English Research – Conventions & Terms

Nihilism: Nihilism is the psychological concept of the belief that nothing is (real) nor be known or
communicated. It is associated with extreme pessimistic values and radical scepticism that denounce
existence, and the abandoning of values and knowledge. A nihilist would believe and trust in nothing
or no-one and have no purpose other than, in some cases, a willingness to destroy.

Nihilism is derived from the Latin word nihil meaning nothing or that which does not exist. Nihilism
has been associated throughout the mid-20 th century towards the belief that life is meaningless. This
is related to the notion of existential nihilism, of that the world has no meaning or purpose. Nihilism
can be demonstrated differently - existential nihilism is the view that life has no meaning or value
and that existence itself is senseless, epistemological nihilism is denial of knowledge or truth, as well
as political and ethical nihilism.

Context of Production: Context of production is the background information or circumstances that

provide reason for settings, themes, ideas, and concepts within a text. It is the socio-cultural
landscape of the era, as well as the writer’s beliefs, values, and interpretations of the time. It can
include the cultural, historical, geographical, economic, and social factors that affect the content and
style of the text. Cultural context related to the society and its values, beliefs, and customs where
individuals are raised in and the way this culture affects the writer’s developed ides. Historical
context includes the events happening before and around the time of production that influenced
certain events or responses within a text. Social context refers to the beliefs and interpretations that
affect the way the text was constructed. Context of production develops a relationship between the
writer and reader, giving the reader the ability to interpret certain concepts within the text through
their own reading, but giving them direction towards the intent of the message conveyed.

Existentialism: Existentialism is the concern of the meaning of life and existence and finding oneself.
This is based on experimentation through free will, choice and individual responsibility and is defined
by rationality and individuality. Historically founded on the concept from Aristotle, articulating
everything and everyone had an essence created prior to our existence, and that essence
predetermines one’s purpose before they come to exist. Existentialism is the journey towards
finding true self and personal meaning.

Existentialistic values developed largely after the Great Depression and World War 2 with large
despair over society. Any theme of optimism was desolated at this time and existential philosophers
highlighted the existential perspective surrounding the meaning of life, making much of society
consider their way of life and the importance of their overall existence.

Utilitarianism: Utilitarianism is an ethical theory of morality, determining right from wrong based on
situation outcomes. Related to forms of consequentialism, it concerns the amount of ‘good’ or
happiness produced from the morally right decision, and the opposite occurring from the wrong.
Utilitarians believe increase of ‘good’ in society, such as happiness and pleasure, and decrease of
‘bad’, such as pain, is the moral purpose for the greatest number of people.

Utilitarianism is limited in some ways due to the construction of its beliefs. As we can not predict the
future, we can not know the outcomes of our actions and their morality, so it is difficult to have
certainty. It also has issues concerning justice and individual rights; the way utilitarianism aims to
produce the greatest good for the greatest number, it can often disobey many general moral and
ethical stance.
Deontology: Deontology is the theory that every action is either good or bad according to a clear set
of rules or structure. Derived from the Greek word deon, meaning duty, relating to German
philosopher Immanuel Kant's practice of deontology being how the ability of reason was what
defined oneself. The way personhood creates a range of rights and obligations for each person in an
ethical sense, they can determine what is ethically right or wrong to themselves and society. He also
outlined that we should “do our duty for no reason than it’s the right thing to do”.

Deontology can be opposed to consequentialism, for example the concept of heaven and hell; the
way one does morally right things with an overall goal for eternal afterlife in a ‘paradise’ and
avoiding doing too much wrong and be doomed to life in hell. Rather, deontology relies on
consistency and doing it not for oneself but selflessly.

Existential Nihilism: Existential nihilism is the view that life has no meaning or value and that
existence itself is senseless. It is the belief that there is no “prize” at the end – no moral resolution,
no philosophical meaning or fulfilment. This circumstances the way everything is ultimately empty
and worthless, including any emotion, feeling, action and suffering. This can be an uncomfortable
but engrossing viewpoint, asking oneself whether any action or feeling is worthwhile and what or if
it is leading to anything.

Existential nihilism follows the expression “existence precedes essence” defined by Jean-Paul Sartre.
This movement became popular in the 1940s and 50s from France’s atheistic existentialist
movement. It asked when we abandon illusions, what of life is left; the nothingness left
existentialism explaining it as a source of freedom, but also existential horror (dread upon realisation
of the notion of their existence) and great emotional suffering.

Utopia: Utopia is the expression of a paradise, a dream destination. It is derived from Greek origin,
the words ou, meaning no, and topos meaning place. It also has close relations to the word eu topos
meaning a good place. It’s an idealistic world with no social problems such as war, disease, or
poverty, usually developed through technology creating “perfect” living conditions. They usually
consist of a peaceful government with equality for citizens, fair opportunity, and safety.

Utopia was first illustrated in literature by Sir Thomas More in 1515. His complex community was set
on an island governed entirely by reason and at such state of order and dignity that, at the time, was
unreasonable in an era of greed and egomania. This allowed the idolisation of the far-fetched utopia
to affect literature at such a high and constant rate into current literature. The continued hope and
greed for a “better place” has allowed the theme of a utopia to stay so strongly influential over
society

Dystopia: Dystopia is the opposite of utopia and are of a dystopian genre with sci-fi and fantasy
characteristics. They are described as places once known as a utopia but where their society has
been put in peril and usually totalitarian or post-apocalyptic. There problems are extreme and
chaotic throughout society and limit individuality, rights and living conditions. It is usually from a
result of environmental ruin, technological destruction, or oppression from governments over
individuality.

Dystopia was introduced after the development of utopia. It was within the time of the 20 th century
where there was political disturbance and worldwide anxiety, and the looming of two world wars
which saw the emergence of the dystopian genre. Literary authors began to articulate their belief
that predicted dark events and rising tension of the future of society. The idea of totalitarian
government control, as well as environmental and societal destruction became very popular in
literature and became a dominating genre of its time.

Film Noir: Film noir originated in the 1920s in France, translating to “black cinema” basing the way
original film noir was in black and white. Although some believe film noir only characterises past
films that were created in black and white, although movies with film noir characteristics are still
produced up till today. Defined by its pessimistic, dark themes, it often focuses on a protagonist who
is seriously flawed and has deteriorating morals throughout the film; also known as an anti-hero.
Film noir movies usually contain a femme fatale character – a seductive female character who is
known to manipulate male characters.

It is usually set in a corrupt society where right and wrong is not clearly defined and there are no said
“good guys”. Popular in the 1940s and 50s reflecting their era, the films were usually based around
the idea of post-war disillusionment, where characters have no sense of control. Technical codes of
high contrast lighting to create melodrama, and tight dialogue creating uneasiness for the characters
and audience.

Binary Opposition: Binary opposition is the idea that everything can be understood in relationship to
one another; the way two opposites can not exist together. The notion that they can not coexist
creates social boundaries, prejudice, and discrimination. This is explored in philosophy, psychology,
and in literature through the way individuals interact with each other. The way related concepts are
strictly opposed and related in a sense of juxtaposition.

Binary opposition originated from Ferdinand de Saussure’s theory. His theory outlined the way that
every unit of language has value and a reciprocal relation with another term. It also demonstrates
the fact that to fully understand the context (syntagmatic dimension), you must also understand the
group it is derived from (paradigm). For example, without understanding evil, a person can not
embody good. This relation between two opposing ideas forces us to ponder the similarities they
share through their relationship.

Gender Studies: Gender studies are the academic discipline that analyse societal constructs of
gender. They often are studied in relation to other factors, such as sexuality, race, class and religion.
It looks at the way gender affects identity, but also its structures within society; the way society has
naturalised, normalised, and conditioned gender historical and in the present.

Gender studies emerged in the late 1960s It was heavily influenced by the second wave of feminism
in the 20th century. The second wave of feminism focused on the social, economic, and political
suffering felt by women because of their gender. It was developed out of identity politics of the
1980s and 90s with demand for a field focused upon gender’s relationship and causation of social
barriers and norms within society at the time. Gender studies are still a large study and political
conversation presently and are a big portion of political and social constructs today.

Hegemony: Hegemony is the dominant nature of on social group over another, usually supported by
norms or ideas of society at the time. It describes the way certain groups in power manipulate other
groups and ideas in minority because of their chauvinistic attitudes. Hegemony tests the relationship
of overwhelming power and the ability to lead. It challenges the idea that “with great power comes
great responsibility”, with the way a group or leader of a group exercises their leverage and
dominance over people and their thoughts, feelings, and ideas.

Hegemony is derived from the Greek word hēgemonia meaning dominance over. The idea of
hegemony was loosely represented until its articulation from Antonia Gramsci. He was interested in
the way capitalism survived throughout history, as well as the way intuitional forms and industrial
production methods rose. It also studied whether large class supremacy is obtained by domination
and coercion, or more consensual means.

Surveillance and Control: Surveillance is the term that describes the close watch over someone or
something, especially if they are suspected of crime or illegal activities. Although surveillance has
been an ancient social process, introduction of technology and development of infrastructures has
allowed it to become one of societies institutional routines. It has changed social dynamics through
the distribution of power, social and institutional practices, and identity.

Control is a large influence over surveillance and of society. The way some groups or individuals have
the power, money, or fame to control others creates social imbalance in society. People in control
can influence society’s ideas, thoughts, values, or morals. The way these people in control are
privileged allows them to take advantage more easily over surveillance mechanisms. This is how
surveillance can be seen as immoral, invasion of privacy and identity. This is an influential topic for
people, especially with concern of safety but also of privacy.

Free Will: Free will is the capacity everyone has to choose or act a certain way because of their own
choices, morals, and values. Free will challenges themes of control and surveillance, and argues the
experience of freedom, expression, and responsibility for one’s own actions. A prominent feature in
existentialism is the theme of freedom of choice and decision making. Most of society would believe
they have free will, although the nature of “free will” make it difficult to calculate how much
freedom it allows.

Free will is associated with many historical figures and religions; its philosophical concept was
outlined under Greek origin, which was developed throughout literature under influence of the
religion of Christianity. It relates to the concept of moral responsibility but also under advocate of
freedom and individuality. Free will has continued throughout history in society and literature as a
advocated topic in the sense of human rights and individuality.

Corporate Power: Corporate power is the influence of large corporations over society through their
large platform, financial stance, and control. Their power over society allows them to not be as
accountable for certain treatment, rule breaking, taxation and environmental solutions, or their
liability being ineffective due to the magnitude of these corporations. Corporate power defines many
people’s opportunities and freedoms, such as equality in pay, worker rights and in controlling the
condition of the environment.
Corporate power has risen ever since the industrial revolution; the way people or groups in power
can take control without you being able to stop it or arise questions upon it. The large influence of
industrialisation and corporations, good and bad, has had such a large impact over society and the
economy that it is difficult to way up the chances of concerning corporate power in relation to
business.

Commodification: In literature, commodification is the transformation of social relationships into

commercial relationships under the pressure and influence of an economic, capitalist-based society.
The blur between the economy and society and influences of corporate power have made the rise of
commodification of ideas, social relationships, and individuals a common part of society.
Commodification, in this way, objectifies people to the point that they can be traded as a good.

The idea of widespread commodification, the way it does not have to be just tangible goods, was
first explored by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the Communist Manifesto of 1848. It saw the way
that value is not what a good can do but what it can be exchanged for. This, at the beginning of
industrialisation, brought labour up as a commodity, but with constant development of
commercialisation and industrialisation, individuals can be seen as a good in themselves. 

Social Commentary: A social commentary is a comment on a part of society, usually in a negative

light. It can refer to wide societal issues and behaviours, or specific situations of a certain individual,
group, or area. Social commentary forces individuals to critically analyse societal issues, such as
social media or the environment, and give an opinion on their relationship within these issues. In
literature, social commentary gives the author the opportunity to express their criticism on society
to highlight their specific opinions on concepts within society and aim to prevent the continuation of
these issues.

The arise of social media has allowed social commentary to become an integral part of society, but
also an overwhelming one. The ability for all of society to express any opinions, true or untrue, to a
wide section of society. Although, in its artistic and literature form, social commentary can be a
powerful and influential source.

Ethics: Ethics are the philosophical concept outlining what is morally right or wrong and the way
these are applied by an individual or society. Ethics can be divided into many subgenres of itself,
such as normative, applied and metaethics. Ethics is considered to be a branch of philosophy,
studying many different questions and ideas concerned on morality, but it can also be related to
other disciplines such as biology, history, economics, and anthropology. Focus on ethics came when
humans began to contemplate their existence and the effect of their actions. This made them try to
derive a better way to live, therefore looking to ethics to give sense towards their behaviours. The
way morality can not be fully measured, as it is different from person to person, makes ethics a more
subjective topic and rather ponders questions on our actions and the repercussions of such actions.

Human Nature and the Social Contract: Human nature is the characteristics, behaviours and
attitudes displayed and shared between humankind. It is the essence of what it is to be a human. It
is a complex moral and behavioural interpretation over society as a whole. The theory of the social
contract challenges the notion of human nature.

The theory of the social contract is the way a persons’ moral and political responsibilities are
dependant on a contract of society. Social contract was heavily influenced by Thomas Hobbes, John
Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rosseau. Hobbes outlined the way human nature had no enforced right or
wrong, and that social contract civilises people by allowing them to understand this. Locke’s theory
says that society as a people consented to be ruled by a governing body to outline moral conformity.
Rosseau theorised the social contract as the way society comes together to make an agreement of
morality.