NAME –RAJVEER

ATAL

CLASS – XIIth

ROLL NO -
 SUBJECT –
BIOLOGY

INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT

PRAGATI VIDYA
PEETH
Gwalior
Certificate
 INDEX

S.No Topic Pag

. e
 No.

1. Acknowledgemen 1

t
2. Introduction 2–3
3. Presentation 4-
4. Conclusion

5. Bibliography
ACHKNOWLEG
EMENT
I would like to convey our sincere
gratitude to our Biology teacher
for letting us to do this project. I
would like to thank my friends for
helping me in this project and a
special thanks to Mrs. Gunjan
Nigam (Biology teacher) for
guiding throughout the project. I
sincerely have worked hard to
complete this project. I tried to
make this project as Good as
possible. Last but not least I
would like to thank my classmate
and parents for their valuable
suggestion about this project.
 Submitted to: Mrs Gunjan
Nigam

INTRODUCTIO
N
What are microbes?

What are microbes? A microorganism or

microbe is a microscopic organism that
comprises either a single cell (unicellular), cell
clusters, or multicellular relatively complex
organisms. The study of microorganisms is
called microbiology, a subject that began with
Anton van Leeuwenhoek's discovery of
microorganisms in 1675, using a microscope

of his own design. Microorganisms are very

diverse; they include bacteria, fungi, algae,

and protozoa; microscopic plants (green

algae); and animals such as rotifers and
planarians. Some microbiologists also include
viruses, but others consider these as

nonliving. Most microorganisms are

unicellular (single-celled), but this is not
universal, since some multicellular organisms
are microscopic, while some unicellular
protists and bacteria, like Thiomargarita
namibiensis, are macroscopic and visible to
the naked eye.

Microorganisms live in all parts of the

biosphere where there is liquid water,
including soil, hot springs, on the ocean floor,
high in the atmosphere and deep inside rocks
within the Earth's crust. Microorganisms are
critical to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as
they act as decomposers. As some
microorganisms can fix nitrogen, they are a
vital part of the nitrogen cycle, and recent
studies indicate that airborne microbes may
play a role in precipitation and weather.
Microbes are also exploited by people in
biotechnology, both in traditional food and
beverage preparation, and in modern
technologies based on genetic engineering.
However, pathogenic microbes are harmful,
since they invade and grow within other
organisms, causing diseases that kill humans,
other animals and plants. But they have a lot
of uses too. Let’s discuss about some of them.

A little description:

A little description Microorganisms are vital

to humans and the environment, as they
participate in the Earth's element cycles such
as the carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle, as well
as fulfilling other vital roles in virtually all
ecosystems, such as recycling other
organisms' dead remains and waste products
through decomposition. Microbes also have
an important place in most higher-order
multicellular organisms as symbionts. Many
blame the failure of Biosphere 2 on an
improper balance of microbes.

PRESENTATIO
N
Microbes are very important part of ecology
the main or general function of microbes to or
environmental well fare is to work as
decomposers. Microbes like bacteria and
fungi are also used in industrial production of
enzymes and proteins or some antibiotics.
Some fungi like yeast are also used in making
wine and other in dairy products. The
another useful function of microbe is to study
the action and mechanisms of genetic disease
as E.coli is many time taken as model to study
genetic diseases.
Uses in food:

Uses in food Microorganisms are used in brewing,

winemaking, baking, pickling and other food-
making processes. They are also used to control
the fermentation process in the production of
cultured dairy products such as yogurt and
cheese. The cultures also provide flavour and
aroma, and inhibit undesirable organisms.
Fermentation in food processing typically is the
conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and
carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts,
bacteria, or a combination thereof, under
anaerobic conditions. Fermentation in simple
terms is the chemical conversion of sugars into
ethanol. The science of fermentation is also
known as zymology, or zymurgy. Fermentation
usually implies that the action of microorganisms
is desirable, and the process is used to produce
alcoholic beverages such as wine, beer, and cider.
Fermentation is also employed in the leavening of
bread (CO 2 produced by yeast activity), and for
preservation techniques to produce lactic acid in
sour foods such as sauerkraut, dry sausages,
kimchi and yogurt, or vinegar (acetic acid) for use
in pickling foods.
Uses in water treatment:

Uses in water treatment Specially-cultured

microbes are used in the biological treatment of
sewage and industrial waste effluent, a process
known as bioaugmentation. Bioaugmentation is
the introduction of a group of natural microbial
strains or a genetically engineered variant to treat
contaminated soil or water. Usually the steps
involve studying the indigenous varieties present
in the location to determine if biostimulation is
possible. If the indigenous variety do not have the
metabolic capability to perform the remediation
process, exogenous varieties with such
sophisticated pathways are introduced.
Bioaugmentation is commonly used in municipal
wastewater treatment to restart activated sludge
bioreactors. Most cultures available contain a
research based consortium of Microbial cultures,
containing all necessary microorganisms ( B.
licheniformis , B. thurengensis , P. polymyxa , B.
sterothemophilus , Penicillium sp., Aspergillus
sp., Flavobacterium, Arthrobacter, Pseudomonas,
Streptomyces, Saccaromyces, Triphoderma, etc.).
Whereas activated sludge systems are generally
based on microorganisms like bacteria, protozoa,
nematodes, rotifers and fungi capable to degrade
bio degradable organic matter.
Uses in energy:

Uses in energy Microbes are used in

fermentation to produce ethanol, and in
biogas reactors to produce methane.
Scientists are researching the use of algae to
produce liquid fuels, and bacteria to convert
various forms of agricultural and urban waste
into usable fuels. Ethanol fermentation , also
referred to as alcoholic fermentation , is a
biological process in which sugars such as
glucose, fructose, and sucrose are converted
into cellular energy and thereby produce
ethanol and carbon dioxide as metabolic
waste products. Because yeasts perform this
conversion in the absence of oxygen, ethanol
fermentation is classified as anaerobic.
Ethanol fermentation occurs in the
production of alcoholic beverages and
ethanol fuel, and in the rising of bread dough.
Cellulosic ethanol is a biofuel produced from
wood, grasses, or the non-edible parts of
plants. It is a type of biofuel produced from
lignocellulose, a structural material that
comprises much of the mass of plants.
Lignocellulose is composed mainly of
cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Corn
stover, switchgrass, miscanthus, woodchips
and the by products of lawn and tree
maintenance are some of the more popular
cellulosic materials for ethanol production.
Production of ethanol from lignocellulose has
the advantage of abundant and diverse raw
material compared to sources like corn and
cane sugars, but requires a greater amount of
processing to make the sugar monomers
available to the microorganisms that are
typically used to produce ethanol by
fermentation.

Algae fuel is an alternative to fossil fuel that

uses algae as its source of natural deposits.
Several companies and government agencies
are funding efforts to reduce capital and
operating costs and make algae fuel
production commercially viable. Harvested
algae, like fossil fuel, release CO 2 when burnt
but unlike fossil fuel the CO 2 is taken out of
the atmosphere by the growing algae. High oil
prices, competing demands between foods
and other biofuel sources, and the world food
crisis, have ignited interest in algaculture
(farming algae) for making vegetable oil,
biodiesel, bioethanol, biogasoline,
biomethanol, biobutanol and other biofuels,
using land that is not suitable for agriculture.

Among algal fuels' attractive characteristics:

they can be grown with minimal impact on
fresh water resources, can be produced using
ocean and wastewater, and are biodegradable
and relatively harmless to the environment if
spilled. Algae cost more per unit mass (as of
2010, food grade algae costs ~$5000/tonne),
due to high capital and operating costs, yet are
claimed to yield between 10 and 100 times
more fuel per unit area than other second-
generation biofuel crops. One biofuels
company has claimed that algae can produce
more oil in an area the size of a two car garage
than a football field of soybeans, because
almost the entire algal organism can use
sunlight to produce lipids, or oil. The United
States Department of Energy estimates that if
algae fuel replaced all the petroleum fuel in
the United States, it would require 15,000
square miles (39,000 km 2 ) which is only

0.42% of the U.S. map, or about half of the land

area of Maine. This is less than 1 ⁄ 7 the area of
corn harvested in the United States in 2000.
However, these claims remain unrealized,
commercially. According to the head of the
Algal Biomass Organization algae fuel can
reach price parity with oil in 2018 if granted
production tax credits.

Use in production of chemicals, enzymes etc. :

Use in production of chemicals, enzymes etc.

Many microbes are used for commercial and
industrial production of chemicals, enzymes
and other bioactive molecules. Examples of
organic acid produced include Acetic acid :
Produced by the bacterium Acetobacter aceti
and other acetic acid bacteria (AAB) Acetic
acid bacteria (AAB) are bacteria that derive
their energy from the oxidation of ethanol to
acetic acid during fermentation. They are
Gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria.
They are not to be confused with the genus
Acetobacterium , which are anaerobic
homoacetogenic facultative autotrophs and
can reduce carbon dioxide to produce acetic
acid, for example, Acetobacterium woodii .

Butyric acid (butanoic acid): Produced by the

bacterium Clostridium butyricum.
Clostridium butyricum is a strictly anaerobic
endospore-forming Gram-positive butyric
acid producing bacillus subsisting by means
of fermentation using an intracellularly
accumulated amylopectin-like α-polyglucan
(granulose) as a substrate. It is uncommonly
reported as a human pathogen and widely
used as a probiotic in Asia (particularly Japan).
C. butyricum is a soil inhabitant in various
parts of the world, has been cultured from the
stool of healthy children and adults, and is
common in soured milk and cheeses.
Lactic acid : Lactobacillus and others
commonly called as lactic acid bacteria (LAB)
The lactic acid bacteria (LAB) comprise a clade
of Gram-positive, low-GC, acid-tolerant,
generally non-sporulating, non-respiring rod
or cocci that are associated by their common
metabolic and physiological characteristics.

These bacteria, usually found in decomposing

plants and lactic products, produce lactic acid
as the major metabolic end-product of
carbohydrate fermentation. This trait has,
throughout history, linked LAB with food
fermentations, as acidification inhibits the
growth of spoilage agents. Proteinaceous
bacteriocins are produced by several LAB
strains and provide an additional hurdle for
spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms.
Furthermore, lactic acid and other metabolic
products contribute to the organoleptic and
textural profile of a food item. The industrial
importance of the LAB is further evinced by
their generally recognized as safe (GRAS)
status, due to their ubiquitous appearance in
food and their contribution to the healthy
microflora of human mucosal surfaces.

Citric acid : Produced by the fungus

Aspergillus niger Aspergillus niger is a fungus
and one of the most common species of the
genus Aspergillus . It causes a disease called
black mold on certain fruits and vegetables
such as grapes, onions, and peanuts, and is a
common contaminant of food. It is
ubiquitous in soil and is commonly reported
from indoor environments, where its black
colonies can be confused with those of
Stachybotrys (species of which have also been
called "black mould").
Microbes are used for preparation of
bioactive molecules and enzymes.
Streptokinase produced by the bacterium
Streptococcus and modified by genetic
engineering is used as a clot buster for
removing clots from the blood vessels of
patients who have undergone myocardial
infarctions leading to heart attack.
Cyclosporin A is a bioactive molecule used as
an immunosuppressive agent in organ
transplantation Stains produced by the yeast
Monascus purpureus is commercialised as
blood cholesterol lowering agents which acts
by competitively inhibiting the enzyme
responsible for synthesis of cholesterol.

Uses in science:

Uses in science Microbes are also essential

tools in biotechnology, biochemistry,
genetics, and molecular biology. The yeasts (
Saccharomyces cerevisiae ) and fission yeast (
Schizosaccharomyces pombe ) are important
model organisms in science, since they are
simple eukaryotes that can be grown rapidly
in large numbers and are easily manipulated.
They are particularly valuable in genetics,
genomics and proteomics. Microbes can be
harnessed for uses such as creating steroids
and treating skin diseases. Scientists are also
considering using microbes for living fuel
cells, and as a solution for pollution.

Uses in warfare:

Uses in warfare In the Middle Ages, diseased

corpses were thrown into castles during
sieges using catapults or other siege engines.
Individuals near the corpses were exposed to
the deadly pathogen and were likely to spread
that pathogen to others. Biological warfare
(also known as germ warfare ) is the use of
biological toxins or infectious agents such as
bacteria, viruses, and fungi with intent to kill
or incapacitate humans, animals or plants as
an act of war.

Biological weapons (often termed "bio-

weapons" or "bio-agents") are living
organisms or replicating entities (viruses) that
reproduce or replicate within their host
victims. Entomological (insect) warfare is also
considered a type of biological warfare.
Biological weapons may be employed in
various ways to gain a strategic or tactical
advantage over an adversary, either by threats
or by actual deployments. Like some of the
chemical weapons, biological weapons may
also be useful as area denial weapons. These
agents may be lethal or non-lethal, and may be
targeted against a single individual, a group of
people, or even an entire population. They
may be developed, acquired, stockpiled or
deployed by nation states or by non-national
groups. In the latter case, or if a nation-state
uses it clandestinely, it may also be considered
bioterrorism.
Importance in human health:

Importance in human health Microorganisms

can form an endosymbiotic relationship with
other, larger organisms. For example, the
bacteria that live within the human digestive
system contribute to gut immunity,
synthesise vitamins such as folic acid and
biotin, and ferment complex indigestible
carbohydrates.
The human microbiome (or human
microbiota ) is the aggregate of
microorganisms that reside on the surface
and in deep layers of skin, in the saliva and oral
mucosa, in the conjunctiva, and in the
gastrointestinal tracts. They include bacteria,
fungi, and archaea. Some of these organisms
perform tasks that are useful for the human
host. However, the majority have no known
beneficial or harmful effect. Those that are
expected to be present, and that under normal
circumstances do not cause disease, but
instead participate in maintaining health, are
deemed members of the normal flora .
Though widely known as "microflora", this is,
in technical terms, a misnomer, since the

word root "flora" pertains to plants, and biota

refers to the total collection of organisms in a
particular ecosystem. Recently, the more
appropriate term "microbiota" is applied,
though its use has not eclipsed the entrenched
use and recognition of "flora" with regard to
bacteria and other microorganisms. Both
terms are being used in different literature.
Studies in 2009 questioned whether the
decline in biota (including microfauna) as a
result of human intervention might impede
human health

Importance in ecology:

Importance in ecology Microbes are critical

to the processes of decomposition required to
cycle nitrogen and other elements back to the
natural world. Decomposition (or rotting ) is
the process by which organic substances are
broken down into simpler forms of matter.
The process is essential for recycling the finite
matter that occupies physical space in the
biome. Bodies of living organisms begin to
decompose shortly after death. Although no
two organisms decompose in the same way,
they all undergo the same sequential stages of
decomposition.
The science which studies decomposition is
generally referred to as taphonomy from the
Greek word taphos , meaning tomb. One can
differentiate abiotic from biotic
decomposition (biodegradation). The former
means "degradation of a substance by

chemical or physical processes, eg hydrolysis).

The latter one means "the metabolic
breakdown of materials into simpler
components by living organisms", typically

by microorganisms.

Hygiene:

Hygiene Hygiene is the avoidance of infection

or food spoiling by eliminating
microorganisms from the surroundings. As
microorganisms, in particular bacteria, are
found virtually everywhere, the levels of
harmful microorganisms can be reduced to
acceptable levels. However, in some cases, it is
required that an object or substance be
completely sterile, i.e. devoid of all living
entities and viruses. A good example of this is
a hypodermic needle. In food preparation
microorganisms are reduced by preservation
methods (such as the addition of vinegar),
clean utensils used in preparation, short
storage periods, or by cool temperatures. If
complete sterility is needed, the two most
common methods are irradiation and the use
of an autoclave, which resembles a pressure
cooker.
There are several methods for investigating
the level of hygiene in a sample of food,
drinking water, equipment, etc. Water
samples can be filtrated through an extremely
fine filter. This filter is then placed in a
nutrient medium. Microorganisms on the
filter then grow to form a visible colony.
Harmful microorganisms can be detected in
food by placing a sample in a nutrient broth
designed to enrich the organisms in question.
Various methods, such as selective media or
PCR, can then be used for detection. The
hygiene of hard surfaces, such as cooking
pots, can be tested by touching them with a
solid piece of nutrient medium and then
allowing the microorganisms to grow on it.
There are no conditions where all
microorganisms would grow, and therefore
often several different methods are needed.
For example, a food sample might be analyzed
on three different nutrient mediums designed
to indicate the presence of "total" bacteria
(conditions where many, but not all, bacteria
grow), molds (conditions where the growth
of bacteria is prevented by, e.g., antibiotics)
and coliform bacteria (these indicate a sewage
contamination).