AGRI

CULTURALSYSTEMSANDFOODPRODUCTI
ON

 Agric
ultur
egeographydescri
besandexpl
ainsthespati
al
var
iati
onsinagr
icul
tur
alac
tiv
iti
esov
ert
helandsurf
ace.

 Agri
cul
turer
efer
stot
hegr
owi
ngofc
ropsand/
orr
ear
ingof
l
ives
tock.

 Agr
icul
tur
eisi
mpor
tants
inc
eit

 Producesfoodfortheloc
alconsumption,enhanci
ngself
-
suff
ici
encyandimprovi
ngtheli
vel
ihoodofr ur
alpopul
ati
on
andstandardsofl
iv
ing.

 Prov
ides empl
oymentf
or2/
3ofwor
ld popul
ati
on as a
sour
ceofincome

 Ear
nsf
orei
gnc
urr
enc
ywhenpr
oduc
tsar
eex
por
ted

 Pr
oduc
erawmat
eri
alsf
ormanuf
act
uri
ngi
ndus
tri
es

 Provi
desstr
ongec onomicbas
eandstabi
li
ty.I
nZi
mbabwe
agri
cul
tur
e c ont
ributes more t
han 10% of GROSS
DOMESTICPRODUCT.

FACTORSAFFECTI
NGAGRI
CULTURE

Atany l ocat
ion,agric
ult
uralacti
vit
iesarec ontr
oll
ed by the
i
nteracti
onofphy sical
,socio-cul
tural
,pol
it
icalandeconomi c
fac
tor sastheyrel
atet otheuseoflandatv ari
ousscal
esfrom
i
ndividualf
armstostatesandregi
ons

PHYSI
CALFACTORS

 Exer
tamaj
ori
nfl
uencei
ndet
ermi
ningt
het
ypeoff
armi
ng
 pr
act
icedi
nanar
ea.

 Theideallocati
onforaspeci
fi
ct ypei
sbasedont
hetotal
costofpr oducti
onperunitoutputismini
miz
edfort
hat
crop/l
ives
t ock.

 Asdistanceincr
eas
esf
rom t
hisoptimum condi
ti
onbecome
les
st hanideal–toowet
,toodr y,toosteeporhi
gh,too
cold/
hot .

 Thel aw ofdimini
shi
ngret
urnsoperateswheneit
herthe
outputdecreas
e/ t
hecos
tofmaint
aininghi
ghyi
eldbecome
prohi
biti
ve.

 When phys
icalcondi
ti
ons aret oo extr
eme t
o per
mit
pr
oduct
iononaneconomical
lyvi
ables
cale.
TEMPERATURE

 The gr owth of dif

fer
ent plants requi
res cer
tai
n
temperat
uresf
orger
minati
on,phot
osynt
hesisandr
ippi
ng
ofcrops

 Opt
imum t
emper
atur
esar
ethebes
tforagr
icul
tur
e.

 mostcropsdonotger
minat
eatat
emper
atur
ebel
ow 6
degr
eesCel
si
us

 Verylow temperat
uresr es
ultinslow gr
owth hinderi
ng
photosy
nthesi
sandc aus
esf r
ostbi
teforexampleinwinter
seas
oninZimbabwewher elowtempareexperi
enced.

 Measures
uchastheuses
mudgepot
sandgr
eenhous
esar
e
ef
fec
t i
vei
ncurbi
ngthepr
obl
em.
 Hi
ght emperaturesar
eas s
ociatedwithlow s
oilmoist
ure
whic
hc ausesc ropsto wil
tl eadi
ng t
ot ot
alfai
lur
ef or
ex
amplethec aseofZi
mbabwe2016.

PRECI
PITATI
ON

Iti
st hepri
mes
our
ceofwat
erf
orpl
ant
sto gr
ow
nat
urall
y.

 The annualrai
nfalltotal
s det
ermines t
he ty pes of
crops
,t r
ee,grassorc ereal
s,irr
igat
ion and animals
keptforagr
icpurposes.

 Excessi
ver ai
nscausefl
oodswhi ch des
t r
oysc r
ops,
cause leac
hing and water borne disease whic
h
enerv
atestheworker
sther
ebyr educ
ingproducti
vi
ty.

 Gr
owi
ngofwat
erl
ovi
ngc
ropsi
sas
olut
ion.

I
nar
easwithl
itt
lerai
nfal
ldr
oughti
scommonl
eadi
ng
t
odi
sas
trousc
ropfail
ure.

 Solut
ionssuchasdam cons
truct
ionandgr
owi
ngof
droughtres
ist
antc
ropsar
easolut
ion.

 Theannualdist
ribut
ionofrai
nfal
lisimportantthan
thetot
alsast
heydet er
minet
helengt
hoft hegrowing
seas
on.

 Thet y
pesofpr eci
pitati
onegdr i
z zl
easl i
ghtrainfal
l
promotess oi
lmoisturet hrough inf
il
trat
ion whereas
heavyc onv
ecti
onalrainfallwith hai
lst
ormsdes troys
cropsreduc
ingqual
it
yandout put.
 I
naddit
ionthereisreduc
eds oi
lmoist
ures t
oragedue
t
oreducedi
nfil
trat
ionbyclos
ureofporespaces.

WI
ND

 Windhass ever
ei mpactonagr i
cul
turef ormoderat
e
windspromotepoll
inat
ionbutverystrong windss
uch
ashurri
canes,typhoonsandcyclonesdes t
royscr
ops
andcausehighrat
esofevapotr
anspirati
on.

ALTI
TUDE

I
tisl
inkedt
orai
nfal
landt
emper
atur
e

 High alt
itudesareas s
oci
ated wi
thlow to moder ate
temperatureswithc hanc
esofhi gh pr
ecipi
tati
on of
orographic nat
ure as high l
ands act as upli
fting
mec hani
smsofwar m moistai
r.

 Thinsoi
ls and eros
ion r
ates on s
teep s
lopes i
sa
probl
em t
oar abl
efar
ming

 Low al ti
tudes ar eas are as soci
ated with high
temper atures and litt
lerai
nfallthi
si s becaus
e of
adiabatic warmi ng f r
om des cendi
ng air whichis
depleted ofwat erv apourcreati
ng regi
onsofhi gh
pressure.

 Plantsgrow wel
linmoderat
ealt
itudes f
orex
ampl
e
applesandconif
ersi
nKeny
anhighl
ands

GRADI
ENT
  St
eepness ofsl
ope aff
ect
st he dept
h ofs
oil
,it
s
mois
turecont
entandphval
ueofthesoi
l.

 Steepsl
opesar
eassociat
edwithhi
ghr at
esofer
os i
on,
thi
ns oi
lsandals
ol eadt heoper
ati
onofmac hinery
dif
fic
ult
.

 Howevertheseareus ed f
orfores
tproduct
ion,tr
ee
pl
ants(c
offee,
tea,c
itr
us,
)intheeas
ter
nhighl
ands.

ASPECT

Hastodowithsout
hfacingandnorthf
aci
ngs
lopeswhi
ch
det
ermi
nei
ntens
ityofs
olarradi
ati
on

SOI
LTYPE

 Farmi
ng dependson soi
ldept
h,itswat erhol
ding
capac
ity
,aer
ati
on,s
truc
tur
eandtex
ture,phval
ue.

 Soil
swit
hpoorstr
uctureareeas
il
yleac
hedandf
ast
ratesofs
oil
moi
stureevapor
ati
on.

 Sand s
oill
acknut
rient
shol
d moi
stur
eforas
hor
t
peri
odofti
me.

 Clay soi
lare heavyto wor k wi
th underver
y wet
condit
ions,are poor
ly dr
ained whi
c h mi
ghtc aus
e
waterloggi
ng,di
ffi
cul
ttousemac hi
nery.

s
andys
oil
sar
egoodf
ort
obac
cogr
owi
ng,l
oam f
or
 mai
zeandpot
atoes
,

PESTANDDI
SEASES

 Af
fec
tonc
rops
,humanbei
ngsandani
mal
s.

 Ex
ampl
esi
ncl
udemal
ari
a,ant
hrax
,andar
mywor
m.

 Lessr
iskandlesspr
onear
easar
egoodf
orpr
oduc
tion
andproduct
ivi
ty.

QUESTI
ONS

Met
hodst
oov
erc
omephy
sic
aldi
ffi
cul
ti
es

SOCI
ALFACTORS

 Landt enure–ref
erst othewayt hel andis/c anbe
owned.Landt enureactof1969f orcedblackstoown
marginallands wit
hl itt
lerai
ns,hi gh temperat
ures
whil
ewhi tesownedf er
til
esoi
lregionswithfavour
able
cl
imateinlowdens i
ty.

 Var
ious types of land tenure systems inc
lude
LATIFUNDA,wher el
andisorganiz
edintolar
geest
ates
withlandl
esspeas
antsworki
ngf orwages.

 Cashtenanc
ythef
armergi
vespar
tofhi
sinc
omet
o
thel
andown.

 Thi
saf
fec
tfar
mings
yst
emsast
he f
armerhasno
 t
imet
owor
khar
deranddev
elopt
hel
and.

 Sharecroppi
ngthefar
merpayforusi
ngthel
andby
gi
vingpartofhi
shar
vestt
othel
andowner
.

I
NHERI
TANCE

I
tleadst
ofr
agment
ati
onofl
and.

 Us eofmac
hiner
yons mallpor
tionsi
sdiff
icul
tbutthe
farmermaybenefiti
fthelandhasdiff
erenttypesof
soilwhi
chfac
il
it
atesthegrowi
ngofdiffer
enttypesof
crops.

 Duetoi nheri
tanc
ewoman hav
eunequalac
ces
st o
landandlimit
edpowerdec
isi
ononi
tbutmostofthe
timewit
hi t
.

Howdoesf
ragment
ati
onaf
fec
tfar
m pr
oduc
tion?

Howdoesf
ragment
ati
onaf
fec
tfar
m pr
oduc
tiv
ity
?

ECONOMI
CFACTORS

 Tr
anspor
tdet
ermines t
he ti
me taken t
ot rans
por
t
i
nput
sandout
putstoandfr
om themarkets.

 Someoutputsareperi
shabl
esneed fastand qui
ck
del
iv
erymodet omarket.E.
g.fl
owerst o UKbyair,
ti
mberbyroadorr
ail
,mil
kbyref
riger
atedtrucks
.

 However t
rans
por
ting per
ishabl
e has gone under
tr
ansf
ormati
onduet ous
eofr efr
iger
atedt
rukswhich
 mov
elongdi
stanc
es.

MARKET

 Marketdemand si
zeofpopul
ati
on,needs
,rel
igi
ous
anddeter
minesf
armings
yst
em.

 Low priceson a mar ketdi scourage t

he cont
inued
prac
ticeoffarminge.g.cottonandt obaccof
armingin
Zimbabwe,r eari
ng ofpi gs is notc ommon int he
Jewi
shc ountri
esandapos toli
csects.

 Some farming syst

ems arelocat
ed cl
oset othe
markete.g.mar ketgardeni
ng,dai
ryfar
ming whi
lst
others arel oc
ated f
arawayf r
om themarkete.g.
catt
leranc
hing.

CAPI
TAL

 MEDCShav ec apitalinthei
rr obustbankingsy s
tems,
from privateinv estmentsandgov ernmentinvest
ment
throughs ubsidies whichenc ouragec api
tali
ntensi
ve
farmings y st
emsl i
kepoul t
ryf armingkwagonoLuna
chickens, I rvine’
s i n WATERFALLS, pi ggery ,
horticul
ture,andmar ketgardening

 Low int
eres
tloansinMEDCsi
ncreas
esf
arm out
puts
creat
ing ’ mount
ains and lakes ‘of output
 (
over
produc
tion)
.

 LEDCs lackf i
nancials upportt ot heirfarmer s as
fi
nanci
al insti
tut
ions ar e s t
agnant i n terms of
i
nvestment,f aci
ng l i
quidat
ion, curatorshi
p, hav e
l
imit
edc apit
alresources,hav ehighinteres
tr ateson
l
oansonf armerswithouttitl
edeeds.

 Thi
sresul
tsinlabouri
ntens
ivef
armi
ngs
yst
emswi
th
lowproduct
ivi
ty.

TECHNOLOGY

I
mproved technol
ogy and s ci
enti
fi
c adjus
tment
t
hroughgenet
icengineer
inghasenabledf
armersto
i
mproveout
putperunitar
ea.

Int
ensiv
e mec hani
zat
ion of f
arms has res
ult
ed in
eff
ici
entandf astmethodsofc ul
ti
vat
ion,pr
ocess
ing
andharves
ting.

 Crossbreedi
ngofanimalsands eedswi
ththeuseof
i
rri
gati
on mac hi
nery has l ead t o tr
emendous
i
mpr ov
ementsinagr
icul
tural
producti
on.

 HoweverLEDCsar erarel
yablet ot
akeadvantageof
theimprovementsint echnol
ogyastheyc ould not
aff
ordt he cost of purchas
ing,mai
ntenance and
operat
ionofthemachiner
y .
STATEI
NTERVENTI
ONSANDGOVERNMENTPOLI
CY

 Thes t
ateinter
vention and gov
ernmentpol
ic
yhav
e
negat
iveandposit
iveeff
ec t
sonfarming.

 Somegover
nmenti
nMEDCshel
pinmaki
ngf
armi
ng
dec
isi
ons

 Gover
nmenthel
psthr
oughsubs i
diesf
orguar
ant
eei
ng
far
merspr
oduct
sandproduc
tion.

 gover
nment s prov
ides i
nput
st hr
ough pr esi
dential
i
nputs chemes,educat
ionthr
oughextensi
onof fic
er s
andvetoffic
ers,machi
nerypr
ovi
si
onmec haniz
ationin
i
rri
gati
oni nf
rast
ruc
ture,

 EmpoweringARDAi nZimbabwe,NGOse.g.FEEDTHE
FUTURE ZI MBABWE LI VESTOCK DEVELOPMENT
PROGRAMME ( FTFZ-
LD) i n Chipi
nge for cat
tle
market
ing,l
oanstobuyinputfeeds
.

QUESTI
ON

Wit
hr eferenc
et oex amplesfrom count
riesst
udied,
des
cribeandex pl
aintheroleofgovernmentpol
icyon
agr
icultureacti
vit
ies
.

 Central gov
ernments c
an pl ay a r
egul
ator
y
func
tioninagri
cul
tur
alproduc
tionas
  Dumpingexc
esspr
oduc
ts/donat
ionst
ohungr
y
count
ries

 Set
tingagr
icul
tur
alaut
hor
ityboar
ds

 Decidi
ngonpr
oduc
tionquot
as/
prov
idi
ngs
tor
age
fac
il
iti
es

 Regul
ati
ng thr
ough l
egi
sl
ati
on –s
et as
ide s
oil
bankspol
ic
y

 Announci
ngpre-produc
erpricesandguar
ant
ees
orass
uredpr
icee.g.ontobac
coandcott
on

 Expor
ti nc
ent
ives /
subs
idi
es or wi
thdr
awi
ng
them/gr
ant
s/l
oans

 Res
ear
chanddev
elopment

 Landreform pol
ic
iesl
andconsol
idat
ion-UJAAMA
i
n Tanz ani
a, KIBUTZ in I SRAEL,SOVKHOZ,
LATIFUNDI AINLATINAmeri
ca

 Of
fer
ingi
ncent
ivest
oindi
vi
dualf
armer
s

LANDORGANI
ZATI
ON

Landcanbeownedbyforei
gnsuc
hastrans
nat
ionalest
ates
,
stat
e,i
ndi
vi
dual
s,cooper
ati
ves
,andcommunit
ywhi chhave
anef
fec
tonf
armi
ng.

FARM SI
ZE

AGRO-ECOLOGI
CALREGI
ONSOFZI
MBABWE

 Thereare5mai nagr oec

ologic
alr
egi
onswhichar
e
defi
ned accordi
ng t o rai
nfal
l,t
emper
atur
e and
i
ntensi
tyofproduct
ion.

 High r
ainfalli
sexperi
enc
ed in east
,nor
th eas
tand
becomedr iert
owardswestands out
hwestduesout
h
e.
g.inBEITBRIGDE.

 Moder
aterai
ns ar
e ex
per
ienc
ed al
ong t
he c
ent
ral
wat
ers
hed.

REGI
ON1-
SPECI
ALI
SEDANDDI
VERSI
FIEDFARMI
NG

 Rai
nfal
lthr
oughoutt
hey
earhi
ghmor
ethan1000mm.

 Temperat
ures ar e nor mal
ly compar ati
vel
y low
eff
ecti
vel
y enabli
ng tr
ee crops
,af f
orestat
ion,s
eed
potat
oesandintensi
veli
vest
ockproducti
on.

 ar
eas i
ncl
ude par
ts of
 MANICALAND ,
VUMBA,
NYANGA, CHI
MANI
MANI
,CHI
PINGE

REGI
ON2I
NTENSI
VEFARMI
NG

 Seasonalrai
nfal
l,l
arge s
cal
ei ntens
ivefarming of
maize,wheat,andsoyabeans,tobacco,c
ottonand
l
ives
t oc
k.

 Rar
elyex
per
ienc
edr
yspel
ls
.

 2bi
ssubj
ectt
osev
eredr
yspel
ls
/wi
thr
ains
eas
on.

 Rai
nfal
l750-
1000mm hi
gh.

REGI
ON3–SEMI
-INTENSI
VEFARMI
NG

 Hasr ai
nfal
lwhichismoderat
eat650-
800mm wi
th
regul
armid-seas
ondrys
pel
ls
.

 Li
vest
ockproducti
on,f
odderand c
ashc
ropsunder
goodfar
m management
.

REGI
ON4SEMIEXTENSI
VE

 Ex
per
ienc
efai
rl
ylowt
otal
rai
nfal
l(450-
650mm)
.

Itissubj
ectt
oper
iodi
cdr
oughtands
eas
onals
ever
e
dryspel
ls
.
  Thelow rai
nfallisuncer
tai
nf orcommerc
ialcr
opping
exc
epti nloc ali
ti
es where droughtr
esi
stantcrops
sur
vive.

 Mai
nlys
uit
abl
eforl
iv
est
ockpr
oduc
tion.

 mos
t75% ofc
ommunall
ands

REGI
ON5-
EXTENSI
VEFARMI
NG

 Rai
nfal
ll
esst
han450mm

 Cat
tler
anc
hingi
sthebes
tpr
act
ice

 LOWVELDar
east
heZambez
ival
leyandLi
mpopov
all
ey

REGI
ON6.
RANCHI
NGANDWI
LDLI
FE

Based f
orwil
dli
fec
ons
erv
ati
on i
n ar
eas ofHWANGE,
GONAREZHOU

I
RRI
GATI
ONFARMI
NG

Istheart
ifi
cialappli
c at
ionofwateronland/ f
iel
dsin
orderto grow c ropswhen pr evai
li
ng cl
imati
c and
weatherconditi
onsc annotsus
tai
nc r
opgrowth

I
ti snormallyused in ar
easwhi ch ar
et oo dr
yfor
r
ainfal
lf ed forms of agricul
ture t hus bri
ngi
ng
marginal
landsintoac
tiveproducti
on
I
tisusedduri
ngthedryper
iod/s
pelltogrowspecial
c
ropsli
kewheatandcot
toni
nwintertopr
oducecrops
t
hroughoutt
heyear.

Itis needed wherer ai

nfal
li sli
mited and when
evapot
ranspi
rat
ion ex
ceedspr ec
ipi
tati
one.g.i
nsemi
–ari
dandar i
dlandsuchast heAtacamaareainPeru,
Chil
e,t
heSahel r
egi
oninAf r
ica

 Us
edwher
ether
eiss
eas
onals
hor
tageduet
odr
ought

 Us
edamountofr
ainf
all
isunr
eli
abl
eins
out
her
nAf
ric
a

 Usedwhenf armingi si
ntensi
vee.g.ri
cegrowingin
south eastAs i
a,c reat
ing empl
oyment,i mprovi
ng
nati
onalec onomyand pr oduci
ng raw mater
ial
sfor
i
ndustrialt
hussavingfor
eigncurr
encyimpor
ts

 Toharnes
sanduti
li
zewat
ert
hatmi
ghthav
ebeenl
ost
thr
oughrunof
f.

 Duet oi r
rigat
ionar easwhi c
har enat ur
allyari
dand
wher ewateriss carcee.g.inIsrael,Egy pt withall
otherfactorsrequiredfor agri
culturesuchasf ert
il
e
soil
s,undul at
ingt err
ainsandidealt emperatur
esfor
plantgrowt hhavebeenc onver
tedi ntothri
vi
ngagr i
c
regionatas uccessfulr
ate.
CONDI
TIONSNECESSARYFORI
RRI
GATI
ON

 Exi
stence ofv astexpanses ofgentlys loping l
and
whichenabl eeasi
erlayingdownofi r
rigationpipes,
constr
uc t
ionofcanal
s,creat
ionoflar
gerf i
eldsoreven
permitt
ing gravi
tyflow ofwat er ont ot he f
iel
ds
thr
oughr educi
ngpumpi ngexpenses

 Clayeysubs
oilr
educewaterlossbyperc
olat
ionand
canalneedtobeli
nedwi
thc onc
ret
ereduci
ngrunni
ng
expenses

 Hotdr y envi
ronmentscondi
ti
onspr
ovi
de t
he heat
requi
redforpl
antgrowth.

 Thedr
ynes
sreduc
est
hei
nci
denc
eofc
ropdi
seas
es
 andpes
ts

 Thear
eahav elow popul
ati
ondens i
ti
esandt
her
eis
l
essdi
spl
acementifdamsarecons
tructed

 Presenc
eoflarger
iver
sandaqui
fersensur
eadequat
e
supplyofwater withwat
erhar
v es
tingindamsand
l
akes

 Example ar
esout
h eas
tlowveldin Zimbabwe wi
th
RUNDEandSAVEr i
ver
s,f
latterr
ains
,f er
til
eal
l
uvi
al
soi
ls.

 Mutondwe i rr
igat
ion s cheme i n MT Dar wi
n
exper
ienc
ing bumper harvestthrough t
he BRAZI
L
PHASE1FOODFORAFRI CAPROJ ECT.

 Gez
irai
rri
gat
ions
chemei
nSudanandEgy
pt

Ir
rigati
on i
nI sr
aelhasgoneas tonis
hi ng t
echnology
advancementi nt he des
ali
niz
ation ofbl ackis
h and
sal
inewaterfrom theseaandunder groundi nareasof
wes t
ernGali
lee,JEZREELplai
n,lakeTi beri
usandr i
ver
Jordan

 Thereisus eofautomated,c
omput ercont
roll
edand
ferti
gat
ion ofsal
inewatermixed withfer
til
iz
erand
pipeddirec
tlyt
othefi
elds.

OBSTACLESI
NIRRI
GATI
ON

I
t does not guar
ant
ee any agr
icul
tur
al bonanz
a
 bec
aus
e

 Some des ert areas are inc

apable of s upporti
ng
i
rrigati
on agricul
turebecauseofs hort
ageofc apital
and t echnology. E.
g. CHI RUME i r
rigati
on f or
hortic
ultureinNHEMAc ommunalareaswhi chisfail
ing
tor aise $400 to maintai
nt he pump,af f
ected by
droughtef f
ectsusingwheelbar
rowtoferrywat er.

 Thereismismanagementofi
rri
gati
onproj
ectsduet
o
sabotage,c
orr
uptionandpol
it
icali
nst
abi
li
ty

I
nadequat
e drai
nage r
esul
tin water l
oggi
ng and
muddycondi
ti
onswithari
skofwat
erbornedi
seas
es

 Sal
ini
zati
onofs oil
scontr
ibut
estodi mini
shingyi
elds
and abandonmentoff or
merlyir
rigat
ed lands.Hi
gh
rat
esofev apor
ationcr
eateahardpan

 The cl
imat
es ar
e enervati
ng henc
e di
scour
agi
ng
devel
opmentandproduc
tiv
ity

LANDTENUREANDNATUREOFHOLDI
NG

LANDTENURE

Isthe manner i
n whichl
and is owned or
pos
sess
edthati
sthet
itl
etoi
tsus
e

 Thes
yst
em ofl
andt
enur
eembodyl
egalc
ont
rac
t
 orcustomaryarrangementwherebyindi
vi
duals
orgroupsgain accessto ec
onomicand soc
ial
oppor
tunit
iest
hrought heowners
hipanduseof
l
and

 ex
ampl
esi
ncl
udef
reehol
d,l
eas
ehol
d

 Thes ys
tem oft
enureincr
eas edproblemsofland
pres
s ur
e i n c ommunal ar e as due t o
fr
agment at
ionduetoac celerat
edruraltourban
migrati
onandsubsi
stenc
el evelofproduc
tion.

 Theimpactoflandt
enurehasbeenwor senedby
drought
si ncommunalareasofZimbabwewi th
l
ac kofinputsandi
nfras
truc
ture,overcroppi
ng
and monoc ul
tur
e,land degradat
ion and soil
erosi
on.

 Owner
shi
pbygr
oupsc
anl
eadt
ocons
oli
dat
ion

QUESTI
ON

Ex
plai
n how agr
icul
tur
all and use and pr
oduct
ion
maybeaf
fec
tedbythefragmentati
onofholdi
ngs

 Fragmentationoccurswhenthel
andhol
dingofa
farmer/familyi
sbr okenupus
ual
lybyi
nheri
tanc
e
sot hatitconsi
stsofanumberofanumberof
smallscatt
eredfi
elds.
 I
taf
fectsagri
cul
tur
all
andus
eandpr
oduc
tionon
t
hefol
lowingways.

Negat
ivel
y

Inef
fic
iencyres
ultt
hefar
merwastesal
otofti
me
ashe/ot herworker
smovef r
om onefiel
dt o
another.

 Mucheff
ortist
akeninmovi
nginputsfrom one
f
iel
dtoanot
herregi
oni
sseedorfer
til
iz
ers

 Mechani
zat
ioni
shi
nder
edass
omepl
otsar
etoo
smal
l

 Landatt
hemar gi
nscanbelos
ttoc ul
ti
vat
ion(
the
margi
nsboundaryar
enotconti
nuous)

Iti
shardtokeepaney
eonal
lfi
eldsegf
orpes
ts
andar
idi
ty

 Ther
ecanbepr
obl
emst
oac
ces
sibi
li
ty

 Confl
ict
s are c
ommon on f
arm boundar
ies
i
nsteadofpr
oduct
ion.

Pos
iti
vel
yitc
anr
esul
t

 A gr
eatervar
iet
yofc r
opsbei
ng gr
own ,i
fsoi
l
c
onditi
ons/waters
uppl
yvar
yacr
ossthear
ea

 Ris
ksaremini
mized e.
g.from pests,because
somepar
tsoff
iel
dsarenotatt
acked/wil
lsur
viv
e

 Af
armermaygai
nfer
til
elandbyi
nher
itanc
e/on
 mar
riage

 Obser
vingwhatothersaredoingi
nt hei
rfi
elds
and c opyi
ng them i s power
ful in the
moderniz
ati
onofagr
icul
ture

Descr
ibe how agri
cul
turall
and use and pr
oduc
tion
hav
ebeenaf f
ectedbylandcons
oli
dati
on.(
6)

 Commer
cial
iz
edagr
icul
tur
eac
tiv
iti
es

 Lar
ger far
mer
s have neces
sitat
ed use of
machi
ner
yli
ket
rac
tor
sandcombinedhar
vest
ers

 Les
s l abour i
s needed due t
o us
e of
mechaniz
ati
on

 Capit
al intens
ive / hi
gher i
nput
s i
ncr
eas
e
product
ion

 Higheroutput
sperhectare /perwor
ker
/per
hourincr
easedpr
oduc
tiv
ity

I
mpr oved wat
ermanagementand c
ont
rol on
l
argefarms

Di
sadv
ant
ages
  Meansl
andi
ntohandsoff
ewerpeopl
e,

l
ossofj
obsduet
ocons
oli
dat
ion,

 badpubl
ic
ityduet
oinc
ons
ist
entpol
ic
ies

 Confli
ctsbet
weenlandowners andtenant
s due
dis
agreements on dec
isi
ons
,pr ef
erence whi
ch
vary

 Thesystemsoftenur
eneedt obei nt
egrat
ed for
thebenefitofthetotalpopulat
ionbutwi thout
endangeri
ngtheeconomyoft hec ountr
y

 Communalagr icult
ure need to be made mor e
eff
ici
entwith des i
resofi ndivi
dualfarmersfor
suff
ici
entl
andbei ngmadewhi l
eatthes ametime
thecommer ci
albaseoft hec ountr
y’sagri
cul
tural
economybeingpr otec
ted.

 Thebes
tsol
uti
ont
oaddr
essi
ssuesofl
andt
enur
e
i
slandr
efor
m.

LANDREFORM

Isasoci
al,pol
it
icalandlegi
slat
iveproces
sai
med
atr
edres
singaccesstolandinac ount
ry

It invol
ves agr
ari
an r
evol
uti
on and r
ural
devel
opment.

 Ther
edi
str
ibut
ionofl
andwi
tht
hemet
hodof
 expropr
iation of l arge estates
, plantati
ons,
commer cialfarmsanddi s
tri
butedt oindiv
idual
far
mer s
,l andlesslaboures,communalpeas ant
far
mer s
,c onsol
idat
ion ofs mallpiec
esofl and
andincreas essecur
ityoftenure.

Thi
scanbedonet
hroughr
eset
tlement

RESETTLEMENT

I
sorganizat
ionandreor
ganiz
ati
onoflandamong
t
he citi
zens ofthe nati
on more equal
lyi
na
j
ust
ifi
edmanner

Ai
msofr
eset
tlement

 Tor
eli
evepr
ess
ureonc
ommunall
ands

 Pr
ovi
depeopl
ewi
thl
argeenoughpl
ots

 To i ncr
ease product
ion thr
ough i
ndi
vi
dual
cooperat
ivesands
tatef
arms

 Tor
educ
erur
alt
our
banmi
grat
ion

 Toimprovet
hes t
andar
dsofl
iv
ingf
ort
hepoor
est
popul
ati
ongroups

 Toprov
idemeansofempl
oymentands
our
ceof
i
ncome

 Tomakeus
eofl
andpr
oduc
tiv
ely
  Rec
tif
ythec
oloni
all
andi
mbal
anc
es

Res
ett
lementpr
ogr
ammes

1.
OLDRESETTLEMENTPROGRAMME;PHASE1

 Thi
swasdoneaf t
eri
ndependenc
ear
ound1982
wit
ht hel
and beingacqui
redonawil
li
ngbuy
er
wil
li
ngsel
lerbas
es

 Whitesett
lerfarmer
s wer etos ellt
heirl
and
opti
onal
lytotheZimbabweangov
er nmentwhi
ch
wil
lshar
ethelandtobl
ackpeas
antfarmers

 Themodel
sint
hepr
ogr
ammei
ncl
ude

 Nuc
leat
edv
il
lagesMUSHANDI
KEi
nMASVI
NGO

 Regi
ster
edc
ooper
ati
ves

c
ent
rales
tat
esARDANgez
i

 Dr
ierar
easdev
elopmentTULIr
anc
handr
anc
hes

Ev
aluat
ion

 Thepr ogrammewasr estr

ict
edbyt he
Lancasterhous eagreementunt i
lthe
1990sonl ybyt hewil
li
ngbuy erwil
li
ng
sel
ler,withthosefar
msr el
easedwhere
i
nr egion4and5whi charedry,hotand
dis
eas einfes
ted.
  Thegov ernmentfounditshandsti
ed
whent hec ommerci
alfar
mer sdi
dnot
will
ingl
yr el
easel
andforsale

 The money t o buy thi

sl and and
compens at
ec ommer
cialfar
merswas
notavai
lable

 Defores
tati
on, over
grazi
ng wer e
rampantleadi
ngt
oliv
estockl
ossand
star
vati
on

 Thepr ogrammer ecordedapar t

ialsucc
esswith
examplesofMUSHANDI KEreset
tlementsc
heme
regi
steri
ng impr
ov ed l
ivi
ng st
andardsand food
producti
on

2.
PHASE2RESTTLEMENTPROGRAMME

Itinv
olv
esc ommer
ciall
ands
eiz
ures byl
andl
ess
Zimbabweans

 Thi
s began i
n2000 by t
he SVOSVE peopl
e of
Maronder
a

 Theprogr
ammehasbeen r at
ifi
ed and dubbed
fas
ttr
ackres
ett
lementpr
ogr
amme

 Thepr
ogr
ammec
ompr
iseofA1andA2model
s

 A1 foll
owed the I
NTENSI
VE ACCELERATED
RESETTLEMENTsc
hemes

 A2i
ncl
udet
hos
ewhower
eres
ett
ledi
nper
i-ur
ban
 ar
easwit
hfar
mersexpec
ted tobesel
fs uf
fic
ient
i
nt er
msofc api
tal
,agr
icul
tur
almachineryand
i
nputs

I
mpac
tsofr
eset
tlementpr
ogr
amme

POLI
TICALI
MPACT

 Theobjec
tiv
esofthegov
ernmentt
ogivel
andto
thepeopl
ewasachiev
edtothos
ewhoappl
iedf
or
l
and

 Howeverther
e wasresi
stancefrom commerci
al
far
m ownerswhic
hres
ult
edi nconfl
ic
tsanddeat
h
ofsomepeople

 The programme has pol i

ti
calint
erf
erenc
e by
pol
iti
calpart
iesinZimbabweresul
ti
nginpoli
ti
cal
i
nstabi
li
tyduringtheperi
od

 Ther
e was bad publ
ic
ity and imposit
ion of
sanc
tionst
oZi
mbabweaffec
tingi
tseconomy

SOCI
ALI
MPACTS

 Rai
sed st
andardsofli
vi
ng asthose who wer
e
res
ett
ledwereabl
etoearnal
iv
ingfr
om land.

ther
ewasi nc
reas
ed crop and f
ood produc
tion
whichas
sur
esfoodsec
ur i
tyforr
eset
tledfami
li
es
  However,f
amil
yt i
eswerebrokenast
her
ewas
i
ncreas
edoutwardmigr
ati
on f
rom t
hec
ommunal
ar
eas

 Mostpeas
antfar
mersremai
njobl
essast
heywer
e
f
ormerl
yemployedbywhit
esfar
mers

 Tradit
ionalgr
owingofcropswasabandonedin
favourofcashcr
opssuc
hasc ot
ton,
tobaccoand
maize

 Someofar easlac
kbasic amenit
ies s
uch as
school
s,c
li
nics
,abl
uti
ons
,el
ect
ric
ity

 Nepot
ism and c
orr
upt
ion wi
th mul
ti
plef
arm
owner
ship

 Thereisexi
stenceoftemporaryshel
ter
s mai
nly
hutsconst
ructedusi
nggrass
(that
ch)

ENVI
RONMENTALI
MPACTS

 Conser
vat
ionandmanagementofs oi
le.g.c
rop
rot
ati
ononl ar
geplot
srest
oressoilf
ert
il
it
yunli
ke
for
meroverpopul
atedcommunallands.

 Howev er deforest
ati
on and ov er
grazi
ng were
obs er
v ed l
eading tosoilnutr
ientdefic
ientand
threateningwi l
dli
feduepoaching,di
stur
banceof
sanc t
uaries/
cons er
vat
ives

 Gol
d panni
ngandenv i
ronmentaldegradat
ionas
means of l
iv
eli
hood were di
srupted by far
m
 i
nvas
ion

 Sal
ini
zati
onduet oirr
igat
ionandeut
rophi
cat
ion
duerunoffoff
ert
il
iz
ers

 Natur
alhazardswreckhavoconfarmingi
nf or
m
of el -
nino effec
ts,drought
,c y
clone ELI
NE,
hai
lst
orm,frost

ECONOMI
CIMPACTS

 Forei
gn cur
renc
y ear
ningsf
rom t
he s
ell
ing of
far
m produc
ts

 Ther
eises
tabl
is
hmentofagr
obas
edi
ndus
tri
es

 Reset
tledfar
merspr
ovi
deempl
oyments
eas
onal
ly
orpermanentl
y

 Economicgr
owt
hduet
ogr
owi
ngofc
ashc
rops
forexpor
t

 However fr
agmentati
on of lar
ge commer
c i
al
farms hasres
ult
ed inlow agri
cact
ivi
ti
es,
low
yiel
ds due t o s hort
age of inputs and
i
nf r
ast
ruc
tur
e,

 Transi
ti
ont
ocommer
cialf
armi
ngwasnotaneas
y
task.

 Someoft hefarmersarelazy,anti
-devel
opment,
embezzl
ement of f unds practi
ce cell phone
far
mingwithZimbabwenol ongerabr eadbasket
 ofSADC

 Fundsarebeingchannel
edtoac
qui
ref
oodr
ather
thanagr
icul
tural
devel
opment

QUESTI
ONS

A)
Descri
behowagri
cul
tur
all
andrefor
m hasbeen
car
riedouti
nanyLEDCsyouhavestudi
ed

B)Des
cri
betheimpac
tofagri
cul
tur
all
andr
efor
m
onsoc
iet
yandtheenvi
ronment

c
)As ses
st hei
mpactofl
andref
orm onl
iv
est
ock
pr
oduc t
ioni
nar
easyouhav
estudi
ed

ANSWER

 Res
ear
chanddev
elopment

 Educ
ati
onandt
rai
ning

 Of
ferl
ett
ersf
orev
ict
ion

 Legi
sl
ati
on-bi
ll
andac
ts1990-LANDACTBI
LL

 Modeofowner shi
poflandmodel
sA1andA2,
hi
stor
ical
A,B,C,D,E.

I
nputs
cheme–s
eedsandt
rac
tor
s

 Vi
olent land i
nvas
ions c
hief SVOSVE
MARONDERA
THE NATURE OF DEMAND AND DI
STANCE FROM
MARKET

 Acommer ci
alf
armerhast oworr
yonthecos
tof
pr
oducing apart
icul
arc ommodi
tyon t
hefarm
pl
usthoseoftr
ansporti
ngitt
othemar
ket.

 Ther e arecert
ainlandusewhi charepr ofi
tabl
y
l
oc atednearthemar ketandothersthatneedt o
bel ocat
edawayf rom themarketforthem tobe
vi
abl egivi
ngwhati sknownasl ocat
ionalrentor
economi crent

 LOCATIONAL RENT ist he di

f f
erence between
totalr
evenuerecei
ved byaf armerf orac rop
grownonauni toflandandt het otalcostof
produc
tionandtr
ansportfort
hatc rop

 Locat
ionalr
ent=t
otalpr
oduc
tionc
ost+t
rans
por
t
cos
t

I
tisobser
vedthatr
entdec
reas
eswi
thdi
stanc
e
f
rom t
hemarket
.

 Transpor
tcostf
ori
ntensi
vef
armings
yst
em t
han
thoseofext
ensi
vef
armingsy
stems

 Thi
scanbei
ll
ust
rat
edbyt
hedi
agr
am bel
ow
 Thewhol
eideaofl
ocat
ionalrenti
scent
ralt
o
VONTHUNENmodelofagr ic
ultur
all
anduse

 Von THUNEN wasint

erested i
n how and
agr
icul
tur
all
and us
ev ari
ed with di
stanc
e
 f
rom mar
ket“THEI
SOLATEDSTATE”

 Forv on THUNEN ,pat t

erns ofland us
e
around t he market r es
ulted from
competi
ti
onf rom otherlanduse

ASSUMPTI
ONOFVONTHUNENMODEL

 Ther
ewasex i
stenceofani
sol
ateds
tat
ewhi
ch
hadnol
inkswi
thr es
toft
hewor
ld

 Therei
sex i
stenceofanur banmarketasaci
tyas
sol
emar ketwher eallfar
mer sr
ec ei
vethes
ame
pri
ceforapar t
icul
arproduct

 Therewasex ist
ence ofahomogenoust err
ain
/unif
orm plai
nov erwhic
hsoi
lfer
til
it
y,c l
imate
andot herphysi
calfac
tor
sdonotvary(
isotr
opic
even),

tr
ansportc
ost
s i
s di
rec
tly pr
opor
tional t
o
di
stance

 Thefarmersact
edas“ economi
cman”wis
hingt
o
maximize thei
r pr ofi
ts and havi
ng equal
knowledgeontheneedsofmarket

 Therewasonl
yoneform oft
rans
port hor
seand
car
twhichhel at
erchanged ali
nearnavi
gabl
e
sea

Pr
inc
ipl
esofVONTHUNENmodel

 Loc
ati
onalr
entv
ari
es wi
th di
stanc
efr
om t
he
 mar
ketf
ordi
ffer
enti
ntens
iti
esoff
armi
ng

I
ntens
ityoflandus
edec
reas
ewi
thdi
stanc
efr
om
t
hemar ket

DETAI
LS OF VON THUNEN MODEL
 Hebuiltconcentr
icz oneswithlanduseneart
he
markethavinghighi nputsbeingperi
shabl
eand
hav
ingexpens i
vetransportcost

 Forexampl
emar
ketgar
deni
ngandi
ndoordai
ry
far
ming

 Pot
atoeswer
egr
ownc
los
etomar
ketbec
aus
eof
 ex
trawei
ghtwhi
chi
ncr
eas
etr
ans
por
tcos
ts

I
ntens
ivecropswer
egrownneart
othemar
ket
t
hanextens
ivecr
opsorpr
oduc
ts

 The pointatwhich one ty

pe ofland us
ei s
replac
edbyanot
herwhichiscal
ledt
hemarginof
transf
erenc
e

Ifthe mar
ketpri
cef al
l/c os
tofproduc
tion
i
ncreas
esther
eisadec r
eas
einbot
htheprofit
s
andmargi
nofcul
ti
vat
ion

 Margi
nofcult
ivati
oni st heareawherer ev
enue
andcost
sar
eequal .Loc
at i
onalrenti
szeroatthi
s
poi
ntandpr
oduc t
ionbec omeslessworthwhil
e.

 Ques
tion:Brief
lydef
inemar
ginofc
ult
ivat
ionand
l
ocat
ionalrent.

Ques
tion

 Accountfort
hev ari
ati
onsinthei nt
ens
ity
and type of farmi
ng s hown on VON
THUNENmodel s(modif
iedbyri
ver
)

I
ntens
ity

 Tr
ans
por
tcos
t

 Mar
ketpr
ices

 Near
nes
stomar
ket

 Ec
onomi
crent
  Demand(
per
ishabi
li
ty)

Ty
peoff
armi
ng

 Hor
tic
ult
ure

 Dai
ryi
ng

 Cer
ealf
armi
ng

 For
est
ry

 Ranc
hingandgr
azi
ng

St
rengt
hsoft
hemodel

Itisappl
icabl
eatv i
ll
agel
evelwherecropst
hat
needclos
emoni t
ori
ngarel
ocatedneart
hehome

 Theintensi
tyoffarmi
ng decreas
esasdis
tance
i
ncreas
esf r
om themar ketf
orex ampl
earound
maj
ort ownsofHar
areandBulawayo

Itis al
s o obser
ved that t
rans
por
tcos
ts ar
e
propor
tionalt
odistanc
e

 Asdi
stancefr
om t
hev
il
lagei
ncr
eas
esy
iel
dsf
rom
i
tdec
reases

 Thev i
ll
ageserv
icecentreac
tast
heonl
ymar
ket
foragri
cul
tur
alproduct
s

 Atnat
ionall
evelforexampl
ethes
pat
ialpat
ter
n
ofl
anduseinUruguay
 

 Atcontinent
alscal
ee.
g.inEuropewherezonesof
agri
cult
ure wer e ar
ranged around indust
rial
center
sandi nt
ensi
tyoflandusedecr
easingfr
om
thes
ec enter
s

Weaknes
sesoft
hemodel

Ov
ers
impl
ic
ati
on

 Landisnotuni
for
m,f
ew pl
aceswi
thf
eat
urel
ess
plai
ns

 Di
ffer
entmodesoft
rans
por
tar
enowus
ed

 Ani
sol
ateds
tat
edoesnotex
isti
nthemoder
n
 worldduetoexi
stenceoffor
war
dandbac
kwar
d
l
inkagest
ootherpart
softhewor
ld.

OUTDATEDNESS

 Therei ssigni
fi
cantadvancementintec hnology
withc hangingusesofr es
ourcesandi ncreased
press
ur e on l and by popul ati
on gr owt h,
emergenc eofdif
fer
enteconomicpol
ici
es.

 Ai
r,r oad,rai
l,watermodesoft ranspor
thave
i
ncreased acces
sibi
li
tyin al
ldir
ecti
ons tothe
marketquickerandcheapcost
s

 Per
ishablearenow produc
ed fr
om themar
ket
andc ouldbestor
edforalongtimewit
huseof
mil
kt anksandr
efri
ger
atedt
ruc
ks

I
mpr ovedfarmingtechni
ques,useoffer
til
iz
ers,
i
rri
gationhasimpr ov
edy i
eldsandext
endedt he
marginsofcult
ivat
ion

 Farmi
ngl andneart otheurbanmar ket
s have
beentakenbyur bangrowt
hf aracc
ommodation
anddevelopmentpushi
ngawaylanduses

 The model f
ail
ed to r ecogni
zet he rol
e of
gover
nmentfori talterland use by gr
anti
ng
/r
educings
ubsi
dies,i
mpos i
ngquotase.g.CHINA
 cont
rolthe t
ype and amountofpr
oduc
tion ,
manipul
ati
ngmar
ketmec hani
sm

 Themodelfai
ledt
oincl
udethebehavi
oralf
ac t
ors
forfar
mersassomeofthem havenoknowl edge
ofthemarket,ot
hersprac
tic
eforlei
surerather
thanmaxi
mizi
ngprof
it

MODIFICATI ONSTOTHEMODEL
 Lat er,VONThunenaddedt womodi fi
c ations
i
n an at t emptt o make t he modelmor e
realistic.
 Thisi mmedi ately dis
t ort
ed t he land us e
pat ternandmadei tmor ecompl ex.
 Thei nclus ionofanav igabler i
v erallowedan
alternat i
v e,c heaper and f ast er for m of
trans por tt hanhi sori
ginalhor seandc ar t
.
 Ther esultwasal i
near,rathert hanaCi r cular
,
pat ternandanex tensionoft hemar gi nof
cultivation.
 Theaddi tionofas econdar yur banmar ket
i
nv ol vedt hec reati
onofas mallt radingar ea
whi chwoul dc ompete,i nami norway ,wi th
themai nc ity.
Lat er s till, VON Thunen r elaxed ot her
ass umpt ions .
 Heac cept edt hatc l
imat eands oil
saf f ected
produc ti
on c osts and y ields ( though he
nev er mov ed f r
om hi sc onc ept of t he
 featur
elesspl
ain)andthat,asfarmersdonot
always make r ati
onal dec i
sions
,i t was
necessarytoi
nt r
oduceindivi
dualbehavi
our
al
elements.
Ques
tion

a)Bri
efl
yout
li
nethemainpr
inc
ipl
eandas
sumpt
ions
ofVONTHUNEN’SLANDUSETHEORY.

b)Wi t
hr ef
erencetoanyoneareay
ouhav
estudi
ed,
examine t he appli
cabi
li
ty of VON THUNEN’S
agri
cult
urall
andusemodel
.

c
)Asses
st heextend to whi
ch nat
uralhaz
ardsc
an
r
educ
eagri
cul
tur
alproducti
vi
ty.

Di
stanc
ei snolongerac
ruc
ialf
act
ori
nagr
icul
tur
al
pr
oducti
ondue

 Low pr i
ces of land on t he outski
rts as
competi
ti
on c l
oset o CBD i ncr
eases which
i
ncreas
esc os
tofproduc
tiont
haninthefri
nges

I
mprovement
sint
rans
por
t(hi
gh s
peed/bul
ky
c
arr
ier
s)

 Guar
ant
eedmar
ket
s–mobi
le,s
eas
onal

 Food pr
eser
vat
ion tec
hnologi
es-r
efr
iger
ati
on/
canni
ng/
dryi
ng/
v ac
uum pac
king

 News
trai
nsofani
mal
s/c
ropst
hatc
anwi
ths
tand
 s
tres
s–t
hroughr
esear
chanddev
elopment

 Demandands
uppl
y

 Cooperat
ive buy
ing and s
ell
ing i
nput
s and
output
s

 Capi
tal
iz
ati
on

DI
MINI
SHI
NGRETURNS

Isanec onomiclaw whichstat

esthatatac ert
ainpointof
product
ion ,addi ti
onalunitsv of inputs willyiel
d
proport
ionatel
ysmalleruni
tsofoutput,andaddi t
ionalc
ost
i
nc ur
redwillbegreatert
hantheaddit
ionalrevenuerecei
ved

I
nit
ial
ly,asi
nputsar
eappl
iedt osoil
,out
putswil
lcont
inue
t
oincreasef
rom OTOZunt i
lac er
tai
npointwher
eincr
ease
i
ninputswil
lnoti
ncr
eas
eout putsfr
om ZTOX.

Iti
sobser
v edthatbeyondZt hel
awofdimi
nishi
ngret
urns
occur
sdespit
emor einput
sleadi
ngtoanetr
evenuedec
li
ne

I
tcanbeanegat
ivev
alue
 AGRI
CULTURE PRODUCTI
ON i
sthepr
oces
sofc
hangi
ng
i
nput
sint
ooutputs
.

 Thi
srefersto abi
li
tyt oincr
ease/ dec
reas
etot
al
out
puti
rres
pect
iveofthesi
zeofthel
and.

I
tact
sasaf unctionofthei
nter
playofl
and,l
abour
,
c
api
talandmarkettopr
oduceout
puts.

AGRI CULTURALPRODUCTI VI
TYisameasureofoutputperi
nput
ref
erredt otherat
eofproducti
onperuni
tareaforexampleper
hectare,perwor
kerormanpower .

Ques
tion:dist
ingui
sh agr
icul
tur
alpr
oduc
tion and agr
icul
tur
al
pr
oductiv
ity
.

Br
ief
lydef
inet
hel
awofdi
mini
shi
ngr
etur
ns.

I
NTENSI
VEANDEXTENSI
VEFARMI
NG

Intens
ivef
armingist
heproduc
tionofc r
ops/l
iv
estockonasmall
pieceofland wit
h max
imum ut i
li
zat
ion ofcapi
taland l
abour
i
nput s
.

 Therel
ati
onshi
pbetweenl
abour,capit
alandl
and ats
mal
l
scal
ewit
hhighout
putsperuni
tarea.

I
ftheamountofl
abouri
shi
ghandc
api
tali
slow ,
iti
son
 i
ntensi
ve ty
pe of f ar
ming but at subsi
stence lev
el
e.
g.…Pl
aces67 The Gangesval
ley
:int
ensiv
es ubs
ist
ence
agr
icul
tur
e
 Hi
ghout
putperc
api
tai
tisc
all
edc
api
tali
ntens
ivee.
g.

I
famountofc
apit
ali
shi
ghbutlabourlow,i
tisc
ommerci
al
t
ype of i
ntensiv
e f
armi
ng.

Way
stoi
ntens
ifyf
armi
ng

 Repl
aci
ngs
las
handbur
n

 Gr
eenr
evol
uti
on

 Smal
lsc
ales
elfs
chemes

EXTENSI
VEFARMI
NGi
scar
riedonal
arges
cal
e

 Smal
lout
put
speruni
tar
ea

I
famountofl abourandcapi
talar
esmalli
nrel
ati
ontoarea
being far
med iti s an ex
tensi
vetype of far
ming at
subsi
stencel
evel

Iftheamountoflabouri
ssti
llli
mitedbuti
nputofcapi
tali
s
high,itis extensi
vef ar
mi ng at a commerci
als cal
e

At
tempt
stoex
tentc
ult
ivat
ion
 I
rri
gat
ionoas
es

 Draini
ngofs wampsegdr ainingofoldpoldersinwester
n
netherlands ,withf l
atarea dr ai
ned by canal
s,exces
s
pumpedbydi eselandelec
tricpumpsi nt
othec anal
s.Cost
ofreclamationishighsothati nt
ensiv
edemendsar emade
onland.

AGRI
CULTURAL SYSTEMS AND FOOD
PRODUCTI
ON

Bri
efl
yex plai
nt heinter
rel
ati
ons
hip bet
ween c
ommer
cialand
subsi
stenc
ef ar
mi ng.

Withrefer
enceto anycountr
yyouhaves t
udied ,outl
inet
he
di
str
ibut
ionandnat
ureofeit
hercr
oporpas
toralfar
mi ng

Wi
thr
efer
enc
eto anyc
ount
ryy
ou hav
est
udi
ed ,
ass
esst
he
ex
tend to whic
hf ar
ming has l
ed t
othe es
tabl
is
hmentof
pr
ocess
ingindust
ries.
QUESTI
ON s how how andwhys eas
onalvari
ati
onsincl
imat
e
af
fec
tfarmi
ngmoreintr
opicalt
hanintemperat
eregi
ons.

How

tr
opicalc
li
mat esummersar
ehotand wet
unl
ikeintemperatesummer
sar
ec ooland
wet/towarm andwet

I
ntropi
calc
li
matewintersarecoolanddr
y
whi
lei
ntemperat
eiti
sc oolandwet

 Hotanddr
yindeser
ts–whi
lsti
ntemper
ate
ther
ear
esnowi
ngandthawi
ng

Why

l
andf al
lowinwi nt
erwhil
stt
her
eisper
ennial
far
ming i n temperat
e due to moist
ure
abundanceall
y ear
.

Ir
rigati
onispracti
ced onc ommer c
ialbas
is
whilstintemperatephy si
callimi
tat
ionsare
chall
enged by s ynthentic homones ,
greenhous
es,ir
rigat
ion,hydrogenbombs

 Tr
opi
cal f
armersgrow s
mallgrai
nswhi
ch
wi
ths
tandhotanddr
ycondit
ions
  Theaim ofagri
cul
turalsyst
emsisto
produc
ethebas
icoutputsandpr
ofi
ts.

thenatur
eandeff
ici
entoftheproc
essesis
deter
minedbyt
her ange,s
c al
eandquali
ty
ofoutput
s

I
nareaswherefarmingisdevelopedphysi
cal
f
act
orsareusuall
ylessimportantbuthuman
f
act
orsinc
reasest heybecomel es
seff
ecti
ve

 Agric
ult
uralsys
tems ar
e dynamic as t
hey
changewithfarmer
sattempttoreacttoa
rangeofhumanandphysic
alf
actor
s.

Cl
ass
ifi
cat
ionofagr
icul
tur
als
yst
ems

1.Ar
abl
e,pas
tor
alandmi
xed

2.Subs
ist
enc
eandc
ommer
cial
far
ming

3.Ex
tens
iveandi
ntens
ive

4.Shi
fti
ngands
edent
ary

5.Or
gani
candnon–or
gani
cfar
ming
Arablefarmingisthegrowingofcrops,usual
lyon
fl
atterlandwher esoilsareofhigherqual i
ty.I
t
wast hedev el
opmentofnews t
rai
nswhi chledto
fi
rstpermanents ett
lementintheNi leandIndus
val
ley.Itledtothec onst
ruct
ionofr ai
lwayinthe
far
mi ngregions.

Pas tor
alfarmi
ngi sther eari
ngofani malsusuall
y
onl andwhichi slessfavourablet oarabl
efarming
i
nc ol
der,drier,s teeperand hi gherlands.If
grazing area has been ex c
eeded i tscarr
ying
capac i
tythesoilandgr asswi l
lleadtoovergr
azing,
soilerosi
onanddes erti
fi
c at
ion.

FARMI
NGSYSTEMSI
NDETAI
L

NOMADI CHERDING isprac

tic
edi nareaswher e
thec l
imatei
stooextremetos uppor
tper manent
set
tledfarmer
sresul
ti
ngtonomadi cpastoral
is
ts

 The areas ar
einhospi
tabl
e ,wit
hspar
se
veget
ationandcol
d/ar
idcli
mat
es

 Themov ementofpr esentdaynomadsi s

determi
ned by s
easonalnat ure ofrainfal
l
andt heneedtofindnew s ourcesofgr ass
/waterforanimals e.g.Mas aaiin Kenya,
Ful
ani in Sudan
  TheindigenousSamiofScandi
navi
ahav et o
mov ewhenpas tur
esbecomes now covered
i
n wi nt
er,whi le Ful
animigr
atet o avoid
tset
sefly

 TwotypesofNOMADI
SM -
tot
alands
emi
-
nomads

 Some may own l and and t

ravelacr
oss
nat
ional
front
ier
sinsear
chofpast
ures

 Mightnothav eclearmigr
atorypat
ternsbut
migrati
on routes incr
easei n si
ze under
adversecondit
ionse.g.duringdroughtsin
Sahel.

 Animal
spr ov
idesour
c eforl
ivel
ihood,mi
lk,
meat,blood ,
wool,ski
ns,dung,t r
ans
port,
exc
hange

 Pas t
oral
ist
sdonotpartwit
hthei
rani
mals;
retai
n t hem ifcondi
ti
ons i
mprove f
or
regenerati
on.

Whynomadshav
echangedi
nrec
entt
imes

I
ncr
easingpopulat
ions iz
eanddensit
yhas
r
educedtheareaavai
lableforgr
azingwit
h
ali
mitedamountofl and e.
g.Rendil
lei
n
 nor
thKeny
a

 Land i s becoming ov er
popul
ated and
resource ov
ers
tret
ched asthe numberof
animals and peopl e i s exponent
ial
ly
i
ncr eas
ing.

 Due to frequenc
y drought
s, eff
ect
s of
cl
imatechange ,waterand veget
ati
on i
s
becomi
ngsc ar
ce

 Gov er
nment shav eencouraged permanent
settl
ement s
, organized into c ooper
ative
ranches,r
otati
onal gr
azi
ng,dippings er
vices,
i
rrigati
ng pastures,use ofs upplementary
feeds,mixedfarming

SHI
FTING CULTIVATI
ON(
EXTENSI
VE
SUBSI
STENCEAGRI
CULTURE)

 Af ar
mermov esfrom oneareatoanother
,
withf i
eldrotat
ion and pr
acti
ced where
populat
ion densi
tyi slow ,f or famil
y
consumptionandbar
tertr
ading

AREASOFDI
STRI
BUTI
ON

 Moi
mbowoodl
andsofTanz
ani
a

 Northeas
tofZambi
abyBembaandUs
hi
tr
ibes
  Ladangofs
out
heas
tAs
ia

 Mi
lpaofLat
inAmer
ica

Changesi
nshi
fti
ngc
ult
ivat
ion

 Therapi
drisei
npopul
ation dens
iti
eslimit
thes
izeofl
andtor
oam aboutandforfal
low

 Farmers ar
e now abl et o maintai
ns oi
l
fer
til
ityusi
ng manure, fer
til
iz
ers and crop
rot
ation ther
eby r ais
ing pr oducti
vit
y ,
educati
on and tr
aining for mores et
tled
methodsoffar
ming

 Urbani
zati
onhasc reatedmar
ket
sf oragr
ic
produc
ts and tur
ning far
mersint
os emi-
commer c
ialpr
oducers

 Ques ti
on :
outl
ine t
he di
fference bet
ween
shif
ting cul
ti
vati
on and r otat
ional bus
h
–fal
low.

TROPICAL COMMERCI AL Pl
antat
ions ar
elar
ge
scal
eproduct
ions,usuall
yofonec r
op,onalar
ge
pi
eceoflandforextendedper
iodoftime.

Nat
ure

 gr
owc
ashc
rops
  Lar
gees
tat
es

 Ot
her
shav
eoutgr
ower
s

 Loc
all
abourus
ed

 Sc
ient
ifi
cmanagement

 Spec
ial
iz
eds
kil
ls
,mac
hiner
y

 Hi
ghy
iel
ds

 Hi
ghqual
it
ypr
oduc
e

 Mos
tlyf
orex
por
t/mar
ketdr
iven

 Heav
ycapi
talout
lay

 Takel
ongges
tat
ionper
iod

 Pr
esenc
eoff
act
ori
es/
agr
ocompl
exes

DI
STRI
BUTI
ON

I
ndr
ierpar
ts

 On flat t
err
ains
,low l
yi
ng areas i
nt he
sout
heast LOWVELD- MKWASINE,HI PPO
VALLEY,MIDDLESABIANDCHISUMBANJ E.

I
nri
chl
oam s
oil
sandc
lay
s

 Sl
oppyhi
ghl
andpl
aces

 Spar
sel
ypopul
atedar
eas

 Hotar
eas23C,dr
yabout500mm r
ainf
all
  Areaswher
emaj orr
iver
sfl
ow e.
g. SAVE,
RUNDE,BUBI,MAZOWE,PUNGWEriv
er

 Ar
easwher
erai
nfal
liss
uff
ici
entf
ort
ree
gr
owi
ng

NB:Readadv
ant
ages anddi
sadv
ant
ages

Ques
t i
on wit
hr ef
erenc
et ocount
riesy ouhave
st
udi
eddes cri
bet henatur
eanddis t
ribut
ionof
pl
antati
ons.

LI
VESTOCKFARMI
NG

Dai
ryf
armi
ng

Isr
eari
ngofc owsinordert
opr oducemil
kand
mil
kproductse.
g.CHI
PINGEjersey,GUSHUNGO
dai
ryin MAZOWE,KENYA HI GHLANDS,RUSI
TU
DAIRYUNITEDCOOPERATIVEINCHI PI
NGE

 Nort
h Ams t
erdam and sout
h west of
Fr
iesl
andwi
thcomput
eri
zedani
mal
feedi
ng

 Loc
atedaroundmaj orc i
ti
eswheretherear
e
market
s,peri
shabil
ityofproduc
ts,geti
nput
s
,medic
ines,f
eeds,factor
ies

 Locat
ealongmajorr
oadstoqui
ckl
ydel
iv
er
themil
ktothec
onsumers
  Canbepr
act
icedons
mal
lsc
alei
ndoor
s

 Beas
tsf
eedonnongr
ownf
odderc
rops

I
tiscapi
tali
ntensi
veforex
ampleonebeast
c
ost$1400eachinsouthAf
ric
a/$2000l
ocal

 Hi
ghl
eveloft
echnol
ogyandc
omput
eri
zed

 Hi
ghout
putperuni
tar
eai
ntens
ive

CATTLERANCHINGr
ear
ingofl
iv
est
ockf
ormeat
andi
tsproduc
ts

Ex
ampl
es

 Areascommer
cials
heepf
armi
ngi
ncent
ral
Austr
ali
a

 Cant
erbur
ypl
aini
nnewZeal
and

 Pat
agoni
a i
nAr gent
inaandupl
andBri
tai
n
,ORANGEFREESTATEinsout
hAfri
ca

 Beefc at
tle ar
e mor etol
erantto a wi
de
var
iet
yofenv i
ronmentalc
ondit
ions
,inhot
dri
ersemiaridenvi
ronments

 Occur in mar gi
nal areas where human
populat
ion densi
ti
esarelowforranc
hese.g.
i
nt hePAMPASi ns out
hAmer i
ca

 Ext
ens
ivelow l
eveloftec
hnol
ogywithl
ow
out
putperareae.g.Li
ebi
granchesi
nwest
 Ni
chol
son,MWENEZIr
anc
h

 Practi
cedinmoreremot eareaswhereother
formsofl and use ar
el i
mited and where
there are ext
ensiv
e c heaper land with
suffi
ci
entgras
st osupportlargenumberof
animals

 Hotdryareas wi
thsweetv
eldr
unnergras
s,
thor
n bushes and Mopane t
rees whose
l
eavesar
ev er
ynutr
iti
ous

Questi
on:outl
ine the di
ffer
enc
e bet
ween
dai
ryi
ngandcat
t l
eranchi
ng.

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED I
N LI
VESTOCK
FARMING

 Preval
enc
eofdis
eas
ess
uchasant
hraxand
footandmout
h

 St
ockt
hef
t

 Drought
swhi c
h affectpas
tur
equal
it
yand
sourc
esofqual
itywater

 Soil er
osion due t
o ov
ergr
azi
ng and
overs
tocki
ng

 Short
age ofc api
talt
o buyc
hemi
cal
sand
bui
ldi
ngdiptanks

 Poorqual
it
yani
mal
s
  Fl
uct
uat
ionsofmar
ketpr
ices

EFFORTS TO REDUCE THE PROBLEMS/

INCREASENATI
ONALHERD

 Sc
ient
ifi
cal
lymanagi
ngr
anc
hes

 Capi
tal
iz
ati
on

 Nat
ional
hei
ferpr
ojec
ts

 Gr
owi
ngs
toc
kfeedandi
rri
gat
ingpas
tur
e

 Ani
mal
sdi
ppedr
egul
arl
yandv
acc
inat
ed

 Cr
ossbr
eedi
ng,r
esear
chanddev
elopment

 Ar
tif
ici
ali
nsemi
nat
ion

 Des
toc
king

 Under
groundwat
ers
uppl
ement
ing

 Pol
ic
erestr
ict
ionsandc
lear
anc
eofani
mal
movement

Questi
on:forany ledc y
ou havestudi
ed
,ev
aluateef
for
tsbei
ngmadetoi mpr
ovethe
nat
ionalher
d.

FOODSECURI
TY

Isens
uringt
hatallpeopl
eatallt
imeshavebothphy
sic
al
andeconomi
caccesstothebas
icfoodt
heyneed.

I
tens
urest
hatpeopl
ehav
etheabi
li
tyt
o hav
eac
ces
s,
 s
upplyofthebasicfoodstuf
fsatalltimest
osust
aina
s
teadyexpansi
onoff oodc
ons umpti
onandtooff
setal
l
f
oodproducti
oncost
sandfl
uctuati
ons.

FOODSHORTAGES

theseareexplai
nedbyMal t
huswi thf ear
st hatpopulati
on
ofthewor l
dwi l
latacert
ainperiodov ershootfoods uppl
y
despi
teas s
urancefrom wor l
d organizat
ion such asFAO
thatther
eissuff
ici
entf
oodf oreveryone

Itis esti
mated t hat ¾ of wor l
d’s popul
ati
on ar
e
i
nadequat
elyf
edwi thlar
gestpr
opor
tionsi
nLEDCSs uc
has
Zi
mbabwe,Niger,Somalia,

Inadequatef oodcaus
esmalnut
rit
ion,undernutr
iti
onand
reducesc apacit
ytowork,peopl
ebei nglessres
istantt
o
diseases
.

InsubSaharanAfri
caf oodout putperper
sonhasdecli
ned
dueto globaland regionalrainf
alls
hort
ageswith many
count
riesbeingunablet oaff
or dtobuysuff
ici
entf
oodt o
off
setthei
rshort
ages

 Shortagesar eal
soasaresul
toflessproduct
iveandf ragil
e
soil
sinr elati
ontohighqual
ityl
andbei ngusedf orur ban
sprawl,ur bani
zat
ion,and s
ub-urbani
zati
on and c ounter
urbanizat
ion.

 Human mi
smanagement,local
iz
ed warres
ult
sinf ami
ne
whi
chcont
ribut
estoadecl
ineintheac
ces
stofood.

 Thev
ulner
abl
egr
oupsofs
oci
ety whi
chi
ncl
udet
hepoor
,
 physi
c al
lyc hall
enged,chil
dren,l
eastskil
led and r
ural
populati
onar eaf f
ectedasfoodpri
cesgoesbey ondt
heir
reac
he. g.i
nNi ger

 Uneven dis
tri
bution of weal
th,l
ack of t
echnol
ogy in
farmi
ng,shortageoflandandwatershor
tage acc
eler
ate
foodins
ecuri
ty

 The road i
nfr
astr
uc tur
ei s poor,maki
ng itdi
ffi
cul
tt o
di
stri
butefoodinternal
lyintimesofshort
agesandareas
wit
hs hor
tages
,li
nkingwi t
htheouts
ideworl
d

 LEDCShav
eadef
ici
ttr
ader
elat
ions
hipandpoorbanki
ng
sys
tem

 Foods
hor
tagesi
nsubSahar
aregi
on

 Causesofshort
age ar
efrequentdr oughts
,civ
ilst
rif
e,
economi
ccr
isi
s,l
ocus
tandpests,f
loods,HIVandai
ds

 Thi
shasdi sr
upt
ed f
ood pr
oduc
tion and di
spl
aced l
arge
popul
ati
ons

 Green rev
olut
ion i
s at mini
mum due limi
ted c
api
tal
i
nvestmentsi
nagri
cul
tur
eact
ivi
ti
esandr
efor
ms

 The soil
s hav
efert
il
itycons
trai
ns,l
owerwaterhol
ding
capaci
ty,li
mit
ednutr
ient
smakingthesoi
lsv
ulner
abl
et o
erosi
on

I
ncreasedpopul
ati
ongrowt
hhasr educ
edf
all
owper
iodsfor
s
hif
t i
ngc ul
ti
vat
ion,bushfal
lowi
ngandnomadicpast
oral
f
arming
  Ov
ergr
azi
nghasc
ont
ribut
edt
odes
ert
ifi
cat
ion

 Sub-Sahar an countri
es rel
y on ov erseas ai
d whichis
channeled touni nt
endedpr oj
ectssomeofwhi chpr
omote
monoc ulture e.g.growingofc ashcropsi nst
eadoffood
productionands ustai
nablef
armingsystems

 Foods hor
tagesareincr
easi
ngwithwarsand,HI
Vandai
ds
reduc
ingtime,abi
li
tyandagri
cul
tur
alpr
oducti
vi
ty.

 Howev
erMEDCSareatri
skfrom ov
ereat
ing anddi
seas
es
suc
hashear
tdi
seas
es,
cancer
,obesi
ty

 Foodoutputhasincr
easedtremendouslyatar apidr
atedue
togreenrevol
uti
onwi t
hW. H.Oreport
ingt hatnewf ar
ming
techni
quesareincr
easingoutput,nut
riti
on,inc r
eas
ingli
fe
expect
ancy

 Ther
ear
epr
obl
emsofov
erpr
oduc
tioni
nMEDCS

MEASURESTOCURBFOODSHORTAGES

 Wi t
hminimum suc
cessW.H.
Ohastri
edtoenc
ourageE.
Uto
reducetar
iff
sandquotas
,subs
idi
estohel
pLEDCSt ohav
e
accesst
of oods
upply

 LEDCS c an offs
etf ood by lobbyi
ng f
orf ood ai
d
thr
ough i nter
nati
onal or ganiz
ati
ons like plan
i
nternat
ional,wor l
df ood programme ,I
.M.O.
,RED
CROSS,

 Thes
ucc
essoft
hismeas
urei
sdet
ermi
nedbypol
it
ical
 s
tabi
li
ty,inter
nati
onal rel
ati
ons and nat
ure of
t
rans
portnet
wor ki
ntegr
ati
on

 LAND REFORM i
sa s
oci
al,pol
it
icaland l
egi
sl
ati
ve
processaimed atredr essi
ng accesst oland i
na
country.Iti
nv ol
ves agrari
an rev
ol ut
ion and r
ural
development
,redi
str
ibut i
on,sec
uri
t yoftenure
I
sdonetoov
erc
ome i
nef
fic
ientt
otheus
eofl
and and
l
abour

I
t is done t hr
ough expr
opri
ation of lar
ge lands
,
c
onsoli
dat
ing ofsmal
lfar
ms,increasi
ng t
he sec
uri
tyof
t
enure

E.
gsdonei
nCHI
NA,ZI
MBABWE,BRAZI
L

I
thaspos i
tiv
eand negat i
veimpactson theeconomi
c,
s
oci
al-
cul
tural
,pol
it
icalandenv
ironment
ali
mpact
s

 Thi
saf
fec
tfoodpr
oduc
tionandl
iv
est
ockpr
oduc
tion

GREENREVOLUTI ON i st hebr eakthroughi nplantand

animalbreedingt hatproduc edhi ghy i
eldingvarieties
,
a pac kage of f erti
li
zers,i nsecti
cides , her
bicides,
fungi
cides ,mac hi
neryf orhar vest
ing and pl ant i
ng,
waterc ontrolequipment ,loansandgr ants,training
schemes , marketing and di str
ibuti
on s ystems ,
agrar
ianr efor
m.

The c
hanges br
oughti
n by gr
een r
evol
uti
on ar
e
 obs
erved i
n bi
ochemi
cal
,mec
hani
caland s
oci
al
i
nnovati
ons
Suc
ces
sofgr
eenr
evol
uti
on
I
ndi a,Mex i
co,Thail
and,Keny a,Malay
sia,Taiwan
,Pakist
an andPhili
ppinesbenefi
tedf
rom thegreen
r
ev olut
ion pac
kagesbyus ing hi
gh y
iel
ding v
ariet
y
s
eeds
Theypr oduced hi
gh yi
eldi
ng vari
etieswhich wer
e
droughtresi
stant
,wit
hshortergrowingseas
on
Yiel
dsaretwi
ceto4t imesgreat
erthantradit
ional
vari
eti
ese.
g.i
nri
ce,wheatandmaiz
eproduc
t i
on
Shortergr owing season l
eadi
ng to pr
oduct
ion of
extr
ac ropast heywiths
tandextr
emec ondi
ti
onsof
drought,heavyrainsandwinds
Far
mi ng inc
ome i nc
reased,al
lowi
ng purchas
e of
i
nputs mac hiner
y bet t
er seeds,fer
til
is
ers and
pest
icides
Di
etv
ari
edi
nrur
alar
easandbet
terl
iv
ings
tandar
ds
Local i
nfr
ast
ruc
tur
e upgr
aded t
o ac
commodat
e
str
ongmarket
Empl
oymentc
reat
ioni
nindus
tri
ess
uppl
yi
ngf
armi
ng
wi
thi
nputs
 Hi
gher refor
ms jus
tif
ied s
igni
fi
cant i
ncr
eas
e i
n
i
rri
gat
ionanduseofmodernmachi
nery
Di
sadvant
ages/
fai
lur
esofgr
eenr
evol
uti
on
Hi
ghc
ostofi
nput
se.
g.f
ert
il
iz
ersandpes
tic
ides
High weed c
ontroli
sneeded and s
usc
ept
ibi
li
tyt
o
pest
sanddiseas
es
Hi
gh income f ar
mer s benef i
ted mostt han l
ow
i
ncome far
mer s wideni
ng t he income gap which
i
ncreas
eruralt
our banmigration
Mac
hani
sat
ionhasi
ncr
eas
edr
uralunempl
oyment
Sali
nisat
ion and eut
rophi
cat
ion pol
lut
es wat
er
sources
 Farmi
ng becomescapi
tali
ntens
ivewhi
chi
sbey
ond t
he
capac
ityofLEDCf
armer
s

 Far
mersdonothaveacces
stoloansbec aus
eofi
nsec
ure
l
andtenur
esy
stems
,wit
hhighi
nteres
tloans

 H.Y.
Vf oodstuff
s are unpalatabl
e as t
hey haves tr
ange
tast
es,ear l
ymat ur
ing causeshealt
hydiseasess uc
h as
obesit
y,c ancer,heartdi
seaseswhichaff
ectl
ifeexpectanc
y
i
nLEDCS

Appropr
iat
etec
hnol
ogy i
sneededtoreplacethose
act
ivi
ti
esthati
mportcapi
taland t
echnologyfr
om
 t
hedev
elopedc
ount
ries

Withs omeasc ommuni tybasedandNGOf undedfor

exampl etheBr i
ti
shbas edpractic
alactiont
hatseeks
to dev elop s malls
us tai
nable pr oj
ectswhic
har e
appropriatet ot he localc li
mat e ,envir
onment,
wealth,skil
lsandneedsofl ocalpeople
Us
ingmor
ewel
ls
Dr
ipi
rri
gat
ion
St
one l
ini
ng i
n Bur
kina Fas
o

Chec
k dams i
nthe LOESS PLATEAU I
N NORTH
 CHI
NA

Us
eofor
gani
cfer
til
is
erf
rom ani
mal
s
Mi
xedf
armi
ngandc
ropr
otat
ion,i
nter
croppi
ng

I
mpac
tonpopul
ati
ons
 I
mpr
oveds
tandar
dofl
iv
ing
Lowdeat
hrat
es
Hi
ghl
if
eex
pec
tanc
y
Lowdependenc
eload(
Waughpage468)
FARMI
NGANDTHEENVI
RONMENT
Pres
sure groups are c l
aimi
ng /
adv
ocat
ing f
or
envi
ronment
al pr
otec
tion
Envi
ronmenti
sbeing changed due t
osheep and
growi
ngofcer
eal
satafasterr
ate
Agri
cul
tureint
ens
ifi
cat
ion i
sbeing poi
nted ast
he
cul
pri
ttoget
herwi
thurbani
zati
on
FARMI
NGASATHREATTOTHEENVI
RONMENT

Useofc hemi
cal
s–f er
til
is
ers,slur
ryand pes
tic
ides
cont
ribut
etoenv
ironmentalpol
luti
on
Fert
il
izers and or
ganic manure cont
ami
nat
e
undergroundwatersuppl
iesandri
ver
s
Eutr
ophi
cat
ioni
nnor
thwes
tEur
opeand uni
ted
ki
ngdom
Far
my ardeff
luenti
samaj
orpol
lut
antandki
ll
er
ofl
ifeinri
ver
sinBri
tai
n
 Pest
icidesar
edanger
oustobeeandbut t
erf
ly
populati
onsandhasc
aus
edadecl
inei
nfaunain
Pari
sbas i
n

Thelossofnat
uralhabi
tants
-c l
ear
anceofhedges,
pondsandwetlandsresul
tedinalossofhabi
tant
s
forwi
ldl
if
eanddestr
ucti
onofecosys
tems
I
nBr i
tai
n25% ofhedger
owswer
ecl
ear
edi
n
Nor
folk
Far
mingincr
eas
eer
osi
onandr
emov
esnat
ural
l
andcover
Winder
osion c
ommon i npar
tsofeas
tAngl
ia
wher
esoil
sarel
ight
/peat
y
Defor
estat
ioni
ntropi
calrainf
ores
tsacceler
ates
soi
leros
ionanddeser
tif
icat
ionInSahelregi
on

I
rri
gati
on causes al
ini
zat
ion and wat
er
l
ogging i
n Paki
stan,Egyptand 30% of
Cal
if
ornia

Ques t
ion:Ass
ess t he i mpact of
agr
icul
turalacti
vi
ti
esont heenv
ironment
i
nareasy ouhavestudi
ed.

Setas
idewoodl
andsboos
tec
osy
stem
 Des i
gnationofenv i
ronmental
lysens
iti
ve
areasE.S.Aandincenti
vest
oplanthedges
aswel lasres
tor
ingponds

Country st
ewar
dshi
p s
chemes
(CSS)
incent
ives for i
mprov
ing nat
ural
count
ryherit
age

Res
tor
ingwi
ldl
if
etoar
abl
ear
eas

Eut
rophi
cati
on t
hrough us
e of
agr
ochemic
als

Sl
urr
yani
malwas
tepol
lut
ion

Pes
tic
ideski
llbees,
but
ter
fli
es,bi
rds

Estat
es des
troy nat
urall
ands
cape and
beauty

Sal
ini
zat
ion(
ir
rigat
ions
chemes
)

Leac
hingt
hroughi
rri
gat
ion

ATTEMPTS BY FARMI
NG TO I
MPROVE
ENVIRONMENT
a)
Env
ironment
ali
mpr
ovements
chemes
 The E. U and t he Br i
ti
sh gov er
nment
i
ntr oducedseveralschemesinwhichf i
nancial
i
nc entiveswereofferedtofarmer
s whot r
ied
toi mpr ovethei
renv i
ronmente.
g.s et
-asi
de,
woodl and managementand env ironmentally
sens i
ti
veareas
Manypar t
sofBr itai
nbenefit
edf r
om setasi
de
,soil
swer el ef
tunderper manent/rotat
ional
f
all
ow wi th protect
ivevegetat
ion c
ov erand
i
ncreasedhumusc ontent
The woodland management s
chemes
i
ncreas
edt
henumberoft
rees
Thec ountrys
idec ommi ssi
onand t henature
conservancyc ounci
llookedatar easwhereit
wasc ons i
dered landscape underthreatfor
changingfarmi ngpract
ices
b)Thes t
ewardshipschemeisaj ointfar
ming
envi
ronmental i
nit
iat
ive t
hat bui
lds on the
suc
cessofformerE.S.
A.S
Obj
ect
iveswer
eto

Cons
erv
ewi
ldl
if
e(bi
odi
ver
sit
y)

Mai
ntai
nandenhanc
elands
capequal
it
yand
 c
har
act
er

Protec
tt he nat
ural her
itage and nat
ural
resour
ces
c
)Or gani
cf ar
ming–whic
hmi nimi
zet
hedamaget
o
t
heenv i
ronmentandwil
dli
fe
d)
Genet i
cmodi fied crops-deliberate att
empt sof
usingbiotechnologytoalterthegenet icmakeupof
apl antwiththei ntenti
onofi ncreasingy i
elds by
maki ngthem resist
antt oeit
herdi seases,pestsor
cli
mat i
cconditi
onst hatareextreme.

These ar e ess
enti
altof eed the worl
d’s
growing f
ood pri
cesand ef
fect
sofc l
imat
e
change

AGRI
CULTUREPOLI
CIES
Wit
hr eferenc
et oexamplesf
rom medc
s,dsr
cibe
and explai
nt he r
ole ofgover
nmentpol
ic
y on
agr
icul
tureacti
vi
ti
es

Central gover
nments can play a r
egul
ator
y
func
tioninagri
cul
tur
alpr
oduct
ion
as
-suppor
t/di
scour
agef
armi
ng

Dumping exc es
s pr
oduc
ts/
donat
ions t
o
hungr
ycount
ries

Sett
ing up of agr i
cul
tur
al aut
hor
ity
boards
/st
oragef
aci
li
ti
es

Dec
idi
ngonpr
oduc
tionquot
as

Regul
ati
ngt
hroughl
egi
sl
ati
on-s
etas
ide-
soi
l
bank

Announci
ng pre-
produc
er pr
ices
-guar
ant
ees
/as
suredpri
ces

Ex
por
tinc
ent
ives/
subs
idi
es

Res
ear
chanddev
elopment

Turning f
arml
and i
nto r
ecr
eat
ion /
urban
set
tlement
s
 Land r ef
orm pol
ic
ies
-land c
ons
olodi
tat
ion
/col
lec
tivi
zat
ion

Off
eri
nginc
ent
ivest
oindi
vi
dualf
armer
s-l
oans
,gr
ants

Pr
ovi
ding /
reduc
ing mar
ket f
or f
armer
pr
oducts
THEE.
USUPRANATI
ONALPOLI
CY
Members of E.U c
ount
ries ar
e meant to
i
mplent t he COMMON AGRI CULTURAL
POLI
CY(C.A.P)
Dec
isi
onsar
emadei
nBr
uss
els
AI
MS
Toincreaseagr
icul
tur
epr
oduc
tiv
ityands
elf
suf
fic
iency
Mai
ntai
njobson l
and pr
efer
abl
yon f
ami
ly
f
arms
Impr
ovestandar
dofl
iv
ing(
inc
ome)off
armer
s
andfar
m worker
s
St
abi
l
izemar
ket
s
Keep consumer f
ood pr
ices s
tabl
e and
reas
onabl
e
EFFECTSOFC.
A.P

Draini
ng of E.U f i
nanci
albudget due to
dimini
shi
ngr et
urnswith70% ofE.U‘
Sbudget
spentforsupport
ingfarmi
ngwhenagric
ult
ure
onlyprovi
ded5% oftotalr
evenue

Largesur
plus
eswer ec r
eatedasfarmerswer
e
encour
aged and helped withtechnol
ogyto
produc
easmuc haspos sibl
e

Handic
apping of LEDCS as impor
ts wer
e
subj
ected to duti
es to make them les
s
competit
ivewi
ththeE.Upr
ices

As E.U f arms bec ome larger and mor e

eff
ici
ent,thepr
os perousfar
mer sbenef
itedat
theexpenseofthos efarmi
nginuplandsareas
andperipher
yes pecial
lyi
nsouthernEurope

Ther
e was i ns
uff
ici
ent r
egar
d f
or t
he
envi
ronment

E.Uf
armersweregr
ant
edgener
ouss
ubs
idi
es
tomai
ntai
npri
ces

thi
s hel
ped r es
tri
ct i
mpor
ts f
rom non-
economi
cal
lyLEDCS
MEASURESTAKEN TO REDUCETHEPROBLEMS
ANDTHEIREFFECTI
VENESS
SUBSI
DIES
guar
anteedf
armersamini
mum pri
ceand
anassur
edmarketf
ort
heirpr
oduc
e
far
mersov erpr
oduced and t
hepay ment
of subsi
dies bec
ame a dr ain on E.
U
fi
nances
s
tepstor
educesurpl
us weretakenthr
ough
r
educi
ngs
ubsi
diesandimpos
ingpenal
ti
es
I
nearl
y1990s,theE.Ubeganthepr ogr
es s
ive
r
educt
ion ofsubsi
dieson c
ereal,beef
,wi th
s
uccessi
nl i
miti
ngt he‘
mountainsandl akes
s
urpl
uses’
.
In2006theC.A.Pac
count
edf
or45% oft
he
E.Ustot
albudget

QUOTAS
wereintr
oducedi
n1984tor educ
emilkoutput
-on dai
ryfarms,theE.U hasproposed f
ive
annualquot
aincr
easebet
ween2008and2013
SETASI
DE
wasiniti
all
yi nt
roducedonav ol
untar
ybasis
,but later enf or
ced to t
ry t o reduc
e
over
productionofarabl
ecr
ops
Farmer s who took 20% oft heirc ul
ti
vated
land outofpr oducti
on wer e given £ 20 a
hectarepr ov
idedthatlandwasei t
herfallow ,
turned into woodland /div
ersi
f i
ed int
o non
–agric
ulturalland uses uch as gol fcourse
,
naturet rai
ls
,wi l
dli
fe habit
atsand c aravan
parks
By2000 therewasl it
tlesur
plusproduc
tion
and so when 2007-08 saw a rapi
d gl
obal
i
ncreas
einfoodpric
es
TheE.
Ufi
xedt
hes
etas
ider
ateatz
ero

ENVI
RONMENTALLYFRI
ENDLYFARMI
NG

i
snew E. Uappr oachbywhichinsteadof
paying far
mer st o pr
oduce moref ood
,theyar egiven paymentsiftheymeet
environmentalandanimalstandar
dsand
 keept
hei
rlandi
ncondi
ti
on

The s oc al
led HEALTH CHECK i s an
attempttost reamlineandmoderniz
et he
C.A.P and t
o enc ourage f
armer
st o be
guardi
ansoft hec ountrysi
de
THEWORLDTRADEORGANI
ZATI
ONS
Withmi ni
mum succ
es sitenc
our
agedE.Uand
otherwellof
ft r
adebl ockstoreducetar
iff
s
,quotasandsubsi
diessoastohelpLEDCS
The C.A.P.r efor
m ofear ly 2000s di
d not
anti
cipat
et hei nc
reasedgl
obalneedst ofight
cli
mat e c hange , t
o i mpr ove wat er
management, supplytosupplyt hegr owing
demand f or bi o crops as a s ourc
e f or
renewableenergy/ r
isei
nfoodpr i
ces
I
n2008c l
aimsshowedthatev
enwit
hinE.U
i
tsel
f43mi ll
ionpeopl
ewereatri
skoffood
s
hortages
.

Bri
fleyoutl
inetheagr
icul
tur
alc
har
act
eri
sti
cs
oftheurbanfri
nge

Smal
lpl
ots
/smal
lsc
ale
Gr
owi
ngofv
eget
abl
esf
ormar
ket

I
ntens
ivef
armi
ng.
capi
tal/
labour

Commer ci
al c
ash c
roppi
ng /
high
produc
tiv
ity

Cr
opr
otat
ion

Sc
ient
ifi
cmanagement

Moder
nfar
mingmet
hods

Mec
hani
zat
ion

Us
eofhy
bri
ds,f
ert
il
iz
ers,
pes
tic
ides

I
rri
gat
ion,mi
xedf
armi
ng

a)Br
ief
lyexplai
nt hei
nt er
rel
ati
onshi
pbet
ween
commer c
ialandsubsi
stencefar
ming.

b)
Wi t
hr efer
enceto any count
ryyou hav
e
st
udied,outl
inet
hedis
tri
buti
onandnatur
eof
ei
thercr
oporpastor
alf
arming

c
)Wit
hr eferenc
et o any countryyou have
s
tudi
ed ,
assesstheextend to whi
chfar
mi ng
 hasl
ed tothe es
tabl
is
hmentofpr
oces
sing
i
ndus
tri
es.

Thereisas y
mbi ot
icrelat
ionshi
pwi
thout
growers(
cotton, coffee , s
ugar cane,
tobacc
o,plantat
ions)

Labour-seas
onal/
contr
act
/per
manent
/for
subsi
stencefar
mer s

Empl
oyment
/commer
cialr
anc
her
s-i
deas

I
nput
s(manure,stoc
kf eeds
,c ommer c
ial
c
an buy on behal f of subsi
stence-
c
ooperat
ivebuyi
nginputs

Shari
ng ofinfras
truc
tur
ee.g.ac
ces
sto
road,depor
ts,t
obaccofl
oor
s

Dif
fus
ionofi
deasandi
nnov
ati
on/
shar
ing
bothways

Deli
berate transfer of educ at
ion ,
knowledge,s
kil
ls,i
ndigenousknowledge

ARDACHI
SUMBANJ
E
b)
Mapdr
awi
ng/
par
agr
aph

I
nZi
mbabwe–i
tisbas
edonec
ologi
cal
regi
ons
,
 rai
nfal
lpatter
ns,
soi
l
,temper
atur
e,r
eli
efpes
ts
anddiseas
es

Bot
hcommer
cial
ands
ubs
ist
enc
e

Nat
ure-
tit
ledeeds

Seas
onal/
per
enni
al ,
crops t
obac
co, wheat
,
maiz
e,tomat
oes

Di
ver
sif
icat
ion

I
ntens
itys
cal
e-i
ntens
ive/
ext
ens
ive

Sal
e/c
ons
umpt
ionf
inanc
e/c
api
tali
nves
tment

Rai
ngr
own/
irr
igat
ion
c
)Fl
owofmat
eri
alf
rom f
arml
andt
omi
ll
ingpl
ant

Type and natur

e of cr
ops wi
lldeter
mi ne
natur
eofestabli
shmentr
awmateri
al/market
ori
ented
Tea/
cof
fee-
KATI
YO,TANGANDA
Sugar
-Zi
mbabwes
ugarr
efi
ner
y
Cot
tonKADOMADav
idwhi
teheadt
ext
il
es
Beef
-abat
toi
rs
Ci
trus–CASHELv
all
ey
Per
ishabi
li
ty GUSHUNGO dai
ryf
arm i
n
MAZOWE