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2.
Measuring the rate of reaction my measuring the loss in mass of a

reactant
• MASS LOSS - following the mass loss due to the escape of a

gaseous product
• The rate of a reaction that produces a gas can also be measured
by following the mass loss as the gas is formed and escapes from
the reaction flask.
o Eg for reactions producing carbon dioxide (limestone + acid
o
o The total mass of the flask and contents are recorded at
selected suitable time intervals and subtracted from the
initial mass; the actual mass loss which equals the mass of
product formed.
Graphs
3.Following the rate of a reaction from a visual precipitation effect
• PRECIPITATION - following the amount of a precipitate formed

• When sodium thiosulfate reacts with an acid, a yellow
precipitate of sulfur is formed and forms the basis of a good
project for assessment.
o To follow this reaction it is important to measure how long
it takes for a certain amount of sulfur precipitate to form.
o It is done by observing the reaction down through a conical
flask, viewing a black cross on white paper or a printed
material. (see diagram below).
▪ The reaction can be followed in this way because both
solutions, and after mixing, are colourless and more
importantly, they are clear and transparent.
▪ Its the cloudiness that causes the cross to 'disappear'!
o The X is eventually obscured by the sulfur precipitate and
the time noted.
o sodium thiosulfate + hydrochloric acid ==> sodium chloride +
sulfur dioxide + water + sulfur
o Na2S2O3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) ===> 2NaCl(aq) + SO2(aq) + H2O(l) + S(s)
mix => ongoing => watch stopped =>
• By using the same flask and paper X you can obtain a relative
measure of the speed of the reaction in forming the same
amount of sulfur.
• The speed or rate of reaction can expressed as 'x amount of
sulfur'/time, so the rate is proportional to 1/time for a particular
run of the experiment. The reciprocal of the time is taken as a
measure of the relative rate of reaction.
Investigating Factors affecting Rate of a Reaction
a)Effect of surface area of a solid on the rate of reaction:
Diagram showing the process of downwards displacement to

investigate the effect of the surface area of a solid on the rate of
reaction
Method:
• Add dilute hydrochloric acid into a conical flask

• Use a delivery tube to connect this flask to a measuring cylinder
upside down in a bucket of water (downwards displacement)
• Add calcium carbonate chips into the conical flask and quickly put
the bung back into the flask
• Measure the volume of gas produced in a fixed time using the
measuring cylinder
• Repeat with different sizes of calcium carbonate chips (lumps,
crushed and powdered)
Result:
• Smaller sizes of chips causes an increase in the surface area of the

solid, so the rate of reaction will increase
• This is because more surface area of the particles will be exposed
to the other reactant so there will be more frequent and
successful collisions, increasing the rate of reaction
b)Effect of concentration of a solution on the rate of reaction:

Diagram showing the apparatus needed to investigate the effect of
concentration on the rate of reaction
Method:
• Measure 50 cm3 of sodium thiosulfate solution into a flask

• Measure 5 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid into a measuring
cylinder
• Draw a cross on a piece of paper and put it underneath the flask
• Add the acid into the flask and immediately start the stopwatch
• Look down at the cross from above and stop the stopwatch when
the cross can no longer be seen
• Repeat using different concentrations of sodium thiosulfate
solution (mix different volumes of sodium thiosulfate solution
with water to dilute it)
Result:
• With an increase in the concentration of a solution, the rate of

reaction will increase
• This is because there will be more reactant particles in a given
volume, allowing more frequent and successful collisions,
increasing the rate of reaction
c)Effect of temperature on the rate of reaction:
Diagram showing the apparatus needed to investigate the effect of

temperature on the rate of reaction
Method:
• Dilute hydrochloric acid is heated to a set temperature using a

water bath
• Add the dilute hydrochloric acid into a conical flask
• Add a strip of magnesium and start the stopwatch
• Stop the time when the magnesium fully reacts and disappears
• Repeat at different temperatures and compare results
Result:
• With an increase in the temperature, the rate of reaction will

increase
• This is because the particles will have more kinetic energy than
the required activation energy, therefore more frequent and
successful collisions will occur, increasing the rate of reaction
d)Effect of a catalyst on the rate of reaction:
Diagram showing the apparatus needed to investigate the effect of a

catalyst on the rate of reaction
Method:
• Add hydrogen peroxide into a conical flask

• Use a delivery tube to connect this flask to a measuring cylinder
upside down in a tub of water (downwards displacement)
• Add the catalyst manganese(IV) oxide into the conical flask and
quickly place the bung into the flask
• Measure the volume of gas produced in a fixed time using the
measuring cylinder
• Repeat experiment without the catalyst of manganese(IV) oxide
and compare results
Result:
• Using a catalyst will increase the rate of reaction

• The catalyst will provide an alternative pathway requiring lower
activation energy so more colliding particles will have the
necessary activation energy to react
• This will allow more frequent and successful collisions, increasing
the rate of reaction
Interpreting Data
Concentration
Graph showing the effect of the concentration of a solution on the
rate of reaction
Explanation:
• Compared to a reaction with a reactant at a low concentration,

the graph line for the same reaction but at a higher concentration
has a steeper gradient at the start and becomes horizontal sooner
• This shows that with increased concentration of a solution, the
rate of reaction will increase
• As long as the reactant having its concentration changed is
already in excess, the amount of product formed will not change,
but will simply be formed faster
Particle size
Graph showing the effect of the surface area of a solid on the rate of
reaction
Explanation:
• Compared to a reaction with lumps of reactant, the graph line for

the same reaction but with powdered reactant has a steeper
gradient at the start and becomes horizontal sooner
• This shows that with increased surface area of the solid, the rate
of reaction will increase
Catalysts
Explanation:
• Compared to a reaction without a catalyst, the graph line for the

same reaction but with a catalyst has a steeper gradient at the
start and becomes horizontal sooner
• This shows that when a catalyst is used, the rate of reaction will
increase
• A catalyst will never change how much product is made
Temperature
Graph showing the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction
Explanation:
• Compared to a reaction at a low temperature, the graph line for

the same reaction but at a higher temperature has a steeper
gradient at the start and becomes horizontal sooner
• This shows that with increased temperature, the rate of reaction
will increase
• Temperature will not affect how much product is made in an
irreversible reaction
Note:Explaining the shape of the graph
• The steeper the curve, the faster the rate of the reaction
• The curve is steepest initially so the rate is quickest at the
beginning of the reaction
• As the reaction progresses, the concentration of the reactants
decreases, the rate decreases shown by the curve becoming less
steep
• When one of the reactants is used up, the reaction stops, the rate
becomes zero and the curve levels off to a horizontal line
• The amount of product formed in a reaction is determined by the
limiting reactant:
o If the amount of limiting reactant increases, the amount of
product formed increases
o If the amount of the reactant in excess increases, the
amount of product remains the same
Factors affecting rate of a reaction
a) Concentration
b) Temperature
c) Particle size of solid
d) Pressure
e) Catalyst
To understand the effects of the factors on rate of reactions it is
important to understand the collision theory;
PARTICLE COLLISION THEORY
• Reactions can only happen when the reactant particles collide in
the proper orientation with enough energy(Activation energy)
The energy is needed to break bonds and bring about chemical
change.
• The minimum kinetic energy required for a reaction to take place
is known as the activation energy (shown in the diagrams below).
o (i) .
▪ Reaction profile (i) An activation energy diagram for
an exothermic reaction.
o (ii)
▪ Reaction profile (ii) An activation energy diagram for
an endothermic reaction.
Concentration of solution and rate of reaction
Effect: Increasing the concentration of one or more reactants will often increase
the rate of reaction.
Reason: As concentration of a solution increases, there are more reacting
particles per unit volume or in the same volume. Hence there are more frequent
collisions between the reacting particles (there are more effective collisions per
second).
Less concentrated solution

There are less reacting particles per unit volume
More concentrated solution .There are more

reacting particles per unit volume. More frequent
collisions
Note: when investigating the effect of concentration on the rate of a reaction, the
following variables must be kept constant:
1. Temperature: using a thermostatically control water bath
2. Pressure if a gas is present
3. Surface area of a solid if a solid reactant is involved
4. Volume of solution
Q. A student investigated the effect of concentration of HCl on the rate of

reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid. The student measured the
volumes of hydrogen gas formed in two experiments each time changing the
concentration of hydrochloric acid.
Experiment Mass of Volume of HCl Concentration Temperature/0C
powdered /cm3 /moldm-3
Mg /g
1 0.20 50 1.00 40
2 0.20 50 2.00 40
The acid is in excess
(a) Write an equation for the reaction occurring
(b) In a single graph show how the volume of hydrogen changed in the two
experiments. Comment on the graph
Q. A student investigated the effect of concentration of HCl on the rate of
reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid. The student
measured the volume of carbon dioxide gas formed in two experiments at
regular time intervals, using different concentrations of hydrochloric acid.
Experiment Mass of Volume of HCl Concentration Temperature/0C
powdered /cm3 /moldm-3
CaCO3 /g
1 25 50 1.00 40
2 25 50 2.00 40
Sketch a graph to show how the volume of carbon dioxide changed in the two
experiments. Comment on the graph
Pressure of gaseous system.
Changes in pressure will affect reactions containing gaseous reactants because a
gas can be compressed as there are large empty spaces between the gas
particles..
Changes in pressure will not affect reactions involving only solids as reactants or
only liquids as reactants. This is because in liquids and in solids the particles are
already very close to each other.
Question; state which of the following reaction will be affected by changes in
pressure.
1. N2 g + 3H2 g 2NH3 g
Yes.
2. CaCO3 S + 2HCll CaCl2 + H2OL + CO2 g
No, the reactants are not gases.
Rate of gaseous reactants α pressure
When pressure of a system containing gases increases, the molecules have

less space in which they can move. That greater density of molecules(more
crowded) increases the number of collisions that is there are more frequent
collisions and rate increases.

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2.

Measuring the rate of reaction my measuring the loss in mass of a

• MASS LOSS - following the mass loss due to the escape of a

• PRECIPITATION - following the amount of a precipitate formed

mix => ongoing => watch stopped =>

Investigating Factors affecting Rate of a Reaction

a)Effect of surface area of a solid on the rate of reaction:

Diagram showing the process of downwards displacement to

• Add dilute hydrochloric acid into a conical flask

• Smaller sizes of chips causes an increase in the surface area of the

b)Effect of concentration of a solution on the rate of reaction:

• Measure 50 cm3 of sodium thiosulfate solution into a flask

• With an increase in the concentration of a solution, the rate of

c)Effect of temperature on the rate of reaction:

Diagram showing the apparatus needed to investigate the effect of

• Dilute hydrochloric acid is heated to a set temperature using a

• With an increase in the temperature, the rate of reaction will

d)Effect of a catalyst on the rate of reaction:

Diagram showing the apparatus needed to investigate the effect of a

• Add hydrogen peroxide into a conical flask

• Using a catalyst will increase the rate of reaction

• Compared to a reaction with a reactant at a low concentration,

• Compared to a reaction with lumps of reactant, the graph line for

• Compared to a reaction without a catalyst, the graph line for the

Graph showing the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction

• Compared to a reaction at a low temperature, the graph line for

Note:Explaining the shape of the graph

Factors affecting rate of a reaction

Less concentrated solution

More concentrated solution .There are more

Q. A student investigated the effect of concentration of HCl on the rate of

The acid is in excess

(a) Write an equation for the reaction occurring

Rate of gaseous reactants α pressure

When pressure of a system containing gases increases, the molecules have

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