CHME 624

Advance Process Dynamic Modelling & Control

14. Frequency Response Analysis & Control

System Design

Sinusoidal Response of a First-Order Process

For a first-order transfer function with gain K and time constant τ , the response to a
general sinusoidal input, x ( t ) = A sin ωt is:

y (t ) =
KA
2 2
ω τ +1
( ωτe −t / τ
− ωτ cos ωt + sin ωt ) (5-25)

Note that y(t) and x(t) are in deviation form. The long-time response, yl(t),
can be written as:
KA
yl ( t ) = sin ( ωt + φ ) for t → ∞ (13-1)
2 2
ω τ +1
where:
φ = − tan −1 ( ωτ )
32

1
Attenuation and time shift between input and output sine waves (K= 1). The
phase angle φ of the output signal is given by:
𝜙 = − (time shift⁄P) × 360 , where Δt is the (period) shift and P is the period of
oscillation.
33

Frequency Response Characteristics of a First-Order Process

For x(t ) = A sin ωt , yl ( t ) = Aˆ sin ( ωt + φ ) as t → ∞ where :

KA
Aˆ = and φ = − tan −1 ( ωτ )
2 2
ω τ +1
1. The output signal is a sinusoid that has the same frequency, ω,
as the input signal, x(t) =Asinωt.
2. The amplitude of the output signal, Â , is a function of the
frequency ω and the input amplitude, A:
KA
Aˆ = (13-2)
ω2 τ 2 + 1

3. The output has a phase shift, φ, relative to the input. The

amount of phase shift depends on ω.
34

2
Dividing both sides by the input signal amplitude A yields the
amplitude ratio (AR)

Aˆ K
AR = = (13-3a)
A ω2 τ 2 + 1

which can, in turn, be divided by the process gain to yield the

normalized amplitude ratio (ARN)

1
AR N = (13-3b)
ω2 τ 2 + 1

35

Shortcut for Finding the Frequency Response

Step 1. Set s=jω in G(s) to obtain G ( jω ) .

Step 2. Rationalise G(jω); to express it in the form.
G(jω)=R + jI where R and I are functions of ω.
G(jω) by multiplying the numerator and denominator
by the complex conjugate of the denominator.
Step 3. The amplitude ratio and phase angle of G(s) are given
by:
AR = R 2 + I 2
ϕ = tan −1 (I / R )

36

3
Example 14.1 : Find the frequency response of a first-order system, with
1
G (s) = (13-16)
τs + 1

Solution
First, substitute s = jω in the transfer function
1 1
G ( jω ) = = (13-17)
τjω + 1 jωτ + 1
Then multiply both numerator and denominator by the complex
conjugate of the denominator, that is, − jωτ + 1
− jωτ + 1 − jωτ + 1
G ( jω ) = = 2 2
( jωτ + 1)( − jωτ + 1) ω τ + 1
=
1
+j
( −ωτ ) = R + jI (13-18)
2 2
ω τ +1 ω2 τ 2 + 1
37

1
where: R= 2 2
(13-19a)
ω τ +1
−ωτ
I= (13-19b)
ω2 τ 2 + 1
From Step 3 of the Shortcut Method,
2 2

2 1 2   −ωτ 
AR = R + I =  2 2  +  2 2 
 ω τ +1   ω τ +1 
or

AR =
(1 + ω2τ2 ) = 1
(13-20a)
( ω2τ2 + 1)
2 2 2
ω τ +1
Also,
I
φ = tan −1   = tan −1 ( −ωτ ) = − tan −1 ( ωτ ) (13-20b)
R
38

4
Complex Transfer Functions
Consider a complex transfer G(s),
G ( s ) Gb ( s ) Gc ( s )L
G (s) = a (13-22)
G1 ( s ) G2 ( s ) G3 ( s )L
Substitute s=jω,
G ( jω ) Gb ( jω ) Gc ( jω )L
G ( jω ) = a (13-23)
G1 ( jω ) G2 ( jω ) G3 ( jω )L

From complex variable theory, the magnitude and angle of G(jω)

are expressed as follows:
Ga ( jω ) Gb ( jω ) Gc ( jω ) L
AR = G ( jω ) = (13-24a)
G1 ( jω ) G2 ( jω ) G3 ( jω ) L
ϕ = ∠G ( jω ) = ∠Ga ( jω ) + ∠Gb ( jω ) + ∠Gc ( jω ) + L
− [∠G1 ( jω ) + ∠G2 ( jω ) + ∠G3 ( jω ) + L] (13-24b)
39

Bode Diagrams
• A special graph, called the Bode diagram or Bode plot, provides a convenient
display of the frequency response characteristics of a transfer function model. It
consists of plots of AR and φ as a function of ω.
• Ordinarily, ω is expressed in units of radians/time.

Bode Plot of a First-order System

1
Recall: AR N = and φ = − tan −1 ( ωτ )
2 2
ω τ +1
• At low frequencies (ω → 0 ) and ωτ << 1
ARN = 1 and ϕ = 0
• At high frequencies (ω is high) and ωτ >> 1
ARN = 1/ωτ and ϕ = -90o
40

5
 Bode diagram for a first-order process.
41

• Note that the asymptotes intersect at ω = ωb = 1/ τ, known as the break frequency or

corner frequency. Here the value of ARN is:
When 1/ωbτ = 1 Then ωb = 1/τ

1
AR N ( ω = ωb ) = = 0.707 (13-30)
1+1
ϕ(ωb) = −tan-1 (1) = -45o

• Some references and softwares defined AR differently, in terms of decibels. The

amplitude ratio in decibels ARd is defined as

AR d = 20 log AR (13-33)

42

6
Integrating Elements
The transfer function for an integrating element:
Y (s) K
G (s) = = (5-34)
U (s) s
K K
AR = G ( jω ) = = (13-34)
jω ω
φ = ∠G ( jω ) = ∠K − ∠ ( ∞ ) = −90o (13-35)

Second-Order Process
A general transfer function that describes any under-damped, critically damped, or
over-damped second-order system is
K
G (s) = 2 2 (13-40)
τ s + 2ζτs + 1
Substituting s = jω and rearranging yields:

43

K  − 2ωτζ 
AR = and ϕ = tan -1  2 2 
(1 − ω τ ) + (2ωτζ )
2 2 2 2 1− ω τ 

Bode diagrams for second-order processes. 44

7
Time Delay
Its frequency response characteristics can be obtained by substituting s = jω
G ( jω ) = e − jωθ (13-53)

which can be written in rational form by substitution of the Euler identity,

G ( jω ) = e− jωθ = cos ωθ − j sin ωθ (13-54)

AR = G ( jω ) = cos 2 ωθ + sin 2 ωθ = 1 (13-55)

 sin ωθ 
φ = ∠G ( jω ) = tan −1  − 
 cos ωθ 
or φ = −ωθ (13-56)

45

Bode diagram for a time delay, e-θs 46

8
Frequency Response Characteristics of Feedback Controllers
Proportional Controller. Consider a proportional controller with positive gain
Gc ( s ) = K c (13-57)

In this case Gc ( jω ) = K c , which is independent of ω. Therefore, ARC = Kc and ϕc = 0o

Proportional-Integral Controller. A proportional-integral (PI) controller has the

transfer function:
 1   τI s +1 
Gc ( s ) = K c 1 +  = Kc   (13-60)
 τI s   τI s 
Substitute s=jω:
 1   1 
G c ( jω ) = K c 1 +  = K c 1 − j 
 τ 1 jω   τ 1ω 
47

Thus, the amplitude ratio and phase angle are:

1 ( ωτ I )2 + 1
AR c = Gc ( jω ) = K c 1 + = Kc (13-62)
( ωτ I )2 ωτ I

φ c = ∠Gc ( jω ) = tan −1 ( −1/ ωτ I ) = tan −1 ( ωτ I ) − 90o (13-63)

 10 s + 1 
Bode plot of a PI controller, Gc ( s ) = 2  
 10 s  48

9
Ideal Proportional-Derivative Controller.
For the ideal proportional-derivative (PD) controller
Gc ( s ) = K c (1 + τ D s ) (13-64)
The frequency response:

AR c = K c ( ωτ D )2 + 1 (13-65)

φ = tan −1 ( ωτ D ) (13-66)

Proportional-Derivative Controller with Filter.

The PD controller is most often realized by the transfer function

 τ s +1 
Gc ( s ) = K c  D  (13-67)
 ατ D s + 1 
49

Bode plots of an ideal PD controller and a PD controller.

Ideal: Gc ( s ) = 2 ( 4 s + 1)
 4s + 1 
With Derivative Filter: Gc ( s ) = 2  0.4 s + 1 
  50

10
PID Controller Forms
Parallel PID Controller. The simplest form is

 1 
Gc ( s ) = K c 1 + + τDs 
 τ1s 

Series PID Controller. The simplest version of the series PID controller is

 τ s +1
Gc ( s ) = K c  1  ( τ D s + 1) (13-73)
 τ1s 

Series PID Controller with a Derivative Filter.

 τ s + 1  τ D s + 1 
Gc ( s ) = Kc  1  
 τ1s  α τ D s + 1 
51

 1 
Ideal parallel: Gc ( s ) = 2 1 + + 4s 
 10 s 
 10s + 1  4s + 1 
Series with Derivative Filter: Gc ( s ) = 2   
 10s  0.4s + 1  52

11
Nyquist Diagrams
Consider the transfer function
1
G (s) = (13-76)
2s + 1
with
1
AR = G ( jω ) = (13-77a)
( 2ω ) 2
+1

and
φ = ∠G ( jω ) = − tan −1 ( 2ω ) (13-77b)

The Nyquist diagram for G(s) = 1/(2s + 1)

plotting Re(G(jω)) and Im(G(jω))
53

Nyquist diagram for the transfer function 5(8s + 1)e −6 s

G (s) =
(20 s + 1)(4 s + 1)
54

12
Control System Design Based on Frequency Response
Analysis
Closed-Loop Behavior

In general, a feedback control system should satisfy the following design

objectives:
1. Closed-loop stability
2. Good disturbance rejection (without excessive control action)
3. Fast set-point tracking (without excessive control action)
4. A satisfactory degree of robustness to process variations and model
uncertainty
5. Low sensitivity to measurement noise
55

• The block diagram of a general feedback control system contains three external
input signals: set point Ysp, disturbance D, and additive measurement noise, N.

Block diagram with a disturbance D and measurement noise N.

Gd Gc G K m Gc Gv G p
Y = D − N + Ysp (14-1)
1 + Gc G 1 + Gc G 1 + Gc G

Gd Gm Gm Km
E = − D − N + Ysp (14-2)
1 + Gc G 1 + Gc G 1 + Gc G

Gd Gm Gc Gv G GG K GG
U = − D − m c v N + m c v Ysp (14-3) G = G G G .
where
1 + Gc G 1 + Gc G 1 + Gc G v p m 56

13
Example 14.2 : Consider a feedback system with the following transfer functions:
0.5
G p = Gd = , Gv = Gm = 1
1 − 2s
Suppose that controller Gc is designed to cancel the unstable pole in Gp:
3 (1 − 2 s)
Gc =
s +1
Evaluate closed-loop stability and characterize the output response for a sustained
disturbance.
Solution: The characteristic equation, 1 + GcG = 0, becomes:

3 (1 − 2 s ) 0.5
1 + = 0
s + 1 1 − 2s

s + 1 1.5 s + 2.5
+ = =0 Or s + 2.5 = 0
s +1 s +1 s +1 57

In view of the single root at s = -2.5, it appears that the closed-loop system is
stable. However, for N = Ysp = 0,

Gd 0.5(s + 1)
Y= D= D
1 + GcG (1 − 2s )(s + 2.5)
• This transfer function has an unstable pole at s = +0.5. Thus, the output response
to a disturbance is unstable.
• Furthermore, other transfer functions (Ysp and N) also have unstable poles.
• This apparent contradiction occurs because the characteristic equation does not
include all of the information, namely, the unstable pole-zero cancellation.

58

14
Example 14.3:
Suppose that Gd = Gp, Gm = Km and that Gc is designed so that the closed-loop
system is stable and |GGc | >> 1 over the frequency range of interest. Evaluate
this control system design strategy for set-point changes, disturbances, and
measurement noise. Also consider the behavior of the manipulated variable, U.

Gd Gc G K mGcGvG p
Y = D − N + Ysp
1 + Gc G 1 + GcG 1 + GcG

59

Solution:
1 GcG
Because |GGc | >> 1, ≈ 0 and ≈1
1 + GcG 1 + GcG
For disturbances responses, the first expression suggest that the
output will be very good because Y/D ≈ 0.
For set-point responses. Y = K mGcGv G p
Ysp 1 + Gc G
Because Gm = Km, G = GvGpKm and the above equation can be
written as,
Y GcG Y
= ≈1
Ysp 1 + Gc G then Ysp

Thus, ideal (instantaneous) set-point tracking would occur.

However, choosing Gc so that |GGc| >> 1 has an undesirable
consequence. The output Y becomes sensitive to noise because
Y≈-N.
60

15
Bode Stability Criterion
Before considering the basis for the Bode stability criterion, it is useful to review
the General Stability Criterion :
A feedback control system is stable if and only if all roots of the characteristic
equation lie to the left of the imaginary axis in the complex plane.
Before stating the Bode stability criterion, we need to introduce two important
definitions:

1. A critical frequency ωc is defined to be a value of ω for which ϕOL(ω) = -180o.

This frequency is also referred to as a phase crossover frequency.
2. A gain crossover frequency ωg is defined to be a value of ω for which
AROL(ω) = 1

61

Bode Stability Criterion:

Consider an open-loop transfer function GOL=GcGvGpGm that is strictly
proper (more poles than zeros) and has no poles located on or to the right
of the imaginary axis, with the possible exception of a single pole at the
origin. Assume that the open-loop frequency response has only a single
critical frequency ωc and a single gain crossover frequency ωg. Then the
closed-loop system is stable if AROL(ωc) < 1. Otherwise it is unstable.
In simple words, the Bode stability criterion can be stated as “A control
system is unstable if the open-loop frequency response exhibits an
amplitude ratio (AR) exceeding unity at the crossover frequency (i.e. the
frequency at which the phase lag is -180o)”

62

16
For many control problems, there is only a single ωc and a single ωg . But multiple
values can occur for ωc .

If Bode plot exhibiting multiple critical frequencies, then Bode stability criterion is
not applicable (limitation of Bode Stability criterion)
63

Some important properties of the Bode stability criterion are:

1. Provides a necessary and sufficient condition for closed-loop stability

based on the properties of the open-loop transfer function.
2. Applicable to systems that contain time delays.

3. Very useful for a wide range of process control problems.

4. For systems with multiple ωc or ωg , the Bode stability criterion has been
modified by Hahn et al. (2001) to provide a sufficient condition for
stability.

64

17
 • In order to gain physical insight into why a sustained oscillation occurs
at the stability limit, consider the analogy of an adult pushing a child on
a swing.
• The child swings in the same arc as long as the adult pushes at the right
time, and with the right amount of force.
• Thus the desired “sustained oscillation” places requirements on both
timing (phase) and applied force (amplitude).

• If either the force or the timing is not correct, the desired swinging
motion ceases, as the child will quickly exclaim.
• A similar requirement occurs when a person bounces a ball.

65

Tutorial 4: Q1
A process has the third-order transfer function (time constant in minutes),
2
G p( s) =
(0.5s + 1)3

Also, Gv = 0.1 and Gm = 10. For a proportional controller, evaluate the stability of the
closed-loop control system using the Bode stability criterion and three values of Kc:
1, 4, and 20.

Solution 2 2K c
G OL = G cG vG pG m = ( K c )(0.1) 3
(10) =
(0.5s + 1) (0.5s + 1)3

66

18
Bode plot of GOL for three values of Kc is drawn.
Note that all three cases have the same phase angle plot because the phase
lag of a proportional controller is zero for Kc > 0.

The amplitude ratio AROL for each value of Kc is according to following

classifications:

Kc AROL ( for ω = ωc ) Classification

1 0.25 Stable
4 1 Marginally stable
20 5 Unstable

67

Bode plots for GOL = 2Kc/(0.5s+1)3.

68

19
• For proportional-only control, the ultimate gain Kcu was defined to be the largest
value of Kc that results in a stable closed-loop system.
• The value of Kcu can be determined graphically from a Bode plot for transfer
function G = GvGpGm. For proportional-only control, GOL= KcG. Because a
proportional controller has zero phase lag if Kc > 0, ωc is determined solely by G.
Also,

AROL(ω)=Kc ARG(ω) (14-9)

where ARG denotes the amplitude ratio of G. At the stability limit, ω = ωc,
AROL(ωc) = 1 and Kc= Kcu. Substituting these expressions and solving for Kcu gives
an important result:
1
Kcu = (14-10)
ARG (ωc )

The stability limit for Kc can also be calculated for PI and PID controllers.
69

Nyquist Stability Criterion

• The Nyquist stability criterion is similar to the Bode criterion in that it
determines closed-loop stability from the open-loop frequency response
characteristics.
• The Nyquist stability criterion is based on two concepts from complex variable
theory, contour mapping and the Principle of the Argument.

Nyquist Stability Criterion. Consider an open-loop transfer function GOL(s) that is

proper and has no unstable pole-zero cancellations. Let N be the number of times
that the Nyquist plot for GOL(s) encircles the (-1,0) point in the clockwise direction.
Also let P denote the number of poles of GOL(s) that lie to the right of the imaginary
axis. Then, Z = N + P where Z is the number of roots of the characteristic equation
that lie to the right of the imaginary axis. The closed-loop system is stable if and
only if Z = 0.

70

20
 Some important properties of the Nyquist stability criterion are:
1. It provides a necessary and sufficient condition for closed-loop stability based on the
open-loop transfer function.
2. The reason the -1 point is so important can be deduced from the characteristic
equation, 1 + GOL(s) = 0. This equation can also be written as GOL(s) = -1, which
implies that AROL = 1 and φOL = −180o, as noted earlier. The -1 point is referred to as
the critical point.
3. Most process control problems are open-loop stable. For these situations, P = 0 and
thus Z = N. Consequently, the closed-loop system is unstable if the Nyquist plot for
GOL(s) encircles the -1 point, one or more times.
4. A negative value of N indicates that the -1 point is encircled in the opposite direction
(counter-clockwise). This situation implies that each countercurrent encirclement can
stabilize one unstable pole of the open-loop system.

71

5. Unlike the Bode stability criterion, the Nyquist stability criterion is applicable to
open-loop unstable processes.
6. Unlike the Bode stability criterion, the Nyquist stability criterion can be applied
when multiple values of ωc or ωg occur

Tutorial 4: Evaluate the stability of the closed-loop system for:

4e − s
Q2 G p( s) =
5s + 1
(the time constants and delay have units of minutes)
Gv = 2, Gm = 0.25, Gc = Kc
Obtain ωc and Kcu from a Bode plot. Let Kc =1.5Kcu and draw the Nyquist plot for the
resulting open-loop system.

72

21
Solution
The Bode plot for GOL and Kc = 1 is shown below. For ωc = 1.69 rad/min, φOL = -180°
and AROL = 0.235. For Kc = 1, AROL = ARG and Kcu = 1/0.235 = 4.25. Setting Kc =
1.5Kcu gives Kc = 6.38.

Bode plot for Kc = 1.

73

Nyquist plot for Kc = 1.5Kcu = 6.38

Point (-1,0) is encircled once, hence unstable 74

22
Gain and Phase Margins
Let ARc be the value of the open-loop amplitude ratio at the critical frequency ωc.
Gain margin GM is defined as:
1
GM =
ARc
Phase margin PM is defined as:
PM = 180o +ϕg

• The phase margin also provides a measure of relative stability.

• In particular, it indicates how much additional time delay can be included in the
feedback loop before instability will occur.
• Denote the additional time delay as Δθmax, the phase angle is -Δθmaxω

75

Gain and phase margins in Bode plot.

76

23
  180o 
PM = Δθ max ωc  (14-13)
 π 
 
or
 PM   π 
Δθ max =   o
(14-14)
 ωc   180 

( )
where the π /180o factor converts PM from degrees to radians.

• The specification of phase and gain margins requires a compromise between

performance and robustness.
• In general, large values of GM and PM correspond to sluggish closed-loop
responses, while smaller values result in less sluggish, more oscillatory responses.

Guideline. In general, a well-tuned controller should have: gain margin (GM)

between 1.7 and 4.0 and phase margin (PM) between 30° and 45°.
77

Gain and phase margins on a Nyquist plot.

78

24
Gain Margin for Q1:
Kc AROL ( for ω = ωc ) GM = 1 / ARc
1 0.25 4
4 1 1
20 5 0.2

Gain Margin for Q2:

79

25