ENERGY SOURCE & ULTILIZATION IN AGRICULTURE

(Algae Biofuel)

AGE 806
1. Introduction

Algae are organisms that grow in aquatic environments and use light and carbon dioxide
(CO2) to create biomass. There are two classifications of algae: macroalgae and microalgae.
Macroalgae, which are measured in inches, are the large, multi-cellular algae often seen
growing in ponds. These larger algae can grow in a variety of ways. The largest multicellular
algae are called seaweed; an example is the giant kelp plant, which can be more than 100 feet
long. Microalgae, on the other hand, are measured in micrometers and are tiny, unicellular
algae that normally grow in suspension within a body of water.

Fig 1: Image of microalgae.

Microalgae have long been recognized as potentially good sources for biofuel production
because of their relatively high oil content and rapid biomass production. Microalgae grow
very quickly compared to terrestrial crops; the practice of algal mass culture can be
performed on non-arable lands using non-potable saline water and waste water. Thus, use of
microalgae as an alternative biodiesel biofuel feedstock is gaining increasing interest from
researchers, entrepreneurs, and the general public.
1.2 Systems of Growing Algae

1.2.1 Open ponds: Open ponds are the oldest and simplest systems for mass cultivation of
microalgae. In this system, the shallow pond is usually about 1 foot deep; algae are cultured
under conditions identical to their natural environment. The pond is designed in a raceway
configuration, in which a paddlewheel provides circulation and mixing of the algal cells and
nutrients (Figure 3). The raceways are typically made from poured concrete, or they are
simply

Fig 2: Schematic open pond system for algae culture

dug into the earth and lined with plastic to prevent the ground from soaking up the liquid.
Baffles in the channel guide the flow around bends in order to minimize space. The system is
often operated in a continuous mode — that is, the fresh feed containing nutrients including
nitrogen phosphorus and inorganic salts is added in front of the paddle wheel. Algal broth is
harvested behind the paddle wheel after it has circulated through the loop (Figure 3).
Depending on the nutrients required by algal species, a variety of wastewater sources can be
used for the algal culture, such as dairy/swine lagoon effluent and municipal wastewater. For
some marine types of microalgae, seawater or water with high salinity can be used.

Although open ponds cost less to build and operate than enclosed photobioreactors, this
culture system has its intrinsic disadvantages. Since these are open-air systems, they often
experience a lot of water loss due to evaporation. Thus, microalgae growing in an open pond
do not uptake carbon dioxide efficiently, and algal biomass production is limited (Chisti,
2007). Biomass productivity is also limited by contamination with unwanted algal species as
well as other organisms from feed. In addition, optimal culture conditions are difficult to
maintain in open ponds, and recovering the biomass from such a dilute culture is expensive
(Molina Grima et al., 1999).

Fig: 3 Image of an open pond system.

1.2.2 Enclosed photobioreactors: This have been employed to overcome the contamination

and evaporation problems encountered in open ponds (Molina Grima et al., 1999). These
systems are made of transparent materials and generally placed outdoors for illumination by
natural light. The cultivation vessels have a large surface area-to-volume ratio.

The most widely used photobioreactor is a tubular design, which has a number of clear
transparent tubes, usually aligned with the sun rays (Figure 5). The tubes are generally less
than 10 centimeters in diameter to maximize sunlight penetration (Chisti, 2007). The medium
broth is circulated through a pump to the tubes, where it is exposed to light for
photosynthesis, and then back to a reservoir. The algal biomass is prevented from settling by
maintaining a highly turbulent flow within the reactor, using either a mechanical pump or an
airlift pump (Chisti, 2007). A portion of the algae is usually harvested after the solar
collection tubes. In this way, continuous algal culture is possible (Chisti, 2007). In some
photobioreactors, the tubes are coiled spirals to form what is known as a helical tubular
photobioreactor, but these sometimes require artificial illumination, which adds to the
production cost. Therefore, this technology is only used for high-value products, not biodiesel
feedstock.
Figure 4: Schematic tubular photobioreactor.

2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Energy Sources

2.1 Advantages of Algae Biofuel

1. Algae grows at higher efficiency levels than other biofuel crops.

We can grow algae strains in almost any climate thanks to the open- or closed-tank
approaches that are available today. As long as we can provide this natural product with
enough sunlight to create photosynthesis, then it has the capability to grow quickly. That
process reduces the need to look at replanting forests or using our farms to produce cash
crops instead of food so that we have enough fuel to use. The size and spatial requirements
are even a positive attribute with this advantage because it can grow in spaces that other
foundational items for biofuel are unable to manage.
Under optimal conditions, algae farms can produce about 5,000 gallons of fuel per acre. That
figure is far higher than any other renewable feedstock.

2. Algae is more productive than other forms of biomass.

We can create biofuels from several agricultural products. Some of the most common choices
are switch grass and sugarcane. The United States tends to produce biofuels using corn-based
products like ethanol. When we look at the potential for algae production in this area, then the
capabilities of this natural resource go to a different level. Some strains produce 80 times
more oil per acre than what even fossil fuels can generate on their best days.
When you add in the benefit that algae helps to reduce carbon dioxide in the atmosphere if
left to grow in the outdoors, our atmosphere can potentially enter a healing phase that it
hasn’t had since the start of the Industrial Revolution.

3. Algae is a renewable resource.

Many of today’s fuels are either finite or intermittent. Natural gas and oil might have reserves
that eventually run dry. Solar and wind energy stops when the sun isn’t shining, or the air
isn’t moving. When we take algae production under consideration, then we can grow it
quickly and efficiently throughout the year. Studies that are over a decade old suggest that the
most viable and productive strains of algae could remove half of the petroleum-related
products that we consume every day. That includes the number of imports from fossil fuel
producers that are necessary for all industries.
Although there are still elements of production that can contribute to greenhouse gas
emissions with this biofuel option, we can take large steps toward a carbon-neutral
environment with a conversion to algae-based items.

4. Algae produces viable hydrocarbons for numerous products.

The oils that we harvest from algae production offer organic hydrocarbons that we can refine
into a variety of products. It’s a process that is similar to what we use with petroleum to
create items like shampoo, plastic, and creams. If you use petroleum jelly on your skin, then
you’re consuming a fossil fuel. It might not sound as attractive to say “algae jelly,” but the
product would be extremely similar.
That means we can still produce cleaners, fertilizers, and food stocks using algae. This wide
range of products means that several different industries can benefit as we refine the
processes that help us to create biofuel from this product. Many of the items in question
would also be immediately profitable.

5. Algae is something that almost anyone can grow.

We don’t need to use commercial or industrial processing methods to create algae farms
capable of producing usable biofuel. Its capability of doubling in size in only a day means
that we can grow it in places where we’re already producing energy. Even wastewater
products could produce this resource for us so that we can take advantage of the
infrastructure that’s already in place.
The versatility of algae means that it can grow on marginal lands to improve production
levels. We can also produce it on non-crop lands too so that it doesn’t compete with our
current agricultural processes. It even grows in salt water and polluted areas, so there isn’t a
need to taint freshwater supplies.

6. Algae can grow in virtually all waters.

There are several marine plants in the ocean and in freshwater supplies that qualify as
“macroalgae,” a product that also produces oils that we can turn into biofuel. These plants
grow to a considerable size, providing us with a significant resource that we can grow
independent of the natural habitats that currently exist. The oils we can produce from these
large selections are similar to what microalgae colonies produce, creating two separate
methods of sustainable production that let us produce biofuels at the rate we require.
7. Algae biofuels work with our current distribution system.
There are thousands of miles of pipeline that we use to distribute gasoline, ethanol, and other
fuels for consumption around the world. We can also utilize this infrastructure to transport
biofuels from algae. Even the transportation networks that are in place right now for oil and
natural gas could be converted into an asset that we can use for this sustainable product. The
refinement processes are similar, allowing us to transition the fossil fuel industry into
something that is equally profitable under the right set of circumstances.
We already know that the capability of biofuels made from algae have a lot of potential.
Airlines have already experimented using a 60/40 blend of standard fuel and biofuel made
from this resource.

8. Algae growth helps us to curb our greenhouse gas emissions.

Greenhouse gas emissions from our transportation needs can make up the majority of the
carbon dioxide, methane, and other pollutants that we release each day. When we start using
sustainable biomass to create fuels instead of natural gas or oil, then the photosynthesis
process of the plants converts the CO 2 into oxygen for our atmosphere to enjoy. Algae farms
give us the potential to create a neutral environment where the growth cycle absorbs the gases
that we create when meeting our everyday needs.
2.2 Disadvantages of Algae Biofuel
1. Algae has the same concerns of monoculture that the agriculture industry
experiences.
Producers that focus on a single cash crop each year face an increased risk of pest
development, water pollution, and catastrophic failure. Algae might reduce some of the
concerns since it can grow in brackish water, but this disadvantage is still in play. If growers
settle on a strain that produces the most oil and that is the only product grown to create
biofuel, then the amount of diversity for the species would become artificially limited.
When we have encountered this scenario in the past, diseases have all but wiped out the
entire supply chain. One issue could create significant losses for the entire industry.

2. Algae growth may create quality variations during the refinement process.
When we take oil from algae, it must go through several refinement steps before we have a
usable product. The organic material is pressed out, then filtered and refined before we can
begin the biofuel production process. Most crops go through a similar process. We already
see that variations in corn or sugarcane quality can alter ethanol viability. There is nothing to
suggest that the same thing wouldn’t happen to algae-based products either.
When you’re working with a crop that can produce up to 10,000 gallons of fuel on an acre of
production, there must be consistent practices in place to minimize this disadvantage. Since
climate and water quality can alter the photosynthesis profile, there might not be a way to
guarantee success.

3. Algae biofuel doesn’t always meet its energy efficiency targets.

Algae biofuel requires the energy equivalency of about 10 gallons of oil-based fuel to
produce a single gallon of this sustainable resource. Our current farming techniques might
make it an environmentally friendly product to create, but we’re still using 20% more energy
to grow the plant-based hydrocarbons than the fuel we refine from them. This ratio is one of
the critical disadvantages that we must solve before this option becomes viable economically.
Some governments subsidize this work to create a consumer market for the biofuel, but this
temporary measure does not produce long-term viability unless production methods can
improve.

4. Algae growth creates regional sustainability problems.

We might have the opportunity to grow algae almost anywhere thanks to closed-tank
technologies, but the varying climates that occur worldwide dictate what we can or cannot
produce. Outdoor cultivation methods are necessary to make this biofuel a sustainable
product. Some strains do have resiliency against changing weather conditions, most of them
don’t have the ability to grow in the Arctic or Antarctic Circles except for brief periods
during the summer.
This disadvantage does more than negate the eco-friendly features that proponents of algae
biofuels support. It also adds to the cost-per-gallon of what we can produce, reducing the
market viability of the eventual product.

5. Algae might grow quickly, but it still needs time to produce viable oils.
Some algae strains can produce oil daily. Most of them will not let you produce a biofuel
product that is usable immediately. There are several different steps in the production process
that refineries must follow to turn the organic materials into something that are vehicles can
burn or homes can use for heating and cooling. The best eco-friendly method to use is an oil
press, capturing about 75% of the available oil from the product. We often use hexane
solvents because it only experiences a 5% loss instead.
Hexane is an alkane of six carbon atoms. We create this chemical from crude oil. That means
we must still use fossil fuels to maximize the refinement process of algae biofuel, limiting the
total amount of achievable carbon savings. When the processing of the fatty acids through
trans esterification gets added to this process, we can produce petroleum-based fuels much
faster than we can make this resource.

6. Algae biofuels come with higher production costs.

Why do governments subsidize algae biofuel to encourage market development? Because the
cost of production is more than $30 per gallon. Even when we use perfect methods of oil
extraction and fuel refinement, the cost of this resource exceeds more than $5 per gallon. The
U.S. Energy Information Administration reports that the highest average price for gasoline
from petroleum resources was $4.11 per gallon, achieved during the Great Recession on July
7, 2008. Even if you include the profits from algae byproducts that come from hydrocarbon
processing, the price per gallon would still be over what the highest “standard” fuel average
ever was for a week in the United States.
We’re a long way from achieving a perfected pricing scheme for algae biofuels. The Office
of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy has the goal to reach affordable pricing levels in
their 10-year forecast that ends in 2030. That means our best solution from a cost perspective
is to continue using ethanol until prices stabilize.

7. Algae growth requires high levels of fertilizer to maximize production.

Algae colony growth doubles only when there are significant quantities of fertilizer available
to encourage photosynthesis. Current estimates suggest that an additional 15 million tons of
nitrogen and 2 million tons of phosphorus would be necessary to achieve the duplication rates
needed to begin maximizing oil production in this area. This figure represents about 50% of
what farmers are using in the United States annually to produce cash crops and food items.
Boosting our use of fertilizer could create several different adverse outcomes that may
decrease the quality of life for many communities. Setting aside the issue of root burn since
algae grows in wet conditions, the additions used to produce enough of a crop would impact
rivers, lakes, and natural waterways. It uses up the oxygen that fish and other animals need,
and there is an increased risk of ammonia releases occurring.

Adding too much fertilizer to an algae farm could even diminish the health of the colony.
That outcome would then create biofuels of inferior quality.

8. Algae requires significant water resources to produce oil for collection.

Algae can grow in open ponds or closed systems. Both options require the presence of
significant water resources to inspire the colonies to grow. Producers must keep the liquid at
specific temperatures to maximize duplication at the same time, which means evaporation
begins to happen. Unless there is a way to collect the moisture as it rises, the amount of water
needed to create this biofuel is significantly higher than most other options in today’s
marking – including ethanol.
9. Algae contamination occurs more often with large-scale production methods.
The companies that began to make algae biofuels ran into unexpected problems when they
started ramping up their production methods. Large-scale efforts did not retain the same high
levels of oil as smaller farms because the presence of predators was more frequent. The
economics of the work didn’t make sense either because providing enough light and nutrients
to larger colonies didn’t make sense. When the price of crude oil is very high, then this
disadvantage begins to disappear.
Because of this specific disadvantage, most algae biofuel producers transitioned to become
“bio refineries” instead. Sapphire Energy took the lead on this diversification, announcing in
2014 that they would produce nutritional supplements in addition to their biofuels.

3. Design of Components for the Power Sources (Design Model)

3.1 Hybrid Bioreactor Model Plant

This plant manufactured is in South Africa by Oceana Manufacturing (2015). The design
model in Figure 5 shows that CO2 is to be injected into the tank. A total of 10 nozzles will be
retrofitted to give an even injection every 6 h and will last for 30 s. The design model
depicted below is the conceptual final design of the cultivation process. The calculations from
this stage can now form the flow rate of the entire plant system. There will be four tanks of
this nature providing the plant 30 m3 of algae per week.
 Fig5: Hybrid bioreactor model

3.1.1 Plant flow rate calculations

From the hybrid bioreactor, 120 m3 of water and algae will be sent into the plant at the
beginning of the week. The working operational capacity is divided daily.

Capacity of hybrid tank

Number of working days ∈a week

120
¿ ¿ 24 m3 daily working capacity
5

In order to achieve this result, the hybrid tank will need to be fed into a holding tank so that:

 The hybrid tank can restart its 4-week cycle.

 The plant can operate on a daily basis.

3.2. Holding Tank

 The tank’s minimum dimensions are: radius 3 m, height 4.2 m (Figure 6).Material used is
stainless steel 316 as recommended by Smith and Hashemi [8] for corrosion resistance

Fig 6: Holding tank

3.2.1 Holding tank calculation

Volume ¿ π r 2h
 Where; r ¿ radius( assume 3 m)

h¿height

V
h¿
( π r 2)

120
h¿ 2 ¿ 4.2 m
(π 3 )

3.3 Extraction Process

The extraction process is a two part system using microwaves and a screw press. These will
be sized and evaluated accordingly.

3.3.1 Microwave extraction assumptions / calculation

 24 m3 of working substance is continuously fed through this system.
 Continuous system hence methanol will not have sufficient time to dissolve the cell structure.
 Operation time 8 h per day.
 Uses frequency of 2450 MHz as set by South African law [14].
 Will use 100 L of methanol.
Calculations
The extraction process is made up of four main parts: the cavity in which the substance flows
through, the waveguide, microwave generator and the power source. In order to size the
appropriate parts, the power required is desirable.

dP
¿ k × ε ii × f ×(Ep + E perp2 )
dv

Where

dP
= power required per cm;
dv
k = constant (5.56 × 10−13);
ε'' = relative dielectric loss factor;

Ep = electric field parallel to surface; and

 Eperp = electric field perpendicular to surface.

3.3.2 Screw press extraction

 Must be able to operate with 3 m3/h flow rate inlet.

 Run under constant load.
 With a capacity of 5 ton per day.
This machine is manufactured by Blue Water Technologies the requirements were sized
according to the models offered (Figure 7).

Fig 7: Screw press model

 3.4 Gravity Clarifier Design

The clarifier in Figure 8 is to aid in the progression of the working substance which from the
previous process has been simplified into liquid constituents: oil, methanol and water.

Fig 8: Gravity clarifier model

3.4.1 Gravity clarifier assumptions
 The time required to separate the oil and water is 24 h.
 Material used is acrylic.
 Cone shape design.
3.4.2 Gravity clarifier calculations
Capacity ¿ 3.9 m 3 lipids +0.1 m3 methanol +¿ 18 m3water

Capacity ¿ 22 m3

Internal pressure ¿ Poil +( ρgh) water

Pt =(800× 9.81× 1)+(1000× 9.81 ×3)

Pt =37.278 k P a

The dimensions will be based upon capacity hence the optimal dimensions are as follows:
height = 4 m; Maximum diameter = 4 m; apex angle = 20°. These parameters are considered
and incorporated in any clarifier vessel design [6]. Half the apex angle of >30° are
recommended transition geometry for optimum design according to ASME codes is a
mandatory compliance [15].

3.5 Distillery Design

This section deals with the separation of the methanol from the algae oil. The oil is heated up
to the boiling point of the methanol. The gas substance is then condensed back into liquid and
returned back into the system.
 Fig 9: Distillery and condenser model
3.5.1 Design model
The gravity clarifier will be manufactured by Oceana Manufacturing based in Bela Bela,
Limpopo, South Africa according to the specified dimensions [13].
3.5.2 Distillery design assumptions
 The oil must be heated up to 64.7°C.
 The oil’s starting temperature is 25°C.
 The time required to heat the substance is 30 min.
 Volume of oil: 3.9 m3 and volume of methanol: 0.1 m3.
 Material used is stainless steel 316 (Table 1).
Table 1.

Specifications of oil and methanol [16].

 Specification Unit

Density oil  800 kg/m3 

Density 792 kg/m3 

methanol 

Cp oil  1.67 kj/kg K 

Cp methanol  2.51 kj/kg K 

3.5.3 Distillery calculations

( mC p ∆ T ) oil +(m C p ∆ T )methanol

q¿
t

where

q = heat energy rate watts [16];

m = mass (kg);

Cp = heat capacity at constant pressure or specific heat (kj/kg K);

∆T = difference in temperature (°C); and

t = time in seconds (s).
Mass of oil:

m=density × volume
m = 800 ×3.9 = 800 × 3.9
m = 3120kg = 3120 kg
Mass of methanol:

M = 792 × 0.1 = 792 × 0.1

M = 79.2 kg = 79.2 kg
 ( 3120× 1.67 ) × ( 64.7−25 ) + ( 79.2× 2.51 ) ×(64.7−25)
q¿
60 × 30

q = 119.3 watts

The distillery requires 119 W to heat up the mixture to 64.7°C.

The distillery in Figure 10 is sized according to power consumption and the condenser is
sized according to the tube and energy requirements.

3.6 Schematic Description

The schematic diagram in Figure 11 depicts the entire process of the plant system from
growth to eventual refinement to biofuel.

Fig 11: Flow chat foe design system

4. Conclusion
The controlled environment, brackish water process was assigned to continue the process.
This concept resembled most significantly the formulated characteristics. The detailed
analysis followed from which a specific strain of algae was chosen on the prerequisite of the
concept system that thrived in such conditions. Calculations done on the system processes,
piping requirements, flow analysis and adhering to international standards allowed for the
selection of definite models being articulated. The process plant consists of six main sections.
Algae are grown in a hybrid bioreactor for cultivation, this method of cultivation works
integrally with the five phases of the growth cycle. Extraction of the oil is done timeously due
to the fact that the plant system design is continuous [18]. Microwaves heat up methanol
rupturing of the cell structure of the algae [18] and by the use of a screw press, two fractions
of the algae cell can be refined further. Bio-kerosene was the concepts refined biofuel; a
hydrocracking bioreactor built by Solazmye Inc. will also break down the hydrocarbons and
reform them into kerosene hydrocarbon chains. The ruptured cells produce three by-products
in the forms of methane, CO2 and slurry. This is produced in a digester anaerobically and the
gases separated by a gas separator. The plant produces little or no waste, the water is
recycled, remixed to balance the salinity, nutrients and algae seed cells which are sent back to
the hybrid bioreactor to repeat the entire plant process all over. Over a month of operation,
the plant will cultivate 100 ton of dry algae, produce 78 m3 of bio-kerosene for research
purposes and examine 12.6 and 29.4 m3 of methane and slurry for other industrial demands
so that no extreme alterations to the designed plant needs to be retrofitted to suit bio-energy.
This process plant has a cost projection of 13 million Rand however with the advancements
in technology, this number will steadily decrease. It also shows that a viable alternative
source of energy is plausible to achieve and with further research and development, will
encourage less reliance on environmentally harmful and fossil-based energy.

.
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