand beaches

 mixed sediment

 pebble/cobble beaches

 mud tidal flats

 sand tidal flats

 salt marshes

 peat shoreline (arctic)

 inundate low-lying tundra shorelines

 tundra cliffs

Warm and tropical climates

 coral coastlines

 mangrove & estuaries

 Shorelines & Lakes
Shorelines aren’t only present
where the ocean meet the land

lakes are another body of water

with shorelines

shorelines of lakes are influenced by

the same factors as ocean shorelines

lake shorelines can also determine

the longevity of the lake and how
long it will exist
 Lake Characterisitcs
The cycle of erosion continuously changes the topography
of the lake on the shore and on the lake bottom

this erosion determines the productivity of a lake

can anyone guess how this would influence the lakes

longevity?

Lakes are categorized by these characteristics

Lakes are divided into three categories
dystrophic lakes
 low food value
 full of soil particles
 water is usually brown
oligotrophic lakes
 lake nourishment
 very clear water
eutrophic lakes
 well nourished
 intense birdlife
 lots of plankton
 THE EARTH’S HYDROSPHERE
 The hydrosphere, along with the atmosphere and cryosphere, are primarily

responsible for weathering and erosion of land surfaces.

 Rain water, in combination with atmospheric CO2, is primarily responsible

for chemical weathering by carbonic acid, H2CO3.

 The amount of CO2 dissolved in the oceans is much larger than that currently

in the atmosphere. Since the solubility of CO2 in water decreases with

temperature, global warming could produce a positive feedback effect by
releasing oceanic CO2.

 Man-made and volcanic pollution can increase weathering by providing

much stronger acids (“acid rain”; e.g. H2SO4), and by increasing atmospheric
CO2.

 Rain, plus the river and stream components of the hydrosphere, also provide

mechanical erosion of rocks and convert them to soils and sediments.

Wave and Underwater Motions
Production of Tsunami Waves by Earthquakes
December 26, 2004 Earthquake-Generated Tsunami (Red = Wave
Heights Measured by Jason 1 Satellite)
“Black Smoker” Under-Sea Volcanic Activity

 Under-sea volcanic activity gives rise

to high-temperature plumes of

water, containing particles of

igneous rock that give rise to the

appearance of black smoke.

“Black Smoker” Under-Sea Volcanic Activity

 The boiling point of water under the high pressures on the ocean floor

can be considerably higher than at the surface; hence the temperatures

of the volcanic plumes can be much higher as well.

 “Black Smoker” Under-Sea Volcanic Activity

 It has been discovered that some species of animal life thrive on the

environment of these “black smokers”, including their very high

temperatures.
Global Ocean Current Systems
 LIFE IN THE OCEANS
 Throughout Earth’s history, the oceans have had major influences
on the evolution and propagation of life, and vice versa.

 Early in Earth’s history, before the advent of photosynthesis on a

large scale, there was no atmospheric ozone layer to protect life
forms on the surface from damaging solar ultraviolet radiation.

 Therefore, the oceans (and other large bodies of water) provided

the only UV-protected (but visible light illuminated) habitats for the
original procaryotic life forms, as well as essential nutrients.

 Life forms have also had significant influences on the oceans and
ocean beds, because of their capabilities to convert carbon dioxide
and soluble calcium compounds into limestone (calcium carbonate,
CaCO3).
 THE EARTH’S CRYOSPHERE
 Earth’s supply of frozen water, the cryosphere, is second only to the oceans
in water content.

 The cryosphere consists mainly of the permanent ice caps of Antarctica and
Greenland, with much smaller amounts in Arctic and mountain glaciers.

 Major changes in sea level can occur during times of global climate change
(ice ages and global warming), due to associated changes in the water
content of the cryosphere.

 During ice ages, glaciers can cover major parts of Earth’s land area year-
round for hundreds or thousands of years.

 The advance and retreat of glaciers can also produce major erosion and re-
configuration of the landscape.

 Ice ages and global warming can have major effects on the biosphere as
well.
 Permafrost in Land Areas
 Land areas in polar regions,
such as Antarctica and
Greenland, and the north
slopes of Alaska and Siberia,
have zones below their
surfaces in which ground
water remains frozen year-
round.

 Regions in which soil water is

permanently frozen constitute
what is known as permafrost.
Ice Cover of Greenland and Antarctica
Ice Age North Polar Coverage
 ICE AGES AND GLOBAL WARMING
 The most recent “ice age” ended about 12,000 years ago, which was prior to the
advent of civilized human history.

 It is still unknown as to what causes the advent of ice ages, and the extent that they
occur in cycles independent of human activities.

 At the current time, we are experiencing a slow global warming, but it is not known
to what extent this is part of a natural cycle as distinct from human-induced (by
increasing the amount of carbon dioxide and other “greenhouse gases”, due to
combustion of fossil fuels and other human activities).

 There is concern that the increasing use of fossil fuels might induce a “runaway
greenhouse” effect, because heating of the atmosphere could, by heating of the
oceans and other water bodies, result in increasing water vapor in the atmosphere
(which is also a “greenhouse gas”)!

 Global warming would also result in melting of the polar ice caps, which would raise
the water level of the oceans and cause flooding of coastal areas of the continents.
Sea Level Changes due to Ice Ages and Ice Cap Melting
 Space-Based Remote Sensing of the
Hydrosphere and Cryosphere
 As is also the case for studies of Earth’s land surfaces, observations of the Earth’s
water surfaces from space provide important information that would be difficult
or impractical to obtain using only in-situ measurements (such as from surface
and submarine vessels) or by aircraft-based remote sensing.

 Using spacecraft in the appropriate orbits, nearly all regions of the hydrosphere
and cryosphere can be observed at regular intervals (and, in some cases,
continuously) with remote-sensing instruments such as imagers and
spectrographs, operating in all wavelengths that can penetrate the atmosphere
to/from the surface (and, in some cases, below the liquid water or ice surface).

 The most recent of these is the Aqua spacecraft, which along with Terra
(primarily land measurements) and Aura (primarily atmospheric measurements)
constitute the major instruments of NASA’s Earth Observing System (EOS).
 NASA’s Aqua Earth Observing Satellite
 Aqua, the second of NASA’s Earth Observing System (EOS) family of satellite
missions to be launched, has a broad range of scientific objectives and
corresponding scientific instrumentation.

 The Aqua scientific objectives are focused on the study of a wide range of
interrelated Earth system processes (involving the atmosphere, oceans, and land
surface) and their involvement in both near- and long-term changes in the Earth
system.

 Global change research efforts include studies of, and instrumentation to measure,
atmospheric temperature and humidity profiles, clouds, precipitation and radiative
balance, terrestrial snow and sea ice; sea surface temperature and ocean
productivity; soil moisture; and the improvement of numerical weather prediction.

 Aqua is also contributing to the monitoring of marine and terrestrial ecosystem

dynamics.
 NASA’s Aqua Earth Observing Satellite
 Aqua is in a near-polar, low Earth orbit.

 Aqua has six primary scientific instruments:

 Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS)

 Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU-A)

 Humidity Sounder for Brazil (HSB)

 Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer for

 EOS (AMSR-E)

 Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

(MODIS)

 Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES)

 The simultaneous observations of this suite of instruments,

each having its own unique characteristics and capabilities,
contributes greatly to the total scientific capability of this
space mission.
Outline
 Meteorology Defined

 The atmosphere as a gas

 Permanent and Variable Gases

 Influence by planet size and distance from the Sun on atmospheric

composition

 Composition of Earth’s atmosphere

 Comparisons with Mars and Venus

 Unique features of Earth’s atmosphere compared to the other planets

What is Meteorology?
 The study of the atmosphere and the processes that
cause “weather” (cloud formation, lightning, wind
movement)

 Weather deals with the short term state of the

atmosphere

 Climate deals with the long-term patterns

 More than simple long-term averages

 Involves complex interactions and variability

Thickness of the Atmosphere

Approximately 80% of the

atmosphere occurs in the lowest
20km above the Earth.

Radius of the Earth is over 6,000

km

Atmosphere is a thin shell

covering the Earth.
But what is the atmosphere?
 Comprised of a mixture of invisible permanent and variable gases

as well as suspended microscopic particles (both liquid and solid)

 Permanent Gases: Form a constant proportion of the total

atmospheric mass

 Variable Gases: Distribution and concentration varies in space

and time

 Aerosols: Suspended particles and liquid droplets (excluding

cloud droplets)
 Composition of Earth’s Atmosphere

Important gases in the Earth’s Atmosphere

(Note: Influence not necessarily proportional to % by volume!)
 Permanent Gases
 78% Nitrogen (N2)

 21% Oxygen (O2)

 <1% Argon (Ar)

 Relative percentages of the permanent gases remain

constant up to 80-100km high (~ 60 miles!)

 This layer is referred to as the Homosphere (implies gases

are relatively homogeneous)

 Homosphere and Heterosphere
 Homosphere: Turbulent mixing
causes atmospheric composition
to be fairly homogenous from
surface to ~80-100 km (i.e., 78%
N2, 21% O2)

 Heterosphere: Above ~80-

100km, much lower density,
molecular collisions much less,
heavier molecules (e.g., N2, O2)
settle lower, lighter molecules
(e.g., H2, He) float to top
 Variable Gases in the Earth’s Atmosphere
VARIABLE gases in the atmosphere and typical percentage
values (by volume):
• Water vapor (H2O) 0 to 4%
• Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 0.038%
• Methane(CH4) 0.00017%
• Ozone(O3) 0.000004%

(Note that water vapor is the third most

common molecule in Earth’s atmosphere after
nitrogen and oxygen)
 Variable Gases - Water Vapor
• Water vapor is invisible – don’t confuse it with cloud droplets
• Less than 0.25% of total atmosphere
• Surface percentages vary between <<1% in desserts to 4% in tropics
• Typical mid-latitude value is about 1-2%
• Some satellites sensors can detect actual water vapor in atmosphere

Water Vapor Image Visible Image

 Variable Gases - Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Small percentage
of total
atmosphere (387
ppm)

But, very
important green

Mauna Loa Observatory CO2 trace house gas

(annual variations embedded in the long-term
record)
Atmospheric CO2 cycle.

Global climate models

used to examine

greenhouse warming

must be able to account

for multiple, complex

processes in

atmosphere, over land,

and in ocean.
Earth’s greenhouse

gases contribute to a

~30C warmer surface

temperature than

would otherwise

exist.
 Variable Gases – Ozone (O3)
• Near the surface, ozone concentrations about 0.04-0.15 ppm

• In the upper atmosphere ozone concentration can reach ~15

ppm

• Upper atmospheric ozone is vital to blocking harmful

radiation

• Ozone near the surface, however, harmful to life

• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are believed to be depleting

upper atmospheric ozone

 Variable Gases – Ozone (O3)

Satellite images showing depletion of ozone.

 Variable Gases – Methane (CH4)
• Concentrations of about 1.7 ppm
• Extremely potent green house gas - 21 times more powerful by
weight than carbon dioxide
• Has varied cyclically on a 23,000 year cycle
• Pattern broken in past 5,000 years with unexpected increase –
more abundant now than in last 400,000 years
• Increase attributed to agriculture, bio-mass burning, fossil fuel
extraction, some industry and ruminant out-gassing (cow/sheep
burps)
Variable Gases – Methane (CH4)

Methane growth and sources (From EPA)

 Aerosols (or Particulates)
 Small (or “tiny”) solid particles or liquid droplets

(excluding clouds and rain)

 Aerosols can be man-made (anthropogenic) or naturally

occurring (like ocean salt, dust, plant emissions)

 Aerosols are not synonymous with pollution

 Some aerosols are very beneficial and, in fact, are required

for precipitation processes to occur.

 What Determines Atmospheric
Composition?
 Composition of gases on a planet is determined largely by
how easily gases can escape to space

 Also depends on the existence of life or geologic processes

 For a gas to escape to space, it must reach its “escape velocity.”

 Escape velocity is the speed required to overcome the

gravitational pull of the planet

 Molecular velocity is determined by the gas temperature (or

average kinetic energy)

 Escape Velocity
 Gas is made up of free molecules in constant motion.

 Speed of the gas molecules is determined by the temperature

 Temperature determined largely by proximity to the Sun

 Escape velocity depends on the gases’ molecular weight and the

planets size

 Lighter molecules require less speed to escape

 Larger planets have stronger gravitational pull

 Relative Planet Size and Distance from Sun

• Size comparison of planets – larger planets have stronger

gravitational pull
• Planets closer to the Sun receive more radiant energy
 Retention of Atmospheric Gases

100
The required “escape velocity”
is determined planet size Jupiter
Hydrogen
Saturn
Neptune
Temperature of gas determined Uranus
Helium

by distance from sun. Earth

Venus H2O
10
N2
Molecular speed determined Mars CO2

Velocity (km/s)
by molecular weight and Triton
Mercury
Titan
temperature Moon
Xe

Gas lines above the planet will 1

Pluto

escape to space. Ceres

Gas lines below the planet will Vesta Planets
remain in the atmosphere. Pallas
Galilean moons
Triton and Titan
Minor Planets
NB: lines show ten times
i.e. Earth will lose hydrogen mean molecular speeds

but hold water. Mars will lose 0.1

100 1000
water but hold carbon Temperature (K)
dioxide.
 Earth’s Early Atmosphere
 5 Billion years ago when Earth formed, atmosphere consisted of mostly H2 , He as
well as some NH3 , and CH4.

 Free H2 and He molecules have low molecular weight (so move very fast), and
were able to escape Earth’s gravitational pull.

 Volcanoes spewed large amounts of H2O, CO2 as well as lesser amounts of N2

(outgassing)

 Clouds rained forming oceans, which dissolved much of CO2 locking it in

sedimentary rocks through chemical and biological processes (e.g., seashell
formation) allowing concentrations of N2 to increase.

 O2 increased through phododissociation of H2O into H2 and O2—the H2 escaped.

 Life formed, plants grew adding additional O2 through photosynthesis leading to

today’s atmosphere.
 Unique Features of Earth’s
Atmosphere

 Atmospheric composition – high Oxygen content,

low Carbon Dioxide content.

 Greenhouse gases contribute to livable surface

temperatures

 Most important greenhouse gas is water vapor!

 Unique Features of Earth’s
Atmosphere

 Without an atmosphere, Earth’s surface temp would only be

approximately 0°F!

 Water in all three phases: solid, liquid, gas.

 Patchy cloud fields – extensive up and down convective

motions in atmosphere.

 Circular motions with storms.

Comparison with Venus
Composition of Venus Atmosphere:
96% CO2, 3% N2 (compare to
Earth—.04% CO2, 78% N2)

Pressure at surface: 90,000 mbar (by

comparison, Earth’s mean sea-level
pressure is approximately 1,013 mbar
— Venus’ surface pressure is 90x
greater!)
Comparison with Venus
Temperature at surface: ~ 900oF (by
comparison, Earth’s mean sfc
temperature is about 59oF)

Extreme atmospheric pressures on

Venus due large amount of gaseous
CO2.

No mechanisms to remove CO2

from atmosphere (e.g.,
photosynthesis, dissolution in water).
Earth and Venus nearly same size – velocity required to escape gravitational pull
similar for both.
Why the drastic difference?
Venus is closer to Sun

Warmer temperatures prevented

liquid water from forming.

With no liquid water, no means to

dissolve the carbon dioxide.

Result is a rich carbon dioxide

atmosphere.
 Earth and Venus CO2 and N2

• Earth actually has more CO2 than Venus (as fraction of total
planet mass).
• Earth and Venus have similar amounts of N2.
• CO2 is 96% of Venus atmosphere and only .04% of Earth’s.
• Venus has CO2 in atmosphere, while Earth has CO2 in limestone.
 Mars

 About half the size of the earth (less gravity)

 Atmosphere primarily CO2 -- too heavy to escape gravitational pull
 Surface pressure 1/100 of earth’s (~10 mbar)
 Average surface T~213K (-76F)
 Temperature between equator and poles 130C.
 Temperature change of 60C between day and night (low thermal inertia)
 Ice caps at poles composed of frozen CO2
 Small size of planet allowed most of atmosphere to escape
 Weather on Earth in relation to orbital
characteristics

 Rotation once per 24

hrs.
 Primary weather systems
are moving storms with
clouds, circular winds,
and precipitation

http://www.ssec.wisc.edu/data/globe/cldspin.html
 Weather on Venus in
relation
to orbital
characteristics

 Rotation once per 243 (earth) days (Venus day is

longer than year)
 Thick atmosphere of CO2 causes greenhouse
“pressure cooker.” Surface temperatures ~ 900 deg.
F.
 Uniform temperatures all over globe, little surface
winds but strong upper level winds.
Weather on Mars
in relation
to orbital characteristics

 Rotation once per 24.6 hours.

 Surface temperature from
–200 to +80 F.
 Has frequent dust storms.
 Has polar caps of CO2 and H2O.
 Seasonal change causes caps to
melt and reform.
 Has very few clouds.
 Summary
 Composition of gases on a planet is a function of the
planet size (strength of gravity holding gases onto the planet),

planet temperature, and life

 Primary permanent gases on Earth are Nitrogen,
Oxygen, Argon
 Variable gases include Water Vapor, Carbon Dioxide,
Ozone, Methane, CFCs, etc.
 The importance of variable trace gases is not always
proportional to the amount.
 Summary (cont.)
 Water vapor is the most important greenhouse gas,
others include Carbon Dioxide, Methane and Ozone
 Gases on other planets are quite different from Earth’s
because of differing planet characteristics (Venus &
Mars have primarily CO2 atmospheres)

 Weather on Earth different from weather on other

planets because of gas composition, planet size,
oceans and planet rotation speed