Gases: Animation 3.1: Boyle's Law Source & Credit: Wikipedia

CHAPTER
3 GASES
Animation 3.1: Boyle’s Law

Source & credit: wikipedia
3.GASES eLearn.Punjab
3.1 STATES OF MATTER
Matter exists in four states i.e., solid, liquid, gas and plasma. The simplest form of matter is the
gaseous state and most of matter around us is in the solid state.
Liquids are less common than solids, gases and plasmas. The reason is that the liquid state of any
substance can exist only within a relatively narrow range of temperature and pressure.
Let us look at the general properties of gases, liquids and solids. Kinetic molecular theory of gases
can help us understand their properties.
Animation 3.2.: States of Matter
Source & Credit: knockhardy
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3.1.1 Properties of Gases
1. Gases don’t have a deinite volume and occupy all the available space. The volume of a gas is the
volume of the container.
2. They don’t have a deinite shape and take the shape of the container just like liquids.
3. Due to low densities of gases, as compared to those of liquids and solids, the gases bubble
through liquids and tend to rise up.
4. Gases can difuse and efuse. This property is negligible in solids but operates in liquids as well.
5. Gases can be compressed by applying a pressure because there are large empty spaces between
their molecules.
6. Gases can expand on heating or by increasing the available volume. Liquids and solids, on the
other hand, do not show an appreciable increase in volume when they are heated.
7. When sudden expansion of gases occurs cooling takes place, it is called Joule Thomson efect.
8. Molecules of gases are in a constant state of random motion They can exert a certain pressure
on the walls of the container and this pressure is due to the number of collisions.
9. The intermolecular forces in gases are very weak.
3.1.2 Properties of Liquids
6. Liquids don’t have a deinite shape but have a deinite volume. Unlike solids they adopt the
shape of the container.
7. Molecules of liquids are in a constant state of motion. The evaporation and difusion of liquid
molecules is due to this motion.
8. The densities of liquids are much greater than those of gases but are close to those of solids.
9. The spaces among the molecules of liquids are negligible just like solids.
10. The intermolecular attractive forces in liquids are intermediate between gases and solids. The
melting and boiling points of gases, liquids and solids depend upon the strength of such forces.
11. Molecules o f liquids possess kinetic energy due to their motion. Liquids can be converted
into solids on cooling i.e., by decreasing their kinetic energy. Molecules of liquids collide among
themselves and exchange energy but those of solids can not do so.
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3.1.3 Properties of Solids
1. The particles present in solid substances are very close to each other and they are tightly packed.
Due to this reason solids are non-compressible and they cannot difuse into each other.
2. There are strong attractive forces in solids which hold the particles together irmly and for this
reason solids have deinite shape and volume.
3. The solid particles possess only vibrational motion.
3.1.4 Units of Pressure:
The pressure of air that can support 760 mmHg column at sea level, is called one atmosphere. It
is the force exerted by 760mm or 76cm long column of mercury on an area of 1cm2 at 0°C.It is the
average pressure of atmosphere at sea level 1mmHg=1torr. The S.I. unit of pressure is expressed
in Nm-2 . One atmospheric pressure i.e 760 torr is equal to 101325 Nm-2 .
1pascal=1 Nm-2 . So, 760 torr = 101325Pa = 101.325 kilopascals (kpa is another unit of pressure)
The unit pounds per square inch (psi) is used most commonly in engineering work, and 1 atm = 760
torr=14.7 pounds inch -2 . The unit millibar is commonly used by meteorologists.
3.2 GAS LAWS
It is a matter of common observation that when external conditions of temperature and pressure
are changed, the volume of a given quantity of all gases is afected. This efect is nearly the same
irrespective of the nature of the gas. So gases show a uniform behaviour towards the external
conditions. The gas laws describe this uniform behaviour of gases. The relationships between
volume of a given amount of gas and the prevailing conditions of temperature and pressure are
called the gas laws. Diferent scientists, like Boyle, Charles, Graham and Dalton have given their
laws relating to the properties of gases.
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3.2.1 Boyle’s Law
In Boyle’s law the pressure and volume are variables while the temperature and quantity of a gas
remains constant. Boyle’s law is stated as follows:-
The volume of a given mass of a gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to the
pressure applied to the gas.
Animation 3.3: Boyle’s Law

Source & credit: wikipedia
So
Va1/P (when the temperature and number of moles are constant)
or V=k/p
PV = k (when T and n are constant) (1)
‘k’ is proportionality constant. The value of k is diferent for the diferent amounts of the same gas.
According to the equation (1), Boyle’s law can also be deined as The product of pressure and
volume of a ixed amount of a gas at constant temperature is a constant quantity.
So P1V1 = k and P2V2 = k

Hence P1V1 = P2V2
5
P1V1 are the initial values of pressure and volume, while P2V2 are the inal values of pressure and
volume.
3.2.2 Experimental Veriication of Boyle’s Law
The following diagram Fig. (3.1) indicates that at constant temperature say at 250C,the volume of a
given quantity of a gas is reduced in proportion to the increase in pressure. Let us take a gas in a
cylinder having a moveable piston.
Fig (3.1) Veriication of Boyle’s Law
The cylinder is also attached with a manometer to read the pressure of the gas directly. Let the
initial volume of gas is 1 dm3 and its pressure is 2 atmospheres when the piston has one weight on
it. When the piston is pressed twice with the help of two equal weights, the pressure becomes four
atmospheres.
Similarly, when the piston is loaded with a mass three times greater, then the pressure becomes
six atmospheres. The initial volume of the gas at two atmospheres is 1 dm3 it is reduced to 1/2 dm3
and then 1/3 dm3 with increase of weights, respectively Fig (3.1).
P1V1 = 2 atm x 1 dm3 = 2 dm3 atm = k

P2V 2 = 4 atm x 1/2 dm3 = 2 dm3 atm = k
P 3V 3 = 6 atm x 1/3 dm3 = 2 dm3 atm = k
Hence Boyle’s law is veriied.
The value of k will remain the same for the same quantity of a gas at the same temperature.
6
Example 1
A gas having a volume of 10 dm3 is enclosed in a vessel at 00C and the pressure is 2.5 atmospheres.
This gas is allowed to expand until the new pressure is 2 atmospheres. What will be the new volume
of this gas, if the temperature is maintained at 273 K.
Solution
Initial volume of gas (V1) = 10 dm3

Initial temperature (T1) = 00C + 273 K = 273 K
Initial pressure (P1) = 2.5 atm
Final pressure (P2) = 2 atm
Final temperature (T2) = 273 K
Final volume (V2) =?
Since the temperature is constant ( T1= T2) Boyle’s law is applicable

P1V1= P2V2 (when T and n are constant)
V2 = P1V1
P2
V2 =2.5 atm x 10 dm3

2 atm
= 12.5 dm3 Answer
3.2.3 Graphical Explanation of Boyle’s Law
Let us take a particular amount of a gas at a constant temperature

say 00C and enclose it in a cylinder having a piston in it. When
the pressure of the gas is varied, its volume changes. Increase
in pressure decreases the volume. If a graph is plotted between
pressure on the x-axis (abscissa) and volume on the y-axis
(ordinate), then a curve is obtained as shown in the Fig (3.2). This
curve is called isotherm ‘iso’ means same, “therm” means heat.
Fig (3.2) Isotherm of a gas at 0 0C.
Now increase the temperature of the gas to 25°C.
7
Keep this temperature constant and again vary the pressure and
volume, and plot the isotherm. It goes away from both the axes
Fig (3.3). The reason is that at higher temperature, the volume of
the gas has increased. Similarly, if we increase the temperature
further, make it constant and plot another isotherm, it further
goes away from the axis.
If a graph is plotted between 1/V on x-axis and the pressure P on

the y-axis then a straight line is obtained as shown in the Fig Fig (3.3) Isothermes o f a gas at different
(3.4). This shows that the pressure and inverse of volume are temperatures.
directly proportional to each other. This straight line will meet

at the origin which means that when the pressure is very close to
zero, then the volume is so high that its inverse is very close to
zero.
By increasing the temperature of the same gas from T1 to T2 and

keeping it constant, one can vary pressure and volume. The graph
of this data between P and 1/V will give another straight line. This
straight line at T2 will be closer to the pressure-axis Fig (3.4).
Now, plot a graph between pressure on x-axis and the product PV onFig (3.4) A plot between P and 1
V
Y-axis. A straight line parallel to the pressure axis is obtained Fig(3.5).
This straight line indicates that 'k' is a constant quantity.
At higher constant temperature, the volume increase and value
of product PV should increase due to increase of volume at same
pressure, but PV remains constant at this new temperature and a
straight line parallel to the pressure axis is obtained. This type of
straight line will help us to understand the non-ideal behaviour
of gases. Boyle's law is applicable only to ideal gases.
Fig (3.5) A plot between pressure

and product of P V
8
3.2.4 Charle s 's Law
It is a quantitative relationship between

temperature and volume of a gas and was given
by French scientist J.
Charles in 1787. According to this law, the

volume of the given mass of a gas is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature
when the pressure is kept constant.
V a T (when pressure
and number of moles
are constant)
V = kT
V/T=k
If the temperature is changed from T1 to T2 and

volume changes from V1 to V2 , then Animation 3.4: Charle s 's Law
Source & Credit: docsity
V1/T1=k and V2/T2=k
So, V1/T1= V2/T2 ................................. (2)
The ratio of volume to temperature remains constant for same amount of gas at same pressure.
3.2.5 Experimental Veriication of Charles ‘s Law
Let us consider a certain amount of a gas enclosed in a cylinder itted with a movable piston. The
volume of the gas is V1 and its temperature is T1. When the gas in the cylinder is heated both
volume and the temperature of the gas increase.
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The new values of volume and temperature are V2 and

T2 respectively Fig(3.6). Experiment shows that
V1/T1= V2/T2
Hence Charles’s law is veriied.
Example 2
250 cm3 of hydrogen is cooled from 127oC to -27°C by

maintaining the pressure constant Calculate the new Fig (3.6) Veriication of Charles's law
volume of the gas at low temperature.
Solution
Pressure has been kept constant so this gas is obeying the Charles’s law.
Initial volume (V1) = 250 cm3 = 0.25 dm3
Initial temperature (T1) = 127 °C + 273 K = 400 K
Final temperature (T2) = -27 °C + 273K - 246 K
Final volume (V2) = ?
According to Charles’s law
V1/T1= V2/T2 (when pressure and number of moles are constant)
V2 = V1x T2
T1
V2 = 0.25 dm3 x 246K = 0.153 dm3 = 153 cm3 Answer

400 K
So by decreasing the temperature the volume of the gas has decreased at constant pressure.
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3.2.6 Derivation of Absolute Zero
In order to derive absolute zero of temperature, consider the following quantitative deinition of
Charles’s law.
At constant pressure, the volume of the given mass of a gas increases or decreases by 1/273 of its
original volume at 0oC for every 1 °C rise or fall in temperature respectively.
In order to understand the above statement, look at the Table (3.1) of temperature volume data of
a hypothetical gas. At 0 oC the volume of the gas taken is 546 cm3 It is twice 273cm3, and is being
supposed for the sake of convenience of understanding. At 273 oC, the volume of the gas has
doubled (1092 cm3) and it should become practically zero at -273oC. The general equation to know
the volumes of the gas at various temperatures is
t
Vt = Vo(1+ ) ………. (3)
273
Where Vt = volume of gas at temperature T
Vo = Volume of gas at 0oC
t = Temperature on centigrade or celsius scale
1
If a gas is warmed by 1oC, it expands by of its original volume at 0oC. Since original volume is
273
546 cm3 ,so, for 1oC rise in temperature, 2 cm3 increase in volume will take place. 2cm3 is the 1 of
273
546 cm3. Similarly, for 100 oC rise in temperature, a change of 200 cm3 will take place. The
Table (3.1) shows that the volume does not increase corresponding to increase in temperature on
celsius scale. For example, the increase in temperature from 10 oC to 100 oC, increases the volume
from 566cm3 to 746cm3.
Applying Charles’s law
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
≠
566 746
10 100
The two sides of equation are not equal. So, Charles’s law is not being obeyed when temperature
is measured on the Celsius scale.
For this reason a new temperature scale has been developed. It starts from 273 °C (more precisely
-273.16 °C) which is called zero Kelvin or zero absolute. Let us now explain how the new temperature
scale has been developed. The best way is to plot a graph between the variables of Charles’s law.
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Table(3.1) volume-Temperature data for a given amount of a gas at constant

pressure
Volumes (cm3) CelsiusTemperature (oC) Temperature (K) V

= k = cm3 K-1
T
1092 273 546 2
846 150 423 2
746 100 373 2
646 50 323 2
566 10 283 2
548 1 274 2
546 0 273 2
544 -1 272 2
526 -10 263 2
400 -73 200 2
346 -100 173 2
146 -200 73 2
0 -273 0
Graphical Explanation
If we plot a graph between temperature on x-axis and

the volume of one mole of an ideal gas on y-axis, we
get a straight line which cuts the temperature axis at
-273.16 °C. This can be possible only if we extrapolate
the graph upto -273.16 oC. This temperature is the
lowest possible temperature, which would have been
achieved if the substance remains in the gaseous
state Fig (3.7). Actually, all the gases are converted
into liquids above this temperature.
Fig (3.7) The graph between volume

and temperature for a gas according
to Table (3.1).
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Charles’s law is obeyed when the temperature is taken on the Kelvin scale. For example, at 283 K
(10 oC) the volume is 566 cm3, while at 373 K (100 oC) the volume is,746cm3 Table (3.1). According to
Charles’s law.
V1 V2
= =K
T1 T2
= = 2= K
566 746
283 373
Greater the mass of gas taken, greater will be the slope of straight line. The reason is that greater
the number of moles greater the volume occupied. All these straight lines when extrapolated meet
at a single point of -273.16 °C ( 0 Kelvin). It is apparent that this temperature of -273.16 °C will be
attained when the volume becomes zero. But for a real gas the zero volume is impossible which
shows that this temperature can not be attained for a real gas. This is how we recognize that
-273.16 °C must represent the coldest temperature.
3.2.7 Scales of Thermometry
There are three scales of thermometery which are used for temperature measurements.
(a) Centigrade Scale: It has a zero mark for the temperature of ice at one atmospheric pressure.
The mark 100°C indicates the temperature of boiling water at 1 atmospheric pressure. The space
between these temperature marks is divided into 100 equal parts and each part is 1°C.
(b) Fahrenheit Scale: The melting point of ice at 1 atmospheric pressure has a mark 32°F and that
of boiling water is 212 oF. The space between these temperature marks is divided into 180 equal
parts and each part is 1 oF.
(c) Absolute or Kelvin Scale: The melting Point of ice at 1 atmospheric pressure is 273K. The water
boils at 373K or more precisely at 373.16K.
Temperature on Kelvin scale = Temperature °C + 273.16
Following relationships help us to understand the interconversion of various scales of temperatures.
K = ° C + 273.16
°C = 5/9[°F-32]
o
F =9/5(°C)+32
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3.3 GENERAL GAS EQUATION
While describing Boyle’s and Charles’s laws, some of the variables are held constant during the
changes produced in the gases. According to Boyle’s law.
V∝
1
(when ‘n‘ and ‘T’ are held constant)
P
According to Charles’s law
V ∝ T (when n and P are held constant)
It is a well known fact that volume of the given gas at constant temperature and pressure is directly
proportional to the number of moles (Avogadro’s law).
V ∝ n (when Pand T a re held constant)
If we think for a moment that none of the variables are to be kept constant then all the
above three relationships can be joined together.
V∝
nT
P
V= Constant nT
P
The constant suggested is R which is called general gas constant.

nT
V=R
P
PV = nRT ............ (4)

The equation (4) is called an ideal gas equation. It is also known as general gas equation. This equation
shows that if we have any quantity of an ideal gas then the product of its pressure and volume is
equal to the product of number of moles, general gas constant and absolute temperature. This
equation is reduced to Boyle’s law, Charles’s law and Avogadro’s law, when appropriate variables
are held constant.
PV = nRT, when T and n are held constant, PV = k (Boyle’s law)
nT
V=R , when P and n are held constant, V = kT (Charles’s law)
P
nT
V=R , when P and T are held constant V = kn (Avogadro’s law)
P
For one mole of a gas, the general gas equation is

PV = RT or PV = R
T
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It means that ratio of PV to T is a constant quantity (molar gas constant)
Hence
P1V1 P2 V2
=R =R
T1 T2
Therefore,
P1V1 = P2 V2 ........... (5)

T1 T2
3.3.1 Ideal Gas Constant R
The values and units of R can be calculated by Avogadro's principle very easily. Its value depends
upon the units chosen for pressure, volume and temperature. The volume of one mole of an ideal
gas at STP (one atmospheric pressure and 273.16 K ) is 22.414 dm3.
Putting these values in the general gas equation will give the value of R.
PV
R=
nT
Putting their values, alongwith units

1 atm x 22.414 dm3
R=
1 mole x 273.16 K
R = 0.0821 dm3 atm K-1 mol-1
When the pressure is in atmospheres, volume in dm3, then the value of R, used should be 0.0821
dm3 atm K-1 mol-1
The physical meanings of this value is that, if we have one mole of an ideal gas at 273.16 K and
one atmospheric pressure and its temperature is increased by 1 K, then it will absorb 0.0821 dm3
-atm of energy, dm3 -atm is the unit of energy in this situation. Hence, the value of R is a universal
parameter for all the gases. It tells us that the Avogadro’s number of molecules o f all the ideal
gases have the same demand of energy.
15
If the pressure is expressed in mm of mercury or torr and the volume of the gas in cm3 then
values of R are,
R = 0.0821 dm3 atm K-1 mol-1
= 0.0821 x 760 dm3 mm Hg K-1 mol-1
= 62.4 dm3 mm Hg K-1 mol-1 Since, (1 mm o f Hg = 1 to rr)
= 62.4 dm3 torr K-1 mol-1
= 62400 cm3 torr K-1 mol-1 As, (1 dm3 = 1000 cm )
Using SI units of pressure, volume and temperature in the general equation, the value of R is
calculated as follows. The SI units of pressure are Nm-2 and of volume are m3. By using Avogadro’s
principle
1 atm = 760 torr = 101 325 Nm-2
lm3 = 1000 dm3
n = 1 mole
T = 273.16 K
P = 1 atm = 101325 Nm-2
V = 22.414 dm3 = 0.022414 m3
Putting their values, alongwith units.
PV 101325 N m -2 x 0.0224l m3
R= =
nT 1 mol x 273.16 K
R = 8.3143 Nm K-1 mol-1 = 8.3143 J K-1 mol-1 (1 Nm = 1J)

Since 1cal. = 4.18 J
8.3143
so R= 4.18 = 1.989cal K-1 mol-1
Keep in mind that, wherever the pressure is given in Nm-2 and the volume in m3, then the value of
R used must be 8.3143 JK-1 mol-1.
3.3.2 Density of an ideal Gas
For calculating the density of an ideal gas, we substitute the value of number of moles (n) of the
gas in terms of the mass (m), and the molar mass (M) of the gas.
m
n=
M
m
PV = RT ................. (6)
M
16
Equation (6 ) is an other form of general gas equation that may be employed to calculate the mass
of a gas whose P, T, V and molar mass are known. Rearranging equation (6)
m
PM = RT
V
m
PM = d RT (d= )
V
PM
d= ....................................... (7)
RT
Hence the density of an ideal gas is directly proportional to its molar mass. Greater the pressure
on the gas, closer will be the molecules and greater the density. Higher temperature makes the
gases to expand, hence density falls with the increase in temperature. With the help of equation
(7), one can calculate the relative molar mass (M ) of an ideal gas if its temperature, pressure and
density are known.
Example 3
A sample of nitrogen gas is enclosed in a vessel of volume 380 cm3 at 120 oC and pressure of 101325
Nm-2 .This gas is transferred to a 10 dm3 lask and cooled to 27oC. Calculate the pressure in Nm-2
exerted by the gas at 27oC.
Solution
All the three parameters of this gas have been changed, so we can solve this problem
P1V1 PV
by using the general gas equation of the form = 2 2
T1 T2
Preferably, convert the volume to dm3 and temperature to Kelvin scale.

Initial volume of the gas (V1) = 380 cm3 = 0.38 dm3
Initial temperature (T1) = 120 °C + 273 K = 393 K
Initial pressure (P1) = 101325 N m-2
Final temperature (T2) = 27oC + 273 K = 300 K
Final volume (V2) = 10 dm3
Final pressure (P2) =?
P1V1 PV
= 2 2
T1 T2
17
P1V1 T
P2 = x 2
T1 V2
101325 Nm −2 × 0.38dm3 × 300 K

p2 =
393K ×10dm3
=2938.4Nm-2 Answer
Example 4
Calculate the density of CH4 (g) at 0 °C and 1 atmospheric pressure. What will happen to the density
if (a)temperature is increased to 27 °C, (b) the pressure is increased to 2 atmospheres at 0 °C.
Solution
Temperature of the gas = 0°C + 273 K - 273 K

Pressure of the gas = 1atm
Molecular mass of the gas =16g mol-1
Gas constant (R) = 0.0821 dm3 atm K-1 mol-1
Formula for density of a gas at any temperature and pressure
PM
d =
RT
1 atm x 16 g mol −1
Putting values d =
0.0821 dm3 atm K −1 mol −1 x 273 K
g dm−3
1x 16
Simplifying the units d = =
0.0821 x 273
d = 0.7138 g dm−3 Answer
It means that under the given conditions 1 dm3 of CH4 gas has a mass of 0.7138 g.
18
(a) Density at 27 °C
Temperature = 27 + 273 = 300 K

Putting values in the equation of density and simplifying the units.
PM 1 atm x 16 g mol-1
d= = 3 -1 -1
= 0.649 g dm-3
RT 0.0821 dm .atm.K .mol x 300 K
So, by increasing the temperature from 0°C to 27°C the density of gas has decreased from 0.7138 g dm-3 to
0.649 g dm-3. The increase of temperature makes the molecules of a gas to move away from each other.
(b ) Density at 2 atmospheric pressure and 0°C
T = 0 + 273 = 273 K
P = 2 atm
Putting values in the equation and simplifying the units.
PM 2 atm x 16 g mol-1
d = = = 1 .427 g dm-3
RT 0.0821 dm3 .atm.K -1 .mol-1 x 273 K
The increase of pressure has increased the density of CH4. The density has almost doubled by doubling the
pressure. The reason is that increase of pressure makes the molecules to come close to each other.
Example 5
Calculate the mass of 1 dm3 of NH3 gas at 30 °C and 1000 mm Hg pressure, considering that NH3 is
behaving ideally.
Solution
1000
Pressure of the gas = 1000 mm Hg = = 1.315 atm
760
Volume of the gas = 1dm3

Temperature of the gas = 30oC + 273 K = 303 K
Molecular mass of the gas = 17 g mol-1
19
RT can be used to calculate the mass ( m ) of the gas.

m
General gas equation PV =
M
PVM
Rearranging m =
RT
Putting values along with units
1.315 atm x 1 dm3 x 17 g mol-1

Mass of NH3 =
0.0821 dm3 atm K -1mol-1x 303 K
Simplifying the units

1.315 x 1 x 17g
Mass of NH3 = = 0.907 g Answer
0.0821 x 303
This is the mass of 1 dm3 of NH3 under the given conditions. In other words, it is the density of NH3, if it is acting
as an ideal gas.
3.4 AVOGADRO’S LAW
According to this law, “equal volumes of all the ideal gases at the same temperature and
pressure contain equal number of molecules”. This statement is indirectly the same as has been
used for evaluating the general gas constant R i.e., one mole of an ideal gas at 273.16K and one atm
pressure has a volume of 22.414 dm3. Since one mole of a gas has Avogadro’s number of particles,
so 22.414 dm3 of various ideal gases at S T P will have Avogadro’s number of molecules i.e. 6.02 x
1023. 22.414 dm3 of a gas at 273.16 K and one atmospheric pressure has number of molecules =
6.02 x1O23.
In other words, if we have one dm3 of each of H2, He, N2, O2 , and CO in separate vessels at STP,
then the number of molecules in each will be 2.68 x 1022 This is obtained by dividing 6.02x 1023 with
22.414 dm3 .
Similarly, when the temperature or pressure are equally changed for these four gases, then the
new equal volumes i.e. 1dm3 each will have the same number of molecules i.e. 2 . 6 8 x 1022.
No doubt, one dm3 of H2 at STP weighs approximately 0.0899 grams and one dm3 of O2 at STP
weighs 1.4384 g, but their number of molecules are the same. Although, oxygen molecule is 16
times heavier than hydrogen, but this does not disturb the volume occupied, because molecules of
the gases are widely separated from each other at STP One molecule is approximately at a distance
of 300 times its own diameter from its neighbour at room temperature.
20
3.5 DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES
John Dalton studied the mixtures o f gases and gave his law of partial pressures. According to this
law, the total pressure exerted by a mixture of non-reacting gases is equal to the sum of their
individual partial pressures. Let the gases are designated as 1,2,3, and their partial pressures are
p1, p2, p3.The total pressure (P) of the mixture of gases is given by
Pt = p1+ p2 + p3
The partial pressure of a gas in a mixture of gases is the pressure that it would exert on the walls of
the container, if it were present all alone in that same volume under the same temperature.
Let us have four cylinders of same volume, i.e., 10 dm3 each and three gases H2, CH4 and O2 are
separately enclosed in irst three of them at the same temperature. Let their partial pressures be
400 torr, 500 torr and 100 torr respectively.
All these gases are transferred to a fourth cylinder of capacity 10 dm3 at the same temperature.
According to Dalton’s law
Pt = pH2 + pCH4 + pO2 = ( 400 + 500 + 100 ) torr

Pt = 1000 torr
These three non-reacting gases are behaving independently under the normal conditions. The
rapidly moving molecules of each gas in a mixture have equal opportunities to collide with the walls
of the container. Hence, each gas exerts a pressure independent of the pressure of other gases.
The total pressure is the result of total number of collisions per unit area in a given time.
Molecules of each gas move independently, so the general gas equation (PV = nRT ) can be applied
to the individual gases in the gaseous mixture.
pH2 a
RT
pH2 V =nH2 RT pH2 =nH2 nH2
V
pCH2 a nCH4
RT
pCH 4 V =nCH4RT pCH4 =nCH4
V
pO2 a
RT
pO2 V =nO2 RT pO2 =nO2 nO2
V
RT
is a constant factor for each gas.
V
21
All these gases have their own partial pressures. Since volumes and temperatures are the same, so
their number of moles will be diferent and will be directly proportional to their partial pressures.
Adding these three equations
Pt = pH2 + pCH4 + pO2

RT
Pt = (nH2 + nCH4 + nO2 )
V
RT
Pt = n t where n t = nH2 + nCH4 + nO2
V
Pt V = n t RT ................ (8)
According to equation (8), the total pressure of the mixture of gases depends upon the total
number of moles of the gases.
3.5.1 Calculation of Partial Pressure of a Gas
The partial pressure of any gas in a mixture of gases can be calculated, provided one knows the
mass of that gas or its number of moles alongwith the total pressure and the total number of moles
present in the mixture.
In order to have a relationship, let us suppose that we have a mixture of gas A and gas B. This
mixture is enclosed in a container having volume (V). The total pressure is one atm.
The number of moles of the gases A and B are nA and nB respectively. If they are maintained at
temperature T, then
Pt V = n t RT ........... (equation for the mixture of gases)

p A V = n ART ........... (equation for gas A )
pBV = nBRT ........... (equation for gas B)
Divide the irst two equations

p A V n ART
=
Pt V n t RT
pA n
= A . . . . . . . . . . (9)
Pt nt
nA
pA = Pt . . . . . . . . . . (10)
nt
p A = x A Pt (x A is mole fraction of gas A)
pB = x B Pt
22
Similarly
Partial pressure of a gas is the mole fraction of that gas multiplied by the total pressure of the
mixture. Remember that mole fraction of anyone of the gases in the mixture is less than unity.
Moreover, the sum of mole fractions is always equal to unity.
Example 6
There is a mixture of hydrogen, helium and methane occupying a vessel of volume 13 dm3 at 37 °C
and pressure of 1 atmosphere. The masses of H2 and He are 0.8 g and 0.12 g respectively. Calculate
the partial pressures in torr of each gas in the mixture.
Solution
Volume of the mixture of gases = 13 dm3

Temperature of the mixture = 37 + 273 =310 K
Pressure of the mixture = 1 atm
Firstcalculatethetotalnumberofmolespresentinthemixtureofgasesbyapplyingthegeneralgasequation.
Since
PV = nRT
PV
n =
or RT
Putting values along with the units and simplifying
1 atm x 13 dm3
n = = 0.51 moles
0.0821 dm3 atm. K -1 mol-1 x 310 K
So, the total number of moles of H2 , He and CH4 = 0.51 moles
23
Mass of H2 = 0.8 g
mass of H2 0.8 g
Number of moles of H2 = = = 0.40
molar mass 2.0 g mol-1
Mass of He = 0.12 g
mass of He 0.12 g
Number of moles of He = = = 0.03
molar mass 4 g mol-1
Number of moles of CH4 = total moles - moles of H2 - moles of He
= 0.51 - 0.396 - 0.03
( )
= 0.084
no of moles of H2 0.40
Mole fraction of H2 X H2 = = = 0.784
total number of moles 0.51
Mole fraction of He ( X He )
no of moles of He 0.03
= = = 0.058
( )
no of moles of CH4 0.084
Mole fraction of CH4 X CH4 = = = 0.164
(Being a ratio mole fraction has no units.)
( )
Partial pressure of H2 pH2 = X H2 P
=
= 0.776 x 1.00 0.776 atm
=
= 0.776 x760 589.76 torr
Partial pressure of He ( pHe ) = X He P
=
= 0.058 x 1.00 0.058 atm
=
= 0.058 x 760
(p )
44.08 torr
Partial pressure of CH 4 = X CH4 P
=
= 0.164x 1.00
CH4
0.164 atm
=
= 0.164 x 760 124.64 mm of Hg Answer
The sum of individual pressures i.e. 589.76.44.08 and 124.64 is almost 760 mm of Hg, i.e. total
pressure of the mixture.
3.5.2 Applications of Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
Following are the four important applications of Dalton’s Law of partial pressures.
1. Some gases are collected over water in the laboratory. The gas during collection gathers
water vapours and becomes moist. The pressure exerted by this moist gas is, therefore, the sum of
the partial pressures of the dry gas and that of water vapours.
24
The partial pressure exerted by the water vapours is called aqueous tension.
Pmoist = pdry + p w.vap

Pmoist = pdry + aqueous tension
pdry = Pmoist - aqueous tension
While solving the numericals the aqueous tension is subtracted from the total pressure (P moist).
2. Dalton's law inds its applications during the process of respiration. The process of respiration
depends upon the diference in partial pressures. When animals inhale air then oxygen moves into
lungs as the partial pressure of oxygen in the air is 159 torr, while the partial pressure of oxygen
in the lungs 116 torr. CO2 produced during respiration moves out in the opposite direction, as it's
partial pressure is more in the lungs than that in air.
3. At higher altitudes, the pilots feel uncomfortable breathing because the partial pressure of
oxygen in the un-pressurized cabin is low, as compared to 159 torr, where one feels comfortable
breathing.
4. Deep sea divers take oxygen mixed with an inert gas say He and adjust the partial pressure
of oxygen according to the requirement. Actually, in sea after every 100 feet depth, the diver
experiences approximately 3 atm pressure, so normal air cannot be breathed in depth of sea.
Moreover, the pressure of N2 increases in depth of sea and it difuses in the blood.
3.6 DIFFUSION AND EFFUSION
Diffusion
According to the kinetic molecular theory of gases, the molecules of the gases move haphazardly.
They collide among themselves, collide with the walls of the vessel and change their directions. In
other words the molecules of gases are scattered after collisions.
This spontaneous intermingling of molecules of
one gas with another at a given temperature and
pressure is called difusion.
Fig (3.8) Diffusion
25
The spreading of fragrance of a rose or a scent is due to

difusion. When two gases difuse into each other, they wish to
make their partial pressures same every where. Suppose NO2,
a brown coloured gas and O2, a colourless gas, are separated
from each other by a partition Fig (3.8).When the partition is
removed, both difuse into each other due to collisions and
random motion.
A stage reaches when both gases generate a homogeneous
Fig (3.9) Escape of gas
mixture and partial pressures of both are uniform throughout molecules through a hole is effusion.
the mixture.
Effusion
The efusion of a gas is it's movement through an extremely small opening into a region of low
pressure. This spreading of molecules is not due to collisions, but due to their tendency to escape
one by one. Actually, the molecules of a gas are habitual in colliding with the walls of the vessel.
When a molecule approaches just in front of the opening it enters the other portion of the vessel.
This type of escape of molecules is called of efusion Fig( 3.9).
3.6.1 Graham 's Law of Diffusion
Thomas Graham (1805 -1869), an English scientist, found that the rate of difusion or efusion
of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of it's density at constant temperature and
pressure.
Rate of diffusion ∝ ( at constant temperature and pressure )

1
d
k
Rate of diffusion =
d
Rate of diffusion x d =k
or Rate x d = k
26
The constant k is same for all gases, when they are all studied at the same temperature and pressure.
Let us have two gases 1 and 2, having rates of difusion as r1 and r2 and densities as d1 and d2 respectively.
According to Graham's law
r1 x d1 = k
r2 x d2 = k
Divide the two equations and rearrange
r1 d2
= . . . . . . . . . . (11)
r2 d1
Sincethedensityofagivengasisdirectlyproportionaltoitsmolecularmass.Graham’slawofdifusioncanalso
be written as follows.
r1 M2
= . . . . . . . . . (12)
r2 M1
Where M1 and M2 are the molar masses of gases.
Demonstration of Graham‘s Law
This law can also be very easily veriied in the laboratory by noting the rates of difusion of two
gases in a glass tube, when they are allowed to move from opposite ends Fig (3.10). Two cotton
plugs soaked in HCl and NH3 solutions are introduced in the open ends of 100 cm long tube
simultaneously. HCl molecules travel a distance of 40.5 cm while NH3 molecules cover 59.5 cm
in the same duration. They produce dense white fumes of ammonium chloride at the point of
junction. So
rNH3 MHCI
=
rHCI MNH3
59.5 36.5
=
40.5 17
Fig (3.10) Veriication of Graham's law of diffusion
1.46 = 1.46
Hence the law is veriied.
27
Example 7
250 cm3 of the sample of hydrogen efuses four times as rapidly as 250 cm3 of an unknown gas.
Calculate the molar mass of unknown gas.
Solution
Let the unknown gas is given the symbol X
Rate of effusion of unknown gas ( rx )
( )
=1
Rate of effusion of hydrogen gas rH2 =4
( ) = 2 g mol −1
Molar mass of unknown gas ( M x )
Molar mass of H2 gas MH2
=?
rH2 Mx
=
rx M H2
4 Mx
=
1 2
M x 16
=
2 1
M x = 16 x 2 = 32 g mol −1 Answer
3.7 KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES
The behaviour of gases has already been discussed in gas laws. These laws were based on
experimental observations quite independent of nature of a gas. In order to illustrate the
behaviour of gases quantitatively, Bernoulli (1738) put forward kinetic molecular theory of gases.
This theory lead Clausius (1857) to derive the kinetic equation and deduced all the gas laws from
it. The theory was later on elaborated and extended by Maxwell, who gave the law of distribution
of velocities. According to this law,molecules are in the form of groups having deinite velocity
ranges. Boltzmann also Contributed and studied the distribution of energies among the gas
molecules. Among some other names Van der Waal is the prominent scientist in this ield.
28
Following are the fundamental postulates of this kinetic theory of gases.

1. Every gas consists of a large number of very small particles called molecules. Gases like He, Ne,
Ar have monoatomic molecules.
2. The molecules of a gas move haphazardly, colliding among themselves and with the walls of the
container and change their directions.
3. The pressure exerted by a gas is due to the collisions of its molecules with the walls of a container.
The collisions among the molecules are perfectly elastic.
4. The molecules of a gas are widely separated from one another and there are suicient empty
spaces among them.
5. The molecules of a gas have no forces of attraction for each other.
6. The actual volume of molecules of a gas is negligible as compared to the volume of the gas.
7. The motion imparted to the molecules by gravity is negligible as compared to the efect of the
continued collisions between them.
8. The average kinetic energy of the gas molecules varies directly as the absolute temperature of
the gas.
Keeping in view the basic assumptions given above, R.J Clausius deduced an expression for the pressure
of an ideal gas. Actually,pressure on the walls of the vessel is due to collisions. Whenever the molecules
move they collide among themselves and with the walls of the container. Due to these collisions,a
force is exerted on the walls of the container. This force when divided by the area of the vessel gives
force per unit area, which is called pressure. In this way, the inal form of kinetic equation is as follows.
−
1
PV = mN c 2 . . . . . . . . . (13)
3
Where,
P = pressure
V = volume
m = mass of one molecule of the gas
N = number of molecules of gas in the vessel
c2 = mean square velocity
29
The idea of the mean square velocity is important. All the molecules of a gas under
the given conditions don’t have the same velocities. Rather diferent velocities are
distributed among the molecules. To understand it study Maxwell’s law of distribution of
velocities. If there are n1 molecules with velocity c1, n2 molecules with velocity c2, and so on
then,
c12 + c22 + c32 + .......

c2 = ........ (14)
n1 + n2 + n3 + .......
In this reference n1+n2+n3 .......=N

c2 is the average of the squares of all the possible velocities. When we take the square root of this
c2 , then it is called root mean square velocity (Crms). So, (Crms) = c2

The expression for the root mean square velocity deduced from the kinetic equation is written as
follows.
3RT
Crms = . . . . . . . . . (15)
M
Where, Crms = root mean square velocity
M = molar mass of the gas
T = temperature
This equation (15) is a quantitative relationship between the absolute temperature and the
velocities of the gas molecules. According to this equation, higher the temperature of a gas, greater
the velocities. Kinetic equation can be used to explain gas laws.
3.7.1 Explanation of Gas Laws from Kinetic Theory of Gases
Kinetic theory of gases gives birth to kinetic equation of gases, which can be employed to justify the
gas laws. In other words, it proves that gas laws get their explanation from kinetic theory of gases
(a) Boyle’s Law
According to one of the postulates of kinetic theory of gases, the kinetic energy is directly proportional
1
to the absolute temperature of the gas. The kinetic energy of N molecules is mNc2
.2
mNc ∝ T
so 1 2
2
1
mNc2 = kT ........... (16)
2
30
Where k is the proportionality constant. According to the kinetic equation of gases

1
PV= mNc2
3
Multiplying and dividing by 2 on right hand side
PV =
2 1
( mNc2 ) ......... (17)
3 2
Putting equation (16) into equation (17).

2
PV= kT ......... (18)
3
2
If the temperature (T) is constant then right hand side of equation (18) kT is constant. Let that
3
constant be k’.
So, PV = k’ (which is Boyle’s law)
Hence at constant temperature and number of moles, the product PV is a constant quantity.
(b) Charles’s law
Consider the equation (18) which has just been derived
PV =
2
kT
Or 3
V=
2 kT 2k
=( )T
3 P 3P
At constant pressure,
Therefore, 2k
= k" (a new constant)
3P
V = k" T
or
V
= k" (which is Charles's law)
T
(c) Avogadro’s Law
Consider two gases 1 and 2 at the same pressure P and having the same volume V.Their number
of molecules are N1 and N2 , masses of molecules are m1 and m2 and mean square velocities are
c12 and c22 respectively.
31
Their kinetic equations can be written as follows:
1
PV=m1N1 c12 for gas(1)
3
PV = m2N2 c22 for gas(2)
1
3
1 1
Equalizing m1N1 c12 = m2N2 c22
3 3
Hence, m1N1 c12 = m2N2 c22 ......... (19)
When the temperature of both gases is the same, their mean kinetic energies per molecule will also
be same, so
1 1
m1 c12 = m2 c22
2 2
m1 c12 = m2 c22 ......... (20)
Divide equation (19) by (20)

N1 = N2
Hence equal volumes of all the gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal number
of molecules, which is Avogadro’s law.
(d ) Graham‘s Law of Difusion
PV =
1
mNc2 .......... (13)
3
Applying the kinetic equation
PV =
1
mN A c2
3
If we take one mole of a gas having Avogadro’s number of molecules (N = NA) then the equation (13)
can be written as:
1
PV = Mc2 (M = mN A ) ......... (21)
3
3PV
c2 =
or M
32
where M is the molecular mass of the gas
Taking square root
3PV
c2 =
M
3P 3P M
c2 = = ( =d)
M/V d V
'V' is the molar volume of gas at given conditions. Since the root mean square velocity of the gas is
proportional to the rate of difusion of the gas.
c2 ∞ r
so
r ∞
3P
d
At constant pressure
∞
1
r
d
which is Graham’s law of difusion
3.8 KINETIC INTERPRETATION OF TEMPERATURE
According to kinetic molecular theory of gases the molecules of a gas move randomly. They collide
among themselves, with the walls of the vessels and change their directions. The collisions are
elastic and the pressure of the gas is the result of these collisions with the walls of the container.
Let us rewrite the kinetic equation of gases (13) as already mentioned
1
PV = mNc2 ......... (13)
3
33
Here m is the mass o f one molecule of the gas, N is the number of molecules in the vessel and c2 is
their mean square velocity. The average kinetic energy associated with one molecule o f a gas due
to its translational motion is given by the following equation.
Ek =
1
mc 2 ......... (22)
2
Remember that Ek is the average translational kinetic energy of gas molecules.

Equation (13) can be rewritten as:
PV =
2 1
N( mc2 ) .. ....... (23)
3 2
Putting equation (22) into (23)
PV =
So 2
N Ek .......... (24)
3
Equation (24) gives an important insight into the meaning of temperature. To understand it, consider
one mole of a gas.
So N = NA
PV =
2
N A Ek .......... (25)
3
According to the general gas equation for 1 mole of a gas
PV = RT .......... (4)
Comparing equation (4) and (25)
2
N A Ek = RT ........... (26)
3
3R
Ek = T ........... (27)
2NA
34
The equation (27) gives a new deinition of temperature according to which the kelvin temperature
of a gas is directly proportional to the average translational kinetic energy of its molecules. This
suggests that a change in temperature means change in the intensity of molecular motion. When
heat lows from one body to another, the molecules in the hotter body give up some of their kinetic
energy through collisions to molecules in the colder body. This process of low of heat continues
until the average translational kinetic energies of all the molecules become equal. This equalises
the temperature of both bodies.
In gases and liquids, temperature is the measure of average translational kinetic energies of
molecules. In solids, where molecules cannot move freely temperature becomes a measure of
vibrational kinetic energy.
Keeping in view this kinetic interpretation of temperature, w e have a way of looking at absolute
zero of temperature. It is that temperature at which the molecular motions cease. The absolute
zero is unattainable. Anyhow, current attempts have resulted in temperature as low as 10-5K.
3.9 LIQUEFACTION OF GASES
3.9.1 General Principle of Liquefaction
The conversion of a gas into a liquid requires high pressure and low temperature. High pressure
brings the molecules of a gas close to each other. Low temperature deprives the molecules from
kinetic energy and attractive forces start dominating.
For every gas there exists a temperature above which the gas cannot be liqueied, no matter how
much pressure is applied. The highest temperature at which a substance can exist as a liquid,
is called its critical temperature (Tc). There is a corresponding pressure which is required to
bring about liquefaction at this critical temperature (Tc). This is called critical pressure (Pc).
The critical temperature and the critical pressure of the substances are very important for the
workers dealing with the gases. These properties provide us the information about the condition
under which gases liquefy. For example, O2 has a critical temperature 154.4 K (-118.75 °C). It must
be cooled below this temperature before it can be liqueied by applying high pressure. Ammonia is
a polar gas. Its critical temperature is 405.6 K (132.44 °C), so it can be liqueied by applying suicient
pressure close to room temperature.
35
Table (3.2) shows the critical parameters of some common substances. Non- polar gases of low
polarizability like Ar have a very low critical temperature. The substances like H2O vapours and NH3
gas are among the polar gases and they have better tendencies to be liqueied CO2, can not be
liqueied above 31.1 oC, no matter how much the pressure is applied. Anyhow, if temperature of
CO2 is maintained below 31.1 oC, then lower pressure than critical pressure is required to liquefy
it. The value of the critical temperature of a gas depends upon its size, shape and intermolecular
forces present in it.
When a gas is measured at its critical temperature and critical pressure, then at that stage volume
of 1 mole of gas is called critical volume which is represented by Vc. The critical volume of O2 is
74.42 cm3 mol-1, of CO2 , is 95.65 cm3 mol-1 and that of H2 is 64.51 cm3 mol-1.
Table (3.2) Critical Temperatures and Critical Pressures of Some Substances
Substance Critical Temperature Tc (K) Critical Pressure Pc (atm)

Water vapours, H2O 647.6 (374.44 °C) 217.0
Ammonia, NH3 405.6 (132.44 °C) 111.5
Freon-12 , CCl2F2 384.7 (111.54 °C) 39.6
Carbon dioxide, CO2 304.3 (31.142 °C) 73.0
Oxygen, O2 154.4 (-118.75 °C) 49.7
Argon, Ar 150.9 (-122.26 °C) 48
Nitrogen, N2 126.1 (-147.06 °C) 33.5
3.9.2 Methods of Liquefaction of Gases
There are various methods to liquefy a gas . One of them is Linde’s method. It is based on Joule-
Thomson efect.
Joule Thomson Efect
Low temperature can be achieved by Joule-Thomson efect, according to which when a compressed
gas is allowed to expand into a region of low pressure it gets cooled.
The molecules of the compressed gas are very close to each other and appreciable attractive
forces are present among them. When a gas is allowed to undergo sudden expansion through
the nozzle of a jet, then the molecules move apart. In this way energy is needed to overcome the
intermolecular attractions. This energy is taken from the gas itself, which is cooled.
36
Linde’s Method of Liquefaction of Gases
Linde has employed Joule-Thomson efect as the basis for liquefaction. The apparatus designed for
this purpose is shown in the Fig (3.11).
For the liquefaction of air, it is compressed to about 200 atmospheres, and then passed though a
water cooled pipe where the heat of compression is removed. It is then allowed to pass through a
spiral pipe having a jet at the end. When the air comes out of the jet the expansion takes place from
200 atm. to 1 atm. In this way, considerable fall of temperature occurs.
Fig (3.11) Linde's method for

Animation 3.5.: Liquefaction
the liquefaction of air
Source& Credit: wikipedia
This cooled air goes up and cools the incoming compressed air. It returns to the compression
pump. This process is repeated again and again. The liquid air is collected at the bottom of the
expansion chamber. All gases except H2, and He can be liqueied by the above procedure.
3.10 NON-IDEAL BEHAVIOUR OF GASES
Whenever, we discuss gas laws it.is proposed that ideal gases obey them. Particularly an ideal gas
obeys Boyle’s law, Charles’s law and the general gas equation under all conditions of temperature
and pressure. Let us try to understand the behaviour of a few real gases like H2, He, N2 and CO2
at °C.keeping in view the variation of the pressure on the gas and consequently the change in its
volume.
37
For this purpose, irst of all plot a graph between

PV
pressure on x-axis and the nRT on Y-axis for an ideal
gas.
The factor PV is called the compressibility factor. Its
nRT
value is unity under all conditions for an ideal gas.
Since the increase of pressure decreases the volume
PV
in such a way that nRT remains constant at a constant
temperature, so a straight line is obtained parallel to
the pressure axis. This is shown in the Figs (3.12 a, b).
All the real gases have been found to show marked Fig (3.12 a) Non-ideal behaviour of gases
at 0 oC
deviations from this behaviour. It is observed that the
graph for helium gas goes along with the expected horizontal dotted line to some extent but goes
above this line at very high pressures.
lt means that at very high pressure the decrease in volume is not according to general gas equation
and the value of PV has increased from the expected values. With this type of behaviour, we
RT
would say that the gas is non-ideal.
In the case of H2 the deviation starts even at low pressure in comparison to He. N2 shows a decrease
PV
in RT value at the beginning and shows marked deviation even at low pressure than H2. CO2 has a
very strange behaviour as it is evident from the graph.
The extent of deviation of these four gases shows that these gases have their own limitations
for obeying general gas equation. It depends upon the nature of the gas that at which value of
pressure, it will start disobeying.
When we study the behaviour of all these four gases at elevated temperature i.e., 100oC then the
graphs come closer to the expected straight line and the deviations are shifted towards higher
pressure. This means that the increase in temperature makes the gases ideal Fig (3.12 b).
This discussion on the basis of experimental observations,
convinces us that
(i) Gases are ideal at low pressure and non-ideal at high
pressure
(ii) Gases are ideal at high temperature and non-ideal at
low temperature.
Fig (3.12 b) Non-ideal behaviour

of gases at 100 °C.
38
3.10.1 Causes for Deviations from Ideality
It was van der W aals (1873) who attributed the deviation

of real gases from ideal behaviour to two of the eight
postulates of kinetic molecular theory of gases.
These postulates are as under.
(i) There are no forces of attraction among the molecules
of a gas.
(ii) The actual volume of gas molecules is negligible as
compared to the volume of the vessel.
When the pressure on a gas is high and the temperature Fig(3.13.a) A gas at low Kig(3.13.b) A gas at high
pressure w hen actual pressure when actual volume
is low then the attractive forces among the molecules volume is negligible. is not negligible.
become signiicant, so the ideal gas equation PV = nRT

does not hold. Actually, under these conditions, the gas does not remain ideal.The actual volume
of the molecules of a gas is usually very small as compared to the volume of the vessel and hence
it can be neglected. This volume, however, does not remain negligible when the gas is subjected to
high pressure. This can be understood from the following Figs (3.13 a, b).
3.10.2 van der Waals Equation for Real Gases
Keeping in view the above discussion, van der Waals pointed out that both pressure and volume
factors in ideal gas equation needed correction in order to make it applicable to the real gases.
Volume Correction
When a gas is compressed, the molecules are pushed so close together that the repulsive forces
operate between them. When pressure is increased further it is opposed by the molecules
themselves. Actually the molecules have deinite volume, no doubt very small as compared to the
vessel, but it is not negligible. So van der Waals postulated that the actual volume of molecules can
no longer be neglected in a highly compressed gas. If the efective volume of the molecules per
mole of a gas is represented by b, then the volume available to gas molecules is the volume of the
vessel minus the volume of gas molecules.
V free = Vvessel - b ........... (28)
39
Vfreeis that volume which is available to gas molecules. The factor b is termed as the excluded volume
which is constant and characteristic of a gas. It’s value depends upon the size of gas molecules.
Table (3.3) shows the b values for some important gases. It is interesting to know that the excluded
volume b is not equal to the actual volume of gas molecules. In fact, it is four times the actual
volume of molecules.
b = 4Vm
WhereVm istheactualvolumeofonemoleofgasmolecules,'b'isefectivevolumeorexcludedvolumeofone
moleofagas.Itisthatvolumeofgaswhichisoccupiedby1moleofgasmoleculesinhighlycompressedstate,
but not in the liquid state.
Pressure Correction
A molecule in the interior of a gas is attracted by other molecules on all sides, so these attractive
forces are cancelled out. However, when a molecule strikes the wall of a container, it experiences
a force of attraction towards the other molecules in the gas. This decreases the force of its impact
on the wall. Consider the molecule "A" which is unable to create pressure on the wall due to the
presence of attractive forces due to 'B' type molecules Fig (3.14). Let the observed pressure on the
wall of the container is P. This pressure is less than the actual pressure Pi, by an amount P', so
P = Pi - P'
Pi is the true kinetic pressure, if the forces of attractions would have been absent. P' is the amount
of pressure lessened due to attractive forces. Ideal pressure Pi is
Pi = P + P’
It is suggested that a part of the pressure P for one mole of a gas used up against intermolecular
attractions should decrease as volume increases. Consequently, the value of P' in terms of a constant
'a' which accounts for the attractive forces and the volume V of vessel can be written as
a
P' =
V2
How to prove it
P’ is determined by the forces of attraction between molecules of type A, which are striking the wall
of the container and molecules of type B, which are pulling them inward. The net force of attraction
is proportional to the concentrations of A type and B type molecules.
∴ P' ∞ C A . CB
40
Let n is the number o f moles o f A and B separately and total volume of both types of molecules is ‘V’ .he n/V is moles dm-3 of
A and B, separately.
∞
n n
P' .
V V
∞
2
n
P'
V2
∞
an2
P'
V2
(‘a’ is a constant of proportionality)

If, n = 1 (one mole of gas)
a
then P' = . . . . . . . (29)
V2
Greater the attractive forces among the gas molecules, smaller the volume of vessel, greater the
value of lessened pressure P’.
This ‘a’ is called co-eicient of attraction or attraction per unit volume. It has a constant value for a
particular real gas. Thus efective kinetic pressure of a gas is given by Pi, which is the pressure if the
gas would have been ideal.
a
Pi = P + ....... (30)
V2
Fig (3.14) Forces of attraction

and pressure correction
41
Once the corrections for pressure and volume are made, the kinetic equation for one mole of a gas can be
a
constructed by taking pressure as ( P + ) and volume as (V - b) for one mole of a gas.
V2
a
(P + ) (V - b) = RT ......... (31)
V2
n2a
For ‘n’ moles of a gas (P + ) (V - nb) = nRT ......... (32)
V2
This is called van der Waal’s equation, ‘a’ and ‘b’ are called van der Waal’s constants.
Units of ’a‘.
Since,
n2a
P' =
V2
So
P'V 2
a= 2
n
atm x (dm3 )2
a=
(mol)2
a = atm dm6 mol-2
In S.I. units, pressure is in Nm-2 and volume in m3
2
or Nm-2 x (m3 )
a=
(mol)2
or a = Nm+4 mol-2
Units o f ‘b’: b’ is excluded or incompressible volume /mol-1 of gas. Hence its units should be dm3
mol-1 or m3 mol-1
The values of ’a’ and ‘b’ can be determined by knowing the values of P, V and T of a gaseous system
under two diferent conditions. Following Table (3.3) gives the values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ for some common
gases.
42
Table(3.3) van der Waals Constant for Some Common Gases
Gas ‘a’ (atm dm6 mol-2) ‘b’ (dm3 mol-1)

Hydrogen 0.245 0.0266
Oxygen 1.360 0.0318
Nitrogen 1.390 0.0391
Carbon dioxide 3.590 0.0428
Ammonia 4.170 0.0371
Sulphur dioxide 6.170 0.0564
Chlorine 6.493 0.0562
The presence of intermolecular forces in gases like Cl2 and SO2 increases their ‘a’ factor.The least
value of ‘a’ for H2 is due to its small size and non-polar character. The ‘b’ value of H2 is 0.0266 dm3
mol-1. It means that if 2.016g (1mole) of H2 is taken, then it will occupy 0.0266 dm3 or 266cm3 of
volume at closest approach in the gaseous state.
Example 8
One mole of methane gas is maintained at 300 K. Its volume is 250 cm3. Calculate the pressure
exerted by the gas under the following conditions.
(i) when the gas is ideal
(ii) when the gas is non-ideal
a = 2.253 atm dm6 mol-2 , b = 0.0428 dm3 mol-1
Solution
(i) When the gas is ideal, general gas equation is applied i.e.,
PV = nRT
V = 250 cm3 = 0.25 dm3 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
n = 1 mole
T = 300 K
R = 0.0821 dm3 atm K −1 mol −1
nRT
P=
V
43
Putting the values alongwith units

1 mol x 0.0821 dm3 atm K −1 mol −1 x 300 K
P =
0.25 dm3
P = 98.5 atm (Answer)
If CH4 gas would have been ideal, under the given conditions, 98.5 atm. pressure would have been
exerted.
(ii) When the gas is behaving as non-ideal, we should use the van der Waals equation
 n2a 
  (V-nb) = n R T
 V2 
P +
By rearranging the equation and taking the pressure on L.H.S.
n2a n R T
P+ =
V2 V-nb
or
n R T n2a
P = -
V-nb V 2
Substituting the following values (ignore the units for sake of simplicity)
n = 1 mol, R = 0.0821 dm3 atm K-1 mol-1,
V = 0.25 dm3, T = 300 K, a = 2.253 dm6 atm mol-2, b = 0.0428 dm3 mol-1
0.25-1 ( 0.0428 ) (0.25) 0.207 0.0625

1 x 0.0821 x 300 1 x 2.253 24.63 2.253
- = -
P = 118.985 - 36.048 = 82.85 atm.
In the non-ideal situation the pressure has lessened upto

98.5 - 82.85 = 15.65 atm. Answer
Conclusion:
The diference of these two pressures shows that this gas is non-ideal. Actually CH4 is thought to
be ideal near 1 atm, but around 100 atmospheres, it develops non-ideal attitude. This diference of
ideal and non-ideal pressure goes on decreasing when gas is considered at low pressures.
44
3.11 PLASMA STATE
What is plasma?
Plasma is often called the “fourth state of matter”, the other three being solid, liquid and g a s. Plasma
was identiied by the English scientist William Crookes in 1879. In addition to being important in
many aspects of our daily life, plasmas are estimated to constitute more than 99 percent of the
visible universe. Although, naturally occurring plasma is rare on earth, there are many man-made
examples.
Inventors have used plasma to conduct electricity in neon signs and luorescent bulbs. Scientists
have constructed special chambers to experiment with plasma in laboratories. It occurs only in
lightning discharges and in artiicial devices like luorescent lights, neon signs, etc. It is everywhere
in our space environment.
How is Plasma formed ?
When more heat is supplied, the atoms or molecules may be ionized.

An electron may gain enough energy to escape its atom. This atom loses
one electron and develops a net positive charge. It becomes an ion. In a
suiciently heated gas, ionization happens many times, creating clouds of
free electrons and ions. However, all the atoms are not necessarily ionized,
and some of them may remain completely intact with no net charge. This
ionized gas mixture, consisting of ions, electrons and neutral atoms is called
plasma.
It means that a plasma is a distinct state of matter containing a signiicant
number of electrically charged particles a number suicient to afect its
electrical properties and behaviour.
45
Natural and Artiicial Plasma
Artiicial plasma can be created by ionization of a gas. as in neon signs. Plasma at low temperatures
is hard to maintain because outside a vacuum low temperature plasma reacts rapidly with any
molecule it encounters. This aspect makes this material, both very useful and hard to use. Natural
plasma exists only at very high temperatures, or low temperature vacuums.
Natural plasma on the other hand do not breakdown or react rapidly, but is extremely hot (over
20,000°C minimum). Their energy is so high that they vaporize any material they touch.
Characteristic of Plasma:
1. A plasma must have suicient number of charged particles so as a whole, it exhibits a collective
response to electric and magnetic ields. The motion of the particles in the plasma generate
ields and electric currents from within plasma density. It refers to the density of the charged
particles. This complex set of interactions makes plasma a unique, fascinating, and complex
state of matter.
2. Although plasma includes electrons and ions and conducts electricity, it is macroscopically
neutral. In measurable quantities the number of electrons and ions are equal.
Where is Plasma found ?
Entire universe is almost of plasma. It existed before any other forms of matter came into being.
Plasmas are found in everything from the sun to quarks, the smallest particles in the universe.
As stated earlier plasma is the most abundant form of matter
in the universe. It is the stuf of stars. A majority of the matter
in inner-stellar space is plasma. All the stars that shine are all
plasma. The sun is a 1.5 million kilometer ball of plasma, heated
by nuclear fusion.
Animation 3.6.:Plasma ball

source & Credit: giphy
46
One arth it only occurs in a few limited places, like lightning bolts, lames, auroras, and luorescent
lights. When an electric current is passed through neon gas, it produces both plasma and light.
Applications of Plasma:
Plasma has numerous important technological applications. It is present in many devices. It helps
us to understand much of the universe around us. Because plasmas’ are conductive respond
to electric and magnetic ields and can be eicient sources of radiation, so they can be used in
innumerable applications where such control is needed or when special sources of energy or
radiation are required.
1. A luorescent light bulb is not like regular light bulbs. Inside the long tube is a gas. When the light
is turned on, electricity lows through the tube. This electricity acts as that special energy and
charges up the gas. This charging and exciting of the atoms creates a glowing plasma inside the
bulb.
2. Neon signs are glass tubes illed with gas. When they are
turned on then the electricity lows through the tube. The
electricity charges the gas, possibly neon, and creates a
plasma inside the tube. The plasma glows with a special
colour depending on what kind of gas is inside.
3. They ind applications such as plasma processing of
semiconductors, sterilization of some medical prodjucts,
lamps, lasers, diamond coated ilms, high power microwave
sources and pulsed power switches.
4. They also provide the foundation for important potential
applications such as the generation of electrical energy
from fusion pollution control and removal of hazardous
chemicals. Animation 3.7.:Application of Plasma
Source & Credit: pag
5. Plasma light up our oices and homes, make our computers
and electronic equipment work.
6. They drive lasers and particle accelerators, help to clean up the environment, pasteurize foods
and make tools corrosion-resistant.
47
Future Horizons:
Scientists are working on putting plasma to efective use. Plasma would have to be low energy and
should be able to survive without instantly reacting and degenerating. The application of magnetic
ields involves the use of plasma. The magnetic ields create low energy plasma which create
molecules that are in what scientist call a metastable state. The magnetic ields used to create
the low temperature plasma give the plasma molecules, which do not react until they collide with
another molecule with just the right energy. This enables these metastable molecules to survive
long enough to react with a designated molecule. These metastable particles are selective in their
reactivity. It makes them a potentially unique solution to problems like radioactive contamination.
Scientist are currently experimenting with mixtures of gases to work as metastable agents on
plutonium and uranium, and this is just the beginning.
48
KEY POINTS
1. The behaviour of a gas is described through four variables i.e., pressure, volume , temperature
and its number of moles. The relationships between gas variables are known as the simple gas
laws. Boyle’s law relates pressure of a gas with its volume, while Charles’s law relates gas volume
with temperature. Avogadro’s law is concerned with volume and amount of a gas. The important
concept of absolute zero of temperature originates from the simple gas laws.
2. By combining the above mentioned three laws, a more general equation about the behaviour
of gas is obtained i.e., PV = n RT. This equation can be solved for any one of the variables when
values for others are known. This equation can be modiied for the determination of molar
masses and the density of the gas.
3. Dalton’s law of partial pressures can be used to calculate the partial pressures of gases.
4. The processes of difusion and efusion are best understood by Graham’s law of difusion.
5. Kinetic molecular theory of gases provides a theoretical basis for various gas laws. With the help
of this theory a relationship is established between average molecular kinetic energy and kelvin
temperature. The difusion and efusion of the gases can be related to their molar masses
through the kinetic molecular theory of gases.
6. The real gases show ideal behaviour under speciic conditions. They become non-ideal at high
pressure and low temperature. The non-ideal behaviour results chiely from intermolecuiar
attractions and the inite volume occupied by the gas molecules.
7. Gases can be liquiied by applying suicient pressure but temperature should either be critical
one or below it.
8. To calculate the pressure or volume of a real gas under the non-ideal conditions, alternative
kinetic equation has been developed. This is known as the van der Waal’s equation.
9. The plasma, a forth state of matter, consist of neutral particles, positive ions and negative
electrons, 99% of the known universe is in the plasma state.
49
Excercise
Q 1: Select the correct answer out of the following alternative suggestions.

(i) Pressure remaining constant, at which temperature the volume of a gas will become twice of what it is
at 0°C.
a. 546°C b. 200°C c. 546K d. 273K
(ii) Number of molecules in one dm3 of water is close to
6.02 12.04 18
23
x 1023 23
a. 22.4 x 10 b. 22.4 c. 22.4 x 10 d. 55.6 x 6.02 x 1023
(iii) Which of the following will have the same number of molecules at STP?
a. 280 cm3 of CO2 and 280 cm3 of N2O
b. 11.2 dm3 of O2 and 32 g of O2
c. 44 g of CO2 and 11.2 dm3 of CO
d. 28 g of N2 and 5.6 dm3 of oxygen
(iv) If absolute temperature of a gas is doubled and the pressure is reduced to one half, the volume of the
gas will
a. remain unchanged b. increase four times
c. reduce to 1/4 d. be doubled
(v) How should the conditions be changed to prevent the volume of a given gas from expanding
when its mass is increased?
a. Temperature is lowered and pressure is increased.
b. Temperature is increased and pressure is lowered.
c. Temperature and pressure both are lowered.
d. Temperature and pressure both are increased.
(vi) The molar volume of CO2 is maximum at
a. S TP b. 127°C and 1 atm c. 0°C and 2 atm d. 273°C and 2 atm
(vii) The order of the rate of difusion of gases NH3, SO2, Cl2, an CO2 is:
a. NH3 > SO2 > Cl2 > CO2 b. NH3 > CO2 > SO2 > Cl2
c. Cl2 > SO2 > CO2 > NH3 d. NH3 > CO2 > Cl2 > SO2
(viii) Equal masses of methane and oxygen are mixed in an empty container at 25°C. The fraction
of total pressure exerted by oxygen is
a. 1/3 b. 8/9 c. 1/9 d. 16/17
50
(ix) Gases deviate form ideal behaviour at high pressure. Which of the following is correct for
non-ideality?
a. At high pressure, the gas molecules move in one direction only.
b. At high pressure, the collisions between the gas molecules are increased manifold.
c. At high pressure, the volume of the gas becomes insigniicant.
d. At high pressure, the intermolecular attractions become signiicant.
(x) The deviation of a gas from ideal behaviour is maximum at
a. -10°C and 5.0atm b. -10 °C and 2.0 atm
c. 100 °Cand2.0 atm d. 0 °C and 2.0 atm
(xi) A real gas obeying van derW aals equation will resemble ideal gas if
a. both ’a’ and ’b’ are large b. both’a’and’b’are small
c. ‘a’ is small and ’b’ is large d. ‘a’ is large and ’b’ is small
Q2: Fill in the blanks

(i). The product PV has the S.I. unit of _____________
(ii).Eight grams each of O2, and H2, at 27 °C will have total K.E in the ratio of _____________
(iii).Smell of the cooking gas during leakage from a gas cylinder is due to the property
of_____________ of _____________ gases.
(iv).Equal _________ of ideal gases at the same temperature and pressure contain______________
number of molecules.
(v).The temperature above which a substance exists only as a gas is called_____________.
Q3: Label the follow in g sentences as True or False.
(i). Kinetic energy of molecules of a gas is zero at 0oC.
(ii). A gas in a closed container will exert much higher pressure at the bottom due to gravity
than at the top.
(iii). Real gases show ideal gas behaviour at low pressure and high temperature.
(iv). Liquefaction of gases involves decrease in intermolecular spaces.
(v). An ideal gas on expansion will show Joule-Thomson efect.
Q4 . a. What is Boyle’s law of gases? Give its experimental veriication.
b. What are isotherms? What happens to the positions of isotherms when they are plotted at
high temperature for a particular gas.
c. Why do w e get a straight line when pressures exerted on a gas are plotted against inverse
of volumes? This straight line changes its position in the graph by varying the temperature.
Justify it.
d. How will you explain that the value of the constant k in the equation PV = k depends upon
(i) the temperature of a gas (ii) the quantity of a gas
51
Q5.a. What is the Charles's law? Which scale of temperature is used to verify that V/T = k
(pressure and number of moles are constant)?
b. A sample of carbon monoxide gas occupies 150.0 mL at 25.0°C. It is then cooled at constant
pressure until it occupies 100.0 mL. What is the new' temperature? (Ans: 198.8K or -74.4 °C )
c. Do you think that the volume of any quantity of a gas becomes zero at - 273.16 °C. Is it not
against the law of conservation of mass? How do you deduce the idea of absolute zero from
this information?
Q6 . a. What is Kelvin scale of temperature? Plot a graph for one mole of an a real gas to prove
that a gas becomes liquid, earlier than -273.16 ’C.
b. Throw some light on the factor 1/273 in Charles's law.
Q7. a. What is the general gas equation? Derive it in various forms.
b. Can we determine the molecular mass of an unknown gas if we know the pressure, temperature
and volume along with the mass of that gas.
c. How do you justify from general gas equation that increase in temperature or decrease of
pressure decreases the density of the gas?
c. Why do we feel comfortable in expressing the densities of gases in the units of g dm-3 rather
than g cm-3, a unit which is used to express the densities of liquids and solids.
Q8 . Derive the units for gas constant R in general gas equation:
a. when the pressure is in atmosphere and volume in dm3.
b. when the pressure is in N m-2 and volume in m3.
c. when energy is expressed in ergs.
Q9. a. What is Avogadro’s law of gases?
b. Do you think that 1 mole of H2 and 1 mole of NH3 at 0 oC and 1 atmpressure will have
Avogadro’s number of particles?
c. Justify that 1 cm3 of H2 and 1 cm3 of CH4 at STP will have same number of molecules, when
one molecule of CH4 is 8 times heavier than that of hydrogen.
52
Q10. a. Dalton’s law of partial pressures is only obeyed by those gases which don’t have attractive
forces among their molecules. Explain it.
b. Derive an equation to ind out the partial pressure of a gas knowing the individual moles
of component gases and the total pressure of the mixture.
c. Explain that the process of respiration obeys the Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
d. How do you diferentiate between difusion and efusion? Explain Graham’s law of difusion.
Q11. a. What is critical temperature of a gas? What is its importance for liquefaction of gases?
Discuss Linde's method of liquefaction of gases.
b. What is Joule-Thomson efect? Explain its importance in Linde's method of liquefaction of
gases.
Q12. a. What is kinetic molecular theory of gases? Give its postulates.
b. How does kinetic molecular theory of gases explain the following gas laws:
(i) Boyle's law (ii) Charles's law
(iii) Avogadro's law (iv) Graham’s law of difusion
Q13. a. Gases show non-ideal behaviour at low temperature and high pressure. Explain this with
the help of a graph.
b. Do you think that some of the postulates of kinetic molecular theory of gases are faulty?
Point out these postulates.
c. Hydrogen and helium are ideal at room temperature, but SO2 , and Cl2 are nonideal. How
will you explain this?
Q14. a. Derive van der Waal's equation for real gases.
b. What is the physical signiicance of van der Waals'constants, ’a’ and ’b? Give their units.
Q15 Explain the following facts

a. The plot of PV versus P i s a straight line at constant temperature and with a ixed number of
moles of an ideal gas.
b. The straight line in (a) is parallel to pressure-axis and goes away from the pressure axis at
higher pressures for many gases.
c. Pressure of NH3 gas at given conditions (say 20 atm pressure and room temperature) is less
as calculated by van der Waals equation than that calculated by general gas equation.
d. Water vapours do not behave ideally at 273K.
e. SO2 is comparatively non-ideal at 273K but behaves idealy at 327 “C.
53
Q16 Helium gas in a 100 cm3 container at a pressure of 500 torr is transferred to a container with
a volume of 250 cm3. What will be the new pressure
a. if no change in temperature occurs (Ans: 2 0 0 torr)
b. if its temperature changes from 20 “C to 15°C? (Ans: 196.56 torr)
Q17
a. What are the densities in kg/dm3 of the following gases at STP
(P = 101325 Nm-2, T = 273 K, molecular masses are in kg mol-1
(i) methane, (ii) oxygen, (iii) hydrogen
b. Compare the values of densities in proportion to their mole masses.
c. How do you justify that increase of volume upto 100 dm3 at 27°C of 2 moles
of NH3 will allow the gas behave ideally, as compared to S.T.P conditions.
(Ans: CH4=0.714kgm, O2=1.428kgm-3, H2=0.089kgm-3)
Q18 A sample of krypton with a volume of 6.25 dm3 , a pressure of 765 torr and a temperature of 20 °C
is expanded to a volume of 9.55 dm3 and a pressure of 375 torr. What will be its inal temperature in °C?
(Ans: T = -53.6°c)
Q19 Working at a vacuum line, a chemist isolated a gas in a weighing bulb with a volume of 255
cm3, at a temperature of 25 °C and under a pressure in the bulb of 10.0 torr. The gas weighed 12.1
mg. What is the molecular mass of this gas?
(Ans: 87.93g mol-1)
Q20 What pressure is exerted by a mixture of 2.00g of H2 and 8.00g of N2 at 273K in a 10 dm3 vessel?
(Ans: P = 2.88 atm)
Q21. a. The relative densities of two gases A and B are 1:1.5. Find out the volume of B which
will difuse in the same time in which 150 dm3 of A will difuse?
(Ans: 122.47dm3)
b. Hydrogen (H2) difuses through a porous plate at a rate of 500 cm3 per minute at 0 “C. What
is the rate of difusion of oxygen through the same porous plate at0 oC?
(Ans: 125 cm3)
c. The rate of efusion of an unknown gas A through a pinhole is found to be 0.279 times the
rate of efusion of H2 gas through the same pinhole. Calculate the molecular mass of the
unknown gas at STP. (Ans: = 25.7 gmol-1)
54
Q22 Calculate the number of molecules and the number of atoms in the given amounts of each
gas
(a) 20 cm3 of CH4 at 0 °C and pressure of 700 mm of mercury (Ans: 4.936 x1020, 24.7 x 1020
(b) 1 cm3 of NH3 at 100 °C and pressure of 1.5 atm (Ans:2.94x1019,1.177 x 1020)
Q23 Calculate the masses of 1020 molecules of each of H2, O2, and CO, at STP. What will happen to
the masses of these gases, when the temperature of these gases are increased by 100 oC and the
pressure is decreased by 100 torr.
(Ans: 3.3 x 10-4g; 5.31 x 10-3g; 7.30 x 10-3g)
Q24 a. Two moles of NH3 are enclosed in a 5 dm3 lask at 27 oC. Calculate the pressure exerted by
the gas assuming that
(i) it behaves like an ideal gas
(ii) it behaves like a real gas
a=4.17 atm dm6 mol-2
b = 0.0371 dm3 mol-1 (Ans: 9.85 atm)
b. Also calculate the amount of pressure lessened due to forces of attractions at these
conditions of volume and temperature. (Ans: 0.51atm)
c. Do you expect the same decrease in the pressure of two moles of NH3 having a volume of
40 dm3 and at temperature of 27 °C.
55

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CHAPTER

Animation 3.1: Boyle’s Law

3.1 STATES OF MATTER

Animation 3.2.: States of Matter

Source & Credit: knockhardy

3.1.1 Properties of Gases

3.1.2 Properties of Liquids

3.1.3 Properties of Solids

3.1.4 Units of Pressure:

3.2 GAS LAWS

3.2.1 Boyle’s Law

Animation 3.3: Boyle’s Law

So P1V1 = k and P2V2 = k

3.2.2 Experimental Veriication of Boyle’s Law

Fig (3.1) Veriication of Boyle’s Law

P1V1 = 2 atm x 1 dm3 = 2 dm3 atm = k

Initial volume of gas (V1) = 10 dm3

Since the temperature is constant ( T1= T2) Boyle’s law is applicable

V2 =2.5 atm x 10 dm3

= 12.5 dm3 Answer

3.2.3 Graphical Explanation of Boyle’s Law

Let us take a particular amount of a gas at a constant temperature

If a graph is plotted between 1/V on x-axis and the pressure P on

directly proportional to each other. This straight line will meet

By increasing the temperature of the same gas from T1 to T2 and

Fig (3.5) A plot between pressure

3.2.4 Charle s 's Law

It is a quantitative relationship between

Charles in 1787. According to this law, the

If the temperature is changed from T1 to T2 and

3.2.5 Experimental Veriication of Charles ‘s Law

The new values of volume and temperature are V2 and

Hence Charles’s law is veriied.

250 cm3 of hydrogen is cooled from 127oC to -27°C by

V1/T1= V2/T2 (when pressure and number of moles are constant)

V2 = 0.25 dm3 x 246K = 0.153 dm3 = 153 cm3 Answer

3.2.6 Derivation of Absolute Zero

Table(3.1) volume-Temperature data for a given amount of a gas at constant

Volumes (cm3) CelsiusTemperature (oC) Temperature (K) V

If we plot a graph between temperature on x-axis and

Fig (3.7) The graph between volume

3.2.7 Scales of Thermometry

3.3 GENERAL GAS EQUATION

The constant suggested is R which is called general gas constant.

PV = nRT ............ (4)

For one mole of a gas, the general gas equation is

It means that ratio of PV to T is a constant quantity (molar gas constant)

P1V1 = P2 V2 ........... (5)

3.3.1 Ideal Gas Constant R

Putting their values, alongwith units

R = 8.3143 Nm K-1 mol-1 = 8.3143 J K-1 mol-1 (1 Nm = 1J)

3.3.2 Density of an ideal Gas

Preferably, convert the volume to dm3 and temperature to Kelvin scale.

101325 Nm −2 × 0.38dm3 × 300 K

Temperature of the gas = 0°C + 273 K - 273 K

d = 0.7138 g dm−3 Answer

Temperature = 27 + 273 = 300 K

(b ) Density at 2 atmospheric pressure and 0°C

Volume of the gas = 1dm3