MATHEMATICS

Textbook for Class VIII

2020-21
 ISBN 978-81-7450-814-0

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2020-21
 Foreword
The National Curriculum Framework, 2005, recommends that children’s life at school must be linked
to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning
which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The
syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea.
They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between
different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly further in the direction of a
child-centred system of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers will take to
encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We
must recognise that, given space, time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with
the information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination
is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and
initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed
body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning. Flexibility in
the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual calendar so that the required
number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and evaluation
will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy
experience, rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the
problem of curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater
consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance
this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering,
discussion in small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
NCERT appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible
for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in science and mathematics,
Professor J.V. Narlikar and the Chief Advisor for this book, Dr H.K. Dewan for guiding the work of
this committee. Several teachers contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to
their principals for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which
have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel. As an organisation
committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT
welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
30 November 2007 Research and Training

2020-21
2020-21
 Preface
This is the final book of the upper primary series. It has been an interesting journey to define mathematics
learning in a different way. The attempt has been to retain the nature of mathematics, engage with the
question why learn mathematics while making an attempt to create materials that would address the
interest of the learners at this stage and provide sufficient and approachable challenge to them. There
have been many views on the purpose of school mathematics. These range from the fully utilitarian to
the entirely aesthetic perceptions. Both these end up not engaging with the concepts and enriching the
apparatus available to the learner for participating in life. The NCF emphasises the need for developing
the ability to mathematise ideas and perhaps experiences as well. An ability to explore the ideas and
framework given by mathematics in the struggle to find a richer life and a more meaningful relationship
with the world around.
This is not even easy to comprehend, far more difficult to operationalise. But NCF adds to this an
even more difficult goal. The task is to involve everyone of that age group in the classroom or outside
in doing mathematics. This is the aim we have been attempting to make in the series.
We have, therefore, provided space for children to engage in reflection, creating their own rules
and definitions based on problems/tasks solved and following their ideas logically. The emphasis is not
on remembering algorithms, doing complicated arithmetical problems or remembering proofs, but
understanding how mathematics works and being able to identify the way of moving towards solving
problems.
The important concern for us has also been to ensure that all students at this stage learn mathematics
and begin to feel confident in relating mathematics. We have attempted to help children read the book
and to stop and reflect at each step where a new idea has been presented. In order to make the book
less formidable we have included illustrations and diagrams. These combined with the text help the
child comprehend the idea. Throughout the series and also therefore in this book we have tried to
avoid the use of technical words and complex formulations. We have left many things for the student to
describe and write in her own words.
We have made an attempt to use child friendly language. To attract attention to some points blurbs
have been used. The attempt has been to reduce the weight of long explanations by using these and the
diagrams. The illustrations and fillers also attempt to break the monotony and provide contexts.
Class VIII is the bridge to Class IX where children will deal with more formal mathematics. The
attempt here has been to introduce some ideas in a way that is moving towards becoming formal. The
tasks included expect generalisation from the gradual use of such language by the child.
The team that developed this textbook consisted teachers with experience and appreciation of
children learning mathematics. This team also included people with experience of research in mathematics
teaching-learning and an experience of producing materials for children. The feedback on the textbooks
for Classes VI and VII was kept in mind while developing this textbook. This process of
development also included discussions with teachers during review workshop on the manuscript.

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 vi

In the end, I would like to express the grateful thanks of our team to Professor Krishna Kumar,
Director, NCERT, Professor G. Ravindra, Joint Director, NCERT and Professor Hukum Singh,
Head, DESM, for giving us an opportunity to work on this task with freedom and with full support. I
am also grateful to Professor J.V. Narlikar, Chairperson of the Advisory Group in Science and
Mathematics for his suggestions. I am also grateful for the support of the team members from NCERT,
Professor S.K. Singh Gautam, Dr V.P. Singh and in particular Dr Ashutosh K. Wazalwar who
coordinated this work and made arrangements possible. In the end I must thank the Publication
Department of NCERT for its support and advice and those from Vidya Bhawan who helped produce
the book.
It need not be said but I cannot help mentioning that all the authors worked as a team and we
accepted ideas and advice from each other. We stretched ourselves to the fullest and hope that we
have done some justice to the challenge posed before us.
The process of developing materials is, however, a continuous one and we would hope to
make this book better. Suggestions and comments on the book are most welcome.

H.K. DEWAN
Chief Advisor
Textbook Development Committee

2020-21
 A Note for the Teacher
This is the third and the last book of this series. It is a continuation of the processes initiated to help the
learners in abstraction of ideas and principles of mathematics. Our students to be able to deal with
mathematical ideas and use them need to have the logical foundations to abstract and use postulates
and construct new formulations. The main points reflected in the NCF-2005 suggest relating mathematics
to development of wider abilities in children, moving away from complex calculations and algorithm
following to understanding and constructing a framework of understanding. As you know, mathematical
ideas do not develop by telling them. They also do not reach children by merely giving explanations.
Children need their own framework of concepts and a classroom where they are discussing ideas,
looking for solutions to problems, setting new problems and finding their own ways of solving problems
and their own definitions.
As we have said before, it is important to help children to learn to read the textbook and other
books related to mathematics with understanding. The reading of materials is clearly required to help
the child learn further mathematics. In Class VIII please take stock of where the students have reached
and give them more opportunities to read texts that use language with symbols and have brevity and
terseness with no redundancy. For this if you can, please get them to read other texts as well. You
could also have them relate the physics they learn and the equations they come across in chemistry to
the ideas they have learnt in mathematics. These cross-disciplinary references would help them develop
a framework and purpose for mathematics. They need to be able to reconstruct logical arguments and
appreciate the need for keeping certain factors and constraints while they relate them to other areas as
well. Class VIII children need to have opportunity for all this.
As we have already emphasised, mathematics at the Upper Primary Stage has to be close to the
experience and environment of the child and be abstract at the same time. From the comfort of context
and/or models linked to their experience they need to move towards working with ideas. Learning to
abstract helps formulate and understand arguments. The capacity to see interrelations among concepts
helps us deal with ideas in other subjects as well. It also helps us understand and make better patterns,
maps, appreciate area and volume and see similarities between shapes and sizes. While this is regarding
the relationship of other fields of knowledge to mathematics, its meaning in life and our environment
needs to be re-emphasised.
Children should be able to identify the principles to be used in contextual situations, for solving
problems sift through and choose the relevant information as the first important step. Once students do
that they need to be able to find the way to use the knowledge they have and reach where the problem
requires them to go. They need to identify and define a problem, select or design possible solutions and
revise or redesign the steps, if required. As they go further there would be more to of this to be done. In
Class VIII we have to get them to be conscious of the steps they follow. Helping children to develop the
ability to construct appropriate models by breaking up the problems and evolving their own strategies
and analysis of problems is extremely important. This is in the place of giving them prescriptive algorithms.

2020-21
 viii

Cooperative learning, learning through conversations, desire and capacity to learn from each other
and the recognition that conversation is not noise and consultation not cheating is an important part of
change in attitude for you as a teacher and for the students as well. They should be asked to make
presentations as a group with the inclusion of examples from the contexts of their own experiences.
They should be encouraged to read the book in groups and formulate and express what they understand
from it. The assessment pattern has to recognise and appreciate this and the classroom groups should
be such that all children enjoy being with each other and are contributing to the learning of the group.
As you would have seen different groups use different strategies. Some of these are not as efficient as
others as they reflect the modeling done and reflect the thinking used. All these are appropriate and
need to be analysed with children. The exposure to a variety of strategies deepens the mathematical
understanding. Each group moves from where it is and needs to be given an opportunity for that.
For conciseness we present the key ideas of mathematics learning that we would like you to
remember in your classroom.
1. Enquiry to understand is one of the natural ways by which students acquire and construct knowledge.
The process can use generation of observations to acquire knowledge. Students need to deal with
different forms of questioning and challenging investigations- explorative, open-ended, contextual
and even error detection from geometry, arithmetic and generalising it to algebraic relations etc.
2. Children need to learn to provide and follow logical arguments, find loopholes in the arguments
presented and understand the requirement of a proof. By now children have entered the formal
stage. They need to be encouraged to exercise creativity and imagination and to communicate their
mathematical reasoning both verbally and in writing.
3. The mathematics classroom should relate language to learning of mathematics. Children should talk
about their ideas using their experiences and language. They should be encouraged to use their
own words and language but also gradually shift to formal language and use of symbols.
4. The number system has been taken to the level of generalisation of rational numbers and their properties
and developing a framework that includes all previous systems as sub-sets of the generalised rational
numbers. Generalisations are to be presented in mathematical language and children have to see that
algebra and its language helps us express a lot of text in small symbolic forms.
5. As before children should be required to set and solve a lot of problems. We hope that as the
nature of the problems set up by them becomes varied and more complex, they would become
confident of the ideas they are dealing with.
6. Class VIII book has attempted to bring together the different aspects of mathematics and emphasise
the commonality. Unitary method, Ratio and proportion, Interest and dividends are all part of one
common logical framework. The idea of variable and equations is needed wherever we need to
find an unknown quantity in any branch of mathematics.
We hope that the book will help children learn to enjoy mathematics and be confident in the
concepts introduced. We want to recommend the creation of opportunity for thinking individually and
collectively.
We look forward to your comments and suggestions regarding the book and hope that you will
send interesting exercises, activities and tasks that you develop during the course of teaching, to be
included in the future editions. This can only happen if you would find time to listen carefully to children
and identify gaps and on the other hand also find the places where they can be given space to articulate
their ideas and verbalise their thoughts.

2020-21
 Textbook Development Committee
CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY GROUP IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor, Chairman, Advisory Committee, Inter University Centre for
Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCCA), Ganeshkhind, Pune University, Pune
CHIEF ADVISOR
H.K. Dewan, Vidya Bhawan Society, Udaipur, Rajasthan
CHIEF COORDINATOR
Hukum Singh, Professor and Head, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
MEMBERS
Anjali Gupte, Teacher, Vidya Bhawan Public School, Udaipur, Rajasthan
Avantika Dam, TGT, CIE Experimental Basic School, Department of Education, Delhi
B.C. Basti, Senior Lecturer, Regional Institute of Education, Mysore, Karnataka
H.C. Pradhan, Professor, Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education, TIFR, Mumbai
Maharashtra
K.A.S.S.V. Kameshwar Rao, Lecturer, Regional Institute of Education, Shyamala Hills
Bhopal (M.P.)
Mahendra Shankar, Lecturer (S.G.) (Retd.), NCERT, New Delhi
Meena Shrimali, Teacher, Vidya Bhawan Senior Secondary School, Udaipur, Rajasthan
P. Bhaskar Kumar, PGT, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Lepakshi, Distt. Anantpur (A.P.)
R. Athmaraman, Mathematics Education Consultant, TI Matric Higher Secondary School and
AMTI, Chennai, Tamil Nadu
Ram Avtar, Professor (Retd.), NCERT, New Delhi
Shailesh Shirali, Rishi Valley School, Rishi Valley, Madanapalle (A.P.)
S.K.S. Gautam, Professor, DEME, NCERT, New Delhi
Shradha Agarwal, Principal, Florets International School, Panki, Kanpur (U.P.)
Srijata Das, Senior Lecturer in Mathematics, SCERT, New Delhi
V.P. Singh, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
MEMBER-COORDINATOR
Ashutosh K. Wazalwar, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi

2020-21
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Council gratefully acknowledges the valuable contributions of the following participants of the
Textbook Review Workshop: Shri Pradeep Bhardwaj, TGT (Mathematics) Bal Sthali Public Secondary
School, Kirari, Nangloi, New Delhi; Shri Sankar Misra, Teacher in Mathematics, Demonstration
Multipurpose School, Regional Institute of Education, Bhubaneswar (Orissa); Shri Manohar
M. Dhok, Supervisor, M.P. Deo Smruti Lokanchi Shala, Nagpur (Maharashtra); Shri Manjit Singh
Jangra, Maths teacher, Government Senior Secondary School, Sector-4/7, Gurgoan (Haryana);
Dr. Rajendra Kumar Pooniwala, U.D.T., Government Subhash Excellence School, Burhanpur (M.P.);
Shri K. Balaji, TGT (Mathematics), Kendriya Vidyalaya No.1, Tirupati (A.P.); Ms. Mala Mani, Amity
International School, Sector-44, Noida; Ms. Omlata Singh, TGT (Mathematics), Presentation Convent
Senior Secondary School, Delhi; Ms. Manju Dutta, Army Public School, Dhaula Kuan, New Delhi;
Ms. Nirupama Sahni, TGT (Mathematics), Shri Mahaveer Digambar Jain Senior Secondary School,
Jaipur (Rajasthan); Shri Nagesh Shankar Mone, Head Master, Kantilal Purshottam Das Shah Prashala,
Vishrambag, Sangli (Maharashtra); Shri Anil Bhaskar Joshi, Senior teacher (Mathematics), Manutai
Kanya Shala, Tilak Road, Akola (Maharashtra); Dr. Sushma Jairath, Reader, DWS, NCERT,
New Delhi; Shri Ishwar Chandra, Lecturer (S.G.) (Retd.) NCERT, New Delhi.
The Council is grateful for the suggestions/comments given by the following participants during the
workshop of the mathematics Textbook Development Committee – Shri Sanjay Bolia and Shri Deepak
Mantri from Vidya Bhawan Basic School, Udaipur; Shri Inder Mohan Singh Chhabra, Vidya Bhawan
Educational Resource Centre, Udaipur.
The Council acknowledges the comments/suggestions given by Dr. R.P. Maurya, Reader, DESM,
NCERT, New Delhi; Dr. Sanjay Mudgal, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi; Dr. T.P. Sharma,
Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi for the improvement of the book.
The Council acknowledges the support and facilities provided by Vidya Bhawan Society and
its staff, Udaipur, for conducting workshops of the development committee at Udaipur and to the
Director, Centre for Science Education and Communication (CSEC), Delhi University for providing
library help.
The Council acknowledges the academic and administrative support of Professor Hukum Singh,
Head, DESM, NCERT.
The Council also acknowledges the efforts of Sajjad Haider Ansari, Rakesh Kumar,
Neelam Walecha, DTP Operators; Kanwar Singh, Copy Editor; Abhimanu Mohanty, Proof Reader,
Deepak Kapoor, Computer Station Incharge, DESM, NCERT for technical assistance, APC Office
and the Administrative Staff, DESM, NCERT and the Publication Department of the NCERT.

2020-21
 Contents

Foreword iii
Preface v
Chapter 1 Rational Numbers 1
Chapter 2 Linear Equations in One Variable 21
Chapter 3 Understanding Quadrilaterals 37
Chapter 4 Practical Geometry 57
Chapter 5 Data Handling 69
Chapter 6 Squares and Square Roots 89
Chapter 7 Cubes and Cube Roots 109
Chapter 8 Comparing Quantities 117
Chapter 9 Algebraic Expressions and Identities 137
Chapter 10 Visualising Solid Shapes 153
Chapter 11 Mensuration 169
Chapter 12 Exponents and Powers 193
Chapter 13 Direct and Inverse Proportions 201
Chapter 14 Factorisation 217
Chapter 15 Introduction to Graphs 231
Chapter 16 Playing with Numbers 249
Answers 261
Just for Fun 275

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 RATIONAL NUMBERS 1

CHAPTER

Rational Numbers
1
1.1 Introduction
In Mathematics, we frequently come across simple equations to be solved. For example,
the equation x + 2 = 13 (1)
is solved when x = 11, because this value of x satisfies the given equation. The solution
11 is a natural number. On the other hand, for the equation
x+5=5 (2)
the solution gives the whole number 0 (zero). If we consider only natural numbers,
equation (2) cannot be solved. To solve equations like (2), we added the number zero to
the collection of natural numbers and obtained the whole numbers. Even whole numbers
will not be sufficient to solve equations of type
x + 18 = 5 (3)
Do you see ‘why’? We require the number –13 which is not a whole number. This
led us to think of integers, (positive and negative). Note that the positive integers
correspond to natural numbers. One may think that we have enough numbers to solve all
simple equations with the available list of integers. Now consider the equations
2x = 3 (4)
5x + 7 = 0 (5)
for which we cannot find a solution from the integers. (Check this)
3 −7
We need the numbers to solve equation (4) and to solve
2 5
equation (5). This leads us to the collection of rational numbers.
We have already seen basic operations on rational
numbers. We now try to explore some properties of operations
on the different types of numbers seen so far.

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2 MATHEMATICS

1.2 Properties of Rational Numbers

1.2.1 Closure
(i) Whole numbers
Let us revisit the closure property for all the operations on whole numbers in brief.

Operation Numbers Remarks

Addition 0 + 5 = 5, a whole number Whole numbers are closed

4 + 7 = ... . Is it a whole number? under addition.
In general, a + b is a whole
number for any two whole
numbers a and b.

Subtraction 5 – 7 = – 2, which is not a Whole numbers are not closed

whole number. under subtraction.

Multiplication 0 × 3 = 0, a whole number Whole numbers are closed

3 × 7 = ... . Is it a whole number? under multiplication.
In general, if a and b are any two
whole numbers, their product ab
is a whole number.

5
Division 5÷8= , which is not a Whole numbers are not closed
8
under division.
whole number.

Check for closure property under all the four operations for natural numbers.
(ii) Integers
Let us now recall the operations under which integers are closed.

Operation Numbers Remarks

Addition – 6 + 5 = – 1, an integer Integers are closed under

Is – 7 + (–5) an integer? addition.
Is 8 + 5 an integer?
In general, a + b is an integer
for any two integers a and b.
Subtraction 7 – 5 = 2, an integer Integers are closed under
Is 5 – 7 an integer? subtraction.
– 6 – 8 = – 14, an integer

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 RATIONAL NUMBERS 3

– 6 – (– 8) = 2, an integer
Is 8 – (– 6) an integer?
In general, for any two integers
a and b, a – b is again an integer.
Check if b – a is also an integer.
Multiplication 5 × 8 = 40, an integer Integers are closed under
Is – 5 × 8 an integer? multiplication.
– 5 × (– 8) = 40, an integer
In general, for any two integers
a and b, a × b is also an integer.
5
Division 5÷8= , which is not Integers are not closed
8
under division.
an integer.

You have seen that whole numbers are closed under addition and multiplication but
not under subtraction and division. However, integers are closed under addition, subtraction
and multiplication but not under division.
(iii) Rational numbers
p
Recall that a number which can be written in the form q , where p and q are integers

2 6 9
and q ≠ 0 is called a rational number. For example, − , , are all rational
3 7 −5
p
numbers. Since the numbers 0, –2, 4 can be written in the form q , they are also
rational numbers. (Check it!)
(a) You know how to add two rational numbers. Let us add a few pairs.
3 ( −5) 21 + ( − 40) − 19
+ = = (a rational number)
8 7 56 56
− 3 ( − 4) − 15 + ( −32)
+ = = ... Is it a rational number?
8 5 40
4 6
+ = ... Is it a rational number?
7 11
We find that sum of two rational numbers is again a rational number. Check it
for a few more pairs of rational numbers.
We say that rational numbers are closed under addition. That is, for any
two rational numbers a and b, a + b is also a rational number.
(b) Will the difference of two rational numbers be again a rational number?
We have,
−5 2 −5 × 3 – 2 × 7 −29
− = = (a rational number)
7 3 21 21

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4 MATHEMATICS

5 4 25 − 32
− = = ... Is it a rational number?
8 5 40
3  − 8
−   = ... Is it a rational number?
7  5 
Try this for some more pairs of rational numbers. We find that rational numbers
are closed under subtraction. That is, for any two rational numbers a and
b, a – b is also a rational number.
(c) Let us now see the product of two rational numbers.
−2 4 −8 3 2 6
× = ; × = (both the products are rational numbers)
3 5 15 7 5 35
4 −6
− × = ... Is it a rational number?
5 11
Take some more pairs of rational numbers and check that their product is again
a rational number.
We say that rational numbers are closed under multiplication. That
is, for any two rational numbers a and b, a × b is also a rational
number.
−5 2 − 25
(d) We note that ÷ = (a rational number)
3 5 6
2 5 −3 − 2
÷ = ... . Is it a rational number? ÷ = ... . Is it a rational number?
7 3 8 9
Can you say that rational numbers are closed under division?
We find that for any rational number a, a ÷ 0 is not defined.
So rational numbers are not closed under division.
However, if we exclude zero then the collection of, all other rational numbers is
closed under division.

TRY THESE
Fill in the blanks in the following table.

Numbers Closed under

addition subtraction multiplication division
Rational numbers Yes Yes ... No
Integers ... Yes ... No
Whole numbers ... ... Yes ...
Natural numbers ... No ... ...

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 RATIONAL NUMBERS 5

1.2.2 Commutativity
(i) Whole numbers
Recall the commutativity of different operations for whole numbers by filling the
following table.
Operation Numbers Remarks

Addition 0+7=7+0=7 Addition is commutative.

2 + 3 = ... + ... = ....
For any two whole
numbers a and b,
a+b=b+a
Subtraction ......... Subtraction is not commutative.
Multiplication ......... Multiplication is commutative.
Division ......... Division is not commutative.
Check whether the commutativity of the operations hold for natural numbers also.
(ii) Integers
Fill in the following table and check the commutativity of different operations for
integers:
Operation Numbers Remarks
Addition ......... Addition is commutative.
Subtraction Is 5 – (–3) = – 3 – 5? Subtraction is not commutative.
Multiplication ......... Multiplication is commutative.
Division ......... Division is not commutative.

(iii) Rational numbers

(a) Addition
You know how to add two rational numbers. Let us add a few pairs here.
−2 5 1 5  −2  1
+ = and +   =
3 7 21 7  3  21
−2 5 5  −2 
So, + = + 
3 7 7  3 

− 6  −8 
Also, +   = ... and
5  3

− 6  −8   −8   −6 
Is +  =  +  ?
5  3  3  5

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6 MATHEMATICS

−3 1 1  −3 
Is + = +  ?
8 7 7  8 
You find that two rational numbers can be added in any order. We say that
addition is commutative for rational numbers. That is, for any two rational
numbers a and b, a + b = b + a.
(b) Subtraction
2 5 5 2
Is − = − ?
3 4 4 3
1 3 3 1
Is − = − ?
2 5 5 2
You will find that subtraction is not commutative for rational numbers.
Note that subtraction is not commutative for integers and integers are also rational
numbers. So, subtraction will not be commutative for rational numbers too.
(c) Multiplication
−7 6 − 42 6  −7 
We have, × = = × 
3 5 15 5  3 
−8  − 4  − 4  −8 
Is ×  = ×  ?
9  7  7  9
Check for some more such products.
You will find that multiplication is commutative for rational numbers.
In general, a × b = b × a for any two rational numbers a and b.
(d) Division
−5 3 3  −5 
Is ÷ = ÷  ?
4 7 7  4 
You will find that expressions on both sides are not equal.
So division is not commutative for rational numbers.

TRY THESE
Complete the following table:
Numbers Commutative for

addition subtraction multiplication division

Rational numbers Yes ... ... ...
Integers ... No ... ...
Whole numbers ... ... Yes ...
Natural numbers ... ... ... No

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1.2.3 Associativity
(i) Whole numbers
Recall the associativity of the four operations for whole numbers through this table:

Operation Numbers Remarks

Addition ......... Addition is associative

Subtraction ......... Subtraction is not associative

Multiplication Is 7 × (2 × 5) = (7 × 2) × 5? Multiplication is associative
Is 4 × (6 × 0) = (4 × 6) × 0?
For any three whole
numbers a, b and c
a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c
Division ......... Division is not associative

Fill in this table and verify the remarks given in the last column.
Check for yourself the associativity of different operations for natural numbers.

(ii) Integers
Associativity of the four operations for integers can be seen from this table
Operation Numbers Remarks

Addition Is (–2) + [3 + (– 4)] Addition is associative

= [(–2) + 3)] + (– 4)?
Is (– 6) + [(– 4) + (–5)]
= [(– 6) +(– 4)] + (–5)?
For any three integers a, b and c
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
Subtraction Is 5 – (7 – 3) = (5 – 7) – 3? Subtraction is not associative
Multiplication Is 5 × [(–7) × (– 8) Multiplication is associative
= [5 × (–7)] × (– 8)?
Is (– 4) × [(– 8) × (–5)]
= [(– 4) × (– 8)] × (–5)?
For any three integers a, b and c
a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c
Division Is [(–10) ÷ 2] ÷ (–5) Division is not associative
= (–10) ÷ [2 ÷ (– 5)]?

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8 MATHEMATICS

(iii) Rational numbers

(a) Addition

−2  3  −5   −2  −7  −27 −9
We have + +  = + = =
3  5  6   3  30  30 10

 −2 3   −5  −1  −5  −27 −9
 3 + 5  +  6  = 15 +  6  = 30 = 10
     

−2  3  −5    −2 3   −5 
So, + +  = + + 
3  5  6    3 5   6 

−1  3  − 4    −1 3   − 4
Find +  +    and  + +   . Are the two sums equal?
2 7  3   2 7   3 
Take some more rational numbers, add them as above and see if the two sums
are equal. We find that addition is associative for rational numbers. That
is, for any three rational numbers a, b and c, a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c.
(b) Subtraction
You already know that subtraction is not associative for integers, then what
about rational numbers.

−2  − 4 1   2  − 4   1
Is − − = −  − ?
3  5 2   3  5   2
Check for yourself.
Subtraction is not associative for rational numbers.
(c) Multiplication
Let us check the associativity for multiplication.
−7  5 2  −7 10 −70 −35
× ×  = × = =
3  4 9  3 36 108 54

 −7 5  2
 ×  × = ...
3 4 9
−7  5 2   −7 5  2
We find that ×  ×  =  × ×
3 4 9  3 4 9

2  −6 4   2 −6  4
Is × ×  =  × × ?
3  7 5 3 7  5
Take some more rational numbers and check for yourself.
We observe that multiplication is associative for rational numbers. That is
for any three rational numbers a, b and c, a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c.

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(d) Division
Recall that division is not associative for integers, then what about rational numbers?
1  −1 2   1  −1   2
÷ ÷ = ÷  ÷
2  3 5   2  3   5
Let us see if

1  −1 2  1  −1 5  2 5
We have, LHS = ÷ ÷  = ÷  ×  (reciprocal of is )
2  3 5  2  3 2 5 2
1  5
= ÷  −  = ...
2  6

 1  −1   2
RHS =  ÷   ÷
 2  3  5
 1 −3  2 −3 2
= × ÷ = ÷ = ...
2 1  5 2 5
Is LHS = RHS? Check for yourself. You will find that division is
not associative for rational numbers.

TRY THESE
Complete the following table:
Numbers Associative for
addition subtraction multiplication division
Rational numbers ... ... ... No
Integers ... ... Yes ...
Whole numbers Yes ... ... ...
Natural numbers ... No ... ...

3  −6   −8   5 
Example 1: Find + + + 
7  11   21   22 

3  −6   −8   5 
Solution: + + + 
7  11   21   22 

198  −252   −176   105 

= +  +  +  (Note that 462 is the LCM of
462  462   462   462 
7, 11, 21 and 22)

198 − 252 − 176 + 105 −125

= =
462 462

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10 MATHEMATICS

We can also solve it as.

3  −6   −8  5
+ + +
7  11   21  22

 3  −8    −6 5 
=  +   +  +  (by using commutativity and associativity)
 7  21    11 22 
 9 + ( −8)   −12 + 5 
= +
 21   22 
(LCM of 7 and 21 is 21; LCM of 11 and 22 is 22)

1  −7  22 −147 −125
= +  = =
21  22  462 462
Do you think the properties of commutativity and associativity made the calculations easier?
− 4 3 15  −14 
Example 2: Find × × × 
5 7 16  9 
Solution: We have
− 4 3 15  −14 
× × × 
5 7 16  9 

 4 × 3   15 × ( −14) 
= − ×
 5 × 7   16 × 9 

−12  −35  −12 × (−35) 1

= × = =
35  24  35 × 24 2
We can also do it as.
− 4 3 15  −14 
× × × 
5 7 16  9 

 − 4 15   3  −14  
=  × × ×  (Using commutativity and associativity)
5 16   7  9  

−3  −2  1
= ×  =
4  3  2

1.2.4 The role of zero (0)

Look at the following.
2+0=0+2=2 (Addition of 0 to a whole number)
– 5 + 0 = ... + ... = – 5 (Addition of 0 to an integer)
−2  −2  −2
+ ... = 0 +   = (Addition of 0 to a rational number)
7  7  7

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 RATIONAL NUMBERS 11

You have done such additions earlier also. Do a few more such additions.
What do you observe? You will find that when you add 0 to a whole number, the sum
is again that whole number. This happens for integers and rational numbers also.
In general, a + 0 = 0 + a = a, where a is a whole number
b + 0 = 0 + b = b, where b is an integer
c + 0 = 0 + c = c, where c is a rational number
Zero is called the identity for the addition of rational numbers. It is the additive
identity for integers and whole numbers as well.
1.2.5 The role of 1
We have,
5×1=5=1×5 (Multiplication of 1 with a whole number)
−2 −2
× 1 = ... × ... =
7 7
3 3 3
× ... = 1 × =
8 8 8
What do you find?
You will find that when you multiply any rational number with 1, you get back the same
rational number as the product. Check this for a few more rational numbers. You will find
that, a × 1 = 1 × a = a for any rational number a.
We say that 1 is the multiplicative identity for rational numbers.
Is 1 the multiplicative identity for integers? For whole numbers?

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

If a property holds for rational numbers, will it also hold for integers? For whole
numbers? Which will? Which will not?

1.2.6 Negative of a number

While studying integers you have come across negatives of integers. What is the negative
of 1? It is – 1 because 1 + (– 1) = (–1) + 1 = 0
So, what will be the negative of (–1)? It will be 1.
Also, 2 + (–2) = (–2) + 2 = 0, so we say 2 is the negative or additive inverse of
–2 and vice-versa. In general, for an integer a, we have, a + (– a) = (– a) + a = 0; so, a
is the negative of – a and – a is the negative of a.
2
For the rational number , we have,
3
2  2 2 + ( −2)
+ −  = =0
3  3 3

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12 MATHEMATICS

 2 2
Also,  −  + = 0 (How?)
3 3
−8  − 8
Similarly, + ... = ... +   = 0
9  9 
 −11  −11
... +   =   + ... = 0
 7  7 
a a  a  a a
In general, for a rational number , we have, +  −  = −  + = 0 . We say
b b b  b b
a a a  a
that − is the additive inverse of and is the additive inverse of  − .
b b b b
1.2.7 Reciprocal
8
By which rational number would you multiply , to get the product 1? Obviously by
21
21 8 21
, since × = 1.
8 21 8
−5 7
Similarly, must be multiplied by so as to get the product 1.
7 −5
21 8 7 −5
We say that is the reciprocal of and is the reciprocal of .
8 21 −5 7
Can you say what is the reciprocal of 0 (zero)?
Is there a rational number which when multiplied by 0 gives 1? Thus, zero has no reciprocal.
c
We say that a rational number is called the reciprocal or multiplicative inverse of
d
a a c
another non-zero rational number if × = 1.
b b d
1.2.8 Distributivity of multiplication over addition for rational
numbers
−3 2 −5
To understand this, consider the rational numbers , and .
4 3 6
−3  2  −5   −3  (4) + ( −5) 
×  +   = × 
4 3  6  4  6 
−3  −1 3 1
= ×  = =
4  6 24 8
−3 2 −3 × 2 − 6 −1
Also × = = =
4 3 4×3 12 2

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−3 −5 5 Distributivity of Multi-
And × =
4 6 8 plication over Addition
 −3 2   −3 −5  −1 5 1 and Subtraction.
Therefore  ×  + ×  = + = For all rational numbers a, b
4 3  4 6 2 8 8
and c,
−3  2 −5   −3 2   −3 −5  a (b + c) = ab + ac
Thus, × +  =  ×  + × 
4 3 6   4 3  4 6 a (b – c) = ab – ac

TRY THESE
 7  −3    7 5  9 4   9 −3 
Find using distributivity. (i)  ×    +  ×  (ii)  ×  +  × 
 5  12    5 12  16 12  16 9 

Example 3: Write the additive inverse of the following:

When you use distributivity, you
−7 21 split a product as a sum or
(i) (ii) difference of two products.
19 112
Solution:
7 −7 −7 7 −7+7 0
(i) is the additive inverse of because + = = =0
19 19 19 19 19 19
21 − 21
(ii) The additive inverse of is (Check!)
112 112
Example 4: Verify that – (– x) is the same as x for
13 −21
(i) x = (ii) x =
17 31
13
Solution: (i) We have, x =
17
13 −13 13  −13 
The additive inverse of x = is – x = since +  = 0.
17 17 17  17 
13  −13  −13 13
The same equality +  = 0 , shows that the additive inverse of is
17  17 17 17
 −13  13
or −   = , i.e., – (– x) = x.
 17  17
−21 21 −21 21
(ii) Additive inverse of x = is – x = since + = 0.
31 31 31 31
−21 21 21 −21
The same equality + = 0 , shows that the additive inverse of is ,
31 31 31 31
i.e., – (– x) = x.

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14 MATHEMATICS

2 −3 1 3 3
Example 5: Find × − − ×
5 7 14 7 5
2 −3 1 3 3 2 −3 3 3 1
Solution: × − − × = × − × − (by commutativity)
5 7 14 7 5 5 7 7 5 14
2 −3  −3  3 1
= × +  × −
5 7  7  5 14
−3  2 3  1
=  + − (by distributivity)
7  5 5  14
−3 1 − 6 − 1 −1
= ×1− = =
7 14 14 2

EXERCISE 1.1
1. Using appropriate properties find.
2 3 5 3 1 2  3 1 3 1 2
(i) − × + − × (ii) × − − × + ×
3 5 2 5 6 5  7  6 2 14 5
2. Write the additive inverse of each of the following.
2 −5 −6 2 19
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
8 9 −5 −9 −6
3. Verify that – (– x) = x for.
11 13
(i) x = (ii) x = −
15 17
4. Find the multiplicative inverse of the following.
− 13 1 − 5 −3
(i) – 13 (ii) (iii) (iv) ×
19 5 8 7
−2
(v) – 1 × (vi) – 1
5
5. Name the property under multiplication used in each of the following.
−4 −4 4 13 −2 −2 −13
(i) ×1= 1× =− (ii) − × = ×
5 5 5 17 7 7 17
−19 29
(iii) × =1
29 −19
6 −7
6. Multiply by the reciprocal of .
13 16
1  4  1  4
7. Tell what property allows you to compute ×  6 ×  as  × 6 × .
3  3  3  3
8 1
8. Is the multiplicative inverse of −1 ? Why or why not?
9 8
1
9. Is 0.3 the multiplicative inverse of 3 ? Why or why not?
3

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 RATIONAL NUMBERS 15

10. Write.
(i) The rational number that does not have a reciprocal.
(ii) The rational numbers that are equal to their reciprocals.
(iii) The rational number that is equal to its negative.
11. Fill in the blanks.
(i) Zero has ________ reciprocal.
(ii) The numbers ________ and ________ are their own reciprocals
(iii) The reciprocal of – 5 is ________.
1
(iv) Reciprocal of , where x ≠ 0 is ________.
x
(v) The product of two rational numbers is always a _______.
(vi) The reciprocal of a positive rational number is ________.

1.3 Representation of Rational Numbers on the

Number Line
The line extends
You have learnt to represent natural numbers, whole numbers, integers indefinitely only to the
and rational numbers on a number line. Let us revise them. right side of 1.

Natural numbers
(i)
The line extends indefinitely
to the right, but from 0.
Whole numbers There are no numbers to the
left of 0.
(ii)

Integers The line extends

indefinitely on both sides.
(iii) Do you see any numbers
between –1, 0; 0, 1 etc.?

Rational numbers
(iv)
The line extends indefinitely
on both sides. But you can
now see numbers between
(v) –1, 0; 0, 1 etc.

The point on the number line (iv) which is half way between 0 and 1 has been
1
labelled . Also, the first of the equally spaced points that divides the distance between
2
1
0 and 1 into three equal parts can be labelled , as on number line (v). How would you
3
label the second of these division points on number line (v)?

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16 MATHEMATICS

The point to be labelled is twice as far from and to the right of 0 as the point
1 1 2
labelled . So it is two times , i.e., . You can continue to label equally-spaced points on
3 3 3
the number line in the same way. In this continuation, the next marking is 1. You can
3
see that 1 is the same as .
3
4 5 6 7
Then comes , , (or 2), and so on as shown on the number line (vi)
3 3 3 3

(vi)

1
Similarly, to represent , the number line may be divided into eight equal parts as
8
shown:
1
We use the number to name the first point of this division. The second point of
8
2 3
division will be labelled , the third point , and so on as shown on number
8 8
line (vii)

(vii)

Any rational number can be represented on the number line in this way. In a rational
number, the numeral below the bar, i.e., the denominator, tells the number of equal
parts into which the first unit has been divided. The numeral above the bar i.e., the
numerator, tells ‘how many’ of these parts are considered. So, a rational number
4
such as means four of nine equal parts on the right of 0 (number line viii) and
9
−7 1
for , we make 7 markings of distance each on the left of zero and starting
4 4
−7
from 0. The seventh marking is [number line (ix)].
4
(viii)

(ix)

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 RATIONAL NUMBERS 17

TRY THESE
Write the rational number for each point labelled with a letter.

(i)

(ii)

1.4 Rational Numbers between Two Rational Numbers

Can you tell the natural numbers between 1 and 5? They are 2, 3 and 4.
How many natural numbers are there between 7 and 9? There is one and it is 8.
How many natural numbers are there between 10 and 11? Obviously none.
List the integers that lie between –5 and 4. They are – 4, – 3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3.
How many integers are there between –1 and 1?
How many integers are there between –9 and –10?
You will find a definite number of natural numbers (integers) between two natural
numbers (integers).
3 7
How many rational numbers are there between and ?
10 10
4 5 6
You may have thought that they are only , and .
10 10 10
3 30 7 70 31 32 33
But you can also write as and as . Now the numbers, , ,
10 100 10 100 100 100 100
68 69 3 7
, ... , , are all between and . The number of these rational numbers is 39.
100 100 10 10
3 3000 7 7000
Also can be expressed as and as . Now, we see that the
10 10000 10 10000
3001 3002 6998 6999 3 7
rational numbers , ,..., , are between and . These
10000 10000 10000 10000 10 10
are 3999 numbers in all.
3
In this way, we can go on inserting more and more rational numbers between
10
7
and . So unlike natural numbers and integers, the number of rational numbers between
10
two rational numbers is not definite. Here is one more example.
−1 3
How many rational numbers are there between and ?
10 10
0 1 2
Obviously , , are rational numbers between the given numbers.
10 10 10

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18 MATHEMATICS

−1 −10000 3 30000
If we write as and as , we get the rational numbers
10 100000 10 100000
−9999 −9998 −29998 29999 −1 3
, ,..., , , between and .
100000 100000 100000 100000 10 10
You will find that you get countless rational numbers between any two given
rational numbers.
Example 6: Write any 3 rational numbers between –2 and 0.
−20 0
Solution: –2 can be written as and 0 as .
10 10
−19 −18 −17 −16 −15 −1
Thus we have , , , , , ... , between –2 and 0.
10 10 10 10 10 10
You can take any three of these.
−5 5
Example 7: Find any ten rational numbers between and .
6 8
−5 5
Solution: We first convert and to rational numbers with the same denominators.
6 8
−5 × 4 −20 5 × 3 15
= and =
6×4 24 8 × 3 24
−19 −18 −17 14 −20 15
Thus we have , , ,..., as the rational numbers between and .
24 24 24 24 24 24
You can take any ten of these.
Another Method
1 3
Let us find rational numbers between 1 and 2. One of them is 1.5 or 1 or . This is the
2 2
mean of 1 and 2. You have studied mean in Class VII.
We find that between any two given numbers, we need not necessarily get an
integer but there will always lie a rational number.
We can use the idea of mean also to find rational numbers between any two given
rational numbers.
1 1
Example 8: Find a rational number between and .
4 2
Solution: We find the mean of the given rational numbers.
 1 1  1+ 2  3 1 3
 +  ÷ 2 =   ÷ 2 = × =
4 2 4 4 2 8
3 1 1
lies between and .
8 4 2
This can be seen on the number line also.

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 RATIONAL NUMBERS 19

 1 1 3
We find the mid point of AB which is C, represented by  +  ÷ 2 = .
4 2 8
1 3 1
We find that < < .
4 8 2 a+b
If a and b are two rational numbers, then is a rational number between a and
a+b 2
b such that a < < b.
2
This again shows that there are countless number of rational numbers between any
two given rational numbers.
1 1
Example 9: Find three rational numbers between and .
4 2
Solution: We find the mean of the given rational numbers.
3 1 3 1
As given in the above example, the mean is and < < .
8 4 8 2
1 3
We now find another rational number between and . For this, we again find the mean
4 8
1 3  1 3 5 1 5
of and . That is,  +  ÷ 2 = × =
4 8 4 8 8 2 16

1 5 3 1
< < <
4 16 8 2
3 1  3 1 7 1 7
Now find the mean of and . We have,  +  ÷ 2 = × =
8 2  8 2 8 2 16
1 5 3 7 1
Thus we get < < < < .
4 16 8 16 2

5 3 7 1 1
Thus, , , are the three rational numbers between and .
16 8 16 4 2
This can clearly be shown on the number line as follows:

In the same way we can obtain as many rational numbers as we want between two
given rational numbers . You have noticed that there are countless rational numbers between
any two given rational numbers.

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20 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 1.2
7 −5
1. Represent these numbers on the number line. (i) (ii)
4 6
−2 −5 −9
2. Represent , , on the number line.
11 11 11
3. Write five rational numbers which are smaller than 2.
−2 1
4. Find ten rational numbers between and .
5 2
5. Find five rational numbers between.
2 4 −3 5 1 1
(i) and (ii) and (iii) and
3 5 2 3 4 2
6. Write five rational numbers greater than –2.
3 3
7. Find ten rational numbers between and .
5 4

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. Rational numbers are closed under the operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication.
2. The operations addition and multiplication are
(i) commutative for rational numbers.
(ii) associative for rational numbers.
3. The rational number 0 is the additive identity for rational numbers.
4. The rational number 1 is the multiplicative identity for rational numbers.
a a
5. The additive inverse of the rational number is − and vice-versa.
b b
a c a c
6. The reciprocal or multiplicative inverse of the rational number is if × = 1 .
b d b d
7. Distributivity of rational numbers: For all rational numbers a, b and c,
a(b + c) = ab + ac and a(b – c) = ab – ac
8. Rational numbers can be represented on a number line.
9. Between any two given rational numbers there are countless rational numbers. The idea of mean
helps us to find rational numbers between two rational numbers.

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 LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE 21

CHAPTER
Linear Equations in
One Variable
2
2.1 Introduction
In the earlier classes, you have come across several algebraic expressions and equations.
Some examples of expressions we have so far worked with are:
5x, 2x – 3, 3x + y, 2xy + 5, xyz + x + y + z, x2 + 1, y + y2
5 37
Some examples of equations are: 5x = 25, 2x – 3 = 9, 2 y + = , 6 z + 10 = −2
2 2
You would remember that equations use the equality (=) sign; it is missing in expressions.
Of these given expressions, many have more than one variable. For example, 2xy + 5
has two variables. We however, restrict to expressions with only one variable when we
form equations. Moreover, the expressions we use to form equations are linear. This means
that the highest power of the variable appearing in the expression is 1.
These are linear expressions:
5
2x, 2x + 1, 3y – 7, 12 – 5z, ( x – 4) + 10
4
These are not linear expressions:
x2 + 1, y + y2, 1 + z + z2 + z3 (since highest power of variable > 1)
Here we will deal with equations with linear expressions in one variable only. Such
equations are known as linear equations in one variable. The simple equations which
you studied in the earlier classes were all of this type.
Let us briefly revise what we know:
(a) An algebraic equation is an equality
involving variables. It has an equality sign.
The expression on the left of the equality sign 2x – 3 = 7
is the Left Hand Side (LHS). The expression
2x – 3 = LHS
on the right of the equality sign is the Right 7 = RHS
Hand Side (RHS).

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22 MATHEMATICS

(b) In an equation the values of x = 5 is the solution of the equation

the expressions on the LHS 2x – 3 = 7. For x = 5,
and RHS are equal. This LHS = 2 × 5 – 3 = 7 = RHS
happens to be true only for On the other hand x = 10 is not a solution of the
certain values of the variable. equation. For x = 10, LHS = 2 × 10 – 3 = 17.
These values are the This is not equal to the RHS
solutions of the equation.
(c) How to find the solution of an equation?
We assume that the two sides of the equation are balanced.
We perform the same mathematical operations on both
sides of the equation, so that the balance is not disturbed.
A few such steps give the solution.

2.2 Solving Equations which have Linear Expressions

on one Side and Numbers on the other Side
Let us recall the technique of solving equations with some examples. Observe the solutions;
they can be any rational number.
Example 1: Find the solution of 2x – 3 = 7
Solution:
Step 1 Add 3 to both sides.
2x – 3 + 3 = 7 + 3 (The balance is not disturbed)
or 2x = 10
Step 2 Next divide both sides by 2.
2 x 10
=
2 2
or x=5 (required solution)
Example 2: Solve 2y + 9 = 4
Solution: Transposing 9 to RHS
2y = 4 – 9
or 2y = – 5
−5
Dividing both sides by 2, y= (solution)
2
 −5 
To check the answer: LHS = 2   + 9 = – 5 + 9 = 4 = RHS (as required)
 2

 −5 
Do you notice that the solution   is a rational number? In Class VII, the equations
 2
we solved did not have such solutions.

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 LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE 23

x 5 3
Example 3: Solve + =−
3 2 2
5 x −3 5 8
Solution: Transposing to the RHS, we get = − =−
2 3 2 2 2
x
or =–4
3
Multiply both sides by 3, x=–4×3
or x = – 12 (solution)
12 5 5 −8 + 5 −3
Check: LHS = − + = − 4+ = = = RHS (as required)
3 2 2 2 2
Do you now see that the coefficient of a variable in an equation need not be an integer?
15
Example 4: Solve – 7x = 9
4
15
Solution: We have – 7x = 9
4
15 15
or – 7x = 9 – (transposing to R H S)
4 4
21
or – 7x =
4
21
or x= (dividing both sides by – 7)
4 × (−7)
3× 7
or x= −
4×7
3
or x= − (solution)
4
15  −3  15 21 36
Check: LHS = −7   = + = = 9 = RHS (as required)
4 4 4 4 4

EXERCISE 2.1
Solve the following equations.
1. x – 2 = 7 2. y + 3 = 10 3. 6 = z + 2
3 17 t
4. + x= 5. 6x = 12 6. = 10
7 7 5
2x y
7. = 18 8. 1.6 = 9. 7x – 9 = 16
3 1.5

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24 MATHEMATICS

x 7
10. 14y – 8 = 13 11. 17 + 6p = 9 12. +1=
3 15

2.3 Some Applications

We begin with a simple example.
Sum of two numbers is 74. One of the numbers is 10 more than the other. What are the
numbers?
We have a puzzle here. We do not know either of the two numbers, and we have to
find them. We are given two conditions.
(i) One of the numbers is 10 more than the other.
(ii) Their sum is 74.
We already know from Class VII how to proceed. If the smaller number is taken to
be x, the larger number is 10 more than x, i.e., x + 10. The other condition says that
the sum of these two numbers x and x + 10 is 74.
This means that x + (x + 10) = 74.
or 2x + 10 = 74
Transposing 10 to RHS, 2x = 74 – 10
or 2x = 64
Dividing both sides by 2, x = 32. This is one number.
The other number is x + 10 = 32 + 10 = 42
The desired numbers are 32 and 42. (Their sum is indeed 74 as given and also one
number is 10 more than the other.)
We shall now consider several examples to show how useful this method is.

−7 3
Example 5: What should be added to twice the rational number to get ?
3 7
−7  −7  −14
Solution: Twice the rational number is 2 ×   = . Suppose x added to this
3  3 3
3
number gives ; i.e.,
7
 −14  3
x+
 3  = 7
14 3
or x− =
3 7
3 14 14
or x= + (transposing to RHS)
7 3 3
(3 × 3) + (14 × 7) 9 + 98 107
= = = .
21 21 21

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 LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE 25

107  −7  3
Thus should be added to 2 ×   to give .
21 3 7

3
Example 6: The perimeter of a rectangle is 13 cm and its width is 2 cm. Find its
4
length.
Solution: Assume the length of the rectangle to be x cm.
The perimeter of the rectangle = 2 × (length + width)
3
= 2 × (x + 2 )
4

 11
= 2  x + 
4
The perimeter is given to be 13 cm. Therefore,

 11
2  x +  = 13
 4

11 13
or x+ = (dividing both sides by 2)
4 2
13 11
or x= −
2 4
26 11 15 3
= − = =3
4 4 4 4
3
The length of the rectangle is 3 cm.
4
Example 7: The present age of Sahil’s mother is three times the present age of Sahil.
After 5 years their ages will add to 66 years. Find their present ages.
Solution: Let Sahil’s present age be x years.

We could also choose Sahil’s age Sahil Mother Sum

5 years later to be x and proceed.
Present age x 3x
Why don’t you try it that way?
Age 5 years later x+5 3x + 5 4x + 10

It is given that this sum is 66 years.

Therefore, 4x + 10 = 66
This equation determines Sahil’s present age which is x years. To solve the equation,

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26 MATHEMATICS

we transpose 10 to RHS,
4x = 66 – 10
or 4x = 56
56
or x= = 14 (solution)
4
Thus, Sahil’s present age is 14 years and his mother’s age is 42 years. (You may easily
check that 5 years from now the sum of their ages will be 66 years.)
Example 8: Bansi has 3 times as many two-rupee coins as he has five-rupee coins. If
he has in all a sum of ` 77, how many coins of each denomination does he have?
Solution: Let the number of five-rupee coins that Bansi has be x. Then the number of
two-rupee coins he has is 3 times x or 3x.
The amount Bansi has:
(i) from 5 rupee coins, ` 5 × x = ` 5x
(ii) from 2 rupee coins, ` 2 × 3x = ` 6x
Rs 2
Hence the total money he has = ` 11x Rs 5
But this is given to be ` 77; therefore,
11x = 77
77
or x= =7
11
Thus, number of five-rupee coins = x = 7
and number of two-rupee coins = 3x = 21 (solution)
(You can check that the total money with Bansi is ` 77.)
Example 9: The sum of three consecutive multiples of 11 is 363. Find these
multiples.
Solution: If x is a multiple of 11, the next multiple is x + 11. The next to this is
x + 11 + 11 or x + 22. So we can take three consecutive multiples of 11 as x, x + 11 and
x + 22.

It is given that the sum of these consecutive

multiples of 11 is 363. This will give the Alternatively, we may think of the multiple
following equation: of 11 immediately before x. This is (x – 11).
x + (x + 11) + (x + 22) = 363 Therefore, we may take three consecutive
multiples of 11 as x – 11, x, x + 11.
or x + x + 11 + x + 22 = 363
In this case we arrive at the equation
or 3x + 33 = 363
(x – 11) + x + (x + 11) = 363
or 3x = 363 – 33
or 3x = 363
or 3x = 330

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 LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE 27

330 363
or x= or x= = 121. Therefore,
3 3
= 110 x = 121, x – 11 = 110, x + 11 = 132
Hence, the three consecutive multiples are
Hence, the three consecutive multiples
110, 121, 132.
are 110, 121, 132 (answer).
We can see that we can adopt different ways to find a solution for the problem.
Example 10: The difference between two whole numbers is 66. The ratio of the two
numbers is 2 : 5. What are the two numbers?
Solution: Since the ratio of the two numbers is 2 : 5, we may take one number to be
2x and the other to be 5x. (Note that 2x : 5x is same as 2 : 5.)
The difference between the two numbers is (5x – 2x). It is given that the difference
is 66. Therefore,
5x – 2x = 66
or 3x = 66
or x = 22
Since the numbers are 2x and 5x, they are 2 × 22 or 44 and 5 × 22 or 110, respectively.
The difference between the two numbers is 110 – 44 = 66 as desired.
Example 11: Deveshi has a total of ` 590 as currency notes in the denominations of
` 50, ` 20 and ` 10. The ratio of the number of ` 50 notes and ` 20 notes is 3:5. If she has
a total of 25 notes, how many notes of each denomination she has?
Solution: Let the number of ` 50 notes and ` 20 notes be 3x and 5x, respectively.
But she has 25 notes in total.
Therefore, the number of ` 10 notes = 25 – (3x + 5x) = 25 – 8x
The amount she has
from ` 50 notes : 3x × 50 = ` 150x
from ` 20 notes : 5x × 20 = ` 100x
from ` 10 notes : (25 – 8x) × 10 = ` (250 – 80x)
Hence the total money she has =150x + 100x + (250 – 80x) = ` (170x + 250)
But she has ` 590. Therefore, 170x + 250 = 590
or 170x = 590 – 250 = 340
340
or x= =2
170
The number of ` 50 notes she has = 3x
=3×2=6
The number of ` 20 notes she has = 5x = 5 × 2 = 10
The number of ` 10 notes she has = 25 – 8x
= 25 – (8 × 2) = 25 – 16 = 9

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28 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 2.2
1 1 1
1. If you subtract from a number and multiply the result by , you get . What is
2 2 8
the number?
2. The perimeter of a rectangular swimming pool is 154 m. Its length is 2 m more than
twice its breadth. What are the length and the breadth of the pool?
4 2
3. The base of an isosceles triangle is cm . The perimeter of the triangle is 4 cm .
3 15
What is the length of either of the remaining equal sides?
4. Sum of two numbers is 95. If one exceeds the other by 15, find the numbers.
5. Two numbers are in the ratio 5:3. If they differ by 18, what are the numbers?
6. Three consecutive integers add up to 51. What are these integers?
7. The sum of three consecutive multiples of 8 is 888. Find the multiples.
8. Three consecutive integers are such that when they are taken in increasing order and
multiplied by 2, 3 and 4 respectively, they add up to 74. Find these numbers.
9. The ages of Rahul and Haroon are in the ratio 5:7. Four years later the sum of their
ages will be 56 years. What are their present ages?
10. The number of boys and girls in a class are in the ratio 7:5. The number of boys is 8
more than the number of girls. What is the total class strength?
11. Baichung’s father is 26 years younger than Baichung’s grandfather and 29 years
older than Baichung. The sum of the ages of all the three is 135 years. What is the
age of each one of them?
12. Fifteen years from now Ravi’s age will be four times his present age. What is Ravi’s
present age?
5 2
13. A rational number is such that when you multiply it by and add to the product,
2 3
7
you get − . What is the number?
12
14. Lakshmi is a cashier in a bank. She has currency notes of denominations
` 100, ` 50 and ` 10, respectively. The ratio of the number of these
notes is 2:3:5. The total cash with Lakshmi is ` 4,00,000. How many
notes of each denomination does she have?
15. I have a total of ` 300 in coins of denomination ` 1, ` 2 and ` 5. The
number of ` 2 coins is 3 times the number of ` 5 coins. The total number of
coins is 160. How many coins of each denomination are with me?
16. The organisers of an essay competition decide that a winner in the
competition gets a prize of ` 100 and a participant who does not win gets
a prize of ` 25. The total prize money distributed is ` 3,000. Find the
number of winners, if the total number of participants is 63.

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 LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE 29

2.4 Solving Equations having the Variable on

both Sides
An equation is the equality of the values of two expressions. In the equation 2x – 3 = 7,
the two expressions are 2x – 3 and 7. In most examples that we have come across so
far, the RHS is just a number. But this need not always be so; both sides could have
expressions with variables. For example, the equation 2x – 3 = x + 2 has expressions
with a variable on both sides; the expression on the LHS is (2x – 3) and the expression
on the RHS is (x + 2).
• We now discuss how to solve such equations which have expressions with the variable
on both sides.
Example 12: Solve 2x – 3 = x + 2
Solution: We have
2x = x + 2 + 3
or 2x = x + 5
or 2x – x = x + 5 – x (subtracting x from both sides)
or x =5 (solution)
Here we subtracted from both sides of the equation, not a number (constant), but a
term involving the variable. We can do this as variables are also numbers. Also, note that
subtracting x from both sides amounts to transposing x to LHS.

7 3
Example 13: Solve 5x + = x − 14
2 2
Solution: Multiply both sides of the equation by 2. We get

 7 3 
2 ×  5x +  = 2 ×  x − 14
 2 2

 7  3 
(2 × 5x) +  2 ×  =  2 × x − (2 × 14)
2 2

or 10x + 7 = 3x – 28
or 10x – 3x + 7 = – 28 (transposing 3x to LHS)
or 7x + 7 = – 28
or 7x = – 28 – 7
or 7x = – 35
−35
or x= or x =–5 (solution)
7

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30 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 2.3
Solve the following equations and check your results.
1. 3x = 2x + 18 2. 5t – 3 = 3t – 5 3. 5x + 9 = 5 + 3x
4. 4z + 3 = 6 + 2z 5. 2x – 1 = 14 – x 6. 8x + 4 = 3 (x – 1) + 7
4 2x 7x 5 26
7. x = (x + 10) 8. +1= +3 9. 2y + = −y
5 3 15 3 3
8
10. 3m = 5 m –
5

2.5 Some More Applications

Example 14: The digits of a two-digit number differ by 3. If the digits are interchanged,
and the resulting number is added to the original number, we get 143. What can be the
original number?

Solution: Take, for example, a two-digit number, say, 56. It can be written as
56 = (10 × 5) + 6.
If the digits in 56 are interchanged, we get 65, which can be written as (10 × 6 ) + 5.
Let us take the two digit number such that the digit in the units place is b. The digit
in the tens place differs from b by 3. Let us take it as b + 3. So the two-digit number
is 10 (b + 3) + b = 10b + 30 + b = 11b + 30.
Could we take the tens
With interchange of digits, the resulting two-digit number will be place digit to be
10b + (b + 3) = 11b + 3 (b – 3)? Try it and see
what solution you get.
If we add these two two-digit numbers, their sum is
(11b + 30) + (11b + 3) = 11b + 11b + 30 + 3 = 22b + 33
It is given that the sum is 143. Therefore, 22b + 33 = 143
or 22b = 143 – 33
Remember, this is the solution
or 22b = 110 when we choose the tens digits to
be 3 more than the unit’s digits.
110 What happens if we take the tens
or b= digit to be (b – 3)?
22
or b=5
The units digit is 5 and therefore the tens digit is 5 + 3 The statement of the
which is 8. The number is 85. example is valid for both 58
and 85 and both are correct
Check: On interchange of digits the number we get is answers.
58. The sum of 85 and 58 is 143 as given.

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 LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE 31

Example 15: Arjun is twice as old as Shriya. Five years ago his age was three times
Shriya’s age. Find their present ages.
Solution: Let us take Shriya’s present age to be x years.
Then Arjun’s present age would be 2x years.
Shriya’s age five years ago was (x – 5) years.
Arjun’s age five years ago was (2x – 5) years.
It is given that Arjun’s age five years ago was three times Shriya’s age.
Thus, 2x – 5 = 3(x – 5)
or 2x – 5 = 3x – 15
or 15 – 5 = 3x – 2x
or 10 = x
So, Shriya’s present age = x = 10 years.
Therefore, Arjun’s present age = 2x = 2 × 10 = 20 years.

EXERCISE 2.4
5
1. Amina thinks of a number and subtracts from it. She multiplies the result by 8. The
2
result now obtained is 3 times the same number she thought of. What is the number?
2. A positive number is 5 times another number. If 21 is added to both the numbers,
then one of the new numbers becomes twice the other new number. What are the
numbers?
3. Sum of the digits of a two-digit number is 9. When we interchange the digits, it is
found that the resulting new number is greater than the original number by 27. What
is the two-digit number?
4. One of the two digits of a two digit number is three times the other digit. If you
interchange the digits of this two-digit number and add the resulting number to the
original number, you get 88. What is the original number?
5. Shobo’s mother’s present age is six times Shobo’s present age. Shobo’s age five
years from now will be one third of his mother’s present age. What are their
present ages?
6. There is a narrow rectangular plot, reserved for a school, in Mahuli village. The
length and breadth of the plot are in the ratio 11:4. At the rate `100 per metre it will
cost the village panchayat ` 75000 to fence the plot. What are the dimensions of
the plot?
7. Hasan buys two kinds of cloth materials for school uniforms, shirt material that
costs him ` 50 per metre and trouser material that costs him ` 90 per metre.

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32 MATHEMATICS

For every 3 meters of the shirt material he buys 2 metres

of the trouser material. He sells the materials at 12%
and 10% profit respectively. His total sale is ` 36,600.
How much trouser material did he buy?
8. Half of a herd of deer are grazing in the field and three
fourths of the remaining are playing nearby. The rest 9
are drinking water from the pond. Find the number of
deer in the herd.
9. A grandfather is ten times older than his granddaughter.
He is also 54 years older than her. Find their present ages.
10. Aman’s age is three times his son’s age. Ten years ago he was five times his son’s
age. Find their present ages.

2.6 Reducing Equations to Simpler Form

6x + 1 x −3
Example 16: Solve +1 =
3 6
Solution: Multiplying both sides of the equation by 6, Why 6? Because it is the
6 (6 x + 1) 6( x − 3) smallest multiple (or LCM)
+ 6 ×1 = of the given denominators.
3 6
or 2 (6x + 1) + 6 = x – 3
or 12x + 2 + 6 = x – 3 (opening the brackets )
or 12x + 8 = x – 3
or 12x – x + 8 = – 3
or 11x + 8 = – 3
or 11x = –3 – 8
or 11x = –11
or x=–1 (required solution)
6( −1) + 1 −6 + 1 −5 3 −5 + 3 −2
Check: LHS = +1 = +1 = + = =
3 3 3 3 3 3
( −1) − 3 −4 −2
RHS = = =
6 6 3
LHS = RHS. (as required)
7
Example 17: Solve 5x – 2 (2x – 7) = 2 (3x – 1) +
2
Solution: Let us open the brackets,
LHS = 5x – 4x + 14 = x + 14

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 LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE 33

7 4 7 3
RHS = 6x – 2 + = 6x − + = 6x +
2 2 2 2
3
The equation is x + 14 = 6x +
2
3
or 14 = 6x – x +
2
3
or 14 = 5x +
2
3 3
or 14 – = 5x (transposing )
2 2
28 − 3
or = 5x
2 Did you observe how we
simplified the form of the given
25 equation? Here, we had to
or = 5x multiply both sides of the
2 equation by the LCM of the
denominators of the terms in the
25 1 5 × 5 5 expressions of the equation.
or x= × = =
2 5 2×5 2
5
Therefore, required solution is x = .
2

Check: LHS =

25 25 25 25 + 8 33
= − 2(5 − 7) = − 2(−2) = +4 = =
2 2 2 2 2

RHS = Note, in this example we

brought the equation to a
simpler form by opening
26 + 7 33 brackets and combining like
= = = LHS. (as required) terms on both sides of the
2 2 equation.

EXERCISE 2.5
Solve the following linear equations.

x 1 x 1 n 3n 5n 8 x 17 5 x
1. − = + 2. − + = 21 3. x + 7 − = −
2 5 3 4 2 4 6 3 6 2

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34 MATHEMATICS

x−5 x−3 3t − 2 2t + 3 2 m −1 m−2

4. = 5. − = −t 6. m − =1−
3 5 4 3 3 2 3
Simplify and solve the following linear equations.
7. 3(t – 3) = 5(2t + 1) 8. 15(y – 4) –2(y – 9) + 5(y + 6) = 0
9. 3(5z – 7) – 2(9z – 11) = 4(8z – 13) – 17
10. 0.25(4f – 3) = 0.05(10f – 9)

2.7 Equations Reducible to the Linear Form

x +1 3
Example 18: Solve =
2x + 3 8
Solution: Observe that the equation is not a linear equation, since the expression on its
LHS is not linear. But we can put it into the form of a linear equation. We multiply both
sides of the equation by (2x + 3),

 x +1  3 Note that
 2 x + 3 × (2 x + 3) = × (2 x + 3) 2x + 3 ≠ 0 (Why?)
8
Notice that (2x + 3) gets cancelled on the LHS We have then,
3 (2 x + 3)
x+1=
8
We have now a linear equation which we know how to solve.
Multiplying both sides by 8
8 (x + 1) = 3 (2x + 3) This step can be
or 8x + 8 = 6x + 9 directly obtained by
‘cross-multiplication’
or 8x = 6x + 9 – 8
or 8x = 6x + 1
or 8x – 6x = 1
or 2x = 1
1
or x=
2
1
The solution is x = .
2
1 1+ 2 3
Check : Numerator of LHS = +1= =
2 2 2
1
Denominator of LHS = 2x + 3 = 2 × +3=1+3=4
2

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 LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE 35

3 3 1 3
LHS = numerator ÷ denominator = ÷4= × =
2 2 4 8
LHS = RHS.
Example 19: Present ages of Anu and Raj are in the ratio 4:5. Eight years from now
the ratio of their ages will be 5:6. Find their present ages.
Solution: Let the present ages of Anu and Raj be 4x years and 5x years respectively.
After eight years. Anu’s age = (4x + 8) years;
After eight years, Raj’s age = (5x + 8) years.
4x + 8
Therefore, the ratio of their ages after eight years =
5x + 8
This is given to be 5 : 6
4x + 8 5
Therefore, =
5x + 8 6
Cross-multiplication gives 6 (4x + 8) = 5 (5x + 8)
or 24x + 48 = 25x + 40
or 24x + 48 – 40 = 25x
or 24x + 8 = 25x
or 8 = 25x – 24x
or 8=x
Therefore, Anu’s present age = 4x = 4 × 8 = 32 years
Raj’s present age = 5x = 5 × 8 = 40 years

EXERCISE 2.6
Solve the following equations.
8x − 3 9x z 4
1. =2 2. = 15 3. =
3x 7 − 6x z + 15 9

3 y + 4 −2 7y + 4 − 4
4. = 5. =
2 – 6y 5 y+2 3
6. The ages of Hari and Harry are in the ratio 5:7. Four years from now the ratio of
their ages will be 3:4. Find their present ages.
7. The denominator of a rational number is greater than its numerator by 8. If the
numerator is increased by 17 and the denominator is decreased by 1, the number
3
obtained is . Find the rational number.
2

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36 MATHEMATICS

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. An algebraic equation is an equality involving variables. It says that the value of the expression on
one side of the equality sign is equal to the value of the expression on the other side.
2. The equations we study in Classes VI, VII and VIII are linear equations in one variable. In such
equations, the expressions which form the equation contain only one variable. Further, the equations
are linear, i.e., the highest power of the variable appearing in the equation is 1.
3. A linear equation may have for its solution any rational number.
4. An equation may have linear expressions on both sides. Equations that we studied in Classes VI
and VII had just a number on one side of the equation.
5. Just as numbers, variables can, also, be transposed from one side of the equation to the other.
6. Occasionally, the expressions forming equations have to be simplified before we can solve them
by usual methods. Some equations may not even be linear to begin with, but they can be brought
to a linear form by multiplying both sides of the equation by a suitable expression.
7. The utility of linear equations is in their diverse applications; different problems on numbers, ages,
perimeters, combination of currency notes, and so on can be solved using linear equations.

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 UNDERSTANDING QUADRILATERALS 37

CHAPTER
Understanding
Quadrilaterals
3
3.1 Introduction
You know that the paper is a model for a plane surface. When you join a number of
points without lifting a pencil from the paper (and without retracing any portion of the
drawing other than single points), you get a plane curve.
Try to recall different varieties of curves you have seen in the earlier classes.
Match the following: (Caution! A figure may match to more than one type).
Figure Type

(1) (a) Simple closed curve

(2) (b) A closed curve that is not simple

(3) (c) Simple curve that is not closed

(4) (d) Not a simple curve

Compare your matchings with those of your friends. Do they agree?

3.2 Polygons
A simple closed curve made up of only line segments is called a polygon.

Curves that are polygons Curves that are not polygons

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38 MATHEMATICS

Try to give a few more examples and non-examples for a polygon.

Draw a rough figure of a polygon and identify its sides and vertices.
3.2.1 Classification of polygons
We classify polygons according to the number of sides (or vertices) they have.
Number of sides Classification Sample figure
or vertices

3 Triangle

4 Quadrilateral

5 Pentagon

6 Hexagon

7 Heptagon

8 Octagon

9 Nonagon

10 Decagon

n n-gon

3.2.2 Diagonals
A diagonal is a line segment connecting two non-consecutive vertices of a polygon (Fig 3.1).

Fig 3.1

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 UNDERSTANDING QUADRILATERALS 39

Can you name the diagonals in each of the above figures? (Fig 3.1)
Is PQ a diagonal? What about LN ?
You already know what we mean by interior and exterior of a closed curve (Fig 3.2).

Interior Fig 3.2 Exterior

The interior has a boundary. Does the exterior have a boundary? Discuss with your friends.
3.2.3 Convex and concave polygons
Here are some convex polygons and some concave polygons. (Fig 3.3)

Convex polygons Fig 3.3 Concave polygons

Can you find how these types of polygons differ from one another? Polygons that are
convex have no portions of their diagonals in their exteriors or any line segment joining any
two different points, in the interior of the polygon, lies wholly in the interior of it . Is this true
with concave polygons? Study the figures given. Then try to describe in your own words
what we mean by a convex polygon and what we mean by a concave polygon. Give two
rough sketches of each kind.
In our work in this class, we will be dealing with convex polygons only.
3.2.4 Regular and irregular polygons
A regular polygon is both ‘equiangular’ and ‘equilateral’. For example, a square has sides of
equal length and angles of equal measure. Hence it is a regular polygon. A rectangle is
equiangular but not equilateral. Is a rectangle a regular polygon? Is an equilateral triangle a
regular polygon? Why?

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40 MATHEMATICS

Regular polygons Polygons that are not regular

[Note: Use of or indicates segments of equal length].

In the previous classes, have you come across any quadrilateral that is equilateral but not
equiangular? Recall the quadrilateral shapes you saw in earlier classes – Rectangle, Square,
Rhombus etc.
Is there a triangle that is equilateral but not equiangular?
3.2.5 Angle sum property
Do you remember the angle-sum property of a triangle? The sum of the measures of the
three angles of a triangle is 180°. Recall the methods by which we tried to visualise this
fact. We now extend these ideas to a quadrilateral.

DO THIS

1. Take any quadrilateral, say ABCD (Fig 3.4). Divide

it into two triangles, by drawing a diagonal. You get
six angles 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.
Use the angle-sum property of a triangle and argue
how the sum of the measures of ∠A, ∠B, ∠C and
∠D amounts to 180° + 180° = 360°. Fig 3.4
2. Take four congruent card-board copies of any quadrilateral ABCD, with angles
as shown [Fig 3.5 (i)]. Arrange the copies as shown in the figure, where angles
∠1, ∠2, ∠3, ∠4 meet at a point [Fig 3.5 (ii)].

For doing this you may

have to turn and match
appropriate corners so
that they fit.

(i)
Fig 3.5 (ii)
What can you say about the sum of the angles ∠1, ∠2, ∠3 and ∠4?
[Note: We denote the angles by ∠1, ∠2, ∠3, etc., and their respective measures
by m∠1, m∠2, m∠3, etc.]
The sum of the measures of the four angles of a quadrilateral is___________.
You may arrive at this result in several other ways also.

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 UNDERSTANDING QUADRILATERALS 41

3. As before consider quadrilateral ABCD (Fig 3.6). Let P be any

point in its interior. Join P to vertices A, B, C and D. In the figure,
consider ∆PAB. From this we see x = 180° – m∠2 – m∠3;
similarly from ∆PBC, y = 180° – m∠4 – m∠5, from ∆PCD,
z = 180º – m∠6 – m∠7 and from ∆PDA, w = 180º – m∠8
– m∠1. Use this to find the total measure m∠1 + m∠2 + ... Fig 3.6
+ m∠8, does it help you to arrive at the result? Remember
∠x + ∠y + ∠z + ∠w = 360°.
4. These quadrilaterals were convex. What would happen if the
quadrilateral is not convex? Consider quadrilateral ABCD. Split it
into two triangles and find the sum of the interior angles (Fig 3.7).

EXERCISE 3.1 Fig 3.7

1. Given here are some figures.

(1) (2) (3) (4)

(5) (6) (7) (8)

Classify each of them on the basis of the following.
(a) Simple curve (b) Simple closed curve (c) Polygon
(d) Convex polygon (e) Concave polygon
2. How many diagonals does each of the following have?
(a) A convex quadrilateral (b) A regular hexagon (c) A triangle
3. What is the sum of the measures of the angles of a convex quadrilateral? Will this property
hold if the quadrilateral is not convex? (Make a non-convex quadrilateral and try!)
4. Examine the table. (Each figure is divided into triangles and the sum of the angles
deduced from that.)

Figure

Side 3 4 5 6
Angle sum 180º 2 × 180° 3 × 180° 4 × 180°
= (4 – 2) × 180° = (5 – 2) × 180° = (6 – 2) × 180°

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42 MATHEMATICS

What can you say about the angle sum of a convex polygon with number of sides?
(a) 7 (b) 8 (c) 10 (d) n
5. What is a regular polygon?
State the name of a regular polygon of
(i) 3 sides (ii) 4 sides (iii) 6 sides
6. Find the angle measure x in the following figures.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
7.

(a) Find x + y + z (b) Find x + y + z + w

3.3 Sum of the Measures of the Exterior Angles of a

Polygon
On many occasions a knowledge of exterior angles may throw light on the nature of
interior angles and sides.

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 UNDERSTANDING QUADRILATERALS 43

DO THIS
Draw a polygon on the floor, using a piece of chalk.
(In the figure, a pentagon ABCDE is shown) (Fig 3.8).
We want to know the total measure of angles, i.e,
m∠1 + m∠2 + m∠3 + m∠4 + m∠5. Start at A. Walk
along AB . On reaching B, you need to turn through an
angle of m∠1, to walk along BC . When you reach at C,
you need to turn through an angle of m∠2 to walk along
CD . You continue to move in this manner, until you return Fig 3.8
to side AB. You would have in fact made one complete turn.
Therefore, m∠1 + m∠2 + m∠3 + m∠4 + m∠5 = 360°
This is true whatever be the number of sides of the polygon.
Therefore, the sum of the measures of the external angles of any polygon is 360°.

Example 1: Find measure x in Fig 3.9.

Solution: x + 90° + 50° + 110° = 360° (Why?)
x + 250° = 360°
x = 110°

Fig 3.9
TRY THESE
Take a regular hexagon Fig 3.10.
1. What is the sum of the measures of its exterior angles x, y, z, p, q, r?
2. Is x = y = z = p = q = r? Why?
3. What is the measure of each?
(i) exterior angle (ii) interior angle
4. Repeat this activity for the cases of
(i) a regular octagon (ii) a regular 20-gon Fig 3.10

Example 2: Find the number of sides of a regular polygon whose each exterior angle
has a measure of 45°.
Solution: Total measure of all exterior angles = 360°
Measure of each exterior angle = 45°
360
Therefore, the number of exterior angles = =8
45

The polygon has 8 sides.

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44 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 3.2
1. Find x in the following figures.

(a) (b)
2. Find the measure of each exterior angle of a regular polygon of
(i) 9 sides (ii) 15 sides
3. How many sides does a regular polygon have if the measure of an exterior angle is 24°?
4. How many sides does a regular polygon have if each of its interior angles
is 165°?
5. (a) Is it possible to have a regular polygon with measure of each exterior angle as 22°?
(b) Can it be an interior angle of a regular polygon? Why?
6. (a) What is the minimum interior angle possible for a regular polygon? Why?
(b) What is the maximum exterior angle possible for a regular polygon?

3.4 Kinds of Quadrilaterals

Based on the nature of the sides or angles of a quadrilateral, it gets special names.
3.4.1 Trapezium
Trapezium is a quadrilateral with a pair of parallel sides.

These are trapeziums These are not trapeziums

Study the above figures and discuss with your friends why some of them are trapeziums
while some are not. (Note: The arrow marks indicate parallel lines).

DO THIS
1. Take identical cut-outs of congruent triangles of sides 3 cm, 4 cm, 5 cm. Arrange
them as shown (Fig 3.11).

Fig 3.11

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 UNDERSTANDING QUADRILATERALS 45

You get a trapezium. (Check it!) Which are the parallel sides here? Should the
non-parallel sides be equal?
You can get two more trapeziums using the same set of triangles. Find them out and
discuss their shapes.
2. Take four set-squares from your and your friend’s instrument boxes. Use different
numbers of them to place side-by-side and obtain different trapeziums.
If the non-parallel sides of a trapezium are of equal length, we call it an isosceles
trapezium. Did you get an isoceles trapezium in any of your investigations given above?

3.4.2 Kite
Kite is a special type of a quadrilateral. The sides with the same markings in each figure
are equal. For example AB = AD and BC = CD.

These are kites These are not kites

Study these figures and try to describe what a kite is. Observe that
(i) A kite has 4 sides (It is a quadrilateral).
(ii) There are exactly two distinct consecutive pairs of sides of equal length.
Check whether a square is a kite.

DO THIS Show that

∆ABC and
Take a thick white sheet. ∆ADC are
Fold the paper once. congruent .
Draw two line segments of different lengths as shown in Fig 3.12. What do we
Cut along the line segments and open up. infer from
this?
You have the shape of a kite (Fig 3.13).
Has the kite any line symmetry? Fig 3.12
Fold both the diagonals of the kite. Use the set-square to check if they cut at
right angles. Are the diagonals equal in length?
Verify (by paper-folding or measurement) if the diagonals bisect each other.
By folding an angle of the kite on its opposite, check for angles of equal measure.
Observe the diagonal folds; do they indicate any diagonal being an angle bisector?
Share your findings with others and list them. A summary of these results are
given elsewhere in the chapter for your reference. Fig 3.13

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46 MATHEMATICS

3.4.3 Parallelogram
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral. As the name suggests, it has something to do with
parallel lines.

AB  DC
AD  BC AB  CD

LM  ON
QP  SR AB  ED
LO  MN
QS  PR BC  FE

These are parallelograms These are not parallelograms

Study these figures and try to describe in your own words what we mean by a
parallelogram. Share your observations with your friends.
Check whether a rectangle is also a parallelogram.

DO THIS

Take two different rectangular cardboard strips of different widths (Fig 3.14).

Strip 1 Fig 3.14 Strip 2

Place one strip horizontally and draw lines along

its edge as drawn in the figure (Fig 3.15).
Now place the other strip in a slant position over
the lines drawn and use this to draw two more lines Fig 3.15
as shown (Fig 3.16).
These four lines enclose a quadrilateral. This is made up of two pairs of parallel lines
(Fig 3.17).

Fig 3.16 Fig 3.17

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 UNDERSTANDING QUADRILATERALS 47

It is a parallelogram.
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel.
3.4.4 Elements of a parallelogram
There are four sides and four angles in a parallelogram. Some of these are
equal. There are some terms associated with these elements that you need
to remember.
Fig 3.18
Given a parallelogram ABCD (Fig 3.18).
AB and DC , are opposite sides. AD and BC form another pair of opposite sides.
∠A and ∠C are a pair of opposite angles; another pair of opposite angles would be
∠B and ∠D.
AB and BC are adjacent sides. This means, one of the sides starts where the other
ends. Are BC and CD adjacent sides too? Try to find two more pairs of adjacent sides.
∠A and ∠B are adjacent angles. They are at the ends of the same side. ∠B and ∠C
are also adjacent. Identify other pairs of adjacent angles of the parallelogram.

DO THIS
Take cut-outs of two identical parallelograms, say ABCD and A′B′C′D′ (Fig 3.19).

Fig 3.19
Here AB is same as A′ B′ except for the name. Similarly the other corresponding
sides are equal too.
Place A ′ B′ over DC . Do they coincide? What can you now say about the lengths
AB and DC ?
Similarly examine the lengths AD and BC . What do you find?
You may also arrive at this result by measuring AB and DC .

Property: The opposite sides of a parallelogram are of equal length.

TRY THESE
Take two identical set squares with angles 30° – 60° – 90°
and place them adjacently to form a parallelogram as shown
in Fig 3.20. Does this help you to verify the above property?
You can further strengthen this idea
through a logical argument also.
Consider a parallelogram
ABCD (Fig 3.21). Draw
any one diagonal, say AC . Fig 3.21 Fig 3.20

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48 MATHEMATICS

Looking at the angles,

∠1 = ∠2 and ∠3 = ∠4 (Why?)
Since in triangles ABC and ADC, ∠1 = ∠2, ∠3 = ∠4
and AC is common, so, by ASA congruency condition,
∆ ABC ≅ ∆ CDA (How is ASA used here?)
This gives AB = DC and BC = AD.
Example 3: Find the perimeter of the parallelogram PQRS (Fig 3.22).
Solution: In a parallelogram, the opposite sides have same length.
Therefore, PQ = SR = 12 cm and QR = PS = 7 cm
So, Perimeter = PQ + QR + RS + SP
= 12 cm + 7 cm + 12 cm + 7 cm = 38 cm
Fig 3.22
3.4.5 Angles of a parallelogram
We studied a property of parallelograms concerning the (opposite) sides. What can we
say about the angles?

DO THIS
Let ABCD be a parallelogram (Fig 3.23). Copy it on
a tracing sheet. Name this copy as A′B′C′D′. Place
A′B′C′D′ on ABCD. Pin them together at the point
where the diagonals meet. Rotate the transparent sheet
by 180°. The parallelograms still concide; but you now
find A′ lying exactly on C and vice-versa; similarly B′
lies on D and vice-versa.
Fig 3.23

Does this tell you anything about the measures of the angles A and C? Examine the
same for angles B and D. State your findings.
Property: The opposite angles of a parallelogram are of equal measure.

TRY THESE
Take two identical 30° – 60° – 90° set-squares and form a parallelogram as before.
Does the figure obtained help you to confirm the above property?

You can further justify this idea through logical arguments.

If AC and BD are the diagonals of the
parallelogram, (Fig 3.24) you find that
∠1 =∠2 and ∠3 = ∠4 (Why?) Fig 3.24

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 UNDERSTANDING QUADRILATERALS 49

Studying ∆ ABC and ∆ ADC (Fig 3.25) separately, will help you to see that by ASA
congruency condition,
∆ ABC ≅ ∆ CDA (How?)

Fig 3.25
This shows that ∠B and ∠D have same measure. In the same way you can get
m∠A = m ∠C.
Alternatively, ∠1 = ∠2 and ∠3 = ∠4, we have, m∠A = ∠1+∠4 = ∠2+∠C m∠C
Example 4: In Fig 3.26, BEST is a parallelogram. Find the values x, y and z.
Solution: S is opposite to B.
So, x = 100° (opposite angles property)
y = 100° (measure of angle corresponding to ∠x)
z = 80° (since ∠y, ∠z is a linear pair)
We now turn our attention to adjacent angles of a parallelogram.
In parallelogram ABCD, (Fig 3.27). Fig 3.26
∠A and ∠D are supplementary since
DC
AB and with transversal DA , these
two angles are interior opposite.
∠A and ∠B are also supplementary. Can you
Fig 3.27
say ‘why’?
AD
BC and BA is a transversal, making ∠A and ∠B interior opposite.
Identify two more pairs of supplementary angles from the figure.
Property: The adjacent angles in a parallelogram are supplementary.
Example 5: In a parallelogram RING, (Fig 3.28) if m∠R = 70°, find all the other angles.
Solution: Given m∠R = 70°
Then m∠N = 70°
because ∠R and ∠N are opposite angles of a parallelogram.
Since ∠R and ∠I are supplementary,
m∠I = 180° – 70° = 110° Fig 3.28
Also, m∠G = 110° since ∠G is opposite to ∠I
Thus, m∠R = m∠N = 70° and m∠I = m∠G = 110°

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50 MATHEMATICS

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

After showing m∠R = m∠N = 70°, can you find m∠I and m∠G by any other
method?
3.4.6 Diagonals of a parallelogram
The diagonals of a parallelogram, in general, are not of equal length.
(Did you check this in your earlier activity?) However, the diagonals
of a parallelogram have an interesting property.

DO THIS

Take a cut-out of a parallelogram, say,

ABCD (Fig 3.29). Let its diagonals AC and DB meet at O. Fig 3.29
Find the mid point of AC by a fold, placing C on A. Is the
mid-point same as O?
Does this show that diagonal DB bisects the diagonal AC at the point O? Discuss it
with your friends. Repeat the activity to find where the mid point of DB could lie.

Property: The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other (at the point of their
intersection, of course!)
To argue and justify this property is not very
difficult. From Fig 3.30, applying ASA criterion, it
is easy to see that
∆ AOB ≅ ∆ COD (How is ASA used here?) Fig 3.30

This gives AO = CO and BO = DO

Example 6: In Fig 3.31 HELP is a parallelogram. (Lengths are in cms). Given that
OE = 4 and HL is 5 more than PE? Find OH.
Solution : If OE = 4 then OP also is 4 (Why?)
So PE = 8, (Why?)
Therefore HL = 8 + 5 = 13
Fig 3.31
1
Hence OH = × 13 = 6.5 (cms)
2

EXERCISE 3.3
1. Given a parallelogram ABCD. Complete each
statement along with the definition or property used.
(i) AD = ...... (ii) ∠ DCB = ......
(iii) OC = ...... (iv) m ∠DAB + m ∠CDA = ......

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 UNDERSTANDING QUADRILATERALS 51

2. Consider the following parallelograms. Find the values of the unknowns x, y, z.

(i) (ii)

30

(iii) (iv) (v)

3. Can a quadrilateral ABCD be a parallelogram if
(i) ∠D + ∠B = 180°? (ii) AB = DC = 8 cm, AD = 4 cm and BC = 4.4 cm?
(iii) ∠A = 70° and ∠C = 65°?
4. Draw a rough figure of a quadrilateral that is not a parallelogram but has exactly two opposite angles
of equal measure.
5. The measures of two adjacent angles of a parallelogram are in the ratio 3 : 2. Find the measure of each
of the angles of the parallelogram.
6. Two adjacent angles of a parallelogram have equal measure. Find the
measure of each of the angles of the parallelogram.
7. The adjacent figure HOPE is a parallelogram. Find the angle measures
x, y and z. State the properties you use to find them.
8. The following figures GUNS and RUNS are parallelograms.
Find x and y. (Lengths are in cm)

(i) (ii)

9.

In the above figure both RISK and CLUE are parallelograms. Find the value of x.

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10. Explain how this figure is a trapezium. Which of its two sides are parallel? (Fig 3.32)

Fig 3.32 Fig 3.33

11. Find m∠C in Fig 3.33 if AB  DC .
12. Find the measure of ∠P and ∠S if SP  RQ in Fig 3.34.
(If you find m∠R, is there more than one method to find m∠P?) Fig 3.34

3.5 Some Special Parallelograms

3.5.1 Rhombus
We obtain a Rhombus (which, you will see, is a parallelogram) as a special case of kite
(which is not a a parallelogram).

DO THIS

Recall the paper-cut kite you made earlier.

Kite-cut Rhombus-cut
When you cut along ABC and opened up, you got a kite. Here lengths AB and
BC were different. If you draw AB = BC, then the kite you obtain is called a rhombus.

Note that the sides of rhombus are all of same

length; this is not the case with the kite.
A rhombus is a quadrilateral with sides of equal
length.
Since the opposite sides of a rhombus have the same
length, it is also a parallelogram. So, a rhombus has all
the properties of a parallelogram and also that of a
kite. Try to list them out. You can then verify your list
with the check list summarised in the book elsewhere. Kite Rhombus

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The most useful property of a rhombus is that of its diagonals.

Property: The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular bisectors of one another.

DO THIS
Take a copy of rhombus. By paper-folding verify if the point of intersection is the
mid-point of each diagonal. You may also check if they intersect at right angles, using
the corner of a set-square.

Here is an outline justifying this property using logical steps.

ABCD is a rhombus (Fig 3.35). Therefore it is a parallelogram too.
Since diagonals bisect each other, OA = OC and OB = OD.
We have to show that m∠AOD = m∠COD = 90°
It can be seen that by SSS congruency criterion Fig 3.35
∆ AOD ≅ ∆ COD
Since AO = CO (Why?)
Therefore, m ∠AOD = m ∠COD
AD = CD (Why?)
Since ∠AOD and ∠COD are a linear pair,
OD = OD
m ∠AOD = m ∠COD = 90°
Example 7:
RICE is a rhombus (Fig 3.36). Find x, y, z. Justify your findings.
Solution:
x = OE y = OR z = side of the rhombus
= OI (diagonals bisect) = OC (diagonals bisect) = 13 (all sides are equal )
= 5 = 12 Fig 3.36
3.5.2 A rectangle
A rectangle is a parallelogram with equal angles (Fig 3.37).
What is the full meaning of this definition? Discuss with your friends.
If the rectangle is to be equiangular, what could be
the measure of each angle? Fig 3.37
Let the measure of each angle be x°.
Then 4x° = 360° (Why)?
Therefore, x° = 90°
Thus each angle of a rectangle is a right angle.
So, a rectangle is a parallelogram in which every angle is a right angle.
Being a parallelogram, the rectangle has opposite sides of equal length and its diagonals
bisect each other.

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In a parallelogram, the diagonals can be of different lengths. (Check this); but surprisingly
the rectangle (being a special case) has diagonals of equal length.
Property: The diagonals of a rectangle are of equal length.

Fig 3.38 Fig 3.39 Fig 3.40

This is easy to justify. If ABCD is a rectangle (Fig 3.38), then looking at triangles
ABC and ABD separately [(Fig 3.39) and (Fig 3.40) respectively], we have
∆ ABC ≅ ∆ ABD
This is because AB = AB (Common)
BC = AD (Why?)
m ∠A = m ∠B = 90° (Why?)
The congruency follows by SAS criterion.
Thus AC = BD
and in a rectangle the diagonals, besides being equal in length bisect each other (Why?)
Example 8: RENT is a rectangle (Fig 3.41). Its diagonals meet at O. Find x, if
OR = 2x + 4 and OT = 3x + 1.
Solution: OT is half of the diagonal TE ,
OR is half of the diagonal RN .
Diagonals are equal here. (Why?)
So, their halves are also equal.
Therefore 3x + 1 = 2x + 4
or x=3
3.5.3 A square
A square is a rectangle with equal sides. Fig 3.41
This means a square has all the
properties of a rectangle with an additional
requirement that all the sides have equal
length.
The square, like the rectangle, has
diagonals of equal length. BELT is a square, BE = EL = LT = TB
In a rectangle, there is no requirement ∠B, ∠E, ∠L, ∠T are right angles.
for the diagonals to be perpendicular to BL = ET and BL ⊥ ET .
one another, (Check this). OB = OL and OE = OT.

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 UNDERSTANDING QUADRILATERALS 55

In a square the diagonals.

(i) bisect one another (square being a parallelogram)
(ii) are of equal length (square being a rectangle) and
(iii) are perpendicular to one another.
Hence, we get the following property.
Property: The diagonals of a square are perpendicular bisectors of each other.

DO THIS
Take a square sheet, say PQRS (Fig 3.42).
Fold along both the diagonals. Are their mid-points the same?
Check if the angle at O is 90° by using a set-square.
This verifies the property stated above.
Fig 3.42
We can justify this also by arguing logically:
ABCD is a square whose diagonals meet at O (Fig 3.43).
OA = OC (Since the square is a parallelogram)
By SSS congruency condition, we now see that
∆ AOD ≅ ∆ COD (How?)
Therefore, m∠AOD = m∠COD
These angles being a linear pair, each is right angle.
Fig 3.43
EXERCISE 3.4
1. State whether True or False.
(a) All rectangles are squares (e) All kites are rhombuses.
(b) All rhombuses are parallelograms (f) All rhombuses are kites.
(c) All squares are rhombuses and also rectangles (g) All parallelograms are trapeziums.
(d) All squares are not parallelograms. (h) All squares are trapeziums.
2. Identify all the quadrilaterals that have.
(a) four sides of equal length (b) four right angles
3. Explain how a square is.
(i) a quadrilateral (ii) a parallelogram (iii) a rhombus (iv) a rectangle
4. Name the quadrilaterals whose diagonals.
(i) bisect each other (ii) are perpendicular bisectors of each other (iii) are equal
5. Explain why a rectangle is a convex quadrilateral.
6. ABC is a right-angled triangle and O is the mid point of the side
opposite to the right angle. Explain why O is equidistant from A,
B and C. (The dotted lines are drawn additionally to help you).

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56 MATHEMATICS

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

1. A mason has made a concrete slab. He needs it to be rectangular. In what different
ways can he make sure that it is rectangular?
2. A square was defined as a rectangle with all sides equal. Can we define it as
rhombus with equal angles? Explore this idea.
3. Can a trapezium have all angles equal? Can it have all sides equal? Explain.

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

Quadrilateral Properties

Parallelogram: (1) Opposite sides are equal.

A quadrilateral (2) Opposite angles are equal.
with each pair of
opposite sides (3) Diagonals bisect one another.
parallel.

Rhombus: (1) All the properties of a parallelogram.

A parallelogram with sides (2) Diagonals are perpendicular to each other.
of equal length.

Rectangle: (1) All the properties of a parallelogram.

A parallelogram (2) Each of the angles is a right angle.
with a right angle. (3) Diagonals are equal.

Square: A rectangle
with sides of equal All the properties of a parallelogram,
length. rhombus and a rectangle.

Kite: A quadrilateral
with exactly two pairs (1) The diagonals are perpendicular
of equal consecutive to one another
sides (2) One of the diagonals bisects the other.
(3) In the figure m∠B = m∠D but
m∠A ≠ m∠C.

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CHAPTER

Practical Geometry
4
4.1 Introduction
You have learnt how to draw triangles in Class VII. We require three measurements
(of sides and angles) to draw a unique triangle.
Since three measurements were enough to draw a triangle, a natural question arises
whether four measurements would be sufficient to draw a unique four sided closed figure,
namely, a quadrilateral.

DO THIS
Take a pair of sticks of equal lengths, say
10 cm. Take another pair of sticks of
equal lengths, say, 8 cm. Hinge them up
suitably to get a rectangle of length 10 cm
and breadth 8 cm. Fig 4.1
This rectangle has been created with
the 4 available measurements.
Now just push along the breadth of
the rectangle. Is the new shape obtained,
still a rectangle (Fig 4.2)? Observe
that the rectangle has now become
a parallelogram. Have you altered the
Fig 4.2
lengths of the sticks? No! The
measurements of sides remain the same.
Give another push to the newly
obtained shape in a different direction;
what do you get? You again get a
parallelogram, which is altogether different
(Fig 4.3), yet the four measurements Fig 4.3
remain the same.
This shows that 4 measurements of a quadrilateral cannot determine it uniquely.
Can 5 measurements determine a quadrilateral uniquely? Let us go back to the activity!

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58 MATHEMATICS

You have constructed a rectangle with

two sticks each of length 10 cm and other
two sticks each of length 8 cm. Now
introduce another stick of length equal to
BD and tie it along BD (Fig 4.4). If you
push the breadth now, does the shape
change? No! It cannot, without making the
figure open. The introduction of the fifth
stick has fixed the rectangle uniquely, i.e.,
there is no other quadrilateral (with the Fig 4.4
given lengths of sides) possible now.
Thus, we observe that five measurements can determine a quadrilateral uniquely.
But will any five measurements (of sides and angles) be sufficient to draw a unique
quadrilateral?

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

Arshad has five measurements of a quadrilateral ABCD. These are AB = 5 cm,
∠A = 50°, AC = 4 cm, BD = 5 cm and AD = 6 cm. Can he construct a unique
quadrilateral? Give reasons for your answer.

4.2 Constructing a Quadrilateral

We shall learn how to construct a unique quadrilateral given the following
measurements:
• When four sides and one diagonal are given.
• When two diagonals and three sides are given.
• When two adjacent sides and three angles are given.
• When three sides and two included angles are given.
• When other special properties are known.
Let us take up these constructions one-by-one.
4.2.1 When the lengths of four sides and a diagonal are given
We shall explain this construction through an example.
Example 1: Construct a quadrilateral PQRS
where PQ = 4 cm,QR = 6 cm, RS = 5 cm,
PS = 5.5 cm and PR = 7 cm.
Solution: [A rough sketch will help us in
visualising the quadrilateral. We draw this first and
mark the measurements.] (Fig 4.5)
Fig 4.5

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 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY 59

Step 1 From the rough sketch, it is easy to see that ∆PQR

can be constructed using SSS construction condition.
Draw ∆PQR (Fig 4.6).

Fig 4.6

Step 2 Now, we have to locate the fourth point S. This ‘S’

would be on the side opposite to Q with reference to
PR. For that, we have two measurements.
S is 5.5 cm away from P. So, with P as centre, draw
an arc of radius 5.5 cm. (The point S is somewhere
on this arc!) (Fig 4.7).

Fig 4.7

Step 3 S is 5 cm away from R. So with R as centre, draw an arc of radius 5 cm (The

point S is somewhere on this arc also!) (Fig 4.8).

Fig 4.8

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60 MATHEMATICS

Step 4 S should lie on both the arcs drawn.

So it is the point of intersection of the
two arcs. Mark S and complete PQRS.
PQRS is the required quadrilateral
(Fig 4.9).

Fig 4.9

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

(i) We saw that 5 measurements of a quadrilateral can determine a quadrilateral
uniquely. Do you think any five measurements of the quadrilateral can do this?
(ii) Can you draw a parallelogram BATS where BA = 5 cm, AT = 6 cm and
AS = 6.5 cm? Why?
(iii) Can you draw a rhombus ZEAL where ZE = 3.5 cm, diagonal EL = 5 cm? Why?
(iv) A student attempted to draw a quadrilateral PLAY where PL = 3 cm, LA = 4 cm,
AY = 4.5 cm, PY = 2 cm and LY = 6 cm, but could not draw it. What is
the reason?
[Hint: Discuss it using a rough sketch].

EXERCISE 4.1
1. Construct the following quadrilaterals.
(i) Quadrilateral ABCD. (ii) Quadrilateral JUMP
AB = 4.5 cm JU = 3.5 cm
BC = 5.5 cm UM = 4 cm
CD = 4 cm MP = 5 cm
AD = 6 cm PJ = 4.5 cm
AC = 7 cm PU = 6.5 cm
(iii) Parallelogram MORE (iv) Rhombus BEST
OR = 6 cm BE = 4.5 cm
RE = 4.5 cm ET = 6 cm
EO = 7.5 cm

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 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY 61

4.2.2 When two diagonals and three sides are given

When four sides and a diagonal were given, we first drew a triangle with the available data
and then tried to locate the fourth point. The same technique is used here.
Example 2: Construct a quadrilateral ABCD, given that BC = 4.5 cm, AD = 5.5 cm,
CD = 5 cm the diagonal AC = 5.5 cm and diagonal BD = 7 cm.
Solution:
Here is the rough sketch of the quadrilateral ABCD
(Fig 4.10). Studying this sketch, we can easily see
that it is possible to draw ∆ ACD first (How?).

Fig 4.10

Step 1 Draw ∆ ACD using SSS

construction (Fig 4.11).
(We now need to find B at a distance
of 4.5 cm from C and 7 cm from D).
Fig 4.11

Step 2 With D as centre, draw an arc of radius 7 cm. (B is somewhere

on this arc) (Fig 4.12).

Fig 4.12

Step 3 With C as centre, draw an arc of

radius 4.5 cm (B is somewhere on
this arc also) (Fig 4.13).

Fig 4.13

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62 MATHEMATICS

Step 4 Since B lies on both the arcs, B is

the point intersection of the two
arcs. Mark B and complete ABCD.
ABCD is the required quadrilateral
(Fig 4.14).

Fig 4.14

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

1. In the above example, can we draw the quadrilateral by drawing ∆ ABD first and
then find the fourth point C?
2. Can you construct a quadrilateral PQRS with PQ = 3 cm, RS = 3 cm, PS = 7.5 cm,
PR = 8 cm and SQ = 4 cm? Justify your answer.

EXERCISE 4.2
1. Construct the following quadrilaterals.
(i) quadrilateral LIFT (ii) Quadrilateral GOLD
LI = 4 cm OL = 7.5 cm
IF = 3 cm GL = 6 cm
TL = 2.5 cm GD = 6 cm
LF = 4.5 cm LD = 5 cm
IT = 4 cm OD = 10 cm
(iii) Rhombus BEND
BN = 5.6 cm
DE = 6.5 cm
4.2.3 When two adjacent sides and three angles are known
As before, we start with constructing a triangle and then look for the fourth point to
complete the quadrilateral.
Example 3: Construct a quadrilateral MIST where MI = 3.5 cm, IS = 6.5 cm,
∠M = 75°, ∠I = 105° and ∠S = 120°.

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 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY 63

Solution:
Here is a rough sketch that would help us in deciding our steps of
construction. We give only hints for various steps (Fig 4.15).

Fig 4.15

Step 1 How do you locate the points? What choice do you make for the base and what
is the first step? (Fig 4.16)

Fig 4.16

Step 2 Make ∠ISY = 120° at S (Fig 4.17).

Fig 4.17

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64 MATHEMATICS

Step 3 Make ∠IMZ = 75° at M. (where will SY and MZ meet?) Mark that point as T.
We get the required quadrilateral MIST (Fig 4.18).

Fig 4.18

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

1. Can you construct the above quadrilateral MIST if we have 100° at M instead
of 75°?
2. Can you construct the quadrilateral PLAN if PL = 6 cm, LA = 9.5 cm, ∠P = 75°,
∠L =150° and ∠A = 140°? (Hint: Recall angle-sum property).
3. In a parallelogram, the lengths of adjacent sides are known. Do we still need measures
of the angles to construct as in the example above?

EXERCISE 4.3
1. Construct the following quadrilaterals.
(i) Quadrilateral MORE (ii) Quadrilateral PLAN
MO = 6 cm PL = 4 cm
OR = 4.5 cm LA = 6.5 cm
∠M = 60° ∠P = 90°
∠O = 105° ∠A = 110°
∠R = 105° ∠N = 85°
(iii) Parallelogram HEAR (iv) Rectangle OKAY
HE = 5 cm OK = 7 cm
EA = 6 cm KA = 5 cm
∠R = 85°

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 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY 65

4.2.4 When three sides and two included angles are given
Under this type, when you draw a rough sketch, note carefully the “included” angles
in particular.
Example 4: Construct a quadrilateral ABCD, where
AB = 4 cm, BC = 5 cm, CD = 6.5 cm and ∠B = 105° and
∠C = 80°.
Solution:
We draw a rough sketch, as usual, to get an idea of how we can
start off. Then we can devise a plan to locate the four points
(Fig 4.19). Fig 4.19

Step 1 Start with taking BC = 5 cm on B. Draw an angle of 105° along BX. Locate A
4 cm away on this. We now have B, C and A (Fig 4.20).

Fig 4.20

Step 2 The fourth point D is on CY which is inclined at 80° to BC. So make ∠BCY = 80°
at C on BC (Fig 4.21).

Fig 4.21

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66 MATHEMATICS

Step 3 D is at a distance of 6.5 cm on CY. With

C as centre, draw an arc of length 6.5 cm.
It cuts CY at D (Fig 4.22).

Fig 4.22
Step 4 Complete the quadrilateral ABCD. ABCD is the required quadrilateral (Fig 4.23).

Fig 4.23

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

1. In the above example, we first drew BC. Instead, what could have been be the
other starting points?
2. We used some five measurements to draw quadrilaterals so far. Can there be
different sets of five measurements (other than seen so far) to draw a quadrilateral?
The following problems may help you in answering the question.
(i) Quadrilateral ABCD with AB = 5 cm, BC = 5.5 cm, CD = 4 cm, AD = 6 cm
and ∠B = 80°.
(ii) Quadrilateral PQRS with PQ = 4.5 cm, ∠P = 70°, ∠Q = 100°, ∠R = 80°
and ∠S = 110°.
Construct a few more examples of your own to find sufficiency/insufficiency of the
data for construction of a quadrilateral.

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 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY 67

EXERCISE 4.4
1. Construct the following quadrilaterals.
(i) Quadrilateral DEAR (ii) Quadrilateral TRUE
DE = 4 cm TR = 3.5 cm
EA = 5 cm RU = 3 cm
AR = 4.5 cm UE = 4 cm
∠E = 60° ∠R = 75°
∠A = 90° ∠U = 120°

4.3 Some Special Cases

To draw a quadrilateral, we used 5 measurements in our work. Is there any quadrilateral
which can be drawn with less number of available measurements? The following examples
examine such special cases.
Example 5: Draw a square of side 4.5 cm.
Solution: Initially it appears that only one measurement has been given. Actually
we have many more details with us, because the figure is a special quadrilateral,
namely a square. We now know that each of its angles is a right angle. (See the
rough figure) (Fig 4.24)
This enables us to draw ∆ ABC using SAS condition. Then D can be easily
located. Try yourself now to draw the square with the given measurements.
Example 6: Is it possible to construct a rhombus ABCD where AC = 6 cm Fig 4.24
and BD = 7 cm? Justify your answer.
Solution: Only two (diagonal) measurements of the rhombus are given. However,
since it is a rhombus, we can find more help from its properties.
The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular bisectors
of one another.
So, first draw AC = 7 cm and then construct its perpendicular bisector.
Let them meet at 0. Cut off 3 cm lengths on either side of the drawn
bisector. You now get B and D.
Draw the rhombus now, based on the method described above
(Fig 4.25).
Fig 4.25

TRY THESE
1. How will you construct a rectangle PQRS if you know
only the lengths PQ and QR?
2. Construct the kite EASY if AY = 8 cm, EY = 4 cm
and SY = 6 cm (Fig 4.26). Which properties of the
kite did you use in the process? Fig 4.26

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68 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 4.5
Draw the following.
1. The square READ with RE = 5.1 cm.
2. A rhombus whose diagonals are 5.2 cm and 6.4 cm long.
3. A rectangle with adjacent sides of lengths 5 cm and 4 cm.
4. A parallelogram OKAY where OK = 5.5 cm and KA = 4.2 cm. Is it unique?

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. Five measurements can determine a quadrilateral uniquely.
2. A quadrilateral can be constructed uniquely if the lengths of its four sides and a diagonal is given.
3. A quadrilateral can be constructed uniquely if its two diagonals and three sides are known.
4. A quadrilateral can be constructed uniquely if its two adjacent sides and three angles are known.
5. A quadrilateral can be constructed uniquely if its three sides and two included angles are given.

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CHAPTER

Data Handling
5
5.1 Looking for Information
In your day-to-day life, you might have come across information, such as:
(a) Runs made by a batsman in the last 10 test matches.
(b) Number of wickets taken by a bowler in the last 10 ODIs.
(c) Marks scored by the students of your class in the Mathematics unit test.
(d) Number of story books read by each of your friends etc.
The information collected in all such cases is called data. Data is usually collected in
the context of a situation that we want to study. For example, a teacher may like to know
the average height of students in her class. To find this, she will write the heights of all the
students in her class, organise the data in a systematic manner and then interpret it
accordingly.
Sometimes, data is represented graphically to give a clear idea of what it represents.
Do you remember the different types of graphs which we have learnt in earlier classes?
1. A Pictograph: Pictorial representation of data using symbols.

= 100 cars ← One symbol stands for 100 cars

1
July = 250 denotes of 100
2

August = 300

September =?

(i) How many cars were produced in the month of July?

(ii) In which month were maximum number of cars produced?

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2. A bar graph: A display of information using bars of uniform width, their heights
being proportional to the respective values.

Bar heights give the

quantity for each
category.

Bars are of equal width

with equal gaps in
between.

(i)
What is the information given by the bar graph?
(ii)
In which year is the increase in the number of students maximum?
(iii)
In which year is the number of students maximum?
(iv)State whether true or false:
‘The number of students during 2005-06 is twice that of 2003-04.’
3. Double Bar Graph: A bar graph showing two sets of data simultaneously. It is
useful for the comparison of the data.

(i) What is the information given by the double bar graph?

(ii) In which subject has the performance improved the most?
(iii) In which subject has the performance deteriorated?
(iv) In which subject is the performance at par?

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 DATA HANDLING 71

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

If we change the position of any of the bars of a bar graph, would it change the
information being conveyed? Why?

TRY THESE
Draw an appropriate graph to represent the given information.

1. Month July August September October November December

Number of 1000 1500 1500 2000 2500 1500
watches sold

2. Children who prefer School A School B School C

Walking 40 55 15
Cycling 45 25 35
3. Percentage wins in ODI by 8 top cricket teams.
Teams From Champions Last 10
Trophy to World Cup-06 ODI in 07
South Africa 75% 78%
Australia 61% 40%
Sri Lanka 54% 38%
New Zealand 47% 50%
England 46% 50%
Pakistan 45% 44%
West Indies 44% 30%
India 43% 56%

5.2 Organising Data

Usually, data available to us is in an unorganised form called raw data. To draw meaningful
inferences, we need to organise the data systematically. For example, a group of students
was asked for their favourite subject. The results were as listed below:
Art, Mathematics, Science, English, Mathematics, Art, English, Mathematics, English,
Art, Science, Art, Science, Science, Mathematics, Art, English, Art, Science, Mathematics,
Science, Art.
Which is the most liked subject and the one least liked?

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72 MATHEMATICS

It is not easy to answer the question looking at the choices written haphazardly. We
arrange the data in Table 5.1 using tally marks.
Table 5.1
Subject Tally Marks Number of Students
Art |||| || 7
Mathematics |||| 5
Science ||||| 6
English |||| 4

The number of tallies before each subject gives the number of students who like that
particular subject.
This is known as the frequency of that subject.
Frequency gives the number of times that a particular entry occurs.
From Table 5.1, Frequency of students who like English is 4
Frequency of students who like Mathematics is 5
The table made is known as frequency distribution table as it gives the number
of times an entry occurs.

TRY THESE
1. A group of students were asked to say which animal they would like most to have
as a pet. The results are given below:
dog, cat, cat, fish, cat, rabbit, dog, cat, rabbit, dog, cat, dog, dog, dog, cat, cow,
fish, rabbit, dog, cat, dog, cat, cat, dog, rabbit, cat, fish, dog.
Make a frequency distribution table for the same.

5.3 Grouping Data

The data regarding choice of subjects showed the occurrence of each of the entries several
times. For example, Art is liked by 7 students, Mathematics is liked by 5 students and so
on (Table 5.1). This information can be displayed graphically using a pictograph or a
bargraph. Sometimes, however, we have to deal with a large data. For example, consider
the following marks (out of 50) obtained in Mathematics by 60 students of Class VIII:
21, 10, 30, 22, 33, 5, 37, 12, 25, 42, 15, 39, 26, 32, 18, 27, 28, 19, 29, 35, 31, 24,
36, 18, 20, 38, 22, 44, 16, 24, 10, 27, 39, 28, 49, 29, 32, 23, 31, 21, 34, 22, 23, 36, 24,
36, 33, 47, 48, 50, 39, 20, 7, 16, 36, 45, 47, 30, 22, 17.
If we make a frequency distribution table for each observation, then the table would
be too long, so, for convenience, we make groups of observations say, 0-10, 10-20 and
so on, and obtain a frequency distribution of the number of observations falling in each

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 DATA HANDLING 73

group. Thus, the frequency distribution table for the above data can be.
Table 5.2
Groups Tally Marks Frequency

0-10 || 2
10-20 |||| |||| 10
20-30 |||| |||| |||| |||| | 21
30-40 |||| |||| |||| |||| 19
40-50 |||| || 7
50-60 | 1
Total 60

Data presented in this manner is said to be grouped and the distribution obtained is called
grouped frequency distribution. It helps us to draw meaningful inferences like –
(1) Most of the students have scored between 20 and 40.
(2) Eight students have scored more than 40 marks out of 50 and so on.
Each of the groups 0-10, 10-20, 20-30, etc., is called a Class Interval (or briefly
a class).
Observe that 10 occurs in both the classes, i.e., 0-10 as well as 10-20. Similarly, 20
occurs in classes 10-20 and 20-30. But it is not possible that an observation (say 10 or 20)
can belong simultaneously to two classes. To avoid this, we adopt the convention that the
common observation will belong to the higher class, i.e., 10 belongs to the class interval
10-20 (and not to 0-10). Similarly, 20 belongs to 20-30 (and not to 10-20). In the class
interval, 10-20, 10 is called the lower class limit and 20 is called the upper class limit.
Similarly, in the class interval 20-30, 20 is the lower class limit and 30 is the upper class limit.
Observe that the difference between the upper class limit and lower class limit for each of the
class intervals 0-10, 10-20, 20-30 etc., is equal, (10 in this case). This difference between
the upper class limit and lower class limit is called the width or size of the class interval.

TRY THESE
1. Study the following frequency distribution table and answer the questions
given below.
Frequency Distribution of Daily Income of 550 workers of a factory
Table 5.3
Class Interval Frequency
(Daily Income in `) (Number of workers)
100-125 45
125-150 25

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74 MATHEMATICS

150-175 55
175-200 125
200-225 140
225-250 55
250-275 35
275-300 50
300-325 20
Total 550

(i) What is the size of the class intervals?

(ii) Which class has the highest frequency?
(iii) Which class has the lowest frequency?
(iv) What is the upper limit of the class interval 250-275?
(v) Which two classes have the same frequency?
2. Construct a frequency distribution table for the data on weights (in kg) of 20 students
of a class using intervals 30-35, 35-40 and so on.
40, 38, 33, 48, 60, 53, 31, 46, 34, 36, 49, 41, 55, 49, 65, 42, 44, 47, 38, 39.
5.3.1 Bars with a difference
Let us again consider the grouped frequency distribution of the marks obtained by 60
students in Mathematics test. (Table 5.4)
Table 5.4
Class Interval Frequency
0-10 2
10-20 10
20-30 21
30-40 19
40-50 7
50-60 1
Total 60

This is displayed graphically as in the

adjoining graph (Fig 5.1).
Is this graph in any way different from the
bar graphs which you have drawn in Class VII?
Observe that, here we have represented the
groups of observations (i.e., class intervals) Fig 5.1

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 DATA HANDLING 75

on the horizontal axis. The height of the bars show the frequency of the class-interval.
Also, there is no gap between the bars as there is no gap between the class-intervals.
The graphical representation of data in this manner is called a histogram.
The following graph is another histogram (Fig 5.2).

Fig 5.2
From the bars of this histogram, we can answer the following questions:
(i) How many teachers are of age 45 years or more but less than 50 years?
(ii) How many teachers are of age less than 35 years?

TRY THESE
1. Observe the histogram (Fig 5.3) and answer the questions given below.

Fig 5.3
(i) What information is being given by the histogram?
(ii) Which group contains maximum girls?

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76 MATHEMATICS

(iii) How many girls have a height of 145 cms and more?
(iv) If we divide the girls into the following three categories, how many would
there be in each?
150 cm and more — Group A
140 cm to less than 150 cm — Group B
Less than 140 cm — Group C

EXERCISE 5.1
1. For which of these would you use a histogram to show the data?
(a) The number of letters for different areas in a postman’s bag.
(b) The height of competitors in an athletics meet.
(c) The number of cassettes produced by 5 companies.
(d) The number of passengers boarding trains from 7:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m. at a
station.
Give reasons for each.
2. The shoppers who come to a departmental store are marked as: man (M), woman
(W), boy (B) or girl (G). The following list gives the shoppers who came during the
first hour in the morning:
WWWGBWWMGGMMWWWWGBMWBGGMWWMMWW
WMWBWGMWWWWGWMMWWMWGWMGWMMBGGW
Make a frequency distribution table using tally marks. Draw a bar graph to illustrate it.
3. The weekly wages (in `) of 30 workers in a factory are.
830, 835, 890, 810, 835, 836, 869, 845, 898, 890, 820, 860, 832, 833, 855, 845,
804, 808, 812, 840, 885, 835, 835, 836, 878, 840, 868, 890, 806, 840
Using tally marks make a frequency table with intervals as 800–810, 810–820 and
so on.
4. Draw a histogram for the frequency table made for the data in Question 3, and
answer the following questions.
(i) Which group has the maximum number of workers?
(ii) How many workers earn ` 850 and more?
(iii) How many workers earn less than ` 850?
5. The number of hours for which students of a particular class watched television during
holidays is shown through the given graph.
Answer the following.
(i) For how many hours did the maximum number of students watch TV?
(ii) How many students watched TV for less than 4 hours?

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 DATA HANDLING 77

(iii) How many students spent more than 5 hours in watching TV?

5.4 Circle Graph or Pie Chart

Have you ever come across data represented in circular form as shown (Fig 5.4)?
The time spent by a child during a day Age groups of people in a town

(i) Fig 5.4 (ii)

These are called circle graphs. A circle graph shows the relationship between a
whole and its parts. Here, the whole circle is divided into sectors. The size of each sector
is proportional to the activity or information it represents.
For example, in the above graph, the proportion of the sector for hours spent in sleeping
number of sleeping hours 8 hours 1
= = =
whole day 24 hours 3
1
So, this sector is drawn as rd part of the circle. Similarly, the proportion of the sector
3
number of school hours 6 hours 1
for hours spent in school = = =
whole day 24 hours 4

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78 MATHEMATICS

1
So this sector is drawn th of the circle. Similarly, the size of other sectors can be found.
4
Add up the fractions for all the activities. Do you get the total as one?
A circle graph is also called a pie chart.

TRY THESE
1. Each of the following pie charts (Fig 5.5) gives you a different piece of information about your class.
Find the fraction of the circle representing each of these information.
(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig 5.5
2. Answer the following questions based on the pie chart
given (Fig 5.6 ).
(i) Which type of programmes are viewed the most?
(ii) Which two types of programmes have number of
viewers equal to those watching sports channels?

5.4.1 Drawing pie charts Viewers watching different types

The favourite flavours of ice-creams for of channels on T.V.
students of a school is given in percentages Fig 5.6
as follows.

Flavours Percentage of students

Preferring the flavours

Chocolate 50%
Vanilla 25%
Other flavours 25%

Let us represent this data in a pie chart.

The total angle at the centre of a circle is 360°. The central angle of the sectors will be

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 DATA HANDLING 79

a fraction of 360°. We make a table to find the central angle of the sectors (Table 5.5).
Table 5.5

Flavours Students in per cent In fractions Fraction of 360°

preferring the flavours
50 1 1
Chocolate 50% = of 360° = 180°
100 2 2
25 1 1
Vanilla 25% = of 360° = 90°
100 4 4
25 1 1
Other flavours 25% = of 360° = 90°
100 4 4

1. Draw a circle with any convenient radius.

Mark its centre (O) and a radius (OA).

2. The angle of the sector for chocolate is 180°.

Use the protractor to draw ∠AOB = 180°.

3. Continue marking the remaining sectors.

Example 1: Adjoining pie chart (Fig 5.7) gives the expenditure (in percentage)
on various items and savings of a family during a month.
(i) On which item, the expenditure was maximum?
(ii) Expenditure on which item is equal to the total
savings of the family?
(iii) If the monthly savings of the family is ` 3000, what
is the monthly expenditure on clothes?
Solution:
(i) Expenditure is maximum on food.
(ii) Expenditure on Education of children is the same
(i.e., 15%) as the savings of the family. Fig 5.7

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80 MATHEMATICS

(iii) 15% represents ` 3000

3000
Therefore, 10% represents ` × 10 = ` 2000
15
Example 2: On a particular day, the sales (in rupees) of different items of a baker’s
shop are given below.
ordinary bread : 320
fruit bread : 80
cakes and pastries : 160 Draw a pie chart for this data.
biscuits : 120
others : 40
Total : 720

Solution: We find the central angle of each sector. Here the total sale = ` 720. We
thus have this table.

Item Sales (in `) In Fraction Central Angle

320 4 4
Ordinary Bread 320 = × 360° = 160°
720 9 9

120 1 1
Biscuits 120 = × 360° = 60°
720 6 6
160 2 2
Cakes and pastries 160 = × 360° = 80°
720 9 9
80 1 1
Fruit Bread 80 = × 360° = 40°
720 9 9
40 1 1
Others 40 = × 360° = 20°
720 18 18

Now, we make the pie chart (Fig 5.8):

Fig 5.8

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 DATA HANDLING 81

TRY THESE
Draw a pie chart of the data given below.
The time spent by a child during a day.
Sleep — 8 hours
School — 6 hours
Home work — 4 hours
Play — 4 hours
Others — 2 hours

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

Which form of graph would be appropriate to display the following data.
1. Production of food grains of a state.
Year 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Production 60 50 70 55 80 85
(in lakh tons)
2. Choice of food for a group of people.
Favourite food Number of people
North Indian 30
South Indian 40
Chinese 25
Others 25
Total 120
3. The daily income of a group of a factory workers.
Daily Income Number of workers
(in Rupees) (in a factory)
75-100 45
100-125 35
125-150 55
150-175 30
175-200 50
200-225 125
225-250 140
Total 480

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82 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 5.2
1. A survey was made to find the type of music
that a certain group of young people liked in
a city. Adjoining pie chart shows the findings
of this survey.
From this pie chart answer the following:
(i) If 20 people liked classical music, how
many young people were surveyed?
(ii) Which type of music is liked by the
maximum number of people?
(iii) If a cassette company were to make Season No. of votes
1000 CD’s, how many of each type
would they make? Summer 90
2. A group of 360 people were asked to vote
for their favourite season from the three Rainy 120
seasons rainy, winter and summer.
(i) Which season got the most votes?
(ii) Find the central angle of each sector. Winter 150
(iii) Draw a pie chart to show this
information.
3. Draw a pie chart showing the following information. The table shows the colours
preferred by a group of people.

Colours Number of people Find the proportion of each sector. For example,
18 1 9 1
Blue 18 Blue is = ; Green is = and so on. Use
36 2 36 4
Green 9 this to find the corresponding angles.

Red 6
Yellow 3
Total 36

4. The adjoining pie chart gives the marks scored in an examination by a student in
Hindi, English, Mathematics, Social Science and Science. If the total marks obtained
by the students were 540, answer the following questions.
(i) In which subject did the student score 105
marks?
(Hint: for 540 marks, the central angle = 360°.
So, for 105 marks, what is the central angle?)
(ii) How many more marks were obtained by the
student in Mathematics than in Hindi?
(iii) Examine whether the sum of the marks
obtained in Social Science and Mathematics
is more than that in Science and Hindi.
(Hint: Just study the central angles).

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 DATA HANDLING 83

5. The number of students in a hostel, speaking different languages is given below.

Display the data in a pie chart.
Language Hindi English Marathi Tamil Bengali Total
Number 40 12 9 7 4 72
of students

5.5 Chance and Probability

Sometimes it happens that during rainy season, you carry a raincoat every day
and it does not rain for many days. However, by chance, one day you forget to
take the raincoat and it rains heavily on that day.
Sometimes it so happens that a student prepares 4 chapters out of 5, very well
for a test. But a major question is asked from the chapter that she left unprepared. Oh!
my
Everyone knows that a particular train runs in time but the day you reach raincoat.
well in time it is late!
You face a lot of situations such as these where you take a chance and it
does not go the way you want it to. Can you give some more examples? These
are examples where the chances of a certain thing happening or not happening
are not equal. The chances of the train being in time or being late are not the
same. When you buy a ticket which is wait listed, you do take a chance. You
hope that it might get confirmed by the time you travel.
We however, consider here certain experiments whose results have an equal chance
of occurring.
5.5.1 Getting a result
You might have seen that before a cricket match starts, captains of the two teams go out
to toss a coin to decide which team will bat first.
What are the possible results you get when a coin is tossed? Of course, Head or Tail.
Imagine that you are the captain of one team and your friend is the captain of the other
team. You toss a coin and ask your friend to make the call. Can you control the result of
the toss? Can you get a head if you want one? Or a tail if you want that? No, that is not
possible. Such an experiment is called a random experiment. Head or Tail are the two
outcomes of this experiment.

TRY THESE

1. If you try to start a scooter, what are the possible outcomes?

2. When a die is thrown, what are the six possible outcomes?

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84 MATHEMATICS

3. When you spin the wheel shown, what are the possible outcomes? (Fig 5.9)
List them.
(Outcome here means the sector at which the pointer stops).

Fig 5.9 Fig 5.10

4. You have a bag with five identical balls of different colours and you are to pull out
(draw) a ball without looking at it; list the outcomes you would
get (Fig 5.10).

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

In throwing a die:
• Does the first player have a greater chance of getting a six?
• Would the player who played after him have a lesser chance of getting a six?
• Suppose the second player got a six. Does it mean that the third player would not
have a chance of getting a six?

5.5.2 Equally likely outcomes:

A coin is tossed several times and the number of times we get head or tail is noted. Let us
look at the result sheet where we keep on increasing the tosses:

Number of tosses Tally marks (H) Number of heads Tally mark (T) Number of tails
50 |||| |||| |||| 27 |||| |||| |||| 23
|||| |||| || |||| |||
60 |||| |||| |||| 28 |||| |||| |||| 32
|||| |||| ||| |||| |||| |||| ||
70 ... 33 ... 37
80 ... 38 ... 42
90 ... 44 ... 46
100 ... 48 ... 52

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 DATA HANDLING 85

Observe that as you increase the number of tosses more and more, the number of
heads and the number of tails come closer and closer to each other.
This could also be done with a die, when tossed a large number of times. Number of
each of the six outcomes become almost equal to each other.
In such cases, we may say that the different outcomes of the experiment are equally
likely. This means that each of the outcomes has the same chance of occurring.

5.5.3 Linking chances to probability

Consider the experiment of tossing a coin once. What are the outcomes? There are only
two outcomes – Head or Tail. Both the outcomes are equally likely. Likelihood of getting
1
a head is one out of two outcomes, i.e., . In other words, we say that the probability of
2
1
getting a head = . What is the probability of getting a tail?
2
Now take the example of throwing a die marked with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 on its faces (one
number on one face). If you throw it once, what are the outcomes?
The outcomes are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Thus, there are six equally likely outcomes.
What is the probability of getting the outcome ‘2’?
1 ← Number of outcomes giving 2
It is
6 ← Number of equally likely outcomes.
What is the probability of getting the number 5? What is the probability of getting the
number 7? What is the probability of getting a number 1 through 6?
5.5.4 Outcomes as events
Each outcome of an experiment or a collection of outcomes make an event.
For example in the experiment of tossing a coin, getting a Head is an event and getting a
Tail is also an event.
In case of throwing a die, getting each of the outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 is an event.

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86 MATHEMATICS

Is getting an even number an event? Since an even number could be 2, 4 or 6, getting an

even number is also an event. What will be the probability of getting an even number?
3 ← Number of outcomes that make the event
It is
6 ← Total number of outcomes of the experiment.
Example 3: A bag has 4 red balls and 2 yellow balls. (The balls are identical in all
respects other than colour). A ball is drawn from the bag without looking into the bag.
What is probability of getting a red ball? Is it more or less than getting a yellow ball?
Solution: There are in all (4 + 2 =) 6 outcomes of the event. Getting a red ball
consists of 4 outcomes. (Why?)
4 2
Therefore, the probability of getting a red ball is = . In the same way the probability
6 3
2 1
of getting a yellow ball = = (Why?). Therefore, the probability of getting a red ball is
6 3
more than that of getting a yellow ball.

TRY THESE
Suppose you spin the wheel
1. (i) List the number of outcomes of getting a green sector
and not getting a green sector on this wheel
(Fig 5.11).
(ii) Find the probability of getting a green sector.
(iii) Find the probability of not getting a green sector. Fig 5.11

5.5.5 Chance and probability related to real life

We talked about the chance that it rains just on the day when we do not carry a rain coat.
What could you say about the chance in terms of probability? Could it be one in 10
1
days during a rainy season? The probability that it rains is then . The probability that it
10
9
does not rain = . (Assuming raining or not raining on a day are equally likely)
10
The use of probability is made in various cases in real life.
1. To find characteristics of a large group by using a small
part of the group.
For example, during elections ‘an exit poll’ is taken.
This involves asking the people whom they have voted
for, when they come out after voting at the centres
which are chosen off hand and distributed over the
whole area. This gives an idea of chance of winning of
each candidate and predictions are made based on it
accordingly.

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 DATA HANDLING 87

2. Metrological Department predicts weather by observing trends from the data over
many years in the past.

EXERCISE 5.3
1. List the outcomes you can see in these experiments.
(a) Spinning a wheel (b) Tossing two coins together

2. When a die is thrown, list the outcomes of an event of getting

(i) (a) a prime number (b) not a prime number.
(ii) (a) a number greater than 5 (b) a number not greater than 5.
3. Find the.
(a) Probability of the pointer stopping on D in (Question 1-(a))?
(b) Probability of getting an ace from a well shuffled deck of 52 playing cards?
(c) Probability of getting a red apple. (See figure below)

4. Numbers 1 to 10 are written on ten separate slips (one number on one slip), kept in
a box and mixed well. One slip is chosen from the box without looking into it. What
is the probability of .
(i) getting a number 6?
(ii) getting a number less than 6?
(iii) getting a number greater than 6?
(iv) getting a 1-digit number?
5. If you have a spinning wheel with 3 green sectors, 1 blue sector and 1 red sector,
what is the probability of getting a green sector? What is the probability of getting a
non blue sector?
6. Find the probabilities of the events given in Question 2.

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. Data mostly available to us in an unorganised form is called raw data.
2. In order to draw meaningful inferences from any data, we need to organise the data systematically.

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88 MATHEMATICS

3. Frequency gives the number of times that a particular entry occurs.

4. Raw data can be ‘grouped’ and presented systematically through ‘grouped frequency distribution’.
5. Grouped data can be presented using histogram. Histogram is a type of bar diagram, where the
class intervals are shown on the horizontal axis and the heights of the bars show the frequency of
the class interval. Also, there is no gap between the bars as there is no gap between the class
intervals.
6. Data can also presented using circle graph or pie chart. A circle graph shows the relationship
between a whole and its part.
7. There are certain experiments whose outcomes have an equal chance of occurring.
8. A random experiment is one whose outcome cannot be predicted exactly in advance.
9. Outcomes of an experiment are equally likely if each has the same chance of occurring.

Number of outcomes that make an event

10. Probability of an event = , when the outcomes
Total number of outcomes of the experiment
are equally likely.
11. One or more outcomes of an experiment make an event.
12. Chances and probability are related to real life.

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 SQUARES AND SQUARE ROOTS 89

CHAPTER
Squares and Square
Roots
6
6.1 Introduction
You know that the area of a square = side × side (where ‘side’ means ‘the length of
a side’). Study the following table.

Side of a square (in cm) Area of the square (in cm2)

1 1 × 1 = 1 = 12
2 2 × 2 = 4 = 22
3 3 × 3 = 9 = 32
5 5 × 5 = 25 = 52
8 8 × 8 = 64 = 82
a a × a = a2

What is special about the numbers 4, 9, 25, 64 and other such numbers?
Since, 4 can be expressed as 2 × 2 = 22, 9 can be expressed as 3 × 3 = 32, all such
numbers can be expressed as the product of the number with itself.
Such numbers like 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ... are known as square numbers.
In general, if a natural number m can be expressed as n2, where n is also a natural
number, then m is a square number. Is 32 a square number?
We know that 52 = 25 and 62 = 36. If 32 is a square number, it must be the square of
a natural number between 5 and 6. But there is no natural number between 5 and 6.
Therefore 32 is not a square number.
Consider the following numbers and their squares.

Number Square

1 1×1=1
2 2×2=4

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90 MATHEMATICS

3 3×3=9
4 4 × 4 = 16 Can you
5 5 × 5 = 25 complete it?
6 -----------
7 -----------
8 -----------
9 -----------
10 -----------

From the above table, can we enlist the square numbers between 1 and 100? Are
there any natural square numbers upto 100 left out?
You will find that the rest of the numbers are not square numbers.
The numbers 1, 4, 9, 16 ... are square numbers. These numbers are also called perfect
squares.

TRY THESE
1. Find the perfect square numbers between (i) 30 and 40 (ii) 50 and 60

6.2 Properties of Square Numbers

Following table shows the squares of numbers from 1 to 20.

Number Square Number Square

1 1 11 121
2 4 12 144
3 9 13 169
4 16 14 196
5 25 15 225
6 36 16 256
7 49 17 289
8 64 18 324
9 81 19 361
10 100 20 400
Study the square numbers in the above table. What are the ending digits (that is, digits in
the units place) of the square numbers? All these numbers end with 0, 1, 4, 5, 6 or 9 at
units place. None of these end with 2, 3, 7 or 8 at unit’s place.
Can we say that if a number ends in 0, 1, 4, 5, 6 or 9, then it must be a square
number? Think about it.

TRY THESE
1. Can we say whether the following numbers are perfect squares? How do we know?
(i) 1057 (ii) 23453 (iii) 7928 (iv) 222222
(v) 1069 (vi) 2061

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 SQUARES AND SQUARE ROOTS 91

Write five numbers which you can decide by looking at their units digit that they are
not square numbers.
2. Write five numbers which you cannot decide just by looking at their units digit
(or units place) whether they are square numbers or not.

• Study the following table of some numbers and their squares and observe the one’s
place in both.
Table 1

Number Square Number Square Number Square

1 1 11 121 21 441
2 4 12 144 22 484
3 9 13 169 23 529
4 16 14 196 24 576
5 25 15 225 25 625
6 36 16 256 30 900
7 49 17 289 35 1225
8 64 18 324 40 1600
9 81 19 361 45 2025
10 100 20 400 50 2500

The following square numbers end with digit 1.

Square Number TRY THESE

1 1 Which of 123 2, 772, 822,
81 9 1612, 1092 would end with
121 11 digit 1?
361 19
441 21

Write the next two square numbers which end in 1 and their corresponding numbers.
You will see that if a number has 1 or 9 in the units place, then it’s square ends in 1.
• Let us consider square numbers ending in 6.
Square Number TRY THESE
16 4 Which of the following numbers would have digit
36 6 6 at unit place.
196 14 (i) 192 (ii) 242 (iii) 262
256 16 (iv) 362 (v) 342

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92 MATHEMATICS

We can see that when a square number ends in 6, the number whose square it is, will
have either 4 or 6 in unit’s place.
Can you find more such rules by observing the numbers and their squares (Table 1)?

TRY THESE
What will be the “one’s digit” in the square of the following numbers?
(i) 1234 (ii) 26387 (iii) 52698 (iv) 99880
(v) 21222 (vi) 9106

• Consider the following numbers and their squares.

102 = 100
We have 202 = 400 But we have
one zero two zeros
802 = 6400
1002 = 10000
2002 = 40000
We have But we have
two zeros 7002 = 490000 four zeros
9002 = 810000
If a number contains 3 zeros at the end, how many zeros will its square have ?
What do you notice about the number of zeros at the end of the number and the
number of zeros at the end of its square?
Can we say that square numbers can only have even number of zeros at the end?
• See Table 1 with numbers and their squares.
What can you say about the squares of even numbers and squares of odd numbers?

TRY THESE
1. The square of which of the following numbers would be an odd number/an even
number? Why?
(i) 727 (ii) 158 (iii) 269 (iv) 1980
2. What will be the number of zeros in the square of the following numbers?
(i) 60 (ii) 400

6.3 Some More Interesting Patterns

1. Adding triangular numbers.
Do you remember triangular numbers (numbers whose dot patterns can be arranged
as triangles)?
*
* **
* ** * **
* ** *** * ***
* ** *** **** * ****
1 3 6 10 15

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 SQUARES AND SQUARE ROOTS 93

If we combine two consecutive triangular numbers, we get a square number, like

1+3=4 3+6=9 6 + 10 = 16
= 22 = 32 = 42
2. Numbers between square numbers
Let us now see if we can find some interesting pattern between two consecutive
square numbers.
Two non square numbers
6 non square numbers between 1 (= 12) between the two square
the two square numbers 9(=32) numbers 1 (=12) and 4(=22).
and 16(= 42). 2, 3, 4 (= 22)

8 non square 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 (= 32)

numbers between
the two square
4 non square numbers
numbers 16(= 42) 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 (= 42)
between the two square
and 25(=52).
numbers 4(=22) and 9(32).
17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25 (= 52)
Between 12(=1) and 22(= 4) there are two (i.e., 2 × 1) non square numbers 2, 3.
Between 22(= 4) and 32(= 9) there are four (i.e., 2 × 2) non square numbers 5, 6, 7, 8.
Now, 32 = 9, 42 = 16
Therefore, 42 – 32 = 16 – 9 = 7
Between 9(=32) and 16(= 42) the numbers are 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 that is, six
non-square numbers which is 1 less than the difference of two squares.
We have 42 = 16 and 52 = 25
Therefore, 52 – 42 = 9
Between 16(= 42) and 25(= 52) the numbers are 17, 18, ... , 24 that is, eight non square
numbers which is 1 less than the difference of two squares.
Consider 72 and 62. Can you say how many numbers are there between 62 and 72?
If we think of any natural number n and (n + 1), then,
(n + 1)2 – n2 = (n2 + 2n + 1) – n2 = 2n + 1.
We find that between n2 and (n + 1)2 there are 2n numbers which is 1 less than the
difference of two squares.
Thus, in general we can say that there are 2n non perfect square numbers between
the squares of the numbers n and (n + 1). Check for n = 5, n = 6 etc., and verify.

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94 MATHEMATICS

TRY THESE
1. How many natural numbers lie between 92 and 102 ? Between 112 and 122?
2. How many non square numbers lie between the following pairs of numbers
(i) 1002 and 1012 (ii) 902 and 912 (iii) 10002 and 10012

3. Adding odd numbers

Consider the following
1 [one odd number] = 1 = 12
1 + 3 [sum of first two odd numbers] = 4 = 22
1 + 3 + 5 [sum of first three odd numbers] = 9 = 32
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 [... ] = 16 = 42
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 [... ] = 25 = 52
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 [... ] = 36 = 62
So we can say that the sum of first n odd natural numbers is n2.
Looking at it in a different way, we can say: ‘If the number is a square number, it has
to be the sum of successive odd numbers starting from 1.
Consider those numbers which are not perfect squares, say 2, 3, 5, 6, ... . Can you
express these numbers as a sum of successive odd natural numbers beginning from 1?
You will find that these numbers cannot be expressed in this form.
Consider the number 25. Successively subtract 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ... from it
(i) 25 – 1 = 24 (ii) 24 – 3 = 21 (iii) 21 – 5 = 16 (iv) 16 – 7 = 9
(v) 9 – 9 = 0
This means, 25 = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9. Also, 25 is a perfect square.
Now consider another number 38, and again do as above.
(i) 38 – 1 = 37 (ii) 37 – 3 = 34 (iii) 34 – 5 = 29 (iv) 29 – 7 = 22
(v) 22 – 9 = 13 (vi) 13 – 11 = 2 (vii) 2 – 13 = – 11
This shows that we are not able to express 38 as the
TRY THESE sum of consecutive odd numbers starting with 1. Also, 38 is
not a perfect square.
Find whether each of the following
So we can also say that if a natural number cannot be
numbers is a perfect square or not?
expressed as a sum of successive odd natural numbers
(i) 121 (ii) 55 (iii) 81 starting with 1, then it is not a perfect square.
(iv) 49 (v) 69 We can use this result to find whether a number is a perfect
square or not.
4. A sum of consecutive natural numbers
Consider the following
First Number 32 = 9 = 4 + 5 Second Number
2
3 −1 52 = 25 = 12 + 13 32 + 1
= =
2 2
72 = 49 = 24 + 25

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 SQUARES AND SQUARE ROOTS 95

92 = 81 = 40 + 41
Vow! we can express the
112 = 121 = 60 + 61 square of any odd number as
152 = 225 = 112 + 113 the sum of two consecutive
positive integers.
TRY THESE
1. Express the following as the sum of two consecutive integers.
(i) 212 (ii) 132 (iii) 112 (iv) 192
2. Do you think the reverse is also true, i.e., is the sum of any two consecutive positive
integers is perfect square of a number? Give example to support your answer.
5. Product of two consecutive even or odd natural numbers
11 × 13 = 143 = 122 – 1
Also 11 × 13 = (12 – 1) × (12 + 1)
Therefore, 11 × 13 = (12 – 1) × (12 + 1) = 122 – 1
Similarly, 13 × 15 = (14 – 1) × (14 + 1) = 142 – 1
29 × 31 = (30 – 1) × (30 + 1) = 302 – 1
44 × 46 = (45 – 1) × (45 + 1) = 452 – 1
So in general we can say that (a + 1) × (a – 1) = a2 – 1.
6. Some more patterns in square numbers

Observe the squares of numbers; 1, 11, 111 ... etc. They give a beautiful pattern:
2
1 = 1
2
11 = 1 2 1
2
111 = 1 2 3 2 1
11112 = 1 2 3 4 3 2 1
2
11111 = 1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1
2
11111111 = 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Another interesting pattern. TRY THESE

72 = 49
Write the square, making use of the above
672 = 4489 pattern.
6672 = 444889 (i) 1111112 (ii) 11111112
66672 = 44448889
666672 = 4444488889 TRY THESE
6666672 = 444444888889
Can you find the square of the following
The fun is in being able to find out why this happens. May numbers using the above pattern?
be it would be interesting for you to explore and think about
such questions even if the answers come some years later. (i) 66666672 (ii) 666666672

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96 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 6.1
1. What will be the unit digit of the squares of the following numbers?
(i) 81 (ii) 272 (iii) 799 (iv) 3853
(v) 1234 (vi) 26387 (vii) 52698 (viii) 99880
(ix) 12796 (x) 55555
2. The following numbers are obviously not perfect squares. Give reason.
(i) 1057 (ii) 23453 (iii) 7928 (iv) 222222
(v) 64000 (vi) 89722 (vii) 222000 (viii) 505050
3. The squares of which of the following would be odd numbers?
(i) 431 (ii) 2826 (iii) 7779 (iv) 82004
4. Observe the following pattern and find the missing digits.
112 = 121
1012 = 10201
10012 = 1002001
1000012 = 1 ......... 2 ......... 1
100000012 = ...........................
5. Observe the following pattern and supply the missing numbers.
112 = 1 2 1
1012 = 1 0 2 0 1
101012 = 102030201
10101012 = ...........................
............2 = 10203040504030201
6. Using the given pattern, find the missing numbers.
12 + 22 + 22 = 32
22 + 32 + 62 = 72 To find pattern
32 + 42 + 122 = 132 Third number is related to first and second
2 2 2
4 + 5 + _ = 21 2 number. How?
52 + _2 + 302 = 312 Fourth number is related to third number.
How?
62 + 72 + _2 = __2
7. Without adding, find the sum.
(i) 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9
(ii) 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 + 15 + 17 +19
(iii) 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 + 15 + 17 + 19 + 21 + 23
8. (i) Express 49 as the sum of 7 odd numbers.
(ii) Express 121 as the sum of 11 odd numbers.
9. How many numbers lie between squares of the following numbers?
(i) 12 and 13 (ii) 25 and 26 (iii) 99 and 100

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6.4 Finding the Square of a Number

Squares of small numbers like 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, ... etc. are easy to find. But can we find the
square of 23 so quickly?
The answer is not so easy and we may need to multiply 23 by 23.
There is a way to find this without having to multiply 23 × 23.
We know 23 = 20 + 3
Therefore 232 = (20 + 3)2 = 20(20 + 3) + 3(20 + 3)
= 202 + 20 × 3 + 3 × 20 + 32
= 400 + 60 + 60 + 9 = 529
Example 1: Find the square of the following numbers without actual multiplication.
(i) 39 (ii) 42
Solution: (i) 392 = (30 + 9)2 = 30(30 + 9) + 9(30 + 9)
= 302 + 30 × 9 + 9 × 30 + 92
= 900 + 270 + 270 + 81 = 1521
(ii) 422 = (40 + 2)2 = 40(40 + 2) + 2(40 + 2)
= 402 + 40 × 2 + 2 × 40 + 22
= 1600 + 80 + 80 + 4 = 1764
6.4.1 Other patterns in squares
Consider the following pattern:
252 = 625 = (2 × 3) hundreds + 25
Consider a number with unit digit 5, i.e., a5
352 = 1225 = (3 × 4) hundreds + 25
(a5)2 = (10a + 5)2
752 = 5625 = (7 × 8) hundreds + 25
= 10a(10a + 5) + 5(10a + 5)
1252 = 15625 = (12 × 13) hundreds + 25 = 100a2 + 50a + 50a + 25
Now can you find the square of 95? = 100a(a + 1) + 25
= a(a + 1) hundred + 25
TRY THESE
Find the squares of the following numbers containing 5 in unit’s place.
(i) 15 (ii) 95 (iii) 105 (iv) 205

6.4.2 Pythagorean triplets

Consider the following
32 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 25 = 52
The collection of numbers 3, 4 and 5 is known as Pythagorean triplet. 6, 8, 10 is
also a Pythagorean triplet, since
62 + 82 = 36 + 64 = 100 = 102
Again, observe that
52 + 122 = 25 + 144 = 169 = 132. The numbers 5, 12, 13 form another such triplet.

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Can you find more such triplets?

For any natural number m > 1, we have (2m)2 + (m2 – 1)2 = (m2 + 1)2. So, 2m,
m2 – 1 and m2 + 1 forms a Pythagorean triplet.
Try to find some more Pythagorean triplets using this form.
Example 2: Write a Pythagorean triplet whose smallest member is 8.
Solution: We can get Pythagorean triplets by using general form 2m, m2 – 1, m2 + 1.
Let us first take m2 – 1 = 8
So, m2 = 8 + 1 = 9
which gives m=3
Therefore, 2m = 6 and m2 + 1 = 10
The triplet is thus 6, 8, 10. But 8 is not the smallest member of this.
So, let us try 2m = 8
then m=4
2
We get m – 1 = 16 – 1 = 15
and m2 + 1 = 16 + 1 = 17
The triplet is 8, 15, 17 with 8 as the smallest member.
Example 3: Find a Pythagorean triplet in which one member is 12.
Solution: If we take m2 – 1 = 12
Then, m2 = 12 + 1 = 13
Then the value of m will not be an integer.
So, we try to take m2 + 1 = 12. Again m2 = 11 will not give an integer value for m.
So, let us take 2m = 12
then m=6
Thus, m – 1 = 36 – 1 = 35 and m2 + 1 = 36 + 1 = 37
2

Therefore, the required triplet is 12, 35, 37.

Note: All Pythagorean triplets may not be obtained using this form. For example another
triplet 5, 12, 13 also has 12 as a member.

EXERCISE 6.2
1. Find the square of the following numbers.
(i) 32 (ii) 35 (iii) 86 (iv) 93
(v) 71 (vi) 46
2. Write a Pythagorean triplet whose one member is.
(i) 6 (ii) 14 (iii) 16 (iv) 18

6.5 Square Roots

Study the following situations.
(a) Area of a square is 144 cm2. What could be the side of the square?

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We know that the area of a square = side2

If we assume the length of the side to be ‘a’, then 144 = a2
To find the length of side it is necessary to find a number whose square is 144.
(b) What is the length of a diagonal of a square of side 8 cm (Fig 6.1)?
Can we use Pythagoras theorem to solve this ?
We have, AB2 + BC2 = AC2
i.e., 82 + 82 = AC2
or 64 + 64 = AC2
or 128 = AC2
Again to get AC we need to think of a number whose square is 128. Fig 6.1
(c) In a right triangle the length of the hypotenuse and a side are
respectively 5 cm and 3 cm (Fig 6.2).
Can you find the third side?
Let x cm be the length of the third side.
Using Pythagoras theorem 52 = x2 + 32
25 – 9 = x2
16 = x 2 Fig 6.2
Again, to find x we need a number whose square is 16.
In all the above cases, we need to find a number whose square is known. Finding the
number with the known square is known as finding the square root.
6.5.1 Finding square roots
The inverse (opposite) operation of addition is subtraction and the inverse operation
of multiplication is division. Similarly, finding the square root is the inverse operation
of squaring.
We have, 12 = 1, therefore square root of 1 is 1
22 = 4, therefore square root of 4 is 2
Since 92 = 81,
32 = 9, therefore square root of 9 is 3 and (–9)2 = 81
We say that square
roots of 81 are 9 and –9.
TRY THESE
(i) 112 = 121. What is the square root of 121?
(ii) 142 = 196. What is the square root of 196?

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

(–1)2 = 1. Is –1, a square root of 1? (–2)2 = 4. Is –2, a square root of 4?
(–9)2 = 81. Is –9 a square root of 81?
From the above, you may say that there are two integral square roots of a perfect square
number. In this chapter, we shall take up only positive square root of a natural number.
Positive square root of a number is denoted by the symbol .
For example: 4 = 2 (not –2); 9 = 3 (not –3) etc.

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Statement Inference Statement Inference

12 = 1 1 =1 62 = 36 36 = 6
22 = 4 4 =2 72 = 49 49 = 7
32 = 9 9 =3 82 = 64 64 = 8
42 = 16 16 = 4 92 = 81 81 = 9
52 = 25 25 = 5 102 = 100 100 = 10

6.5.2 Finding square root through repeated subtraction

Do you remember that the sum of the first n odd natural numbers is n2? That is, every square
number can be expressed as a sum of successive odd natural numbers starting from 1.
Consider 81 . Then,
(i) 81 – 1 = 80 (ii) 80 – 3 = 77 (iii) 77 – 5 = 72 (iv) 72 – 7 = 65
(v) 65 – 9 = 56 (vi) 56 – 11 = 45 (vii) 45 – 13 = 32 (viii) 32 – 15 = 17
(ix) 17 – 17 = 0
From 81 we have subtracted successive odd
TRY THESE numbers starting from 1 and obtained 0 at 9th step.
By repeated subtraction of odd numbers starting
Therefore 81 = 9.
from 1, find whether the following numbers are
perfect squares or not? If the number is a perfect Can you find the square root of 729 using this method?
square then find its square root. Yes, but it will be time consuming. Let us try to find it in
(i) 121 a simpler way.
(ii) 55 6.5.3 Finding square root through prime factorisation
(iii) 36 Consider the prime factorisation of the following numbers and their squares.
(iv) 49
(v) 90 Prime factorisation of a Number Prime factorisation of its Square
6=2×3 36 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3
8= 2×2×2 64 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2
12 = 2 × 2 × 3 144 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3
15 = 3 × 5 225 = 3 × 3 × 5 × 5
How many times does 2 occur in the prime factorisation of 6? Once. How many times
does 2 occur in the prime factorisation of 36? Twice. Similarly, observe the occurrence of
3 in 6 and 36 of 2 in 8 and 64 etc.
2 324
You will find that each prime factor in the prime factorisation of the
2 162
square of a number, occurs twice the number of times it occurs in the
prime factorisation of the number itself. Let us use this to find the square 3 81
root of a given square number, say 324. 3 27
We know that the prime factorisation of 324 is 3 9
324 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 3

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By pairing the prime factors, we get

324 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 22 × 32 × 32 = (2 × 3 × 3)2
So, 324 = 2 × 3 × 3 = 18
Similarly can you find the square root of 256? Prime factorisation of 256 is 2 256
256 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 2 128
By pairing the prime factors we get, 2 64
256 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = (2 × 2 × 2 × 2)2 2 32
Therefore, 256 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16 2 16
Is 48 a perfect square? 2 8
We know 48 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 2 4
Since all the factors are not in pairs so 48 is not a perfect square. 2
Suppose we want to find the smallest multiple of 48 that is a perfect square, how
should we proceed? Making pairs of the prime factors of 48 we see that 3 is the only
factor that does not have a pair. So we need to multiply by 3 to complete the pair.
Hence 48 × 3 = 144 is a perfect square. 2 6400
Can you tell by which number should we divide 48 to get a perfect square? 2 3200
The factor 3 is not in pair, so if we divide 48 by 3 we get 48 ÷ 3 = 16 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 2 1600
and this number 16 is a perfect square too. 2 800
Example 4: Find the square root of 6400. 2 400
Solution: Write 6400 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 2 200
Therefore 2 100
6400 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 = 80 2 90
3 45 2 50
Example 5: Is 90 a perfect square? 3 15 5 25
Solution: We have 90 = 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 5 5
The prime factors 2 and 5 do not occur in pairs. Therefore, 90 is not a perfect square.
That 90 is not a perfect square can also be seen from the fact that it has only one zero.
Example 6: Is 2352 a perfect square? If not, find the smallest multiple of 2352 which 2 2352
is a perfect square. Find the square root of the new number. 2 1176
Solution: We have 2352 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 7 × 7 2 588
As the prime factor 3 has no pair, 2352 is not a perfect square. 2 294
If 3 gets a pair then the number will become perfect square. So, we multiply 2352 by 3 to get, 3 147
2352 × 3 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 7 × 7 7 49
Now each prime factor is in a pair. Therefore, 2352 × 3 = 7056 is a perfect square. 7
Thus the required smallest multiple of 2352 is 7056 which is a perfect square.
And, 7056 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 7 = 84
Example 7: Find the smallest number by which 9408 must be divided so that the
quotient is a perfect square. Find the square root of the quotient.

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Solution: We have, 9408 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 7 × 7

If we divide 9408 by the factor 3, then
9408 ÷ 3 = 3136 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 7 × 7 which is a perfect square. (Why?)
Therefore, the required smallest number is 3.
And, 3136 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 7 = 56.
2 6, 9, 15 Example 8: Find the smallest square number which is divisible by each of the numbers
3 3, 9, 15 6, 9 and 15.
3 1, 3, 5 Solution: This has to be done in two steps. First find the smallest common multiple and
5 1, 1, 5 then find the square number needed. The least number divisible by each one of 6, 9 and
1, 1, 1 15 is their LCM. The LCM of 6, 9 and 15 is 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 = 90.
Prime factorisation of 90 is 90 = 2 × 3 × 3 × 5.
We see that prime factors 2 and 5 are not in pairs. Therefore 90 is not a perfect
square.
In order to get a perfect square, each factor of 90 must be paired. So we need to
make pairs of 2 and 5. Therefore, 90 should be multiplied by 2 × 5, i.e., 10.
Hence, the required square number is 90 × 10 = 900.

EXERCISE 6.3
1. What could be the possible ‘one’s’ digits of the square root of each of the following
numbers?
(i) 9801 (ii) 99856 (iii) 998001 (iv) 657666025
2. Without doing any calculation, find the numbers which are surely not perfect squares.
(i) 153 (ii) 257 (iii) 408 (iv) 441
3. Find the square roots of 100 and 169 by the method of repeated subtraction.
4. Find the square roots of the following numbers by the Prime Factorisation Method.
(i) 729 (ii) 400 (iii) 1764 (iv) 4096
(v) 7744 (vi) 9604 (vii) 5929 (viii) 9216
(ix) 529 (x) 8100
5. For each of the following numbers, find the smallest whole number by which it should
be multiplied so as to get a perfect square number. Also find the square root of the
square number so obtained.
(i) 252 (ii) 180 (iii) 1008 (iv) 2028
(v) 1458 (vi) 768
6. For each of the following numbers, find the smallest whole number by which it should
be divided so as to get a perfect square. Also find the square root of the square
number so obtained.
(i) 252 (ii) 2925 (iii) 396 (iv) 2645
(v) 2800 (vi) 1620
7. The students of Class VIII of a school donated ` 2401 in all, for Prime Minister’s
National Relief Fund. Each student donated as many rupees as the number of students
in the class. Find the number of students in the class.

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8. 2025 plants are to be planted in a garden in such a way that each row contains as
many plants as the number of rows. Find the number of rows and the number of
plants in each row.
9. Find the smallest square number that is divisible by each of the numbers 4, 9 and 10.
10. Find the smallest square number that is divisible by each of the numbers 8, 15 and 20.
6.5.4 Finding square root by division method
When the numbers are large, even the method of finding square root by prime factorisation
becomes lengthy and difficult. To overcome this problem we use Long Division Method.

For this we need to determine the number of digits in the square root.
See the following table:
Number Square
10 100 which is the smallest 3-digit perfect square
31 961 which is the greatest 3-digit perfect square
32 1024 which is the smallest 4-digit perfect square
99 9801 which is the greatest 4-digit perfect square
So, what can we say about the number of digits in the square root if a perfect
square is a 3-digit or a 4-digit number? We can say that, if a perfect square is a
3-digit or a 4-digit number, then its square root will have 2-digits.
Can you tell the number of digits in the square root of a 5-digit or a 6-digit
perfect square?

The smallest 3-digit perfect square number is 100 which is the square of 10 and the
greatest 3-digit perfect square number is 961 which is the square of 31. The smallest
4-digit square number is 1024 which is the square of 32 and the greatest 4-digit number is
9801 which is the square of 99.

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

n
Can we say that if a perfect square is of n-digits, then its square root will have
( n + 1) 2
digits if n is even or if n is odd?
2
The use of the number of digits in square root of a number is useful in the following method:
• Consider the following steps to find the square root of 529.
Can you estimate the number of digits in the square root of this number?
Step 1 Place a bar over every pair of digits starting from the digit at one’s place. If the
number of digits in it is odd, then the left-most single digit too will have a bar.
Thus we have, 5 29 . 2
Step 2 Find the largest number whose square is less than or equal to the number under the 2 529
extreme left bar (22 < 5 < 32). Take this number as the divisor and the quotient –4
with the number under the extreme left bar as the dividend (here 5). Divide and 1
get the remainder (1 in this case).

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2 Step 3 Bring down the number under the next bar (i.e., 29 in this case) to the right of
2 529 the remainder. So the new dividend is 129.
–4
1 29 Step 4 Double the quotient and enter it with a blank on its right.

2 Step 5 Guess a largest possible digit to fill the blank which will also become the new
digit in the quotient, such that when the new divisor is multiplied to the new
2 529
–4 quotient the product is less than or equal to the dividend.
4_ 129 In this case 42 × 2 = 84.
As 43 × 3 = 129 so we choose the new digit as 3. Get the remainder.
23
2 529 Step 6 Since the remainder is 0 and no digits are left in the given number, therefore,
–4 529 = 23.
43 1 29
–129
0 • Now consider 4096
Step 1 Place a bar over every pair of digits starting from the one’s digit. ( 40 96 ).
6 Step 2 Find the largest number whose square is less than or equal to the number under
6 4096 the left-most bar (62 < 40 < 72). Take this number as the divisor and the number
under the left-most bar as the dividend. Divide and get the remainder i.e., 4 in
– 36
this case.
4
6
Step 3 Bring down the number under the next bar (i.e., 96) to the right of the remainder.
6 4096
The new dividend is 496.
– 36
496
6 Step 4 Double the quotient and enter it with a blank on its right.
6 4096
– 36 Step 5 Guess a largest possible digit to fill the blank which also becomes the new digit in the
12_ 496 quotient such that when the new digit is multiplied to the new quotient the product is
less than or equal to the dividend. In this case we see that 124 × 4 = 496.
64 So the new digit in the quotient is 4. Get the remainder.
6 4096
– 36 Step 6 Since the remainder is 0 and no bar left, therefore, 4096 = 64.
124 496 Estimating the number
– 496 We use bars to find the number of digits in the square root of a perfect square number.
0
529 = 23 and 4096 = 64
In both the numbers 529 and 4096 there are two bars and the number of digits in their
square root is 2. Can you tell the number of digits in the square root of 14400?
By placing bars we get 144 00 . Since there are 3 bars, the square root will be of 3 digit.

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TRY THESE
Without calculating square roots, find the number of digits in the square root of the
following numbers.
(i) 25600 (ii) 100000000 (iii) 36864

Example 9: Find the square root of : (i) 729 (ii) 1296

Solution:
(i) 27 (ii) 36
7 29 3 12 96
2
–4 –9
47 329 Therefore 729 = 27 66 396 Therefore 1296 = 36
329 396
0 0

Example 10: Find the least number that must be subtracted from 5607 so as to get 74
a perfect square. Also find the square root of the perfect square. 7 5607
Solution: Let us try to find 5607 by long division method. We get the – 49
remainder 131. It shows that 742 is less than 5607 by 131. 144 707
This means if we subtract the remainder from the number, we get a perfect square. –576
Therefore, the required perfect square is 5607 – 131 = 5476. And, 5476 = 74. 131

Example 11: Find the greatest 4-digit number which is a perfect square. 99
Solution: Greatest number of 4-digits = 9999. We find 9999 by long division 9 9999
method. The remainder is 198. This shows 992 is less than 9999 by 198. – 81
This means if we subtract the remainder from the number, we get a perfect square. 189 1899
Therefore, the required perfect square is 9999 – 198 = 9801. – 1701
198
And, 9801 = 99
Example 12: Find the least number that must be added to 1300 so as to get a 36
perfect square. Also find the square root of the perfect square. 3 1300
–9
Solution: We find 1300 by long division method. The remainder is 4.
This shows that 362 < 1300. 66 400
Next perfect square number is 372 = 1369. – 396
Hence, the number to be added is 372 – 1300 = 1369 – 1300 = 69. 4

6.6 Square Roots of Decimals

Consider 17.64
Step 1 To find the square root of a decimal number we put bars on the integral part
(i.e., 17) of the number in the usual manner. And place bars on the decimal part

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106 MATHEMATICS

4 (i.e., 64) on every pair of digits beginning with the first decimal place. Proceed
4 17. 64 as usual. We get 17.64 .
– 16 Step 2 Now proceed in a similar manner. The left most bar is on 17 and 42 < 17 < 52.
1 Take this number as the divisor and the number under the left-most bar as the
dividend, i.e., 17. Divide and get the remainder.
4
4 17. 64 Step 3 The remainder is 1. Write the number under the next bar (i.e., 64) to the right of
– 16 this remainder, to get 164.
8_ 1 64
4.2
4. Step 4 Double the divisor and enter it with a blank on its right.
4 17.64
4 17.64 Since 64 is the decimal part so put a decimal point in the –16
– 16 quotient.
82 164 Step 5 82 164
We know 82 × 2 = 164, therefore, the new digit is 2.
– 164
Divide and get the remainder.
0
Step 6 Since the remainder is 0 and no bar left, therefore 17.64 = 4.2 .

Example 13: Find the square root of 12.25.

Solution: 3.5
3 12.25
–9
Therefore, 12.25 = 3.5
65 325
325
0
Which way to move
Consider a number 176.341. Put bars on both integral part and decimal part. In what way
is putting bars on decimal part different from integral part? Notice for 176 we start from
the unit’s place close to the decimal and move towards left. The first bar is over 76 and the
second bar over 1. For .341, we start from the decimal and move towards right. First bar
is over 34 and for the second bar we put 0 after 1 and make .3410 .
48 Example 14: Area of a square plot is 2304 m2. Find the side of the square plot.
4 2304 Solution: Area of square plot = 2304 m2
–16 Therefore, side of the square plot = 2304 m
88 704
704 We find that, 2304 = 48
0 Thus, the side of the square plot is 48 m.
Example 15: There are 2401 students in a school. P.T. teacher wants them to stand
in rows and columns such that the number of rows is equal to the number of columns. Find
the number of rows.

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 SQUARES AND SQUARE ROOTS 107

Solution: Let the number of rows be x 49

So, the number of columns = x 4 24 01
Therefore, number of students = x × x = x2 –16
Thus, x2 = 2401 gives x = 2401 = 49 89 801
The number of rows = 49. 801
0
6.7 Estimating Square Root
Consider the following situations:
1. Deveshi has a square piece of cloth of area 125 cm2. She wants to know whether
she can make a handkerchief of side 15 cm. If that is not possible she wants to
know what is the maximum length of the side of a handkerchief that can be made
from this piece.
2. Meena and Shobha played a game. One told a number and other gave its square
root. Meena started first. She said 25 and Shobha answered quickly as 5. Then
Shobha said 81 and Meena answered 9. It went on, till at one point Meena gave the
number 250. And Shobha could not answer. Then Meena asked Shobha if she
could atleast tell a number whose square is closer to 250.
In all such cases we need to estimate the square root.
We know that 100 < 250 < 400 and 100 = 10 and 400 = 20.
So 10 < 250 < 20
But still we are not very close to the square number.
We know that 152 = 225 and 162 = 256
Therefore, 15 < 250 < 16 and 256 is much closer to 250 than 225.
So, 250 is approximately 16.

TRY THESE
Estimate the value of the following to the nearest whole number.
(i) 80 (ii) 1000 (iii) 350 (iv) 500

EXERCISE 6.4
1. Find the square root of each of the following numbers by Division method.
(i) 2304 (ii) 4489 (iii) 3481 (iv) 529
(v) 3249 (vi) 1369 (vii) 5776 (viii) 7921
(ix) 576 (x) 1024 (xi) 3136 (xii) 900
2. Find the number of digits in the square root of each of the following numbers (without
any calculation).
(i) 64 (ii) 144 (iii) 4489 (iv) 27225
(v) 390625

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108 MATHEMATICS

3. Find the square root of the following decimal numbers.

(i) 2.56 (ii) 7.29 (iii) 51.84 (iv) 42.25
(v) 31.36
4. Find the least number which must be subtracted from each of the following numbers
so as to get a perfect square. Also find the square root of the perfect square so
obtained.
(i) 402 (ii) 1989 (iii) 3250 (iv) 825
(v) 4000
5. Find the least number which must be added to each of the following numbers so as
to get a perfect square. Also find the square root of the perfect square so obtained.
(i) 525 (ii) 1750 (iii) 252 (iv) 1825
(v) 6412
6. Find the length of the side of a square whose area is 441 m2.
7. In a right triangle ABC, ∠B = 90°.
(a) If AB = 6 cm, BC = 8 cm, find AC (b) If AC = 13 cm, BC = 5 cm, find AB
8. A gardener has 1000 plants. He wants to plant these in such a way that the number
of rows and the number of columns remain same. Find the minimum number of
plants he needs more for this.
9. There are 500 children in a school. For a P.T. drill they have to stand in such a
manner that the number of rows is equal to number of columns. How many children
would be left out in this arrangement.

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. If a natural number m can be expressed as n2, where n is also a natural number, then m is a
square number.
2. All square numbers end with 0, 1, 4, 5, 6 or 9 at units place.
3. Square numbers can only have even number of zeros at the end.
4. Square root is the inverse operation of square.
5. There are two integral square roots of a perfect square number.
Positive square root of a number is denoted by the symbol .

For example, 32 = 9 gives 9=3

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 CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS 109

CHAPTER

Cubes and Cube Roots

7
7.1 Introduction
This is a story about one of India’s great mathematical geniuses, S. Ramanujan. Once
another famous mathematician Prof. G.H. Hardy came to visit him in a taxi whose number
was 1729. While talking to Ramanujan, Hardy described this number
“a dull number”. Ramanujan quickly pointed out that 1729 was indeed Hardy – Ramanujan
Number
interesting. He said it is the smallest number that can be expressed
as a sum of two cubes in two different ways: 1729 is the smallest Hardy–
Ramanujan Number. There
1729 = 1728 + 1 = 123 + 13
are an infinitely many such
1729 = 1000 + 729 = 103 + 93 numbers. Few are 4104
1729 has since been known as the Hardy – Ramanujan Number, (2, 16; 9, 15), 13832 (18, 20;
even though this feature of 1729 was known more than 300 years 2, 24), Check it with the
before Ramanujan. numbers given in the brackets.
How did Ramanujan know this? Well, he loved numbers. All
through his life, he experimented with numbers. He probably found
numbers that were expressed as the sum of two squares and sum of
two cubes also.
There are many other interesting patterns of cubes. Let us learn about cubes, cube
roots and many other interesting facts related to them.
Figures which have
7.2 Cubes 3-dimensions are known as
You know that the word ‘cube’ is used in geometry. A cube is solid figures.
a solid figure which has all its sides equal. How many cubes of
side 1 cm will make a cube of side 2 cm?
How many cubes of side 1 cm will make a cube of side 3 cm?
Consider the numbers 1, 8, 27, ...
These are called perfect cubes or cube numbers. Can you say why
they are named so? Each of them is obtained when a number is multiplied by
taking it three times.

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We note that 1 = 1 × 1 × 1 = 13; 8 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 23; 27 = 3 × 3 × 3 = 33.

Since 53 = 5 × 5 × 5 = 125, therefore 125 is a cube number.
Is 9 a cube number? No, as 9 = 3 × 3 and there is no natural number which multiplied
by taking three times gives 9. We can see also that 2 × 2 × 2 = 8 and 3 × 3 × 3 = 27. This
shows that 9 is not a perfect cube.
The following are the cubes of numbers from 1 to 10.
Table 1

Number Cube

1 13 = 1
2 23 = 8
3 33 = 27
The numbers 729, 1000, 1728 Complete it.
4 43 = 64
are also perfect cubes.
5 53 = ____
6 63 = ____
7 73 = ____
8 83 = ____
9 93 = ____
10 103 = ____

There are only ten perfect cubes from 1 to 1000. (Check this). How many perfect
cubes are there from 1 to 100?
Observe the cubes of even numbers. Are they all even? What can you say about the
cubes of odd numbers?
Following are the cubes of the numbers from 11 to 20.
Table 2

We are even, so Number Cube

are our cubes
11 1331
12 1728
13 2197
14 2744
15 3375
16 4096
We are odd so are 17 4913
our cubes 18 5832
19 6859
20 8000

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Consider a few numbers having 1 as the one’s digit (or unit’s). Find the cube of each
of them. What can you say about the one’s digit of the cube of a number having 1 as the
one’s digit?
Similarly, explore the one’s digit of cubes of numbers ending in 2, 3, 4, ... , etc.

TRY THESE
Find the one’s digit of the cube of each of the following numbers.
(i) 3331 (ii) 8888 (iii) 149 (iv) 1005
(v) 1024 (vi) 77 (vii) 5022 (viii) 53

7.2.1 Some interesting patterns

1. Adding consecutive odd numbers
Observe the following pattern of sums of odd numbers.
1 = 1 = 13
3 + 5 = 8 = 23
7 + 9 + 11 = 27 = 33
13 + 15 + 17 + 19 = 64 = 43
21 + 23 + 25 + 27 + 29 = 125 = 53
Is it not interesting? How many consecutive odd numbers will be needed to obtain
the sum as 103?

TRY THESE
Express the following numbers as the sum of odd numbers using the above pattern?
(a) 63 (b) 83 (c) 73
Consider the following pattern.
23 – 13 = 1 + 2 × 1 × 3
33 – 23 = 1 + 3 × 2 × 3
43 – 33 = 1 + 4 × 3 × 3
Using the above pattern, find the value of the following.
(i) 73 – 63 (ii) 123 – 113 (iii) 203 – 193 (iv) 513 – 503

2. Cubes and their prime factors

Consider the following prime factorisation of the numbers and their cubes.
Prime factorisation Prime factorisation each prime factor
of a number of its cube appears three times
in its cubes
4=2×2 43 = 64 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 23 × 23
6=2×3 63 = 216 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 23 × 33
15 = 3 × 5 153 = 3375 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 33 × 53
12 = 2 × 2 × 3 123 = 1728 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3
= 23 × 23 × 33

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2 216 Observe that each prime factor of a number appears

three times in the prime factorisation of its cube. Do you remember that
2 108 am × bm = (a × b)m
In the prime factorisation of any number, if each factor
2 54 appears three times, then, is the number a perfect cube?
3 27 Think about it. Is 216 a perfect cube?
3 9 By prime factorisation, 216 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3
3 3 Each factor appears 3 times. 216 = 23 × 33 = (2 × 3)3
1 = 63 which is a perfect cube! factors can be
grouped in triples
Is 729 a perfect cube? 729 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3
Yes, 729 is a perfect cube.
Now let us check for 500.
Prime factorisation of 500 is 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 × 5.
So, 500 is not a perfect cube.
There are three
Example 1: Is 243 a perfect cube?
5’s in the product but
only two 2’s.
Solution: 243 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3
In the above factorisation 3 × 3 remains after grouping the 3’s in triplets. Therefore, 243 is
not a perfect cube.

TRY THESE
Which of the following are perfect cubes?
1. 400 2. 3375 3. 8000 4. 15625
5. 9000 6. 6859 7. 2025 8. 10648

7.2.2 Smallest multiple that is a perfect cube

Raj made a cuboid of plasticine. Length, breadth and height of the cuboid are 15 cm,
30 cm, 15 cm respectively.
Anu asks how many such cuboids will she need to make a perfect cube? Can you tell?
Raj said, Volume of cuboid is 15 × 30 × 15 = 3 × 5 × 2 × 3 × 5 × 3 × 5
=2×3×3×3×5×5×5
Since there is only one 2 in the prime factorisation. So we need 2 × 2, i.e., 4 to make
it a perfect cube. Therefore, we need 4 such cuboids to make a cube.
Example 2: Is 392 a perfect cube? If not, find the smallest natural number by which
392 must be multiplied so that the product is a perfect cube.
Solution: 392 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 7 × 7
The prime factor 7 does not appear in a group of three. Therefore, 392 is not a perfect
cube. To make its a cube, we need one more 7. In that case
392 × 7 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 7 × 7 × 7 = 2744 which is a perfect cube.

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Hence the smallest natural number by which 392 should be multiplied to make a perfect
cube is 7.
Example 3: Is 53240 a perfect cube? If not, then by which smallest natural number
should 53240 be divided so that the quotient is a perfect cube?
Solution: 53240 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 11 × 11 × 11 × 5
The prime factor 5 does not appear in a group of three. So, 53240 is not a perfect cube.
In the factorisation 5 appears only one time. If we divide the number by 5, then the prime
factorisation of the quotient will not contain 5.
So, 53240 ÷ 5 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 11 × 11 × 11
Hence the smallest number by which 53240 should be divided to make it a perfect
cube is 5.
The perfect cube in that case is = 10648.
Example 4: Is 1188 a perfect cube? If not, by which smallest natural number should
1188 be divided so that the quotient is a perfect cube?
Solution: 1188 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 11
The primes 2 and 11 do not appear in groups of three. So, 1188 is not a perfect cube. In
the factorisation of 1188 the prime 2 appears only two times and the prime 11 appears
once. So, if we divide 1188 by 2 × 2 × 11 = 44, then the prime factorisation of the
quotient will not contain 2 and 11.
Hence the smallest natural number by which 1188 should be divided to make it a
perfect cube is 44.
And the resulting perfect cube is 1188 ÷ 44 = 27 (=33).
Example 5: Is 68600 a perfect cube? If not, find the smallest number by which 68600
must be multiplied to get a perfect cube.
Solution: We have, 68600 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 × 7 × 7 × 7. In this factorisation, we
find that there is no triplet of 5.
So, 68600 is not a perfect cube. To make it a perfect cube we multiply it by 5.
Thus, 68600 × 5 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 7 × 7 × 7
= 343000, which is a perfect cube.
Observe that 343 is a perfect cube. From Example 5 we know that 343000 is also
perfect cube.

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

Check which of the following are perfect cubes. (i) 2700 (ii) 16000 (iii) 64000
(iv) 900 (v) 125000 (vi) 36000 (vii) 21600 (viii) 10,000 (ix) 27000000 (x) 1000.
What pattern do you observe in these perfect cubes?

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EXERCISE 7.1
1. Which of the following numbers are not perfect cubes?
(i) 216 (ii) 128 (iii) 1000 (iv) 100
(v) 46656
2. Find the smallest number by which each of the following numbers must be multiplied
to obtain a perfect cube.
(i) 243 (ii) 256 (iii) 72 (iv) 675
(v) 100
3. Find the smallest number by which each of the following numbers must be divided to
obtain a perfect cube.
(i) 81 (ii) 128 (iii) 135 (iv) 192
(v) 704
4. Parikshit makes a cuboid of plasticine of sides 5 cm, 2 cm, 5 cm. How many such
cuboids will he need to form a cube?

7.3 Cube Roots

If the volume of a cube is 125 cm3, what would be the length of its side? To get the length
of the side of the cube, we need to know a number whose cube is 125.
Finding the square root, as you know, is the inverse operation of squaring. Similarly,
finding the cube root is the inverse operation of finding cube.
We know that 23 = 8; so we say that the cube root of 8 is 2.
We write 3 8 = 2. The symbol 3 denotes ‘cube-root.’
Consider the following:

Statement Inference Statement Inference

13 = 1 3
1 =1 63 = 216 3
216 = 6
23 = 8 3
8 = 3
23 = 2 73 = 343 3
343 = 7
33 = 27 3
27 = 3
33 = 3 83 = 512 3
512 = 8
43 = 64 3
64 = 4 93 = 729 3
729 = 9
53 = 125 3
125 = 5 103 = 1000 3
1000 = 10

7.3.1 Cube root through prime factorisation method

Consider 3375. We find its cube root by prime factorisation:
3375 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 33 × 53 = (3 × 5)3
Therefore, cube root of 3375 = 3
3375 = 3 × 5 = 15
Similarly, to find 3 74088 , we have,

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74088 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 7 × 7 × 7 = 23 × 33 × 73 = (2 × 3 × 7)3
Therefore, 3
74088 = 2 × 3 × 7 = 42
Example 6: Find the cube root of 8000.
Solution: Prime factorisation of 8000 is 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 × 5
So, 3
8000 = 2 × 2 × 5 = 20
Example 7: Find the cube root of 13824 by prime factorisation method.
Solution:
13824 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 23 × 23 × 23 × 33.
Therefore, 3
13824 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 = 24

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

State true or false: for any integer m, m2 < m3. Why?

7.3.2 Cube root of a cube number

If you know that the given number is a cube number then following method can be used.
Step 1 Take any cube number say 857375 and start making groups of three digits
starting from the right most digit of the number.

857 375
↓ ↓
second group first group
We can estimate the cube root of a given cube number through a step by
step process.
We get 375 and 857 as two groups of three digits each.
Step 2 First group, i.e., 375 will give you the one’s (or unit’s) digit of the required
cube root.
The number 375 ends with 5. We know that 5 comes at the unit’s place of a
number only when it’s cube root ends in 5.
So, we get 5 at the unit’s place of the cube root.
Step 3 Now take another group, i.e., 857.
We know that 93 = 729 and 103 = 1000. Also, 729 < 857 < 1000. We take
the one’s place, of the smaller number 729 as the ten’s place of the required
cube root. So, we get 3 857375 = 95 .
Example 8: Find the cube root of 17576 through estimation.

Solution: The given number is 17576.

Step 1 Form groups of three starting from the rightmost digit of 17576.

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17 576. In this case one group i.e., 576 has three digits whereas 17 has only
two digits.
Step 2 Take 576.
The digit 6 is at its one’s place.
We take the one’s place of the required cube root as 6.
Step 3 Take the other group, i.e., 17.
Cube of 2 is 8 and cube of 3 is 27. 17 lies between 8 and 27.
The smaller number among 2 and 3 is 2.
The one’s place of 2 is 2 itself. Take 2 as ten’s place of the cube root of
17576.
Thus, 3 17576 = 26 (Check it!)

EXERCISE 7.2
1. Find the cube root of each of the following numbers by prime factorisation method.
(i) 64 (ii) 512 (iii) 10648 (iv) 27000
(v) 15625 (vi) 13824 (vii) 110592 (viii) 46656
(ix) 175616 (x) 91125
2. State true or false.
(i) Cube of any odd number is even.
(ii) A perfect cube does not end with two zeros.
(iii) If square of a number ends with 5, then its cube ends with 25.
(iv) There is no perfect cube which ends with 8.
(v) The cube of a two digit number may be a three digit number.
(vi) The cube of a two digit number may have seven or more digits.
(vii) The cube of a single digit number may be a single digit number.
3. You are told that 1,331 is a perfect cube. Can you guess without factorisation what
is its cube root? Similarly, guess the cube roots of 4913, 12167, 32768.

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. Numbers like 1729, 4104, 13832, are known as Hardy – Ramanujan Numbers. They can be
expressed as sum of two cubes in two different ways.
2. Numbers obtained when a number is multiplied by itself three times are known as cube numbers.
For example 1, 8, 27, ... etc.
3. If in the prime factorisation of any number each factor appears three times, then the number is a
perfect cube.

4. The symbol 3 denotes cube root. For example 3 27 = 3 .

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CHAPTER

Comparing Quantities
8
8.1 Recalling Ratios and Percentages
We know, ratio means comparing two quantities.
A basket has two types of fruits, say, 20 apples and 5 oranges.
Then, the ratio of the number of oranges to the number of apples = 5 : 20.
5 1
The comparison can be done by using fractions as, =
20 4
1
The number of oranges is th the number of apples. In terms of ratio, this is
4
1 : 4, read as, “1 is to 4”
OR
20 4
Number of apples to number of oranges = = which means, the number of apples
5 1
is 4 times the number of oranges. This comparison can also be done using percentages.

There are 5 oranges out of 25 fruits. By unitary method:

So percentage of oranges is Out of 25 fruits, number of oranges are 5.
5 4 20 So out of 100 fruits, number of oranges
× =
= 20% OR
25 4 100 5
= × 100 = 20.
[Denominator made 100]. 25

Since contains only apples and oranges,

So, percentage of apples + percentage of oranges = 100
or percentage of apples + 20 = 100
or percentage of apples = 100 – 20 = 80
Thus the basket has 20% oranges and 80% apples.
Example 1: A picnic is being planned in a school for Class VII. Girls are 60% of the
total number of students and are 18 in number.
The picnic site is 55 km from the school and the transport company is charging at the rate
of ` 12 per km. The total cost of refreshments will be ` 4280.

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Can you tell.

1. The ratio of the number of girls to the number of boys in the class?
2. The cost per head if two teachers are also going with the class?
3. If their first stop is at a place 22 km from the school, what per cent of the total
distance of 55 km is this? What per cent of the distance is left to be covered?
Solution:
1. To find the ratio of girls to boys.
Ashima and John came up with the following answers.
They needed to know the number of boys and also the total number of students.
Ashima did this John used the unitary method
Let the total number of students There are 60 girls out of 100 students.
100
be x. 60% of x is girls. There is one girl out of students.
60
Therefore, 60% of x = 18 So, 18 girls are out of how many students?
60 100
× x = 18 OR Number of students = × 18
100 60
18 × 100
or, x = = 30 = 30
60
Number of students = 30.

So, the number of boys = 30 – 18 = 12.

18 3
Hence, ratio of the number of girls to the number of boys is 18 : 12 or = .
12 2
3
is written as 3 : 2 and read as 3 is to 2.
2
2. To find the cost per person.
Transportation charge = Distance both ways × Rate
= ` (55 × 2) × 12
= ` 110 × 12 = ` 1320
Total expenses = Refreshment charge
+ Transportation charge
= ` 4280 + ` 1320
= ` 5600
Total number of persons =18 girls + 12 boys + 2 teachers
= 32 persons
Ashima and John then used unitary method to find the cost per head.
For 32 persons, amount spent would be ` 5600.
5600
The amount spent for 1 person = ` = ` 175.
32
3. The distance of the place where first stop was made = 22 km.

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 COMPARING QUANTITIES 119

To find the percentage of distance:

Ashima used this method: John used the unitary method:
22 22 100
= × = 40% Out of 55 km, 22 km are travelled.
55 55 100
She is multiplying 22
OR Out of 1 km, km are travelled.
100 55
the ratio by =1
100 22
Out of 100 km, × 100 km are travelled.
and converting to 55
percentage. That is 40% of the total distance is travelled.

Both came out with the same answer that the distance from their school of the place where
they stopped at was 40% of the total distance they had to travel.
Therefore, the percent distance left to be travelled = 100% – 40% = 60%.

TRY THESE
In a primary school, the parents were asked about the number of hours they spend per day
1
in helping their children to do homework. There were 90 parents who helped for hour
2
1
to 1 hours. The distribution of parents according to the time for which,
2
they said they helped is given in the adjoining figure ; 20% helped for
1
more than 1 hours per day;
2
1 1
30% helped for hour to 1 hours; 50% did not help at all.
2 2
Using this, answer the following:
(i) How many parents were surveyed?
(ii) How many said that they did not help? 1
(iii) How many said that they helped for more than 1 hours?
2

EXERCISE 8.1
1. Find the ratio of the following.
(a) Speed of a cycle 15 km per hour to the speed of scooter 30 km per hour.
(b) 5 m to 10 km (c) 50 paise to ` 5
2. Convert the following ratios to percentages.
(a) 3 : 4 (b) 2 : 3
3. 72% of 25 students are interested in mathematics. How many are not interested
in mathematics?
4. A football team won 10 matches out of the total number of matches they played. If
their win percentage was 40, then how many matches did they play in all?
5. If Chameli had ` 600 left after spending 75% of her money, how much did she have
in the beginning?

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6. If 60% people in a city like cricket, 30% like football and the remaining like other
games, then what per cent of the people like other games? If the total number of
people is 50 lakh, find the exact number who like each type of game.

8.2 Finding the Increase or Decrease Per cent

We often come across such information in our daily life as.
(i) 25% off on marked prices (ii) 10% hike in the price of petrol
Let us consider a few such examples.
Example 2: The price of a scooter was ` 34,000 last year. It has increased by 20%
this year. What is the price now?
Solution:
Amita said that she would first find Sunita used the unitary method.
the increase in the price, which is 20% of 20% increase means,
` 34,000, and then find the new price. ` 100 increased to ` 120.
So, ` 34,000 will increase to?
20
20% of ` 34000 = ` × 34000 120
100 Increased price = ` × 34000
= ` 6800
OR 100
New price = Old price + Increase = ` 40,800
= ` 34,000 + ` 6,800
= ` 40,800

Similarly, a percentage decrease in price would imply finding the actual decrease
followed by its subtraction the from original price.
Suppose in order to increase its sale, the price of scooter was decreased by 5%.
Then let us find the price of scooter.
Price of scooter = ` 34000
Reduction = 5% of ` 34000
5
=` × 34000 = ` 1700
100
New price = Old price – Reduction
= ` 34000 – ` 1700 = ` 32300
We will also use this in the next section of the chapter.

8.3 Finding Discounts

Discount is a reduction given on the Marked Price
(MP) of the article.
This is generally given to attract customers to buy
goods or to promote sales of the goods. You can find
the discount by subtracting its sale price from its
marked price.
So, Discount = Marked price – Sale price

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Example 3: An item marked at ` 840 is sold for ` 714. What is the discount and
discount %?
Solution: Discount = Marked Price – Sale Price
= ` 840 – ` 714
= ` 126
Since discount is on marked price, we will have to use marked price as the base.
On marked price of ` 840, the discount is ` 126.
On MP of ` 100, how much will the discount be?
126
Discount = × 100% = 15%
840
You can also find discount when discount % is given.

Example 4: The list price of a frock is ` 220.

A discount of 20% is announced on sales. What is the amount
of discount on it and its sale price.

Solution: Marked price is same as the list price.

20% discount means that on ` 100 (MP), the discount is ` 20.
20
By unitary method, on `1 the discount will be ` .
100
20
On ` 220, discount = ` × 220 = ` 44
100
The sale price = (` 220 – ` 44) or ` 176
Rehana found the sale price like this —
A discount of 20% means for a MP of ` 100, discount is ` 20. Hence the sale price is
` 80. Using unitary method, when MP is ` 100, sale price is ` 80;
80
When MP is ` 1, sale price is ` . Even though the
100
80 discount was not
Hence when MP is ` 220, sale price = ` × 220 = ` 176. found, I could find
100 the sale price
directly.
TRY THESE
1. A shop gives 20% discount. What would the sale price of each of these be?
(a) A dress marked at ` 120 (b) A pair of shoes marked at ` 750
(c) A bag marked at ` 250
2. A table marked at ` 15,000 is available for ` 14,400. Find the discount given and
the discount per cent.
3. An almirah is sold at ` 5,225 after allowing a discount of 5%. Find its marked price.

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8.3.1 Estimation in percentages

Your bill in a shop is ` 577.80 and the shopkeeper gives a discount of 15%. How would
you estimate the amount to be paid?
(i) Round off the bill to the nearest tens of ` 577.80, i.e., to ` 580.
10
(ii) Find 10% of this, i.e., ` × 580 = ` 58 .
100
1
(iii) Take half of this, i.e., × 58 = ` 29 .
2
(iv) Add the amounts in (ii) and (iii) to get ` 87.
You could therefore reduce your bill amount by ` 87 or by about ` 85, which will be
` 495 approximately.
1. Try estimating 20% of the same bill amount. 2. Try finding 15% of ` 375.

8.4 Prices Related to Buying and Selling (Profit and Loss)

For the school fair (mela) I am going to put a stall of lucky dips. I will charge ` 10 for one
lucky dip but I will buy items which are worth ` 5.

So you are making a profit of 100%.

No, I will spend ` 3 on paper to wrap the gift and tape. So my expenditure is ` 8.
2
This gives me a profit of ` 2, which is, × 100% = 25% only.
8

Sometimes when an article is bought, some additional expenses are made while buying or
before selling it. These expenses have to be included in the cost price.
These expenses are sometimes referred to as overhead charges. These may include
expenses like amount spent on repairs, labour charges, transportation etc.

8.4.1 Finding cost price/selling price, profit %/loss%

Example 5: Sohan bought a second hand refrigerator for ` 2,500, then spent ` 500 on
its repairs and sold it for ` 3,300. Find his loss or gain per cent.
Solution: Cost Price (CP) = ` 2500 + ` 500 (overhead expenses are added to give CP)
= ` 3000
Sale Price (SP) = ` 3300
As SP > CP, he made a profit = ` 3300 – ` 3000 = ` 300
His profit on ` 3,000, is ` 300. How much would be his profit on ` 100?
300 30 P
Profit = × 100% = % = 10% P% = × 100
3000 3 CP

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TRY THESE
1. Find selling price (SP) if a profit of 5% is made on
(a) a cycle of ` 700 with ` 50 as overhead charges.
(b) a lawn mower bought at ` 1150 with ` 50 as transportation charges.
(c) a fan bought for ` 560 and expenses of ` 40 made on its repairs.

Example 6: A shopkeeper purchased 200 bulbs for ` 10 each. However 5 bulbs

were fused and had to be thrown away. The remaining were sold at ` 12 each. Find the
gain or loss %.
Solution: Cost price of 200 bulbs = ` 200 × 10 = ` 2000
5 bulbs were fused. Hence, number of bulbs left = 200 – 5 = 195
These were sold at ` 12 each.
The SP of 195 bulbs = ` 195 × 12 = ` 2340
He obviously made a profit (as SP > CP). CP is ` 10
Profit = ` 2340 – ` 2000 = ` 340
On ` 2000, the profit is ` 340. How much profit is made on ` 100? Profit
340
= × 100% = 17%. SP is ` 12
2000
Example 7: Meenu bought two fans for ` 1200 each. She sold one at
a loss of 5% and the other at a profit of 10%. Find the selling price of
each. Also find out the total profit or loss.
Solution: Overall CP of each fan = ` 1200. One is sold at a loss of 5%.
This means if CP is ` 100, SP is ` 95.
95
Therefore, when CP is ` 1200, then SP = ` × 1200 = ` 1140
100
Also second fan is sold at a profit of 10%.
It means, if CP is ` 100, SP is ` 110.
110
Therefore, when CP is ` 1200, then SP = ` × 1200 = ` 1320
100
Was there an overall loss or gain?

We need to find the combined CP and SP to say

whether there was an overall profit or loss.
Total CP = ` 1200 + ` 1200 = ` 2400
Total SP = ` 1140 + ` 1320 = ` 2460
Since total SP > total CP, a profit of ` (2460 – 2400) or ` 60 has been made.

TRY THESE
1. A shopkeeper bought two TV sets at ` 10,000 each. He sold one at a profit 10%
and the other at a loss of 10%. Find whether he made an overall profit or loss.

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8.5 Sales Tax/Value Added Tax/Goods and Services Tax

The teacher showed the class a bill in which the following heads were written.
Bill No. Date
Menu
S.No. Item Quantity Rate Amount

Bill amount
+ ST (5%)
Total
Sales tax (ST) is charged by the government on the sale of an item. It is collected by the
shopkeeper from the customer and given to the government. This is, therefore, always on
the selling price of an item and is added to the value of the bill. There is another type of tax
which is included in the prices known as Value Added Tax (VAT).

From July 1, 2017, Government of India introduced GST which stands for Goods and
Services Tax which is levied on supply of goods or services or both.

Example 8: (Finding Sales Tax) The cost of a pair of

roller skates at a shop was ` 450. The sales tax charged was
5%. Find the bill amount.
Solution: On ` 100, the tax paid was ` 5.
5
On ` 450, the tax paid would be = ` × 450
100
= ` 22.50
Bill amount = Cost of item + Sales tax = ` 450 + ` 22.50 = ` 472.50.
Example 9: (Value Added Tax (VAT)) Waheeda bought an air cooler for ` 3300
including a tax of 10%. Find the price of the air cooler before VAT was added.
Solution: The price includes the VAT, i.e., the value added tax. Thus, a 10% VAT
means if the price without VAT is ` 100 then price including VAT is ` 110.
Now, when price including VAT is ` 110, original price is ` 100.
100
Hence when price including tax is ` 3300, the original price = ` × 3300 = ` 3000.
110
Example 10: Salim bought an article for ` 784 which included GST of 12% . What is
the price of the article before GST was added?
Solution: Let original price of the article be ` 100. GST = 12%.
Price after GST is included = ` (100+12) = ` 112
When the selling price is ` 112 then original price = ` 100.
When the selling price is ` 784, then original price = ` 100 × 784 = ` 700
12

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THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

1. Two times a number is a 100% increase in the number. If we take half the number
what would be the decrease in per cent?
2. By what per cent is ` 2,000 less than ` 2,400? Is it the same as the per cent by
which ` 2,400 is more than ` 2,000?

EXERCISE 8.2
1. A man got a 10% increase in his salary. If his new salary is ` 1,54,000, find his
original salary.
2. On Sunday 845 people went to the Zoo. On Monday only 169 people went. What
is the per cent decrease in the people visiting the Zoo on Monday?
3. A shopkeeper buys 80 articles for ` 2,400 and sells them for a profit of
16%. Find the selling price of one article.
4. The cost of an article was ` 15,500. ` 450 were spent on its repairs. If it is
sold for a profit of 15%, find the selling price of the article.
5. A VCR and TV were bought for ` 8,000 each. The shopkeeper made a
loss of 4% on the VCR and a profit of 8% on the TV. Find the gain or loss
percent on the whole transaction.
6. During a sale, a shop offered a discount of 10% on the
marked prices of all the items. What would a customer
have to pay for a pair of jeans marked at ` 1450 and
two shirts marked at ` 850 each?
7. A milkman sold two of his buffaloes for ` 20,000 each.
On one he made a gain of 5% and on the other a loss of
10%. Find his overall gain or loss. (Hint: Find
CP of each)
8. The price of a TV is ` 13,000. The sales tax charged on
it is at the rate of 12%. Find the amount that Vinod will
have to pay if he buys it.
9. Arun bought a pair of skates at a sale where the discount given was 20%. If the
amount he pays is ` 1,600, find the marked price.
10. I purchased a hair-dryer for ` 5,400 including 8% VAT. Find the price before VAT
was added.
11. An article was purchased for ` 1239 including GST of 18%. Find the price of the
article before GST was added?

8.6 Compound Interest

You might have come across statements like “one year interest for FD (fixed deposit) in
the bank @ 9% per annum” or ‘Savings account with interest @ 5% per annum’.

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126 MATHEMATICS

Interest is the extra money paid by institutions like banks or post offices on money
deposited (kept) with them. Interest is also paid by people when they borrow money.
We already know how to calculate Simple Interest.
Example 10: A sum of ` 10,000 is borrowed at a rate of interest 15% per annum for 2
years. Find the simple interest on this sum and the amount to be paid at the end of 2 years.
Solution: On ` 100, interest charged for 1 year is ` 15.
15
So, on ` 10,000, interest charged = × 10000 = ` 1500
100
Interest for 2 years = ` 1500 × 2 = ` 3000
Amount to be paid at the end of 2 years = Principal + Interest
= ` 10000 + ` 3000 = ` 13000
TRY THESE
Find interest and amount to be paid on ` 15000 at 5% per annum after 2 years.

My father has kept some money in the post office for 3 years. Every year the money
increases as more than the previous year.

We have some money in the bank. Every year some interest is added to it, which is
shown in the passbook. This interest is not the same, each year it increases.

Normally, the interest paid or charged is never simple. The interest is calculated on the
amount of the previous year. This is known as interest compounded or Compound
Interest (C.I.).
Let us take an example and find the interest year by year. Each year our sum or
principal changes.
Calculating Compound Interest
A sum of ` 20,000 is borrowed by Heena for 2 years at an interest of 8% compounded
annually. Find the Compound Interest (C.I.) and the amount she has to pay at the end of
2 years.
Aslam asked the teacher whether this means that they should find the interest year by
year. The teacher said ‘yes’, and asked him to use the following steps :
1. Find the Simple Interest (S.I.) for one year.
Let the principal for the first year be P1. Here, P1 = ` 20,000
20000 × 8
SI1 = SI at 8% p.a. for 1st year = ` = ` 1600
100
2. Then find the amount which will be paid or received. This becomes principal for the
next year.
Amount at the end of 1st year = P1 + SI1 = ` 20000 + ` 1600
= ` 21600 = P2 (Principal for 2nd year)

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3. Again find the interest on this sum for another year.

21600 × 8
SI2 = SI at 8% p.a.for 2nd year = `
100
= ` 1728
4. Find the amount which has to be paid or received at the end of second year.
Amount at the end of 2nd year = P2 + SI2
= ` 21600 + ` 1728
= ` 23328
Total interest given = ` 1600 + ` 1728
= ` 3328
Reeta asked whether the amount would be different for simple interest. The teacher
told her to find the interest for two years and see for herself.
20000 × 8 × 2
SI for 2 years = ` = ` 3200
100
Reeta said that when compound interest was used Heena would pay ` 128 more.
Let us look at the difference between simple interest and compound interest. We start
with ` 100. Try completing the chart.
Under Under
Simple Interest Compound Interest

First year Principal ` 100.00 ` 100.00

Interest at 10% ` 10.00 ` 10.00
Year-end amount ` 110.00 ` 110.00
Second year Principal ` 100.00 ` 110.00
Which
Interest at 10% ` 10.00 ` 11.00
means you
pay interest
Year-end amount ` (110 + 10) = ` 120 ` 121.00
on the
Third year Principal ` 100.00 ` 121.00 interest
accumulated
Interest at 10% ` 10.00 ` 12.10 till then!

Year-end amount ` (120 + 10) = ` 130 ` 133.10

Note that in 3 years,

Interest earned by Simple Interest = ` (130 – 100) = ` 30, whereas,
Interest earned by Compound Interest = ` (133.10 – 100) = ` 33.10
Note also that the Principal remains the same under Simple Interest, while it changes
year after year under compound interest.

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128 MATHEMATICS

8.7 Deducing a Formula for Compound Interest

Zubeda asked her teacher, ‘Is there an easier way to find compound interest?’ The teacher
said ‘There is a shorter way of finding compound interest. Let us try to find it.’
Suppose P1 is the sum on which interest is compounded annually at a rate of R%
per annum.
Let P1 = ` 5000 and R = 5. Then by the steps mentioned above

5000 × 5 × 1 P1 × R × 1
1. SI1 = ` or SI1 = `
100 100
5000 × 5 × 1 P1R
so, A1 = ` 5000 + or A1 = P1 + SI1 = P1 +
100 100
 5   R 
= ` 5000 1 +  = P2 = P1  1 + = P2
100   100 
 5  5 ×1 P2 × R × 1
2. SI2 = ` 5000 1 + × or SI2 =
100  100 100
5000 × 5  5   R  R
=`  1 +  = P1  1 +  ×
100 100   100  100

P1R  R 
=  1 + 
100 100 

 5  5000 × 5  5 
A2 = ` 5000  1 + + ` 1 +  A2 = P2 + SI2
 100  100  100 
 5   5   R  R  R 
= ` 5000  1 +  1 + = P1  1 + + P1 1+
 100  
100   100   
100  100 


2
 5   R   R 
= ` 5000 1 + = P1  1 + 1 +
 100  
= P3
 100  100 
2
 R 
= P1  1 + = P3
 100 
Proceeding in this way the amount at the end of n years will be

 R 
n
An = P1  1 +
 100 

 R 
n
Or, we can say A = P 1 +
 100 

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So, Zubeda said, but using this we get only the formula for the amount to be paid at
the end of n years, and not the formula for compound interest.
Aruna at once said that we know CI = A – P, so we can easily find the compound
interest too.
Example 11: Find CI on ` 12600 for 2 years at 10% per annum compounded
annually.
 R 
n
Solution: We have, A = P  +
 100 
1 , where Principal (P) = ` 12600, Rate (R) = 10,
Number of years (n) = 2
2 2
 10   11
= ` 12600  1 +
 100 
= ` 12600  
 10 
TRY THESE
11 11 1. Find CI on a sum of ` 8000 for
= ` 12600 × × = ` 15246
10 10 2 years at 5% per annum
CI = A – P = ` 15246 – ` 12600 = ` 2646 compounded annually.

8.8 Rate Compounded Annually or Half Yearly

(Semi Annually) Time period and rate when interest not compounded
You may want to know why ‘compounded annually
annually’ was mentioned after ‘rate’. Does it The time period after which the interest is added each
mean anything? time to form a new principal is called the conversion
It does, because we can also have interest period. When the interest is compounded half yearly,
there are two conversion periods in a year each after 6
rates compounded half yearly or quarterly. Let months. In such situations, the half yearly rate will be
us see what happens to ` 100 over a period of half of the annual rate. What will happen if interest is
one year if an interest is compounded annually compounded quarterly? In this case, there are 4
or half yearly. conversion periods in a year and the quarterly rate will
be one-fourth of the annual rate.

P = ` 100 at 10% per P = ` 100 at 10% per annum

annum compounded annually compounded half yearly
1
The time period taken is 1 year The time period is 6 months or year
2 Rate
becomes
1 half
100 × 10 ×
100 × 10 × 1 2
I=` = Rs 10 I=` =`5
100 100
A = ` 100 + ` 10 A = ` 100 + ` 5 = ` 105
= ` 110 Now for next 6 months the P = ` 105
1
105 × 10 ×
So, I = ` 2 = ` 5.25
100
and A = ` 105 + ` 5.25 = ` 110.25

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130 MATHEMATICS

Do you see that, if interest is compounded half yearly, we compute the interest two
times. So time period becomes twice and rate is taken half.

TRY THESE
Find the time period and rate for each .
1
1. A sum taken for 1 years at 8% per annum is compounded half yearly.
2
2. A sum taken for 2 years at 4% per annum compounded half yearly.

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

A sum is taken for one year at 16% p.a. If interest is compounded after every three
months, how many times will interest be charged in one year?
1
Example 12: What amount is to be repaid on a loan of ` 12000 for 1 years at 10%
2
per annum compounded half yearly.
Solution:

Principal for first 6 months = ` 12,000 Principal for first 6 months = ` 12,000

1 6 1
There are 3 half years in 1
years. Time = 6 months = year = year
2 12 2
Therefore, compounding has to be done 3 times. Rate = 10%
1
12000 × 10 ×
Rate of interest = half of 10% I=`
2 = ` 600
100
= 5% half yearly A = P + I = ` 12000 + ` 600
 R 
n
A = P 1 +
 100 
= ` 12600. It is principal for next 6 months.
1
3 12600 × 10 ×
 5  2 = ` 630
= ` 12000 1 +
 100 
I=`
100
21 21 21
= ` 12000 × × × Principal for third period = ` 12600 + ` 630
20 20 20
= ` 13,891.50 = ` 13,230.
1
13230 × 10 ×
I=` 2 = ` 661.50
100
A = P + I = ` 13230 + ` 661.50
= ` 13,891.50

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TRY THESE
Find the amount to be paid
1. At the end of 2 years on ` 2,400 at 5% per annum compounded annually.
2. At the end of 1 year on ` 1,800 at 8% per annum compounded quarterly.

Example 13: Find CI paid when a sum of ` 10,000 is invested for 1 year and
1
3 months at 8 % per annum compounded annually.
2
Solution: Mayuri first converted the time in years.
3 1
1 year 3 months = 1 year = 1 years
12 4
Mayuri tried putting the values in the known formula and came up with:
1
1
 17  4
A = ` 10000 1 +
 200 
Now she was stuck. She asked her teacher how would she find a power which is fractional?
The teacher then gave her a hint:
Find the amount for the whole part, i.e., 1 year in this case. Then use this as principal
1
to get simple interest for year more. Thus,
4

 17 
A = ` 10000 1 + 
200 

217
= ` 10000 × = ` 10,850
200
1
Now this would act as principal for the next year. We find the SI on ` 10,850
4
1
for year.
4

1
10850 × × 17
SI = ` 4
100 × 2

10850 × 1 × 17
= ` = ` 230.56
800

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132 MATHEMATICS

Interest for first year = ` 10850 – ` 10000 = ` 850

1
And, interest for the next year = ` 230.56
4
Therefore, total compound Interest = 850 + 230.56 = ` 1080.56.

8.9 Applications of Compound Interest Formula

There are some situations where we could use the formula for calculation of amount in CI.
Here are a few.
(i) Increase (or decrease) in population.
(ii) The growth of a bacteria if the rate of growth is known.
(iii) The value of an item, if its price increases or decreases in the intermediate years.

Example 14: The population of a city was 20,000 in the year 1997. It increased at
the rate of 5% p.a. Find the population at the end of the year 2000.

Solution: There is 5% increase in population every year, so every new year has new
population. Thus, we can say it is increasing in compounded form.
Population in the beginning of 1998 = 20000 (we treat this as the principal for the 1st year)
5
Increase at 5% = × 20000 = 1000
100 Treat as
Population in 1999 = 20000 + 1000 = 21000 the Principal
for the
5 2nd year.
Increase at 5% = × 21000 = 1050
100
Population in 2000 = 21000 + 1050
Treat as
= 22050 the Principal
5 for the
Increase at 5% = × 22050 3rd year.
100
= 1102.5
At the end of 2000 the population = 22050 + 1102.5 = 23152.5
3
 5 
or, Population at the end of 2000 = 20000 1 + 
100 

21 21 21
= 20000 × × ×
20 20 20
= 23152.5
So, the estimated population = 23153.

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Aruna asked what is to be done if there is a decrease. The teacher then considered
the following example.
Example 15: A TV was bought at a price of ` 21,000. After one year the value of the
TV was depreciated by 5% (Depreciation means reduction of value due to use and age of
the item). Find the value of the TV after one year.
Solution:
Principal = ` 21,000
Reduction = 5% of ` 21000 per year
21000 × 5 × 1
=` = ` 1050
100
value at the end of 1 year = ` 21000 – ` 1050 = ` 19,950
Alternately, We may directly get this as follows:
 5 
value at the end of 1 year = ` 21000 1 − 
100 
19
= ` 21000 × = ` 19,950
20
TRY THESE
1. A machinery worth ` 10,500 depreciated by 5%. Find its value after one year.
2. Find the population of a city after 2 years, which is at present 12 lakh, if the rate
of increase is 4%.

EXERCISE 8.3
1. Calculate the amount and compound interest on
1
(a) ` 10,800 for 3 years at 12 % per annum compounded annually.
2
1
(b) ` 18,000 for 2 years at 10% per annum compounded annually.
2
1
(c) ` 62,500 for 1 years at 8% per annum compounded half yearly.
2
(d) ` 8,000 for 1 year at 9% per annum compounded half yearly.
(You could use the year by year calculation using SI formula to verify).
(e) ` 10,000 for 1 year at 8% per annum compounded half yearly.
2. Kamala borrowed ` 26,400 from a Bank to buy a scooter at a rate of 15% p.a.
compounded yearly. What amount will she pay at the end of 2 years and 4 months to
clear the loan?
(Hint: Find A for 2 years with interest is compounded yearly and then find SI on the
4
2nd year amount for years).
12

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134 MATHEMATICS

3. Fabina borrows ` 12,500 at 12% per annum for 3 years at simple interest and
Radha borrows the same amount for the same time period at 10% per annum,
compounded annually. Who pays more interest and by how much?
4. I borrowed ` 12,000 from Jamshed at 6% per annum simple interest for 2 years.
Had I borrowed this sum at 6% per annum compound interest, what extra amount
would I have to pay?
5. Vasudevan invested ` 60,000 at an interest rate of 12% per annum compounded
half yearly. What amount would he get
(i) after 6 months?
(ii) after 1 year?
6. Arif took a loan of ` 80,000 from a bank. If the rate of interest is 10% per annum,
1
find the difference in amounts he would be paying after 1 years if the interest is
2
(i) compounded annually.
(ii) compounded half yearly.
7. Maria invested ` 8,000 in a business. She would be paid interest at 5% per annum
compounded annually. Find
(i) The amount credited against her name at the end of the second year.
(ii) The interest for the 3rd year.
1
8. Find the amount and the compound interest on ` 10,000 for 1 years at 10% per
2
annum, compounded half yearly. Would this interest be more than the interest he
would get if it was compounded annually?
1
9. Find the amount which Ram will get on ` 4096, if he gave it for 18 months at 12 %
2
per annum, interest being compounded half yearly.
10. The population of a place increased to 54,000 in 2003 at a rate of 5% per annum
(i) find the population in 2001.
(ii) what would be its population in 2005?
11. In a Laboratory, the count of bacteria in a certain experiment was increasing at the
rate of 2.5% per hour. Find the bacteria at the end of 2 hours if the count was initially
5, 06,000.
12. A scooter was bought at ` 42,000. Its value
depreciated at the rate of 8% per annum.
Find its value after one year.

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WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. Discount is a reduction given on marked price.
Discount = Marked Price – Sale Price.
2. Discount can be calculated when discount percentage is given.
Discount = Discount % of Marked Price
3. Additional expenses made after buying an article are included in the cost price and are known
as overhead expenses.
CP = Buying price + Overhead expenses
4. Sales tax is charged on the sale of an item by the government and is added to the Bill Amount.
Sales tax = Tax% of Bill Amount
5. GST stands for Goods and Services Tax and is levied on supply of goods or services or both.
6. Compound interest is the interest calculated on the previous year’s amount (A = P + I)
7. (i) Amount when interest is compounded annually
 R 
n
= P 1 +
 100 
; P is principal, R is rate of interest, n is time period

(ii) Amount when interest is compounded half yearly

R
 R 
2n
 is half yearly rate and
= P 1 +  2
 200  2n = number of ’half-years’

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136 MATHEMATICS

NOTES

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 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS AND I DENTITIES 137

CHAPTER
Algebraic Expressions
and Identities
9
9.1 What are Expressions?
In earlier classes, we have already become familiar with what algebraic expressions
(or simply expressions) are. Examples of expressions are:
x + 3, 2y – 5, 3x2, 4xy + 7 etc.
You can form many more expressions. As you know expressions are formed from
variables and constants. The expression 2y – 5 is formed from the variable y and constants
2 and 5. The expression 4xy + 7 is formed from variables x and y and constants 4 and 7.
We know that, the value of y in the expression, 2y – 5, may be anything. It can be
5 7
2, 5, –3, 0, , – etc.; actually countless different values. The value of an expression
2 3
changes with the value chosen for the variables it contains. Thus as y takes on different
values, the value of 2y – 5 goes on changing. When y = 2, 2y – 5 = 2(2) – 5 = –1; when
y = 0, 2y – 5 = 2 × 0 –5 = –5, etc. Find the value of the expression 2y – 5 for the other
given values of y.
Number line and an expression:
Consider the expression x + 5. Let us say the variable x has a position X on the number line;

X may be anywhere on the number line, but it is definite that the value of x + 5 is given by
a point P, 5 units to the right of X. Similarly, the value of x – 4 will be 4 units to the left of
X and so on.
What about the position of 4x and 4x + 5?

The position of 4x will be point C; the distance of C from the origin will be four times
the distance of X from the origin. The position D of 4x + 5 will be 5 units to the right of C.

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138 MATHEMATICS

TRY THESE
1. Give five examples of expressions containing one variable and five examples of
expressions containing two variables.
2. Show on the number line x, x – 4, 2x + 1, 3x – 2.
9.2 Terms, Factors and Coefficients
Take the expression 4x + 5. This expression is made up of two terms, 4x and 5. Terms
are added to form expressions. Terms themselves can be formed as the product of
factors. The term 4x is the product of its factors 4 and x. The term 5
TRY THESE is made up of just one factor, i.e., 5.
The expression 7xy – 5x has two terms 7xy and –5x. The term
Identify the coefficient of each 7xy is a product of factors 7, x and y. The numerical factor of a term
term in the expression is called its numerical coefficient or simply coefficient. The coefficient
x2y2 – 10x2y + 5xy2 – 20. in the term 7xy is 7 and the coefficient in the term –5x is –5.

9.3 Monomials, Binomials and Polynomials

Expression that contains only one term is called a monomial. Expression that contains two
terms is called a binomial. An expression containing three terms is a trinomial and so on.
In general, an expression containing, one or more terms with non-zero coefficient (with
variables having non negative integers as exponents) is called a polynomial. A polynomial
may contain any number of terms, one or more than one.
Examples of monomials: 4x2, 3xy, –7z, 5xy2, 10y, –9, 82mnp, etc.
Examples of binomials: a + b, 4l + 5m, a + 4, 5 –3xy, z2 – 4y2, etc.
Examples of trinomials: a + b + c, 2x + 3y – 5, x2y – xy2 + y2, etc.
Examples of polynomials: a + b + c + d, 3xy, 7xyz – 10, 2x + 3y + 7z, etc.

TRY THESE
1. Classify the following polynomials as monomials, binomials, trinomials.
– z + 5, x + y + z, y + z + 100, ab – ac, 17
2. Construct
(a) 3 binomials with only x as a variable;
(b) 3 binomials with x and y as variables;
(c) 3 monomials with x and y as variables;
(d) 2 polynomials with 4 or more terms.

9.4 Like and Unlike Terms

Look at the following expressions:
7x, 14x, –13x, 5x2, 7y, 7xy, –9y2, –9x2, –5yx
Like terms from these are:
(i) 7x, 14x, –13x are like terms.
(ii) 5x2 and –9x2 are like terms.

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 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS AND I DENTITIES 139

(iii) 7xy and –5yx are like terms.

Why are 7x and 7y not like?
Why are 7x and 7xy not like?
Why are 7x and 5x2 not like?

TRY THESE
Write two terms which are like
(i) 7xy (ii) 4mn2 (iii) 2l

9.5 Addition and Subtraction of Algebraic Expressions

In the earlier classes, we have also learnt how to add and subtract algebraic expressions.
For example, to add 7x2 – 4x + 5 and 9x – 10, we do
7x2 – 4x + 5
+ 9x – 10
7x2 + 5x – 5
Observe how we do the addition. We write each expression to be added in a separate
row. While doing so we write like terms one below the other, and add them, as shown.
Thus 5 + (–10) = 5 –10 = –5. Similarly, – 4x + 9x = (– 4 + 9)x = 5x. Let us take some
more examples.
Example 1: Add: 7xy + 5yz – 3zx, 4yz + 9zx – 4y , –3xz + 5x – 2xy.
Solution: Writing the three expressions in separate rows, with like terms one below
the other, we have
7xy + 5yz –3zx
+ 4yz + 9zx – 4y
+ –2xy – 3zx + 5x (Note xz is same as zx)
5xy + 9yz + 3zx + 5x – 4y
Thus, the sum of the expressions is 5xy + 9yz + 3zx + 5x – 4y. Note how the terms, – 4y
in the second expression and 5x in the third expression, are carried over as they are, since
they have no like terms in the other expressions.
Example 2: Subtract 5x2 – 4y2 + 6y – 3 from 7x2 – 4xy + 8y2 + 5x – 3y.
Solution:
7x2 – 4xy + 8y2 + 5x – 3y
5x 2 – 4y2 + 6y – 3
(–) (+) (–) (+)
2x2 – 4xy + 12y2 + 5x – 9y + 3

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140 MATHEMATICS

Note that subtraction of a number is the same as addition of its additive inverse.
Thus subtracting –3 is the same as adding +3. Similarly, subtracting 6y is the same as
adding – 6y; subtracting – 4y2 is the same as adding 4y2 and so on. The signs in the
third row written below each term in the second row help us in knowing which
operation has to be performed.

EXERCISE 9.1
1. Identify the terms, their coefficients for each of the following expressions.
(i) 5xyz2 – 3zy (ii) 1 + x + x2 (iii) 4x2y2 – 4x2y2z2 + z2

x y
(iv) 3 – pq + qr – rp (v) + − xy (vi) 0.3a – 0.6ab + 0.5b
2 2
2. Classify the following polynomials as monomials, binomials, trinomials. Which
polynomials do not fit in any of these three categories?
x + y, 1000, x + x2 + x3 + x4, 7 + y + 5x, 2y – 3y2, 2y – 3y2 + 4y3, 5x – 4y + 3xy,
4z – 15z2, ab + bc + cd + da, pqr, p2q + pq2, 2p + 2q
3. Add the following.
(i) ab – bc, bc – ca, ca – ab (ii) a – b + ab, b – c + bc, c – a + ac
(iii) 2p2q2 – 3pq + 4, 5 + 7pq – 3p2q2 (iv) l2 + m2, m2 + n2, n2 + l2,
2lm + 2mn + 2nl
4. (a) Subtract 4a – 7ab + 3b + 12 from 12a – 9ab + 5b – 3
(b) Subtract 3xy + 5yz – 7zx from 5xy – 2yz – 2zx + 10xyz
(c) Subtract 4p2q – 3pq + 5pq2 – 8p + 7q – 10 from
18 – 3p – 11q + 5pq – 2pq2 + 5p2q

9.6 Multiplication of Algebraic Expressions: Introduction

(i) Look at the following patterns of dots.

Pattern of dots Total number of dots

4×9

5×7

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To find the number of

dots we have to multiply
the expression for the
number of rows by the
m×n expression for the
number of columns.

Here the number of rows

is increased by
2, i.e., m + 2 and number
(m + 2) × (n + 3) of columns increased by
3, i.e., n + 3.

(ii) Can you now think of similar other situations in which

two algebraic expressions have to be multiplied?
Ameena gets up. She says, “We can think of area of
a rectangle.” The area of a rectangle is l × b, where l
is the length, and b is breadth. If the length of the
rectangle is increased by 5 units, i.e., (l + 5) and
breadth is decreased by 3 units , i.e., (b – 3) units,
To find the area of a rectangle, we
the area of the new rectangle will be (l + 5) × (b – 3). have to multiply algebraic
expressions like l × b or
(iii) Can you think about volume? (The volume of a
(l + 5) × (b – 3).
rectangular box is given by the product of its length,
breadth and height).
(iv) Sarita points out that when we buy things, we have to
carry out multiplication. For example, if
price of bananas per dozen = ` p
and for the school picnic bananas needed = z dozens,
then we have to pay = ` p × z
Suppose, the price per dozen was less by ` 2 and the bananas needed were less by
4 dozens.
Then, price of bananas per dozen = ` (p – 2)
and bananas needed = (z – 4) dozens,
Therefore, we would have to pay = ` (p – 2) × (z – 4)

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TRY THESE
Can you think of two more such situations, where we may need to multiply algebraic
expressions?
[Hint: • Think of speed and time;
• Think of interest to be paid, the principal and the rate of simple interest; etc.]

In all the above examples, we had to carry out multiplication of two or more quantities. If
the quantities are given by algebraic expressions, we need to find their product. This
means that we should know how to obtain this product. Let us do this systematically. To
begin with we shall look at the multiplication of two monomials.

9.7 Multiplying a Monomial by a Monomial

9.7.1 Multiplying two monomials
We begin with
4 × x = x + x + x + x = 4x as seen earlier.
Similarly, 4 × (3x) = 3x + 3x + 3x + 3x = 12x Notice that all the three
products of monomials, 3xy,
Now, observe the following products. 15xy, –15xy, are also
(i) x × 3y = x × 3 × y = 3 × x × y = 3xy monomials.

(ii) 5x × 3y = 5 × x × 3 × y = 5 × 3 × x × y = 15xy
(iii) 5x × (–3y) = 5 × x × (–3) × y
= 5 × (–3) × x × y = –15xy
Some more useful examples follow. Note that 5 × 4 = 20
2 2
(iv) 5x × 4x = (5 × 4) × (x × x ) i.e., coefficient of product = coefficient of
= 20 × x3 = 20x3 first monomial × coefficient of second
monomial;
(v) 5x × (– 4xyz) = (5 × – 4) × (x × xyz) and x × x2 = x 3
= –20 × (x × x × yz) = –20x2yz i.e., algebraic factor of product
Observe how we collect the powers of different variables = algebraic factor of first monomial
× algebraic factor of second monomial.
in the algebraic parts of the two monomials. While doing
so, we use the rules of exponents and powers.
9.7.2 Multiplying three or more monomials
Observe the following examples.
(i) 2x × 5y × 7z = (2x × 5y) × 7z = 10xy × 7z = 70xyz
(ii) 4xy × 5x2y2 × 6x3y3 = (4xy × 5x2y2) × 6x3y3 = 20x3y3 × 6x3y3 = 120x3y3 × x3y3
= 120 (x3 × x3) × (y3 × y3) = 120x6 × y6 = 120x6y6
It is clear that we first multiply the first two monomials and then multiply the resulting
monomial by the third monomial. This method can be extended to the product of any
number of monomials.

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TRY THESE We can find the product in other way also.

4xy × 5x2y2 × 6x3 y3
Find 4x × 5y × 7z = (4 × 5 × 6) × (x × x2 × x3) × (y × y2 × y3)
First find 4x × 5y and multiply it by 7z;
= 120 x6y6
or first find 5y × 7z and multiply it by 4x.
Is the result the same? What do you observe?
Does the order in which you carry out the multiplication matter?

Example 3: Complete the table for area of a rectangle with given length and breadth.

Solution: length breadth area

3x 5y 3x × 5y = 15xy
9y 4y2 ..............
4ab 5bc ..............
2l2m 3lm2 ..............

Example 4: Find the volume of each rectangular box with given length, breadth
and height.

length breadth height

(i) 2ax 3by 5cz
(ii) m2 n n 2p p2 m
(iii) 2q 4q2 8q3

Solution: Volume = length × breadth × height

Hence, for (i) volume = (2ax) × (3by) × (5cz)
= 2 × 3 × 5 × (ax) × (by) × (cz) = 30abcxyz
for (ii) volume = m2n × n2p × p2m
= (m2 × m) × (n × n2) × (p × p2) = m3n3p3
for (iii) volume = 2q × 4q2 × 8q3
= 2 × 4 × 8 × q × q2 × q3 = 64q6

EXERCISE 9.2
1. Find the product of the following pairs of monomials.
(i) 4, 7p (ii) – 4p, 7p (iii) – 4p, 7pq (iv) 4p3, – 3p
(v) 4p, 0
2. Find the areas of rectangles with the following pairs of monomials as their lengths and
breadths respectively.
(p, q); (10m, 5n); (20x2, 5y2); (4x, 3x2); (3mn, 4np)

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3. Complete the table of products.

First monomial →
2x –5y 3x 2 – 4xy 7x 2y –9x2y2
Second monomial ↓

2x 4x 2 ... ... ... ... ...

... ...
–5y –15x2y ... ... ...

3x 2 ... ... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ... ...

– 4xy
7x 2y ... ... ... ... ... ...

–9x2y2 ... ... ... ... ... ...

4. Obtain the volume of rectangular boxes with the following length, breadth and height
respectively.
(i) 5a, 3a2, 7a4 (ii) 2p, 4q, 8r (iii) xy, 2x2y, 2xy2 (iv) a, 2b, 3c
5. Obtain the product of
(i) xy, yz, zx (ii) a, – a2, a3 (iii) 2, 4y, 8y2, 16y3
(iv) a, 2b, 3c, 6abc (v) m, – mn, mnp

9.8 Multiplying a Monomial by a Polynomial

9.8.1 Multiplying a monomial by a binomial
Let us multiply the monomial 3x by the binomial 5y + 2, i.e., find 3x × (5y + 2) = ?
Recall that 3x and (5y + 2) represent numbers. Therefore, using the distributive law,
3x × (5y + 2) = (3x × 5y) + (3x × 2) = 15xy + 6x

We commonly use distributive law in our calculations. For example:

7 × 106 = 7 × (100 + 6)
= 7 × 100 + 7 × 6 (Here, we used distributive law)
= 700 + 42 = 742
7 × 38 = 7 × (40 – 2)
= 7 × 40 – 7 × 2 (Here, we used distributive law)
= 280 – 14 = 266

Similarly, (–3x) × (–5y + 2) = (–3x) × (–5y) + (–3x) × (2) = 15xy – 6x

and 5xy × (y2 + 3) = (5xy × y2) + (5xy × 3) = 5xy3 + 15xy.
What about a binomial × monomial? For example, (5y + 2) × 3x = ?
We may use commutative law as : 7 × 3 = 3 × 7; or in general a × b = b × a
Similarly, (5y + 2) × 3x = 3x × (5y + 2) = 15xy + 6x as before.

TRY THESE
Find the product (i) 2x (3x + 5xy) (ii) a2 (2ab – 5c)

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9.8.2 Multiplying a monomial by a trinomial

Consider 3p × (4p2 + 5p + 7). As in the earlier case, we use distributive law;
3p × (4p2 + 5p + 7) = (3p × 4p2) + (3p × 5p) + (3p × 7)
= 12p3 + 15p2 + 21p
Multiply each term of the trinomial by the monomial and add products. TRY THESE
Observe, by using the distributive law, we are able to carry out the Find the product:
multiplication term by term. (4p2 + 5p + 7) × 3p
Example 5: Simplify the expressions and evaluate them as directed:
(i) x (x – 3) + 2 for x = 1, (ii) 3y (2y – 7) – 3 (y – 4) – 63 for y = –2
Solution:
(i) x (x – 3) + 2 = x2 – 3x + 2
For x = 1, x2 – 3x + 2 = (1)2 – 3 (1) + 2
=1–3+2=3–3=0
(ii) 3y (2y – 7) – 3 (y – 4) – 63 = 6y2 – 21y – 3y + 12 – 63
= 6y2 – 24y – 51
For y = –2, 6y2 – 24y – 51 = 6 (–2)2 – 24(–2) – 51
= 6 × 4 + 24 × 2 – 51
= 24 + 48 – 51 = 72 – 51 = 21
Example 6: Add
(i) 5m (3 – m) and 6m2 – 13m (ii) 4y (3y2 + 5y – 7) and 2 (y3 – 4y2 + 5)
Solution:
(i) First expression = 5m (3 – m) = (5m × 3) – (5m × m) = 15m – 5m2
Now adding the second expression to it,15m – 5m2 + 6m2 – 13m = m2 + 2m
(ii) The first expression = 4y (3y2 + 5y – 7) = (4y × 3y2) + (4y × 5y) + (4y × (–7))
= 12y3 + 20y2 – 28y
The second expression = 2 (y – 4y + 5) = 2y3 + 2 × (– 4y2) + 2 × 5
3 2

= 2y3 – 8y2 + 10
Adding the two expressions, 12y3 + 20y2 – 28y
+ 2y3 – 8y2 + 10
14y3 + 12y2 – 28y + 10
Example 7: Subtract 3pq (p – q) from 2pq (p + q).
Solution: We have 3pq (p – q) = 3p2q – 3pq2 and
2pq (p + q) = 2p2q + 2pq2
Subtracting, 2p2q + 2pq2
3p2q – 3pq2
– +
2
–pq + 5pq2

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EXERCISE 9.3
1. Carry out the multiplication of the expressions in each of the following pairs.
(i) 4p, q + r (ii) ab, a – b (iii) a + b, 7a2b2 (iv) a2 – 9, 4a
(v) pq + qr + rp, 0
2. Complete the table.

First expression Second expression Product

...
(i) a b+c+d
...
(ii) x+y–5 5xy
(iii) p 6p2 – 7p + 5 ...

(iv) 4p2q2 p2 – q2 ...

...
(v) a+b+c abc
3. Find the product.
 2   −9 2 2 
(i) (a2) × (2a22) × (4a26) (ii)  xy ×  x y 
 3   10 
 10 3   6 3 
(iii)  − pq  ×  p q
 5  (iv) x × x2 × x3 × x4
3
1
4. (a) Simplify 3x (4x – 5) + 3 and find its values for (i) x = 3 (ii) x = .
2
(b) Simplify a (a2 + a + 1) + 5 and find its value for (i) a = 0, (ii) a = 1
(iii) a = – 1.
5. (a) Add: p ( p – q), q ( q – r) and r ( r – p)
(b) Add: 2x (z – x – y) and 2y (z – y – x)
(c) Subtract: 3l (l – 4 m + 5 n) from 4l ( 10 n – 3 m + 2 l )
(d) Subtract: 3a (a + b + c ) – 2 b (a – b + c) from 4c ( – a + b + c )

9.9 Multiplying a Polynomial by a Polynomial

9.9.1 Multiplying a binomial by a binomial
Let us multiply one binomial (2a + 3b) by another binomial, say (3a + 4b). We do this
step-by-step, as we did in earlier cases, following the distributive law of multiplication,
(3a + 4b) × (2a + 3b) = 3a × (2a + 3b) + 4b × (2a + 3b)
Observe, every term in one = (3a × 2a) + (3a × 3b) + (4b × 2a) + (4b × 3b)
binomial multiplies every = 6a2 + 9ab + 8ba + 12b2
term in the other binomial.
= 6a2 + 17ab + 12b2 (Since ba = ab)
When we carry out term by term multiplication, we expect 2 × 2 = 4 terms to be
present. But two of these are like terms, which are combined, and hence we get 3 terms.
In multiplication of polynomials with polynomials, we should always look for like
terms, if any, and combine them.

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Example 8: Multiply
(i) (x – 4) and (2x + 3) (ii) (x – y) and (3x + 5y)
Solution:
(i) (x – 4) × (2x + 3) = x × (2x + 3) – 4 × (2x + 3)
= (x × 2x) + (x × 3) – (4 × 2x) – (4 × 3) = 2x2 + 3x – 8x – 12
= 2x2 – 5x – 12 (Adding like terms)
(ii) (x – y) × (3x + 5y) = x × (3x + 5y) – y × (3x + 5y)
= (x × 3x) + (x × 5y) – (y × 3x) – ( y × 5y)
= 3x2 + 5xy – 3yx – 5y2 = 3x2 + 2xy – 5y2 (Adding like terms)
Example 9: Multiply
(i) (a + 7) and (b – 5) (ii) (a2 + 2b2) and (5a – 3b)
Solution:
(i) (a + 7) × (b – 5) = a × (b – 5) + 7 × (b – 5)
= ab – 5a + 7b – 35
Note that there are no like terms involved in this multiplication.
(ii) (a2 + 2b2) × (5a – 3b) = a2 (5a – 3b) + 2b2 × (5a – 3b)
= 5a3 – 3a2b + 10ab2 – 6b3
9.9.2 Multiplying a binomial by a trinomial
In this multiplication, we shall have to multiply each of the three terms in the trinomial by
each of the two terms in the binomial. We shall get in all 3 × 2 = 6 terms, which may
reduce to 5 or less, if the term by term multiplication results in like terms. Consider
(a + 7) × (a 2 + 3a + 5) = a × (a2 + 3a + 5) + 7 × (a2 + 3a + 5)


  
binomial trinomial [using the distributive law]
3 2 2
= a + 3a + 5a + 7a + 21a + 35
= a3 + (3a2 + 7a2) + (5a + 21a) + 35
= a3 + 10a2 + 26a + 35 (Why are there only 4
terms in the final result?)
Example 10: Simplify (a + b) (2a – 3b + c) – (2a – 3b) c.

Solution: We have
(a + b) (2a – 3b + c) = a (2a – 3b + c) + b (2a – 3b + c)
= 2a2 – 3ab + ac + 2ab – 3b2 + bc
= 2a2 – ab – 3b2 + bc + ac (Note, –3ab and 2ab
are like terms)
and (2a – 3b) c = 2ac – 3bc
Therefore,
(a + b) (2a – 3b + c) – (2a – 3b) c = 2a2 – ab – 3b2 + bc + ac – (2ac – 3bc)
= 2a2 – ab – 3b2 + bc + ac – 2ac + 3bc
= 2a2 – ab – 3b2 + (bc + 3bc) + (ac – 2ac)
= 2a2 – 3b2 – ab + 4bc – ac

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EXERCISE 9.4
1. Multiply the binomials.
(i) (2x + 5) and (4x – 3) (ii) (y – 8) and (3y – 4)
(iii) (2.5l – 0.5m) and (2.5l + 0.5m) (iv) (a + 3b) and (x + 5)
(v) (2pq + 3q2) and (3pq – 2q2)
(vi)

2. Find the product.

(i) (5 – 2x) (3 + x) (ii) (x + 7y) (7x – y)
2 2
(iii) (a + b) (a + b ) (iv) (p2 – q2) (2p + q)
3. Simplify.
(i) (x2 – 5) (x + 5) + 25 (ii) (a2 + 5) (b3 + 3) + 5
(iii) (t + s2) (t2 – s)
(iv) (a + b) (c – d) + (a – b) (c + d) + 2 (ac + bd)
(v) (x + y)(2x + y) + (x + 2y)(x – y) (vi) (x + y)(x2 – xy + y2)
(vii) (1.5x – 4y)(1.5x + 4y + 3) – 4.5x + 12y
(viii) (a + b + c)(a + b – c)

9.10 What is an Identity?

Consider the equality (a + 1) (a +2) = a2 + 3a + 2
We shall evaluate both sides of this equality for some value of a, say a = 10.
For a = 10, LHS = (a + 1) (a + 2) = (10 + 1) (10 + 2) = 11 × 12 = 132
RHS = a2 + 3a + 2 = 102 + 3 × 10 + 2 = 100 + 30 + 2 = 132
Thus, the values of the two sides of the equality are equal for a = 10.
Let us now take a = –5
LHS = (a + 1) (a + 2) = (–5 + 1) (–5 + 2) = (– 4) × (–3) = 12
RHS = a2 + 3a + 2 = (–5)2 + 3 (–5) + 2
= 25 – 15 + 2 = 10 + 2 = 12
Thus, for a = –5, also LHS = RHS.
We shall find that for any value of a, LHS = RHS. Such an equality, true for every
value of the variable in it, is called an identity. Thus,
(a + 1) (a + 2) = a2 + 3a + 2 is an identity.
An equation is true for only certain values of the variable in it. It is not true for
all values of the variable. For example, consider the equation
a2 + 3a + 2 = 132
It is true for a = 10, as seen above, but it is not true for a = –5 or for a = 0 etc.
Try it: Show that a2 + 3a + 2 = 132 is not true for a = –5 and for a = 0.

9.11 Standard Identities

We shall now study three identities which are very useful in our work. These identities are
obtained by multiplying a binomial by another binomial.

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Let us first consider the product (a + b) (a + b) or (a + b)2.

(a + b)2 = (a + b) (a + b)
= a(a + b) + b (a + b)
= a2 + ab + ba + b2
= a2 + 2ab + b2 (since ab = ba)
Thus (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 (I)
Clearly, this is an identity, since the expression on the RHS is obtained from the LHS by
actual multiplication. One may verify that for any value of a and any value of b, the values of
the two sides are equal.
• Next we consider (a – b)2 = (a – b) (a – b) = a (a – b) – b (a – b)
We have = a2 – ab – ba + b2 = a2 – 2ab + b2
or (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2 (II)
• Finally, consider (a + b) (a – b). We have (a + b) (a – b) = a (a – b) + b (a – b)
= a2 – ab + ba – b2 = a2 – b2(since ab = ba)
or (a + b) (a – b) = a2 – b2 (III)
The identities (I), (II) and (III) are known as standard identities.

TRY THESE
1. Put – b in place of b in Identity (I). Do you get Identity (II)?

• We shall now work out one more useful identity.

(x + a) (x + b) = x (x + b) + a (x + b)
= x2 + bx + ax + ab
or (x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b) x + ab (IV)

TRY THESE
1. Verify Identity (IV), for a = 2, b = 3, x = 5.
2. Consider, the special case of Identity (IV) with a = b, what do you get? Is it
related to Identity (I)?
3. Consider, the special case of Identity (IV) with a = – c and b = – c. What do you
get? Is it related to Identity (II)?
4. Consider the special case of Identity (IV) with b = – a. What do you get? Is it
related to Identity (III)?

We can see that Identity (IV) is the general form of the other three identities also.

9.12 Applying Identities

We shall now see how, for many problems on multiplication of binomial expressions and
also of numbers, use of the identities gives a simple alternative method of solving them.

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Example 11: Using the Identity (I), find (i) (2x + 3y)2 (ii) 1032
Solution:
(i) (2x + 3y)2 = (2x)2 + 2(2x) (3y) + (3y)2 [Using the Identity (I)]
2 2
= 4x + 12xy + 9y
We may work out (2x + 3y)2 directly.
(2x + 3y)2 = (2x + 3y) (2x + 3y)
= (2x) (2x) + (2x) (3y) + (3y) (2x) + (3y) (3y)
= 4x2 + 6xy + 6 yx + 9y2 (as xy = yx)
2 2
= 4x + 12xy + 9y
Using Identity (I) gave us an alternative method of squaring (2x + 3y). Do you notice that
the Identity method required fewer steps than the above direct method? You will realise
the simplicity of this method even more if you try to square more complicated binomial
expressions than (2x + 3y).
(ii) (103)2 = (100 + 3)2
= 1002 + 2 × 100 × 3 + 32 (Using Identity I)
= 10000 + 600 + 9 = 10609
We may also directly multiply 103 by 103 and get the answer. Do you see that Identity (I)
has given us a less tedious method than the direct method of squaring 103? Try squaring
1013. You will find in this case, the method of using identities even more attractive than the
direct multiplication method.
Example 12: Using Identity (II), find (i) (4p – 3q)2 (ii) (4.9)2
Solution:
(i) (4p – 3q)2 =(4p)2 – 2 (4p) (3q) + (3q)2 [Using the Identity (II)]
= 16p2 – 24pq + 9q2
Do you agree that for squaring (4p – 3q)2 the method of identities is quicker than the
direct method?
(ii) (4.9)2 =(5.0 – 0.1)2 = (5.0)2 – 2 (5.0) (0.1) + (0.1)2
= 25.00 – 1.00 + 0.01 = 24.01
Is it not that, squaring 4.9 using Identity (II) is much less tedious than squaring it by
direct multiplication?
Example 13: Using Identity (III), find
3 2  3 2 
(i)  m + n  m − n (ii) 9832 – 172 (iii) 194 × 206
2 3 2 3 
Solution:
3 2  3 2   3 2  2 2
(i)  m + n  m − n = m −  n Try doing this directly.
2 3 2 3   2  3  You will realise how easy
9 2 4 2 our method of using
= m − n Identity (III) is.
4 9
(ii) 9832 – 172 = (983 + 17) (983 – 17)
[Here a = 983, b =17, a2 – b2 = (a + b) (a – b)]
Therefore, 9832 – 172 = 1000 × 966 = 966000

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(iii) 194 × 206 = (200 – 6) × (200 + 6) = 2002 – 62

= 40000 – 36 = 39964
Example 14: Use the Identity (x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b) x + ab to find the
following:
(i) 501 × 502 (ii) 95 × 103
Solution:
(i) 501 × 502 = (500 + 1) × (500 + 2) = 5002 + (1 + 2) × 500 + 1 × 2
= 250000 + 1500 + 2 = 251502
(ii) 95 × 103 = (100 – 5) × (100 + 3) = 1002 + (–5 + 3) × 100 + (–5) × 3
= 10000 – 200 – 15 = 9785

EXERCISE 9.5
1. Use a suitable identity to get each of the following products.
(i) (x + 3) (x + 3) (ii) (2y + 5) (2y + 5) (iii) (2a – 7) (2a – 7)
1 1
(iv) (3a – ) (3a – ) (v) (1.1m – 0.4) (1.1m + 0.4)
2 2
(vi) (a + b ) (– a + b2)
2 2 2
(vii) (6x – 7) (6x + 7) (viii) (– a + c) (– a + c)
 x 3 y   x 3y 
(ix)  +   +  (x) (7a – 9b) (7a – 9b)
2 4 2 4
2. Use the identity (x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b) x + ab to find the following products.
(i) (x + 3) (x + 7) (ii) (4x + 5) (4x + 1)
(iii) (4x – 5) (4x – 1) (iv) (4x + 5) (4x – 1)
(v) (2x + 5y) (2x + 3y) (vi) (2a2 + 9) (2a2 + 5)
(vii) (xyz – 4) (xyz – 2)
3. Find the following squares by using the identities.
(i) (b – 7)2 (ii) (xy + 3z)2 (iii) (6x2 – 5y)2
2
2 3 
(iv)  m + n (v) (0.4p – 0.5q)2 (vi) (2xy + 5y)2
3 2
4. Simplify.
(i) (a2 – b2)2 (ii) (2x + 5)2 – (2x – 5)2
2 2
(iii) (7m – 8n) + (7m + 8n) (iv) (4m + 5n)2 + (5m + 4n)2
(v) (2.5p – 1.5q)2 – (1.5p – 2.5q)2
(vi) (ab + bc)2 – 2ab2c (vii) (m2 – n2m)2 + 2m3n2
5. Show that.
(i) (3x + 7)2 – 84x = (3x – 7)2 (ii) (9p – 5q)2 + 180pq = (9p + 5q)2
16 2 9 2
(iii) + 2mn = m + n
9 16
(iv) (4pq + 3q)2 – (4pq – 3q)2 = 48pq2
(v) (a – b) (a + b) + (b – c) (b + c) + (c – a) (c + a) = 0

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6. Using identities, evaluate.

(i) 712 (ii) 992 (iii) 1022 (iv) 9982
2
(v) 5.2 (vi) 297 × 303 (vii) 78 × 82 (viii) 8.92
(ix) 10.5 × 9.5
7. Using a2 – b2 = (a + b) (a – b), find
(i) 512 – 492 (ii) (1.02)2 – (0.98)2 (iii) 1532 – 1472
2 2
(iv) 12.1 – 7.9
8. Using (x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b) x + ab, find
(i) 103 × 104 (ii) 5.1 × 5.2 (iii) 103 × 98 (iv) 9.7 × 9.8

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. Expressions are formed from variables and constants.
2. Terms are added to form expressions. Terms themselves are formed as product of factors.
3. Expressions that contain exactly one, two and three terms are called monomials, binomials and
trinomials respectively. In general, any expression containing one or more terms with non-zero
coefficients (and with variables having non- negative integers as exponents) is called a polynomial.
4. Like terms are formed from the same variables and the powers of these variables are the same,
too. Coefficients of like terms need not be the same.
5. While adding (or subtracting) polynomials, first look for like terms and add (or subtract) them;
then handle the unlike terms.
6. There are number of situations in which we need to multiply algebraic expressions: for example, in
finding area of a rectangle, the sides of which are given as expressions.
7. A monomial multiplied by a monomial always gives a monomial.
8. While multiplying a polynomial by a monomial, we multiply every term in the polynomial by the
monomial.
9. In carrying out the multiplication of a polynomial by a binomial (or trinomial), we multiply term by
term, i.e., every term of the polynomial is multiplied by every term in the binomial (or trinomial).
Note that in such multiplication, we may get terms in the product which are like and have to be
combined.
10. An identity is an equality, which is true for all values of the variables in the equality.
On the other hand, an equation is true only for certain values of its variables. An equation is not an
identity.
11. The following are the standard identities:
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 (I)
(a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2 (II)
(a + b) (a – b) = a2 – b2 (III)
12. Another useful identity is (x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b) x + ab (IV)
13. The above four identities are useful in carrying out squares and products of algebraic expressions.
They also allow easy alternative methods to calculate products of numbers and so on.

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CHAPTER
Visualising Solid
Shapes
10
10.1 Introduction
In Class VII, you have learnt about plane shapes and solid shapes. Plane shapes have two
measurements like length and breadth and therefore they are called two-dimensional shapes
whereas a solid object has three measurements like length, breadth, height or depth. Hence,
they are called three-dimensional shapes. Also, a solid object occupies some space.
Two-dimensional and three-dimensional figures can also be briefly named as 2-D and 3-
D figures. You may recall that triangle, rectangle, circle etc., are 2-D figures while cubes,
cylinders, cones, spheres etc. are three-dimensional figures.

DO THIS

Match the following: (First one is done for you)

Shape Type of Shape Name of the shape

3-dimensional Sphere

2-Dimensional Cylinder

3-dimensional Square

2-dimensional Circle

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3-dimensional Cuboid

3- dimensional Cube

2-dimensional Cone

3-dimensional Triangle

Note that all the above shapes are single. However, in our practical life, many a times, we
come across combinations of different shapes. For example, look at the following objects.

A tent A tin Softy (ice-cream)

A cone surmounted A cylinderical shell A cone surmounted by a
on a cylinder hemisphere

A photoframe A bowl Tomb on a pillar

A rectangular path A hemispherical shell Cylinder surmounted
by a hemisphere

DO THIS
Match the following pictures (objects) with their shapes:

Picture (object) Shape

(i) An agricultural field Two rectangular cross paths inside a
rectangular park.

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(ii) A groove A circular path around a circular ground.

(iii) A toy A triangular field adjoining a square field.

(iv) A circular park A cone taken out of a cylinder.

(v) A cross path A hemisphere surmounted on a cone.

10.2 Views of 3D-Shapes

You have learnt that a 3-dimensional object can look differently from different positions so
they can be drawn from different perspectives. For example, a given hut can have the
following views.
Top

Front Side
A hut Front view Side view Top view

similarly, a glass can have the following views.

A glass Side view Top view

Why is the top view of the glass a pair of concentric circles? Will the side view appear different if taken from
some other direction? Think about this! Now look at the different views of a brick.

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Top

Side
Front

A brick Front view Side view Top view

We can also get different views of figures made by joining cubes. For example.
Top

Side
Front
Solid Side view Front view Top view
made of three cubes

Top

Side
Front
Solid Top view Front view Side view
made of four cubes
Top

Front Side
Solid Side view Front view Top view
made of four cubes

DO THIS

Observe different things around you from different positions. Discuss with your friends
their various views.

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EXERCISE 10.1
1. For each of the given solid, the two views are given. Match for each solid the
corresponding top and front views. The first one is done for you.
Object Side view Top view
(a) (i) (i)

A bottle
(b) (ii) (ii)

A weight

(c) (iii) (iii)

A flask

(d) (iv) (iv)

Cup and Saucer

(e) (v) (v)

Container

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2. For each of the given solid, the three views are given. Identify for each solid the corresponding top,
front and side views.
(a) Object (i) (ii) (iii)
Top

Side

Front
An almirah
(b) Top

Side
Front
A Match box
(c) Top

Side

Front

A Television
(d) Top

Front Side

A car

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3. For each given solid, identify the top view, front view and side view.
(a)

(i) (ii) (iii)

(b)

(i) (ii) (iii)

(c)

(i) (ii) (iii)

(d)

(i) (ii) (iii)

(e)

(i) (ii) (iii)

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4. Draw the front view, side view and top view of the given objects.
(a) A military tent (b) A table Top

Side

Front

(c) A nut (d) A hexagonal block

Top Top

Side
Side

Front Front

(e) A dice Top

(f) A solid

Side

Front

10.3 Mapping Space Around Us

You have been dealing with maps since you were in primary, classes. In Geography, you
have been asked to locate a particular State, a particular river, a mountain etc., on a map.
In History, you might have been asked to locate a particular place where some event had
occured long back. You have traced routes of rivers, roads, railwaylines, traders and
many others.
How do we read maps? What can we conclude and understand while reading a map?
What information does a map have and what it does not have? Is it any different from a
picture? In this section, we will try to find answers to some of these questions. Look at the
map of a house whose picture is given alongside (Fig 10.1).

Fig 10.1

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What can we conclude from the above illustration? When we draw a picture, we attempt
to represent reality as it is seen with all its details, whereas, a map depicts only the location of
an object, in relation to other objects. Secondly, different persons can give descriptions of
pictures completely different from one another, depending upon the position from which they
are looking at the house. But, this is not true in the case of a map. The map of the house
remains the same irrespective of the position of the observer. In other words, perspective
is very important for drawing a picture but it is not relevant for a map.
Now, look at the map (Fig 10.2), which has been drawn by My house
My sister’s school
seven year old Raghav, as the route from his house to his school:
From this map, can you tell –
(i) how far is Raghav’s school from his house?
(ii) would every circle in the map depict a round about?
(iii) whose school is nearer to the house, Raghav’s or his sister’s?
It is very difficult to answer the above questions on the basis of
the given map. Can you tell why? My school
The reason is that we do not know if the distances have been Fig 10.2
drawn properly or whether the circles drawn are roundabouts or
represent something else.
Now look at another map drawn by his sister,
ten year old Meena, to show the route from her
house to her school (Fig 10.3).
This map is different from the earlier maps. Here,
Meena has used different symbols for different
landmarks. Secondly, longer line segments have
been drawn for longer distances and shorter line
segments have been drawn for shorter distances,
i.e., she has drawn the map to a scale.
Now, you can answer the following questions:
• How far is Raghav’s school from his Fig 10.3
residence?
• Whose school is nearer to the house, Raghav’s or Meena’s?
• Which are the important landmarks on the route?
Thus we realise that, use of certain symbols and mentioning of distances has helped us
read the map easily. Observe that the distances shown on the map are proportional to the
actual distances on the ground. This is done by considering a proper scale. While drawing
(or reading) a map, one must know, to what scale it has to be drawn (or has been drawn),
i.e., how much of actual distance is denoted by 1mm or 1cm in the map. This means, that if
one draws a map, he/she has to decide that 1cm of space in that map shows a certain fixed
distance of say 1 km or 10 km. This scale can vary from map to map but not within a map.
For instance, look at the map of India alongside the map of Delhi.

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You will find that when the maps are drawn of same size, scales and the distances in
the two maps will vary. That is 1 cm of space in the map of Delhi will represent smaller
distances as compared to the distances in the map of India.
The larger the place and smaller the size of the map drawn, the greater is the distance
represented by 1 cm.
Thus, we can summarise that:
1. A map depicts the location of a particular object/place in relation to other objects/places.
2. Symbols are used to depict the different objects/places.
3. There is no reference or perspective in map, i.e., objects that are closer to the
observer are shown to be of the same size as those that are farther away. For
example, look at the following illustration (Fig 10.4).

Fig 10.4

4. Maps use a scale which is fixed for a particular map. It reduces the real distances
proportionately to distances on the paper.

DO THIS

1. Look at the following map of a city (Fig 10.5).

Fig 10.5

(a) Colour the map as follows: Blue-water, Red-fire station, Orange-Library,

Yellow-schools, Green-Parks, Pink-Community Centre, Purple-Hospital,
Brown-Cemetry.

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(b) Mark a Green ‘X’ at the intersection of 2nd street and Danim street. A Black
‘Y’ where the river meets the third street. A red ‘Z’ at the intersection of main
street and 1st street.
(c) In magenta colour, draw a short street route from the college to the lake.
2. Draw a map of the route from your house to your school showing important
landmarks.

EXERCISE 10.2
1. Look at the given map of a city.

Answer the following.

(a) Colour the map as follows: Blue-water, red-fire station, orange-library, yellow
- schools, Green - park, Pink - College, Purple - Hospital, Brown - Cemetery.
(b) Mark a green ‘X’ at the intersection of Road ‘C’ and Nehru Road, Green ‘Y’
at the intersection of Gandhi Road and Road A.
(c) In red, draw a short street route from Library to the bus depot.
(d) Which is further east, the city park or the market?
(e) Which is further south, the primary school or the Sr. Secondary School?
2. Draw a map of your class room using proper scale and symbols for different objects.
3. Draw a map of your school compound using proper scale and symbols for various
features like play ground main building, garden etc.
4. Draw a map giving instructions to your friend so that she reaches your house without
any difficulty.

10.4 Faces, Edges and Vertices

Look at the following solids!

Riddle
I have no vertices.
I have no flat
faces. Who am I?

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Each of these solids is made up of polygonal regions which are called its faces;
these faces meet at edges which are line segments; and the edges meet at vertices which
are points. Such solids are called polyhedrons.

These are polyhedrons These are not polyhedrons

How are the polyhedrons different from the non-polyhedrons? Study the figures
carefully. You know three other types of common solids.

Sphere Cone Cylinder

Convex polyhedrons: You will recall the concept of convex polygons. The idea of
convex polyhedron is similar.

These are convex polyhedrons These are not convex polyhedrons

Regular polyhedrons: A polyhedron is said to be regular if its faces are made up of

regular polygons and the same number of faces meet at each vertex.

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This polyhedron is regular. This polyhedon is not regular. All the sides
Its faces are congruent, regular are congruent; but the vertices are not
polygons. Vertices are formed by the formed by the same number of faces.
same number of faces 3 faces meet at A but
4 faces meet at B.
Two important members of polyhedron family around are prisms and pyramids.

These are prisms These are pyramids

We say that a prism is a polyhedron whose base and top are congruent polygons
and whose other faces, i.e., lateral faces are parallelograms in shape.
On the other hand, a pyramid is a polyhedron whose base is a polygon (of any
number of sides) and whose lateral faces are triangles with a common vertex. (If you join
all the corners of a polygon to a point not in its plane, you get a model for pyramid).
A prism or a pyramid is named after its base. Thus a hexagonal prism has a hexagon
as its base; and a triangular pyramid has a triangle as its base. What, then, is a rectangular
prism? What is a square pyramid? Clearly their bases are rectangle and square respectively.

DO THIS

Tabulate the number of faces, edges and vertices for the following polyhedrons:
(Here ‘V’ stands for number of vertices, ‘F’ stands for number of faces and ‘E’ stands
for number of edges).

Solid F V E F+V E+2

Cuboid
Triangular pyramid

Triangular prism

Pyramid with square base

Prism with square base

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What do you infer from the last two columns? In each case, do you find
F + V = E + 2, i.e., F + V – E = 2? This relationship is called Euler’s formula.
In fact this formula is true for any polyhedron.

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

What happens to F, V and E if some parts are sliced off from a solid? (To start with,
you may take a plasticine cube, cut a corner off and investigate).

EXERCISE 10.3
1. Can a polyhedron have for its faces
(i) 3 triangles? (ii) 4 triangles?
(iii) a square and four triangles?
2. Is it possible to have a polyhedron with any given number of faces? (Hint: Think of
a pyramid).
3. Which are prisms among the following?
(i) (ii)

A nail Unsharpened pencil

(iii) (iv)

A table weight A box

4. (i) How are prisms and cylinders alike?

(ii) How are pyramids and cones alike?
5. Is a square prism same as a cube? Explain.
6. Verify Euler’s formula for these solids.

(i) (ii)

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7. Using Euler’s formula find the unknown.

Faces ? 5 20

Vertices 6 ? 12

Edges 12 9 ?

8. Can a polyhedron have 10 faces, 20 edges and 15 vertices?

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. Recognising 2D and 3D objects.
2. Recognising different shapes in nested objects.
3. 3D objects have different views from different positions.
4. A map is different from a picture.
5. A map depicts the location of a particular object/place in relation to other objects/places.
6. Symbols are used to depict the different objects/places.
7. There is no reference or perspective in a map.
8. Maps involve a scale which is fixed for a particular map.
9. For any polyhedron,
F+V–E=2
where ‘F’ stands for number of faces, V stands for number of vertices and E stands for number of
edges. This relationship is called Euler’s formula.

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NOTES

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 MENSURATION 169

CHAPTER

Mensuration
11
11.1 Introduction
We have learnt that for a closed plane figure, the perimeter is the distance around its
boundary and its area is the region covered by it. We found the area and perimeter of
various plane figures such as triangles, rectangles, circles etc. We have also learnt to find
the area of pathways or borders in rectangular shapes.
In this chapter, we will try to solve problems related to perimeter and area of other
plane closed figures like quadrilaterals.
We will also learn about surface area and volume of solids such as cube, cuboid and
cylinder.

11.2 Let us Recall

Let us take an example to review our previous knowledge.
This is a figure of a rectangular park (Fig 11.1) whose length is 30 m and width is 20 m.
(i) What is the total length of the fence surrounding it? To find the length of the fence we
need to find the perimeter of this park, which is 100 m.
(Check it)
(ii) How much land is occupied by the park? To find the
land occupied by this park we need to find the area of
this park which is 600 square meters (m2) (How?).
(iii) There is a path of one metre width running inside along
the perimeter of the park that has to be cemented.
If 1 bag of cement is required to cement 4 m2 area, how
many bags of cement would be required to construct the
Fig 11.1
cemented path?
area of the path
We can say that the number of cement bags used = .
area cemented by 1 bag
Area of cemented path = Area of park – Area of park not cemented.
Path is 1 m wide, so the rectangular area not cemented is (30 – 2) × (20 – 2) m2.
That is 28 × 18 m2.
Hence number of cement bags used = ------------------
(iv) There are two rectangular flower beds of size 1.5 m × 2 m each in the park as
shown in the diagram (Fig 11.1) and the rest has grass on it. Find the area covered
by grass.

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Area of rectangular beds = ------------------

Area of park left after cementing the path = ------------------
Area covered by the grass = ------------------
We can find areas of geometrical shapes other than rectangles also if certain
measurements are given to us . Try to recall and match the following:

Diagram Shape Area

rectangle a×a

square b×h

triangle πb 2

1
parallelogram b×h
2

circle a×b

Can you write an expression for the perimeter of each of the above shapes?

TRY THESE
(a) Match the following figures with their respective areas in the box.

49 cm2

77 cm2

98 cm2

(b) Write the perimeter of each shape.

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EXERCISE 11.1
1. A square and a rectangular field with
measurements as given in the figure have the same
perimeter. Which field has a larger area?
2. Mrs. Kaushik has a square plot with the (a) (b)
measurement as shown in the figure. She wants to
construct a house in the middle of the plot. A garden is developed
around the house. Find the total cost of developing a garden around
the house at the rate of ` 55 per m2.
3. The shape of a garden is rectangular in the middle and semi circular
at the ends as shown in the diagram. Find the area and the perimeter
of this garden [Length of rectangle is
20 – (3.5 + 3.5) metres].

4. A flooring tile has the shape of a parallelogram whose base is 24 cm and the
corresponding height is 10 cm. How many such tiles are required to cover a floor of
area 1080 m2? (If required you can split the tiles in whatever way you want to fill up
the corners).
5. An ant is moving around a few food pieces of different shapes scattered on the floor.
For which food-piece would the ant have to take a longer round? Remember,
circumference of a circle can be obtained by using the expression c = 2πr, where r
is the radius of the circle.
(a) (b) (c)

11.3 Area of Trapezium

Nazma owns a plot near a main road
(Fig 11.2). Unlike some other rectangular
plots in her neighbourhood, the plot has
only one pair of parallel opposite sides.
So, it is nearly a trapezium in shape. Can
you find out its area?
Let us name the vertices of this plot as
shown in Fig 11.3.
By drawing EC || AB, we can divide it
into two parts, one of rectangular shape
and the other of triangular shape, (which Fig 11.3
is right angled at C), as shown in Fig 11.3. Fig 11.2 (b = c + a = 30 m)

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1 1
Area of ∆ ECD = h × c = × 12 × 10 = 60 m2.
2 2
Area of rectangle ABCE = h × a = 12 × 20 = 240 m2.
Area of trapezium ABDE = area of ∆ ECD + Area of rectangle ABCE = 60 + 240 = 300 m2.
We can write the area by combining the two areas and write the area of trapezium as
1 c 
area of ABDE = h ×c+h×a=h  + a
2 2
 c + 2a   c + a + a
= h   = h  
2 2
(b + a) (sum of parallel sides)
= h = height
2 2
(b + a)
By substituting the values of h, b and a in this expression, we find h = 300 m2.
2
TRY THESE
1. Nazma’s sister also has a trapezium shaped plot. Divide it into three parts as shown
( a + b)
(Fig 11.4). Show that the area of trapezium WXYZ = h .
2

2. If h = 10 cm, c = 6 cm, b = 12 cm,

d = 4 cm, find the values of each of
its parts separetely and add to find
the area WXYZ. Verify it by putting
the values of h, a and b in the
h( a + b )
expression .
2
Fig 11.4

DO THIS

1. Draw any trapezium WXYZ on a piece

of graph paper as shown in the figure
and cut it out (Fig 11.5).
Fig 11.5

2. Find the mid point of XY by folding

the side and name it A (Fig 11.6).

Fig 11.6

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 MENSURATION 173

3. Cut trapezium WXYZ into two pieces by cutting along ZA. Place ∆ ZYA as shown
in Fig 11.7, where AY is placed on AX.

What is the length of the base of the larger

triangle? Write an expression for the area of
this triangle (Fig 11.7).
Fig 11.7

4. The area of this triangle and the area of the trapezium WXYZ are same (How?).
Get the expression for the area of trapezium by using the expression for the area
of triangle.

So to find the area of a trapezium we need to know the length of the parallel sides and the
perpendicular distance between these two parallel sides. Half the product of the sum of
the lengths of parallel sides and the perpendicular distance between them gives the area of
trapezium.

TRY THESE
Find the area of the following trapeziums (Fig 11.8).
(i) (ii)

Fig 11.8

DO THIS

In Class VII we learnt to draw parallelograms of equal areas with different perimeters.
Can it be done for trapezium? Check if the following trapeziums are of equal areas but
have different perimeters (Fig 11.9).

Fig 11.9

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We know that all congruent figures are equal in area. Can we say figures equal in area
need to be congruent too? Are these figures congruent?
Draw at least three trapeziums which have different areas but equal perimeters on a
squared sheet.

11.4 Area of a General Quadrilateral

A general quadrilateral can be split into two triangles by drawing one of its diagonals. This
“triangulation” helps us to find a formula for any general quadrilateral. Study the Fig 11.10.
Area of quadrilateral ABCD
= (area of ∆ ABC) + (area of ∆ ADC)
1 1
= ( AC × h1) + ( AC × h2)
2 2
1 Fig 11.10
= AC × ( h1 + h2)
2
1
= d ( h1 + h2) where d denotes the length of diagonal AC.
2
Example 1: Find the area of quadrilateral PQRS shown in Fig 11.11.
Solution: In this case, d = 5.5 cm, h1 = 2.5cm, h2 = 1.5 cm,
1
Area = d ( h1 + h2)
2
1
= × 5.5 × (2.5 + 1.5) cm2
2
1
Fig 11.11 = × 5.5 × 4 cm2 = 11 cm2
2

TRY THESE
We know that parallelogram is also a quadrilateral. Let us
also split such a quadrilateral into two triangles, find their
areas and hence that of the parallelogram. Does this agree
with the formula that you know already? (Fig 11.12)
Fig 11.12
11.4.1 Area of special quadrilaterals
We can use the same method of splitting into triangles (which we called “triangulation”) to
find a formula for the area of a rhombus. In Fig 11.13 ABCD is a rhombus. Therefore, its
diagonals are perpendicular bisectors of each other.
Area of rhombus ABCD = (area of ∆ ACD) + (area of ∆ ABC)

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1 1 1
=( × AC × OD) + ( × AC × OB) = AC × (OD + OB)
2 2 2
1 1
= AC × BD = d1 × d2 where AC = d1 and BD = d2
2 2 Fig 11.13
In other words, area of a rhombus is half the product of its diagonals.
Example 2: Find the area of a rhombus whose diagonals are of lengths 10 cm and 8.2 cm.
1
Solution: Area of the rhombus = d1 d2 where d1, d2 are lengths of diagonals.
2
1
= × 10 × 8.2 cm2 = 41 cm2.
2
THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE
A parallelogram is divided into two congruent triangles by drawing a diagonal across
it. Can we divide a trapezium into two congruent triangles?

TRY THESE
Find the area
of these
quadrilaterals
(Fig 11.14).

(i) (iii)
(ii)
Fig 11.14

11.5 Area of a Polygon

We split a quadrilateral into triangles and find its area. Similar methods can be used to find
the area of a polygon. Observe the following for a pentagon: (Fig 11.15, 11.16)

Fig 11.16
Fig 11.15 By constructing one diagonal AD and two perpendiculars BF
By constructing two diagonals AC and AD the and CG on it, pentagon ABCDE is divided into four parts. So,
pentagon ABCDE is divided into three parts. area of ABCDE = area of right angled ∆ AFB + area of
So, area ABCDE = area of ∆ ABC + area of trapezium BFGC + area of right angled ∆ CGD + area of
∆ ACD + area of ∆ AED. ∆ AED. (Identify the parallel sides of trapezium BFGC.)

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TRY THESE
(i) Divide the following polygons (Fig 11.17) into parts (triangles and trapezium) to
find out its area.

Fig 11.17
FI is a diagonal of polygon EFGHI NQ is a diagonal of polygon MNOPQR

(ii) Polygon ABCDE is divided into parts as shown below (Fig 11.18). Find its area if
AD = 8 cm, AH = 6 cm, AG = 4 cm, AF = 3 cm and perpendiculars BF = 2 cm,
CH = 3 cm, EG = 2.5 cm.
Area of Polygon ABCDE = area of ∆ AFB + ....
1 1
Area of ∆ AFB = × AF × BF = × 3 × 2 = ....
2 2
(BF + CH)
Area of trapezium FBCH = FH ×
2
(2 + 3) Fig 11.18
=3× [FH = AH – AF]
2
1 1
Area of ∆CHD = × HD× CH = ....; Area of ∆ADE = × AD × GE = ....
2 2
So, the area of polygon ABCDE = ....
(iii) Find the area of polygon MNOPQR (Fig 11.19) if
MP = 9 cm, MD = 7 cm, MC = 6 cm, MB = 4 cm,
MA = 2 cm
NA, OC, QD and RB are perpendiculars to
diagonal MP.
Fig 11.19

Example 1: The area of a trapezium shaped field is 480 m2, the distance between two
parallel sides is 15 m and one of the parallel side is 20 m. Find the other parallel side.
Solution: One of the parallel sides of the trapezium is a = 20 m, let another parallel
side be b, height h = 15 m.
The given area of trapezium = 480 m2.
1
Area of a trapezium = h (a + b)
2
1 480 × 2
So 480 = × 15 × (20 + b) or = 20 + b
2 15
or 64 = 20 + b or b = 44 m
Hence the other parallel side of the trapezium is 44 m.

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Example 2: The area of a rhombus is 240 cm2 and one of the diagonals is 16 cm. Find
the other diagonal.
Solution: Let length of one diagonal d1 = 16 cm
and length of the other diagonal = d 2
1
Area of the rhombus = d1 . d2 = 240
2
1
So, 16 ⋅ d 2 = 240
2
Therefore, d2 = 30 cm
Hence the length of the second diagonal is 30 cm.
Example 3: There is a hexagon MNOPQR of side 5 cm (Fig 11.20). Aman and
Ridhima divided it in two different ways (Fig 11.21).
Find the area of this hexagon using both ways.

Ridhima’s method Aman’s method

Fig 11.20
Fig 11.21
Solution: Aman’s method:
Since it is a hexagon so NQ divides the hexagon into two congruent trapeziums. You can
verify it by paper folding (Fig 11.22).
(11 + 5)
Now area of trapezium MNQR = 4 × = 2 × 16 = 32 cm2.
2
So the area of hexagon MNOPQR = 2 × 32 = 64 cm2.
Ridhima’s method: Fig 11.22
∆ MNO and ∆ RPQ are congruent triangles with altitude
3 cm (Fig 11.23).
You can verify this by cutting off these two triangles and
placing them on one another.
Fig 11.23 1
Area of ∆ MNO = × 8 × 3 = 12 cm2 = Area of ∆ RPQ
2
Area of rectangle MOPR = 8 × 5 = 40 cm2.
Now, area of hexagon MNOPQR = 40 + 12 + 12 = 64 cm2.

EXERCISE 11.2
1. The shape of the top surface of a table is a trapezium. Find its area
if its parallel sides are 1 m and 1.2 m and perpendicular distance
between them is 0.8 m.

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2. The area of a trapezium is 34 cm2 and the length of one of the parallel sides is
10 cm and its height is 4 cm. Find the length of the other parallel side.
3. Length of the fence of a trapezium shaped field ABCD is 120 m. If
BC = 48 m, CD = 17 m and AD = 40 m, find the area of this field. Side
AB is perpendicular to the parallel sides AD and BC.
4. The diagonal of a quadrilateral shaped field is 24 m
and the perpendiculars dropped on it from the
remaining opposite vertices are 8 m and 13 m. Find
the area of the field.
5. The diagonals of a rhombus are 7.5 cm and 12 cm. Find
its area.
6. Find the area of a rhombus whose side is 5 cm and whose altitude is 4.8 cm.
If one of its diagonals is 8 cm long, find the length of the other diagonal.
7. The floor of a building consists of 3000 tiles which are rhombus shaped and each of
its diagonals are 45 cm and 30 cm in length. Find the total cost of polishing the floor,
if the cost per m2 is ` 4.
8. Mohan wants to buy a trapezium shaped field.
Its side along the river is parallel to and twice
the side along the road. If the area of this field is
10500 m2 and the perpendicular distance
between the two parallel sides is 100 m, find the
length of the side along the river.
9. Top surface of a raised platform is in the shape of a regular octagon as shown in
the figure. Find the area of the octagonal surface.
10. There is a pentagonal shaped park as shown in the figure.
For finding its area Jyoti and Kavita divided it in two different ways.

Find the area of this park using both ways. Can you suggest some other way
of finding its area?
11. Diagram of the adjacent picture frame has outer dimensions = 24 cm × 28 cm
and inner dimensions 16 cm × 20 cm. Find the area of each section of
the frame, if the width of each section is same.

11.6 Solid Shapes

In your earlier classes you have studied that two dimensional figures can be identified as
the faces of three dimensional shapes. Observe the solids which we have discussed so far
(Fig 11.24).

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Fig 11.24
Observe that some shapes have two or more than two identical (congruent) faces.
Name them. Which solid has all congruent faces?

DO THIS
Soaps, toys, pastes, snacks etc. often come in the packing of cuboidal, cubical or
cylindrical boxes. Collect, such boxes (Fig 11.25).

Fig 11.25

Cuboidal Box Cubical Box

All six faces are rectangular,
and opposites faces are
identical. So there are three
pairs of identical faces.

All six faces

are squares
Cylindrical Box and identical.

One curved surface

and two circular
faces which are
identical.

Now take one type of box at a time. Cut out all the faces it has. Observe the shape of
each face and find the number of faces of the box that are identical by placing them on
each other. Write down your observations.

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Did you notice the following:

The cylinder has congruent circular faces that are parallel
to each other (Fig 11.26). Observe that the line segment joining
the center of circular faces is perpendicular to the base. Such
cylinders are known as right circular cylinders. We are only
going to study this type of cylinders, though there are other
Fig 11.26 Fig 11.27
types of cylinders as well (Fig 11.27).
(This is a right (This is not a right
circular cylinder) circular cylinder)

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

Why is it incorrect to call the solid shown here a cylinder?

11.7 Surface Area of Cube, Cuboid and Cylinder

Imran, Monica and Jaspal are painting a cuboidal, cubical and a cylindrical box respectively
of same height (Fig 11.28).

Fig 11.28
They try to determine who has painted more area. Hari suggested that finding the
surface area of each box would help them find it out.
To find the total surface area, find the area of each face and then add. The surface
area of a solid is the sum of the areas of its faces. To clarify further, we take each shape
one by one.
11.7.1 Cuboid
Suppose you cut open a cuboidal box
and lay it flat (Fig 11.29). We can see
a net as shown below (Fig 11.30).
Write the dimension of each side.
You know that a cuboid has three
pairs of identical faces. What
expression can you use to find the
area of each face? Fig 11.29 Fig 11.30
Find the total area of all the faces
of the box. We see that the total surface area of a cuboid is area I + area II + area III +
area IV +area V + area VI
=h×l+b×l+b×h+l×h+b×h+l×b

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So total surface area = 2 (h × l + b × h + b × l) = 2(lb + bh + hl )

where h, l and b are the height, length and width of the cuboid respectively.
Suppose the height, length and width of the box shown above are 20 cm, 15 cm and
10 cm respectively.
Then the total surface area = 2 (20 × 15 + 20 × 10 + 10 × 15)
= 2 ( 300 + 200 + 150) = 1300 m2.

TRY THESE
Find the total surface area of the following
cuboids (Fig 11.31):

Fig 11.31

• The side walls (the faces excluding the top and

bottom) make the lateral surface area of the
cuboid. For example, the total area of all the four
walls of the cuboidal room in which you are sitting
is the lateral surface area of this room (Fig 11.32).
Hence, the lateral surface area of a cuboid is given
by 2(h × l + b × h) or 2h (l + b). Fig 11.32

DO THIS

(i) Cover the lateral surface of a cuboidal duster (which your teacher uses in the
class room) using a strip of brown sheet of paper, such that it just fits around the
surface. Remove the paper. Measure the area of the paper. Is it the lateral surface
area of the duster?
(ii) Measure length, width and height of your classroom and find
(a) the total surface area of the room, ignoring the area of windows and doors.
(b) the lateral surface area of this room.
(c) the total area of the room which is to be white washed.

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

1. Can we say that the total surface area of cuboid =
lateral surface area + 2 × area of base?
2. If we interchange the lengths of the base and the height
of a cuboid (Fig 11.33(i)) to get another cuboid
(Fig 11.33(ii)), will its lateral surface area change? (i)
Fig 11.33 (ii)

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11.7.2 Cube

DO THIS
Draw the pattern shown on a squared paper and cut it out [Fig 11.34(i)]. (You
know that this pattern is a net of a cube. Fold it along the lines [Fig 11.34(ii)] and
tape the edges to form a cube [Fig 11.34(iii)].

(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig 11.34

(i) (ii)
Fig 11.35

(a) What is the length, width and height of the cube? Observe that all the faces of a
cube are square in shape. This makes length, height and width of a cube equal
(Fig 11.35(i)).
(b) Write the area of each of the faces. Are they equal?
(c) Write the total surface area of this cube.
(d) If each side of the cube is l, what will be the area of each face? (Fig 11.35(ii)).
Can we say that the total surface area of a cube of side l is 6l2 ?

TRY THESE
Find the surface area of cube A and lateral surface area of cube B (Fig 11.36).

Fig 11.36

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 MENSURATION 183

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

(i) Two cubes each with side b are joined to form a cuboid (Fig 11.37). What is the
surface area of this cuboid? Is it 12b2? Is the surface area of cuboid formed by
joining three such cubes, 18b2? Why?

Fig 11.37

(ii) How will you arrange 12 cubes of equal length to form a

cuboid of smallest surface area?
(iii) After the surface area of a cube is painted, the cube is cut
into 64 smaller cubes of same dimensions (Fig 11.38).
How many have no face painted? 1 face painted? 2 faces
painted? 3 faces painted? Fig 11.38

11.7.3 Cylinders
Most of the cylinders we observe are right circular cylinders. For example, a tin, round
pillars, tube lights, water pipes etc.

DO THIS

(i) Take a cylindrical can or box and trace the base of the can on graph paper and cut
it [Fig 11.39(i)]. Take another graph paper in such a way that its width is equal to
the height of the can. Wrap the strip around the can such that it just fits around the
can (remove the excess paper) [Fig 11.39(ii)].
Tape the pieces [Fig 11.39(iii)] together to form a cylinder [Fig 11.39(iv)]. What is
the shape of the paper that goes around the can?

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Fig 11.39

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Of course it is rectangular in shape. When you tape the parts of this cylinder together,
the length of the rectangular strip is equal to the circumference of the circle. Record
the radius (r) of the circular base, length (l ) and width (h) of the rectangular strip.
Is 2πr = length of the strip. Check if the area of rectangular strip is 2πrh. Count
how many square units of the squared paper are used to form the cylinder.
Check if this count is approximately equal to 2πr (r + h).
(ii) We can deduce the relation 2πr (r + h) as the surface area of a cylinder in another
way. Imagine cutting up a cylinder as shown below (Fig 11.40).

Fig 11.40
22 The lateral (or curved) surface area of a cylinder is 2πrh.
Note: We take π to be
7
unless otherwise stated. The total surface area of a cylinder = πr2 + 2πrh + πr2
= 2πr2 + 2πrh or 2πr (r + h)

TRY THESE
Find total surface area of the following cylinders (Fig 11.41)

Fig 11.41

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

Note that lateral surface area of a cylinder is the circumference of base × height of
cylinder. Can we write lateral surface area of a cuboid as perimeter of base × height
of cuboid?

Example 4: An aquarium is in the form of a cuboid whose external measures are

80 cm × 30 cm × 40 cm. The base, side faces and back face are to be covered with a
coloured paper. Find the area of the paper needed?
Solution: The length of the aquarium = l = 80 cm
Width of the aquarium = b = 30 cm

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 MENSURATION 185

Height of the aquarium = h = 40 cm

Area of the base = l × b = 80 × 30 = 2400 cm2
Area of the side face = b × h = 30 × 40 = 1200 cm2
Area of the back face = l × h = 80 × 40 = 3200 cm2
Required area = Area of the base + area of the back face
+ (2 × area of a side face)
= 2400 + 3200 + (2 × 1200) = 8000 cm2
Hence the area of the coloured paper required is 8000 cm2.
Example 5: The internal measures of a cuboidal room are 12 m × 8 m × 4 m. Find the
total cost of whitewashing all four walls of a room, if the cost of white washing is ` 5 per
m2. What will be the cost of white washing if the ceiling of the room is also whitewashed.
Solution: Let the length of the room = l = 12 m
Width of the room = b = 8 m
Height of the room = h = 4 m
Area of the four walls of the room = Perimeter of the base × Height of the room
= 2 (l + b) × h = 2 (12 + 8) × 4
= 2 × 20 × 4 = 160 m2.
Cost of white washing per m2 = ` 5
Hence the total cost of white washing four walls of the room = ` (160 × 5) = ` 800
Area of ceiling is 12 × 8 = 96 m2
Cost of white washing the ceiling = ` (96 × 5) = ` 480
So the total cost of white washing = ` (800 + 480) = ` 1280
Example 6: In a building there are 24 cylindrical pillars. The radius of each pillar
is 28 cm and height is 4 m. Find the total cost of painting the curved surface area of
all pillars at the rate of ` 8 per m2.
Solution: Radius of cylindrical pillar, r = 28 cm = 0.28 m
height, h = 4 m
curved surface area of a cylinder = 2πrh
22
curved surface area of a pillar = 2 × × 0.28 × 4 = 7.04 m2
7
curved surface area of 24 such pillar = 7.04 × 24 = 168.96 m2
cost of painting an area of 1 m2 = ` 8
Therefore, cost of painting 1689.6 m2 = 168.96 × 8 = ` 1351.68
Example 7: Find the height of a cylinder whose radius is 7 cm and the
total surface area is 968 cm2.
Solution: Let height of the cylinder = h, radius = r = 7cm
Total surface area = 2πr (h + r)

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22
i.e., 2× × 7 × (7 + h) = 968
7
h = 15 cm
Hence, the height of the cylinder is 15 cm.

EXERCISE 11.3
1. There are two cuboidal boxes as
shown in the adjoining figure. Which
box requires the lesser amount of
material to make?
2. A suitcase with measures 80 cm ×
48 cm × 24 cm is to be covered with
a tarpaulin cloth. How many metres of tarpaulin of width 96 cm is required to cover
100 such suitcases?
3. Find the side of a cube whose surface area is
600 cm2.
4. Rukhsar painted the outside of the cabinet of
measure 1 m × 2 m × 1.5 m. How much
surface area did she cover if she painted all except the bottom of the cabinet.
5. Daniel is painting the walls and ceiling of a
cuboidal hall with length, breadth and height
of 15 m, 10 m and 7 m respectively. From
each can of paint 100 m2 of area is painted.
How many cans of paint will she need to paint
the room?
6. Describe how the two figures at the right are alike and how they are different. Which
box has larger lateral surface area?
7. A closed cylindrical tank of radius 7 m and height 3 m is
made from a sheet of metal. How much sheet of metal is
required?
8. The lateral surface area of a hollow cylinder is 4224 cm2.
It is cut along its height and formed a rectangular sheet
of width 33 cm. Find the perimeter of rectangular sheet?
9. A road roller takes 750 complete revolutions to move
once over to level a road. Find the area of the road if the
diameter of a road roller is 84 cm and length is 1 m.
10. A company packages its milk powder in cylindrical
container whose base has a diameter of 14 cm and height
20 cm. Company places a label around the surface of
the container (as shown in the figure). If the label is placed
2 cm from top and bottom, what is the area of the label.

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11.8 Volume of Cube, Cuboid and Cylinder

Amount of space occupied by a three dimensional object is called its volume. Try to
compare the volume of objects surrounding you. For example, volume of a room is greater
than the volume of an almirah kept inside it. Similarly, volume of your pencil box is greater
than the volume of the pen and the eraser kept inside it.
Can you measure volume of either of these objects?
Remember, we use square units to find the area of a
region. Here we will use cubic units to find the volume of a
solid, as cube is the most convenient solid shape (just as
square is the most convenient shape to measure area of a
region).
For finding the area we divide the region into square
units, similarly, to find the volume of a solid we need to
divide it into cubical units.
Observe that the volume of each of the adjoining solids is
8 cubic units (Fig 11.42 ).
Fig 11.42
We can say that the volume of a solid is measured by
counting the number of unit cubes it contains. Cubic units which we generally use to measure
volume are
1 cubic cm = 1 cm × 1 cm × 1 cm = 1 cm3
= 10 mm × 10 mm × 10 mm = ............... mm3
1 cubic m = 1 m × 1 m × 1 m = 1 m3
= ............................... cm3
1 cubic mm = 1 mm × 1 mm × 1 mm = 1 mm3
= 0.1 cm × 0.1 cm × 0.1 cm = ...................... cm3
We now find some expressions to find volume of a cuboid, cube and cylinder. Let us
take each solid one by one.
11.8.1 Cuboid
Take 36 cubes of equal size (i.e., length of each cube is same). Arrange them to form a cuboid.
You can arrange them in many ways. Observe the following table and fill in the blanks.

cuboid length breadth height l×b×h=V

(i) 12 3 1 12 × 3 × 1 = 36

(ii) ... ... ... ...

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(iii) ... ... ... ...

(iv) ... ... ... ...

What do you observe?

Since we have used 36 cubes to form these cuboids, volume of each cuboid
is 36 cubic units. Also volume of each cuboid is equal to the product of length,
breadth and height of the cuboid. From the above example we can say volume of cuboid
= l × b × h. Since l × b is the area of its base we can also say that,
Volume of cuboid = area of the base × height

DO THIS
Take a sheet of paper. Measure its
area. Pile up such sheets of paper
of same size to make a cuboid
(Fig 11.43). Measure the height of
this pile. Find the volume of the
cuboid by finding the product of
the area of the sheet and the height
of this pile of sheets. Fig 11.43
This activity illustrates the idea
that volume of a solid can be deduced by this method also (if the base and top of the
solid are congruent and parallel to each other and its edges are perpendicular to the
base). Can you think of such objects whose volume can be found by using this method?

TRY THESE
Find the volume of the following cuboids (Fig 11.44).

(i)

Fig 11.44

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11.8.2 Cube
The cube is a special case of a cuboid, where l = b = h.
Hence, volume of cube = l × l × l = l 3

TRY THESE
Find the volume of the following cubes
(a) with a side 4 cm (b) with a side 1.5 m

DO THIS
Arrange 64 cubes of equal size in as many ways as you can to form a cuboid.
Find the surface area of each arrangement. Can solid shapes of same volume have
same surface area?

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

A company sells biscuits. For packing purpose they are using cuboidal boxes:
box A →3 cm × 8 cm × 20 cm, box B → 4 cm × 12 cm × 10 cm. What size of the box
will be economical for the company? Why? Can you suggest any other size (dimensions)
which has the same volume but is more economical than these?

11.8.3 Cylinder
We know that volume of a cuboid can be found by finding the
product of area of base and its height. Can we find the volume of
a cylinder in the same way?
Just like cuboid, cylinder has got a top and a base which are
congruent and parallel to each other. Its lateral surface is also
perpendicular to the base, just like cuboid.
So the Volume of a cuboid = area of base × height
= l × b × h = lbh
Volume of cylinder = area of base × height
= πr2 × h = πr2h

TRY THESE
Find the volume of the following cylinders.

(i) (ii)

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11.9 Volume and Capacity

There is not much difference between these two words.
(a) Volume refers to the amount of space occupied by an object.
(b) Capacity refers to the quantity that a container holds.
Note: If a water tin holds 100 cm3 of water then the capacity of the water tin is 100 cm3.
Capacity is also measured in terms of litres. The relation between litre and cm3 is,
1 mL = 1 cm3,1 L = 1000 cm3. Thus, 1 m3 = 1000000 cm3 = 1000 L.

Example 8: Find the height of a cuboid whose volume is 275 cm3 and base area
is 25 cm2 .
Solution: Volume of a cuboid = Base area × Height
Volume of cuboid
Hence height of the cuboid =
Base area
275
= = 11 cm
25
Height of the cuboid is 11 cm.
Example 9: A godown is in the form of a cuboid of measures 60 m × 40 m × 30 m.
How many cuboidal boxes can be stored in it if the volume of one box is 0.8 m3 ?
Solution: Volume of one box = 0.8 m3
Volume of godown = 60 × 40 × 30 = 72000 m3
Volume of the godown
Number of boxes that can be stored in the godown =
Volume of one box
60 × 40 × 30
= = 90,000
0.8
Hence the number of cuboidal boxes that can be stored in the godown is 90,000.
Example 10: A rectangular paper of width 14 cm is rolled along its width and a cylinder
22
of radius 20 cm is formed. Find the volume of the cylinder (Fig 11.45). (Take for π)
7
Solution: A cylinder is formed by rolling a rectangle about its width. Hence the width
of the paper becomes height and radius of the cylinder is 20 cm.

Fig 11.45
Height of the cylinder = h = 14 cm
Radius = r = 20 cm

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 MENSURATION 191

Volume of the cylinder = V = π r2 h

22
= × 20 × 20 × 14 = 17600 cm3
7
Hence, the volume of the cylinder is 17600 cm3.
Example 11: A rectangular piece of paper 11 cm × 4 cm is folded without overlapping
to make a cylinder of height 4 cm. Find the volume of the cylinder.
Solution: Length of the paper becomes the perimeter of the base of the cylinder and
width becomes height.
Let radius of the cylinder = r and height = h
Perimeter of the base of the cylinder = 2πr = 11
22
or 2× × r = 11
7
7
Therefore, r = cm
4
Volume of the cylinder = V = πr2h
22 7 7
= × × × 4 cm3 = 38.5 cm3.
7 4 4
Hence the volume of the cylinder is 38.5 cm3.

EXERCISE 11.4
1. Given a cylindrical tank, in which situation will you find surface area and in
which situation volume.
(a) To find how much it can hold.
(b) Number of cement bags required to plaster it.
(c) To find the number of smaller tanks that can be filled with water from it.
2. Diameter of cylinder A is 7 cm, and the height is 14 cm. Diameter of
cylinder B is 14 cm and height is 7 cm. Without doing any calculations
can you suggest whose volume is greater? Verify it by finding the
volume of both the cylinders. Check whether the cylinder with greater
volume also has greater surface area?
3. Find the height of a cuboid whose base area is 180 cm2 and volume B
A
is 900 cm3?
4. A cuboid is of dimensions 60 cm × 54 cm × 30 cm. How many small cubes with side
6 cm can be placed in the given cuboid?
5. Find the height of the cylinder whose volume is 1.54 m3 and diameter of the base is
140 cm ?
6. A milk tank is in the form of cylinder whose radius is 1.5 m and
length is 7 m. Find the quantity of milk in litres that can be stored
in the tank?
7. If each edge of a cube is doubled,
(i) how many times will its surface area increase?
(ii) how many times will its volume increase?

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8. Water is pouring into a cubiodal reservoir at the rate of 60 litres per

minute. If the volume of reservoir is 108 m3, find the number of hours it
will take to fill the reservoir.

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. Area of
(i) a trapezium = half of the sum of the lengths of parallel sides × perpendicular distance between
them.
(ii) a rhombus = half the product of its diagonals.
2. Surface area of a solid is the sum of the areas of its faces.
3. Surface area of
a cuboid = 2(lb + bh + hl)
a cube = 6l 2
a cylinder = 2πr(r + h)
4. Amount of region occupied by a solid is called its volume.
5. Volume of
a cuboid = l × b × h
a cube = l 3
a cylinder = πr2h
6. (i) 1 cm3 = 1 mL
(ii) 1L = 1000 cm3
(iii) 1 m3 = 1000000 cm3 = 1000L

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CHAPTER

Exponents and Powers

12
12.1 Introduction
Do you know?
Mass of earth is 5,970,000,000,000, 000, 000, 000, 000 kg. We have
already learnt in earlier class how to write such large numbers more
conveniently using exponents, as, 5.97 × 1024 kg.
We read 1024 as 10 raised to the power 24.
We know 25 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2
and 2m = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × ... × 2 × 2 ... (m times)
Let us now find what is 2– 2 is equal to?

12.2 Powers with Negative Exponents

Exponent is a
You know that, 102 = 10 × 10 = 100 negative integer.
100
101 = 10 =
10
10
100 = 1 =
10 As the exponent decreases by1, the
10– 1 = ? value becomes one-tenth of the
previous value.
1
Continuing the above pattern we get,10– 1 =
10
1 1 1 1 1
Similarly 10– 2 = ÷ 10 = × = = 2
10 10 10 100 10
1 1 1 1 1
10– 3 = ÷ 10 = × = = 3
100 100 10 1000 10
What is 10– 10 equal to?

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Now consider the following.

33 = 3 × 3 × 3 = 27
27 The previous number is
32 = 3 × 3 = 9 = divided by the base 3.
3
1
9
3 =3=
3
3
3° = 1 =
3
So looking at the above pattern, we say
1
3– 1 = 1 ÷ 3 =
3
1 1 1
3– 2 = ÷3 = = 2
3 3×3 3
1 1 1 1
3– 3 = 2 ÷ 3 = 2 × = 3
3 3 3 3
You can now find the value of 2– 2 in a similar manner.
1 1
We have, 10– 2 = 2 or 102 = −2
10 10
1 1
10– 3 = 3 or 103 = −3
10 10
1 1
3– 2 = 2 or 32 = −2 etc.
3 3
1
In general, we can say that for any non-zero integer a, a– m = m , where m is a
a
positive integer. a–m is the multiplicative inverse of am.

TRY THESE
Find the multiplicative inverse of the following.
(i) 2– 4 (ii) 10– 5 (iii) 7– 2 (iv) 5– 3 (v) 10– 100

We learnt how to write numbers like 1425 in expanded form using exponents as
1 × 103 + 4 × 102 + 2 × 101 + 5 × 10°.
Let us see how to express 1425.36 in expanded form in a similar way.
3 6
We have 1425.36 = 1 × 1000 + 4 × 100 + 2 × 10 + 5 × 1 + +
10 100
= 1 × 10 + 4 × 10 + 2 × 10 + 5 × 1 + 3 × 10– 1 + 6 × 10– 2
3 2

1 1 1
10– 1 = , 10– 2 = 2
=
10 10 100
TRY THESE
Expand the following numbers using exponents.
(i) 1025.63 (ii) 1256.249

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 EXPONENTS AND POWERS 195

12.3 Laws of Exponents

We have learnt that for any non-zero integer a, am × an = am + n, where m and n are natural
numbers. Does this law also hold if the exponents are negative? Let us explore.
1 1 1
(i) We know that 2 – 3 = 3 and 2
–2
= 2 a−m = for any non-zero integer a.
2 2 am
1 1 1 1
Therefore, 2−3 × 2 −2 = × 2 = 3 = 3+ 2 = 2 –5
3
2 2 2 ×2 2
2
(ii) Take (–3)– 4 × (–3)–3 –5 is the sum of two exponents – 3 and – 2

1 1
(–3)– 4 ×(–3)–3 = ×
(−3) ( −3)3
4

1 1 (– 4) + (–3) = – 7
= = = (–3)–7
(−3) × ( −3)
4 3
( −3) 4 + 3
(iii) Now consider 5–2 × 54 In Class VII, you have learnt that for any
(–2) + 4 = 2
1 54 am
–2
5 ×5 = 2 4× 5 4
= 2
= 54 − 2 = 5(2) non-zero integer a, n = a
m−n
, where
5 5 a
(iv) Now consider (–5) × (–5)2
–4 m and n are natural numbers and m > n.

1 ( −5)2 1
–4
(–5) × (–5) = 2 × ( −5) 2
= =
(−5) 4
( −5) 4
( −5) × (−5) −2
4

1 (– 4) + 2 = –2
= = (–5)– (2)
( −5) 4 − 2
In general, we can say that for any non-zero integer a,
am × an = am + n, where m and n are integers.

TRY THESE
Simplify and write in exponential form.
(i) (–2)–3 × (–2)– 4 (ii) p3 × p–10 (iii) 32 × 3–5 × 36

On the same lines you can verify the following laws of exponents, where a and b are non
zero integers and m, n are any integers.

am
(i) n
= a m− n (ii) (am)n = amn (iii) am × bm = (ab)m
a
These laws you have studied
m in Class VII for positive
am  a  exponents only.
(iv) =  (v) a0 = 1
bm  b 
Let us solve some examples using the above Laws of Exponents.

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196 MATHEMATICS

Example 1: Find the value of

1
–3
(i) 2 (ii) 3−2
Solution:
−3 1 1 1
(i) 2 = = (ii) = 32 = 3 × 3 = 9
23 8 3−2
Example 2: Simplify
(i) (– 4)5 × (– 4)–10 (ii) 25 ÷ 2– 6
Solution:
1 −m 1
(i) (– 4)5 × (– 4)–10 = (– 4) (5 – 10) = (– 4)–5 = (am × an = am + n, a = m )
( − 4) 5
a
(ii) 2 ÷ 2 = 2
5 –6 5 – (– 6)
=2 11
(a ÷ a = a )
m n m–n

Example 3: Express 4 as a power with the base 2.

–3

Solution: We have, 4 = 2 × 2 = 22
Therefore, (4)– 3 = (2 × 2)– 3 = (22)– 3 = 22 × (– 3) = 2– 6 [(am)n = amn]
Example 4: Simplify and write the answer in the exponential form.
(i) (25 ÷ 28)5 × 2– 5 (ii) (– 4)– 3 × (5)– 3 × (–5)– 3
4
1
× (3) −3
 5
(iv) ( −3) ×  
4
(iii)
8 3
Solution:
1
(i) (25 ÷ 28)5 × 2– 5 = (25 – 8)5 × 2– 5 = (2– 3)5 × 2– 5 = 2– 15 – 5 = 2–20 =
220
1
(ii) (– 4)– 3 × (5)– 3 × (–5)–3 = [(– 4) × 5 × (–5)]– 3 = [100]– 3 =
1003
1
[using the law am × bm = (ab)m, a–m= ]
am
1 1 1
(iii) × (3) −3 = 3 × (3) −3 = 2 −3 × 3−3 = (2 × 3) −3 = 6−3 = 3
8 2 6
4
 5 54 54
(iv) ( −3) ×   = ( −1 × 3) × 4 = (–1)4 × 34 × 4
4 4
3 3 3
4 4 4 4
= (–1) × 5 = 5 [(–1) = 1]
Example 5: Find m so that (–3)m + 1 × (–3)5 = (–3)7
Solution: (–3)m + 1 × (–3)5 = (–3)7
(–3)m + 1+ 5 = (–3)7
(–3)m + 6 = (–3)7
On both the sides powers have the same base different from 1 and – 1, so their exponents
must be equal.

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Therefore, m+6=7 an = 1 only if n = 0. This will work for any a.

or m=7–6 =1 For a = 1, 11 = 12 = 13 = 1– 2 = ... = 1 or (1)n =
1 for infinitely many n.
−2 For a = –1,
 2 (–1)0 = (–1)2 = (–1)4 = (–1)–2 = ... = 1 or
Example 6: Find the value of   .
3 (–1) p = 1 for any even integer p.
−2
 2 2 −2 32 9
Solution:   = = =
3 3− 2 2 2 4 −2
2 −2 32  3 
2
 2
  = = = 
 1 
−2 −3
 1    1 
−2
3 3−2 2 2  2 
Example 7: Simplify (i)   −    ÷  
 3  2  4 −m m
 a  b
In general,   = 
–7 –5
 b  a
5 8
(ii)   ×  
8 5
Solution:
 1 −2 −3
  1  −2  1−2 1−3  1−2
(i)    1
−    ÷   =  3−2 − 2−3  ÷ 4 −2
 2
 3   4  

 32 2 3  4 2 1
=  2 − 3  ÷ 2 = {9 − 8} ÷ 16 =
1 1  1 16
−7
−7 −5
8 − 5 5 − 7 8− 5
(ii)    8 = 5
5 × −5 = −5 × −7 = 5( −7) – ( −5) × 8( −5) − ( −7)
×  
 8  5 8− 7 5 5 8
−2 82 64
= 5 ×8 = =
2
52 25

EXERCISE 12.1
1. Evaluate.
−5
(i) 3–2 (iii)  1 
(ii) (– 4)– 2
 2
2. Simplify and express the result in power notation with positive exponent.
2
 1
(i) (– 4) ÷ (– 4)
5 8
(ii)  3 
2 
4
 5
(iii) (−3) ×  
4
(iv) (3– 7 ÷ 3– 10) × 3– 5 (v) 2– 3 × (–7)– 3
3
3. Find the value of.
−2 −2 −2
 1  1  1
(i) (3° + 4 ) × 2 –1 2
(ii) (2 × 4 ) ÷ 2
–1 –1 –2
(iii)   +   +  
2  3  4

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198 MATHEMATICS

2
 −2  −2 
(iv) (3– 1 + 4– 1 + 5– 1)0 (v)   
  
 3 
8−1 × 53
4. Evaluate (i) (ii) (5–1 × 2–1) × 6–1
2− 4
5. Find the value of m for which 5m ÷ 5– 3 = 55.
−1
 1  −1  1  −1 
6. Evaluate (i)   −    (ii)
 3   4 

7. Simplify.
25 × t − 4 3−5 × 10− 5 × 125
(i) −3 (t ≠ 0) (ii)
5 × 10 × t − 8 5−7 × 6 −5
12.4 Use of Exponents to Express Small Numbers in
Standard Form
Observe the following facts.
1. The distance from the Earth to the Sun is 149,600,000,000 m.
2. The speed of light is 300,000,000 m/sec.
3. Thickness of Class VII Mathematics book is 20 mm.
4. The average diameter of a Red Blood Cell is 0.000007 mm.
5. The thickness of human hair is in the range of 0.005 cm to 0.01 cm.
6. The distance of moon from the Earth is 384, 467, 000 m (approx).
7. The size of a plant cell is 0.00001275 m.
8. Average radius of the Sun is 695000 km.
9. Mass of propellant in a space shuttle solid rocket booster is 503600 kg.
10. Thickness of a piece of paper is 0.0016 cm.
11. Diameter of a wire on a computer chip is 0.000003 m.
12. The height of Mount Everest is 8848 m.
Observe that there are few numbers which we can read like 2 cm, 8848 m,
6,95,000 km. There are some large
numbers like 150,000,000,000 m and
some very small numbers like Very large numbers Very small numbers
0.000007 m.
Identify very large and very small 150,000,000,000 m 0.000007 m
numbers from the above facts and --------------- ---------------
write them in the adjacent table: --------------- ---------------
We have learnt how to express --------------- ---------------
very large numbers in standard form --------------- ---------------
in the previous class.
For example: 150,000,000,000 = 1.5 × 1011
Now, let us try to express 0.000007 m in standard form.

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 EXPONENTS AND POWERS 199

7 7
0.000007 = = 6 = 7 × 10– 6
1000000 10
0.000007 m = 7 × 10– 6 m
Similarly, consider the thickness of a piece of paper
which is 0.0016 cm.
16 1.6 × 10
0.0016 = = = 1.6 × 10 × 10− 4
10000 104
= 1.6 × 10– 3
Therefore, we can say thickness of paper is 1.6 × 10– 3 cm.

TRY THESE
1. Write the following numbers in standard form.
(i) 0.000000564 (ii) 0.0000021 (iii) 21600000 (iv) 15240000
2. Write all the facts given in the standard form.

12.4.1 Comparing very large and very small numbers

The diameter of the Sun is 1.4 × 109 m and the diameter of the Earth is 1.2756 × 107 m.
Suppose you want to compare the diameter of the Earth, with the diameter of the Sun.
Diameter of the Sun = 1.4 × 109 m
Diameter of the earth = 1.2756 × 107 m
1.4 × 109 1.4 ×109–7 1.4 × 100
Therefore = = which is approximately 100
1.2756 × 107 1.2756 1.2756
So, the diameter of the Sun is about 100 times the diameter of the earth.
Let us compare the size of a Red Blood cell which is 0.000007 m to that of a plant cell which
is 0.00001275 m.
Size of Red Blood cell = 0.000007 m = 7 × 10– 6 m
Size of plant cell = 0.00001275 = 1.275 × 10– 5 m
7 × 10 − 6 7 × 10− 6 − (–5) 7 ×10 –1 0.7 0.7 1
Therefore, −5 = = = = = (approx.)
1.275 × 10 1.275 1.275 1.275 1.3 2
So a red blood cell is half of plant cell in size.
Mass of earth is 5.97 × 1024 kg and mass of moon is 7.35 × 1022 kg. What is the
total mass?
Total mass = 5.97 × 1024 kg + 7.35 × 1022 kg.
When we have to add numbers in
= 5.97 × 100 × 1022 + 7.35 × 1022 standard form, we convert them into
= 597 × 1022 + 7.35 × 1022 numbers with the same exponents.
= (597 + 7.35) × 1022
= 604.35 × 1022 kg.
The distance between Sun and Earth is 1.496 × 1011m and the distance between
Earth and Moon is 3.84 × 108m.
During solar eclipse moon comes in between Earth and Sun.
At that time what is the distance between Moon and Sun.

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200 MATHEMATICS

Distance between Sun and Earth = 1.496 × 1011m

Distance between Earth and Moon = 3.84 × 108m
Distance between Sun and Moon = 1.496 × 1011 – 3.84 × 108
= 1.496 × 1000 × 108 – 3.84 × 108
= (1496 – 3.84) × 108 m = 1492.16 × 108 m
Example 8: Express the following numbers in standard form.
(i) 0.000035 (ii) 4050000
Solution: (i) 0.000035 = 3.5 × 10– 5 (ii) 4050000 = 4.05 × 106
Example 9: Express the following numbers in usual form.
(i) 3.52 × 105 (ii) 7.54 × 10– 4 (iii) 3 × 10– 5
Solution:
(i) 3.52 × 105 = 3.52 × 100000 = 352000 Again we need to convert
7.54 7.54
(ii) 7.54 × 10– 4 = 4
= = 0.000754 numbers in standard form into
10 10000 a numbers with the same
3 3 exponents.
(iii) 3 × 10– 5 = 5 = = 0.00003
10 100000

EXERCISE 12.2
1. Express the following numbers in standard form.
(i) 0.0000000000085 (ii) 0.00000000000942
(iii) 6020000000000000 (iv) 0.00000000837
(v) 31860000000
2. Express the following numbers in usual form.
(i) 3.02 × 10– 6 (ii) 4.5 × 104 (iii) 3 × 10– 8
(iv) 1.0001 × 109 (v) 5.8 × 1012 (vi) 3.61492 × 106
3. Express the number appearing in the following statements in standard form.
1
(i) 1 micron is equal to m.
1000000
(ii) Charge of an electron is 0.000,000,000,000,000,000,16 coulomb.
(iii) Size of a bacteria is 0.0000005 m
(iv) Size of a plant cell is 0.00001275 m
(v) Thickness of a thick paper is 0.07 mm
4. In a stack there are 5 books each of thickness 20mm and 5 paper sheets each of
thickness 0.016 mm. What is the total thickness of the stack.

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. Numbers with negative exponents obey the following laws of exponents.
(a) am × an = am+n (b) am ÷ an = am–n (c) (am)n = amn
m
am  a 
m m
(d) a × b = (ab) m 0
(e) a = 1 (f) m =  
b b
2. Very small numbers can be expressed in standard form using negative exponents.

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 DIRECT AND I NVERSE PROPORTIONS 201

CHAPTER
Direct and Inverse
Proportions
13
13.1 Introduction
Mohan prepares tea for himself and his sister. He uses 300 mL of
water, 2 spoons of sugar, 1 spoon of tea leaves and 50 mL of milk.
How much quantity of each item will he need, if he has to make tea
for five persons?
If two students take 20 minutes to arrange chairs for an assembly,
then how much time would five students take to do the same job?
We come across many such situations in our day-to-day life, where we
need to see variation in one quantity bringing in variation in the other
quantity.
For example:
(i) If the number of articles purchased increases, the total cost also increases.
(ii) More the money deposited in a bank, more is the interest earned.
(iii) As the speed of a vehicle increases, the time taken to cover the same distance
decreases.
(iv) For a given job, more the number of workers, less will be the time taken to complete
the work.
Observe that change in one quantity leads to change in the other quantity.
Write five more such situations where change in one quantity leads to change in
another quantity.
How do we find out the quantity of each item needed by Mohan? Or, the time five
students take to complete the job?
To answer such questions, we now study some concepts of variation.
13.2 Direct Proportion
If the cost of 1 kg of sugar is ` 36, then what would be the cost of 3 kg sugar? It is ` 108.

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202 MATHEMATICS

Similarly, we can find the cost of 5 kg or 8 kg of sugar. Study the following table.

Observe that as weight of sugar increases, cost also increases in such a manner that
their ratio remains constant.
Take one more example. Suppose a car uses 4 litres of petrol to travel a distance of
60 km. How far will it travel using 12 litres? The answer is 180 km. How did we calculate
it? Since petrol consumed in the second instance is 12 litres, i.e., three times of 4 litres, the
distance travelled will also be three times of 60 km. In other words, when the petrol
consumption becomes three-fold, the distance travelled is also three fold the previous
one. Let the consumption of petrol be x litres and the corresponding distance travelled be
y km . Now, complete the following table:
Petrol in litres (x) 4 8 12 15 20 25
Distance in km (y) 60 ... 180 ... ... ...
We find that as the value of x increases, value of y also increases in such a way that the
x 1
ratio does not change; it remains constant (say k). In this case, it is (check it!).
y 15
x
We say that x and y are in direct proportion, if = k or x = ky.
y
4 12
In this example, = , where 4 and 12 are the quantities of petrol consumed in
60 180
litres (x) and 60 and 180 are the distances (y) in km. So when x and y are in direct
x1 x2
proportion, we can write = . [y1, y2 are values of y corresponding to the values x1,
y1 y2
x2 of x respectively]
The consumption of petrol and the distance travelled by a car is a case of direct
proportion. Similarly, the total amount spent and the number of articles purchased is also
an example of direct proportion.

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 DIRECT AND I NVERSE PROPORTIONS 203

Think of a few more examples for direct proportion. Check whether Mohan [in the initial example] will
1
take 750 mL of water, 5 spoons of sugar, 2 spoons of tea leaves and 125 mL of milk to prepare tea for
2
five persons! Let us try to understand further the concept of direct proportion through the following activities.

DO THIS
(i) • Take a clock and fix its minute hand at 12.
• Record the angle turned through by the minute hand from its original position
and the time that has passed, in the following table:
Time Passed (T) (T1) (T2) (T3) (T4)
(in minutes) 15 30 45 60
Angle turned (A) (A1) (A2) (A3) (A4)
(in degree) 90 ... ... ...
T
... ... ... ...
A
What do you observe about T and A? Do they increase together?
T
Is same every time?
A
Is the angle turned through by the minute hand directly proportional
to the time that has passed? Yes!
From the above table, you can also see
T1 : T2 = A1 : A2 , because
T1 : T2 = 15 : 30 = 1:2
A1 : A2 = 90 : 180 = 1:2
Check if T2 : T3 = A2 : A3 and T3 : T4 = A3 : A4
You can repeat this activity by choosing your own time interval.
(ii) Ask your friend to fill the following table and find the ratio of his age to the
corresponding age of his mother.
Age Present Age
five years ago age after five years
Friend’s age (F)
Mother’s age (M)
F
M
What do you observe?
F
Do F and M increase (or decrease) together? Is same every time? No!
M
You can repeat this activity with other friends and write down your observations.

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204 MATHEMATICS

Thus, variables increasing (or decreasing) together need not always be in direct
proportion. For example:
(i) physical changes in human beings occur with time but not necessarily in a predeter-
mined ratio.
(ii) changes in weight and height among individuals are not in any known proportion and
(iii) there is no direct relationship or ratio between the height of a tree and the number
of leaves growing on its branches. Think of some more similar examples.

TRY THESE
1. Observe the following tables and find if x and y are directly proportional.
(i) x 20 17 14 11 8 5 2
y 40 34 28 22 16 10 4

(ii) x 6 10 14 18 22 26 30
y 4 8 12 16 20 24 28

(iii) x 5 8 12 15 18 20
y 15 24 36 60 72 100
2. Principal = ` 1000, Rate = 8% per annum. Fill in the following table and find
which type of interest (simple or compound) changes in direct proportion with
P×r ×t
time period.
100
Time period 1 year 2 years 3 years
t Simple Interest (in `)
 r 
P 1 + −P
 100  Compound Interest (in `)

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

If we fix time period and the rate of interest, simple interest changes proportionally
with principal. Would there be a similar relationship for compound interest? Why?
Let us consider some solved examples where we would use the concept of
direct proportion.
Example 1: The cost of 5 metres of a particular quality of cloth is ` 210. Tabulate the
cost of 2, 4, 10 and 13 metres of cloth of the same type.
Solution: Suppose the length of cloth is x metres and its cost, in `, is y.
x 2 4 5 10 13
y y2 y3 210 y4 y5

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 DIRECT AND I NVERSE PROPORTIONS 205

As the length of cloth increases, cost of the cloth also increases in the same ratio. It is
a case of direct proportion.
x1 x2
We make use of the relation of type =
y1 y2
(i) Here x1 = 5, y1 = 210 and x2 = 2
x1 x2 5 2 2 × 210
Therefore, = gives = or 5y2 = 2 × 210 or y2 = = 84
y1 y2 210 y2 5
5 4 4 × 210
(ii) If x3 = 4, then 210 = y or 5y3 = 4 × 210 or y3 = = 168
3 5
x2 x3
[Can we use y = y here? Try!]
2 3
5 10 10 × 210
(iii) If x4 = 10, then 210 = y or y4 = = 420
4 5
5 13 13 × 210
(iv) If x5 = 13, then = or y5 = = 546
210 y5 5
 2 4 10 5 
 Note that here we can also use 84 or 168 or 420 in the place of 210 

Example 2: An electric pole, 14 metres high, casts a shadow of 10 metres. Find the
height of a tree that casts a shadow of 15 metres under similar conditions.
Solution: Let the height of the tree be x metres. We form a table as shown below:
height of the object (in metres) 14 x
length of the shadow (in metres) 10 15

Note that more the height of an object, the more would be the length of its shadow.
x1 x2
Hence, this is a case of direct proportion. That is, =
y1 y2
14 x
We have = (Why?)
10 15
14
or × 15 = x
10
14 × 3
or =x
2
So 21 = x
Thus, height of the tree is 21 metres.
x1 x2 x y
Alternately, we can write = as 1 = 1
y1 y2 x2 y2

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so x1 : x2 = y1 : y2
or 14 : x = 10 : 15
Therefore, 10 × x = 15 × 14
15 × 14
or x= = 21
10
Example 3: If the weight of 12 sheets of thick paper is 40 grams, how many sheets of
1
the same paper would weigh 2 kilograms?
2
Solution:
1
Let the number of sheets which weigh 2 kg be x. We put the above information in
2
the form of a table as shown below:
Number of sheets 12 x
Weight of sheets (in grams) 40 2500
More the number of sheets, the more would their
weight be. So, the number of sheets and their weights 1 kilogram = 1000 grams
are directly proportional to each other. 1
2 kilograms = 2500 grams
12 x 2
So, =
40 2500
12 × 2500
or =x
40
or 750 = x
Thus, the required number of sheets of paper = 750.
Alternate method:
x
Two quantities x and y which vary in direct proportion have the relation x = ky or = k
y
number of sheets 12 3
Here, k= = =
weight of sheets in grams 40 10
1
Now x is the number of sheets of the paper which weigh 2 kg [2500 g].
2
3
Using the relation x = ky, x = × 2500 = 750
10
1
Thus, 750 sheets of paper would weigh 2 kg.
2
Example 4: A train is moving at a uniform speed of 75 km/hour.
(i) How far will it travel in 20 minutes?
(ii) Find the time required to cover a distance of 250 km.
Solution: Let the distance travelled (in km) in 20 minutes be x and time taken
(in minutes) to cover 250 km be y.
Distance travelled (in km) 75 x 250
1 hour = 60 minutes
Time taken (in minutes) 60 20 y

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 DIRECT AND I NVERSE PROPORTIONS 207

Since the speed is uniform, therefore, the distance covered would be directly
proportional to time.
75 x
(i) We have =
60 20
75
or × 20 = x
60
or x = 25
So, the train will cover a distance of 25 km in 20 minutes.
75 250
(ii) Also, =
60 y
250 × 60
or y= = 200 minutes or 3 hours 20 minutes.
75
Therefore, 3 hours 20 minutes will be required to cover a distance of 250 kilometres.
x 250
Alternatively, when x is known, then one can determine y from the relation = .
20 y
You know that a map is a miniature representation of a very large region. A scale is
usually given at the bottom of the map. The scale shows a relationship between
actual length and the length represented on the map. The scale of the map is thus the
ratio of the distance between two points on the map to the actual distance between
two points on the large region.
For example, if 1 cm on the map represents 8 km of actual distance [i.e., the scale is
1 cm : 8 km or 1 : 800,000] then 2 cm on the same map will represent 16 km.
Hence, we can say that scale of a map is based on the concept of direct proportion.

Example 5: The scale of a map is given as 1:30000000. Two cities are 4 cm apart on
the map. Find the actual distance between them.
Solution: Let the map distance be x cm and actual distance be y cm, then
1:30000000 = x : y
1 x
or 7 =
3 × 10 y
1 4
Since x=4 so, 7 =
3 × 10 y
or y = 4 × 3 × 10 = 12 × 107 cm = 1200 km.
7

Thus, two cities, which are 4 cm apart on the map, are actually 1200 km away from
each other.

DO THIS
Take a map of your State. Note the scale used there. Using a ruler, measure the “map
distance” between any two cities. Calculate the actual distance between them.

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208 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 13.1
1. Following are the car parking charges near a railway station upto
4 hours ` 60
8 hours ` 100
12 hours ` 140
24 hours ` 180
Check if the parking charges are in direct proportion to the parking time.
2. A mixture of paint is prepared by mixing 1 part of red pigments with 8 parts of base.
In the following table, find the parts of base that need to be added.
Parts of red pigment 1 4 7 12 20
Parts of base 8 ... ... ... ...
3. In Question 2 above, if 1 part of a red pigment requires 75 mL of base, how much
red pigment should we mix with 1800 mL of base?
4. A machine in a soft drink factory fills 840 bottles in six hours. How many bottles will
it fill in five hours?
5. A photograph of a bacteria enlarged 50,000 times
attains a length of 5 cm as shown in the diagram.
What is the actual length of the bacteria? If the
photograph is enlarged 20,000 times only, what
would be its enlarged length?
6. In a model of a ship, the mast is 9 cm high, while
the mast of the actual ship is 12 m high. If the length
of the ship is 28 m, how long is the model ship?
7. Suppose 2 kg of sugar contains 9 × 106 crystals.
How many sugar crystals are there in (i) 5 kg of sugar? (ii) 1.2 kg of sugar?
8. Rashmi has a road map with a scale of 1 cm representing 18 km. She drives on a
road for 72 km. What would be her distance covered in the map?
9. A 5 m 60 cm high vertical pole casts a shadow 3 m 20 cm long. Find at the same time
(i) the length of the shadow cast by another pole 10 m 50 cm high (ii) the height of a
pole which casts a shadow 5m long.
10. A loaded truck travels 14 km in 25 minutes. If the speed remains the same, how far
can it travel in 5 hours?

DO THIS 1. On a squared paper, draw five squares of different sides.

Write the following information in a tabular form.

Square-1 Square-2 Square-3 Square-4 Square-5

Length of a side (L)
Perimeter (P)
L
P

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 DIRECT AND I NVERSE PROPORTIONS 209

Area (A)
L
A
Find whether the length of a side is in direct proportion to:
(a) the perimeter of the square.
(b) the area of the square.
2. The following ingredients are required to make halwa for 5
persons:
Suji/Rawa = 250 g, Sugar = 300 g,
Ghee = 200 g, Water = 500 mL.
Using the concept of proportion, estimate the
changes in the quantity of ingredients, to
prepare halwa for your class.
3. Choose a scale and make a map of your
classroom, showing windows, doors,
blackboard etc. (An example is given here).

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

Take a few problems discussed so far under ‘direct variation’. Do you think that
they can be solved by ‘unitary method’?

13.3 Inverse Proportion

Two quantities may change in such a manner that if one quantity increases, the other
quantity decreases and vice versa. For example, as the number of workers increases, time
taken to finish the job decreases. Similarly, if we increase the speed, the time taken to
cover a given distance decreases.
To understand this, let us look into the following situation.
Zaheeda can go to her school in four different ways. She can walk, run, cycle or go by
car. Study the following table.

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210 MATHEMATICS

Observe that as the speed increases, time taken to cover the same distance decreases.
As Zaheeda doubles her speed by running, time
reduces to half. As she increases her speed to three Multiplicative inverse of a number
times by cycling, time decreases to one third. 1
is its reciprocal. Thus, is the
Similarly, as she increases her speed to 15 times, 2
time decreases to one fifteenth. (Or, in other words inverse of 2 and vice versa. (Note
the ratio by which time decreases is inverse of the 1 1
that 2 × = × 2 = 1 ).
ratio by which the corresponding speed increases). 2 2
Can we say that speed and time change inversely
in proportion?
Let us consider another example. A school wants to spend ` 6000 on mathematics
textbooks. How many books could be bought at ` 40 each? Clearly 150 books can be
bought. If the price of a textbook is more than ` 40, then the number of books which
could be purchased with the same amount of money would be less than 150. Observe the
following table.
Price of each book (in `) 40 50 60 75 80 100
Number of books that 150 120 100 80 75 60
can be bought

What do you observe? You will appreciate that as the price of the books increases,
the number of books that can be bought, keeping the fund constant, will decrease.
Ratio by which the price of books increases when going from 40 to 50 is 4 : 5, and the
ratio by which the corresponding number of books decreases from 150 to 120 is 5 : 4.
This means that the two ratios are inverses of each other.
Notice that the product of the corresponding values of the two quantities is constant;
that is, 40 × 150 = 50 × 120 = 6000.
If we represent the price of one book as x and the number of books bought as y, then
as x increases y decreases and vice-versa. It is important to note that the product xy
remains constant. We say that x varies inversely with y and y varies inversely with x. Thus
two quantities x and y are said to vary in inverse proportion, if there exists a relation
of the type xy = k between them, k being a constant. If y1, y2 are the values of y
x1 y2
corresponding to the values x1, x2 of x respectively then x1y1 = x2y2 (= k), or = .
x2 y1
We say that x and y are in inverse proportion.
Hence, in this example, cost of a book and number of books purchased in a fixed
amount are inversely proportional. Similarly, speed of a vehicle and the time taken to
cover a fixed distance changes in inverse proportion.
Think of more such examples of pairs of quantities that vary in inverse proportion. You
may now have a look at the furniture – arranging problem, stated in the introductory part
of this chapter.
Here is an activity for better understanding of the inverse proportion.

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 DIRECT AND I NVERSE PROPORTIONS 211

DO THIS

Take a squared paper and arrange 48 counters on it in different number of rows as

shown below.

Number of (R1) (R2) (R3) (R4) (R5)

Rows (R) 2 3 4 6 8
Number of (C1) (C2) (C3) (C4) (C5)
Columns (C) ... ... 12 8 ...
What do you observe? As R increases, C decreases.
(i) Is R1 : R2 = C2 : C1? (ii) Is R3 : R4 = C4 : C3?
(iii) Are R and C inversely proportional to each other?
Try this activity with 36 counters.

TRY THESE
Observe the following tables and find which pair of variables (here x and y) are in
inverse proportion.
(i) x 50 40 30 20 (ii) x 100 200 300 400
y 5 6 7 8 y 60 30 20 15

(iii) x 90 60 45 30 20 5
y 10 15 20 25 30 35

Let us consider some examples where we use the concept of inverse proportion.

When two quantities x and y are in direct proportion (or vary directly) they are also written as x ∝ y.
1
When two quantities x and y are in inverse proportion (or vary inversely) they are also written as x ∝ y .

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212 MATHEMATICS

Example 7: 6 pipes are required to fill a tank in 1 hour 20 minutes. How long will it
take if only 5 pipes of the same type are used?
Solution:
Let the desired time to fill the tank be x minutes. Thus, we have
the following table.
Number of pipes 6 5
Time (in minutes) 80 x
Lesser the number of pipes, more will be the time required by
it to fill the tank. So, this is a case of inverse proportion.
Hence, 80 × 6 = x × 5 [x1 y1 = x2 y2]
80 × 6
or =x
5
or x = 96
Thus, time taken to fill the tank by 5 pipes is 96 minutes or 1 hour 36 minutes.
Example 8: There are 100 students in a hostel. Food provision for them is for 20
days. How long will these provisions last, if 25 more students join the group?
Solution: Suppose the provisions last for y days when the number of students is 125.
We have the following table.
Number of students 100 125
Number of days 20 y
Note that more the number of students, the sooner would
the provisions exhaust. Therefore, this is a case of inverse
proportion.
So, 100 × 20 = 125 × y
100 × 20
or = y or 16 = y
125
Thus, the provisions will last for 16 days, if 25 more students join the hostel.
x1 y2
Alternately, we can write x1 y1 = x2 y2 as = .
x2 y1
That is, x1 : x2 = y2 : y1
or 100 : 125 = y : 20
100 × 20
or y= = 16
125
Example 9: If 15 workers can build a wall in 48 hours, how many workers will be
required to do the same work in 30 hours?
Solution:
Let the number of workers employed to build the wall in 30 hours be y.

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 DIRECT AND I NVERSE PROPORTIONS 213

We have the following table.

Number of hours 48 30
Number of workers 15 y
Obviously more the number of workers, faster will they build the wall.
So, the number of hours and number of workers vary in inverse proportion.
So 48 × 15 = 30 × y
48 × 15
Therefore, =y or y = 24
30
i.e., to finish the work in 30 hours, 24 workers are required.

EXERCISE 13.2
1. Which of the following are in inverse proportion?
(i) The number of workers on a job and the time to complete the job.
(ii) The time taken for a journey and the distance travelled in a uniform speed.
(iii) Area of cultivated land and the crop harvested.
(iv) The time taken for a fixed journey and the speed of the vehicle.
(v) The population of a country and the area of land per person.
2. In a Television game show, the prize money of ` 1,00,000 is to be divided equally
amongst the winners. Complete the following table and find whether the prize money
given to an individual winner is directly or inversely proportional to the number
of winners?
Number of winners 1 2 4 5 8 10 20
Prize for each winner (in `) 1,00,000 50,000 ... ... ... ... ...
3. Rehman is making a wheel using spokes. He wants to fix equal spokes in such a way
that the angles between any pair of consecutive spokes are equal. Help him by
completing the following table.

Number of spokes 4 6 8 10 12
Angle between
a pair of consecutive 90° 60° ... ... ...
spokes

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214 MATHEMATICS

(i) Are the number of spokes and the angles formed between the pairs of
consecutive spokes in inverse proportion?
(ii) Calculate the angle between a pair of consecutive spokes on a wheel with 15
spokes.
(iii) How many spokes would be needed, if the angle between a pair of consecutive
spokes is 40°?
4. If a box of sweets is divided among 24 children, they will get 5 sweets each. How
many would each get, if the number of the children is reduced by 4?
5. A farmer has enough food to feed 20 animals in his cattle for 6 days. How long
would the food last if there were 10 more animals in his cattle?
6. A contractor estimates that 3 persons could rewire Jasminder’s house in 4 days. If,
he uses 4 persons instead of three, how long should they take to complete the job?
7. A batch of bottles were packed in 25 boxes with 12 bottles in each box. If the same
batch is packed using 20 bottles in each box, how many boxes would be filled?

8. A factory requires 42 machines to produce a given number of articles in 63 days.

How many machines would be required to produce the same number of articles in
54 days?
9. A car takes 2 hours to reach a destination by travelling at the speed of 60 km/h. How
long will it take when the car travels at the speed of 80 km/h?
10. Two persons could fit new windows in a house in 3 days.
(i) One of the persons fell ill before the work started. How long would the job
take now?
(ii) How many persons would be needed to fit the windows in one day?
11. A school has 8 periods a day each of 45 minutes duration. How long would each
period be, if the school has 9 periods a day, assuming the number of school hours to
be the same?

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 DIRECT AND I NVERSE PROPORTIONS 215

DO THIS

1. Take a sheet of paper. Fold it as shown in the figure. Count the number of parts and
the area of a part in each case.

Tabulate your observations and discuss with your friends. Is it a case of inverse proportion? Why?
Number of parts 1 2 4 8 16
1
Area of each part area of the paper the area of the paper ... ... ...
2

2. Take a few containers of different sizes with circular bases. Fill the same amount of
water in each container. Note the diameter of each container and the respective
height at which the water level stands. Tabulate your observations. Is it a case of
inverse proportion?

Diameter of container (in cm)

Height of water level (in cm)

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. Two quantities x and y are said to be in direct proportion if they increase (decrease) together in
x
such a manner that the ratio of their corresponding values remains constant. That is if = k [k is
y
a positive number], then x and y are said to vary directly. In such a case if y1, y2 are the values of
x1 x2
y corresponding to the values x1, x2 of x respectively then = .
y1 y2

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216 MATHEMATICS

2. Two quantities x and y are said to be in inverse proportion if an increase in x causes a proportional
decrease in y (and vice-versa) in such a manner that the product of their corresponding values
remains constant. That is, if xy = k, then x and y are said to vary inversely. In this case if y1, y2 are
x1 y2
the values of y corresponding to the values x1, x2 of x respectively then x1 y1 = x2 y2 or = .
x2 y1

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 FACTORISATION 217

CHAPTER

Factorisation
14
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Factors of natural numbers
You will remember what you learnt about factors in Class VI. Let us take a natural number,
say 30, and write it as a product of other natural numbers, say
30 = 2 × 15 We know that 30 can also be written as
= 3 × 10 = 5 × 6 30 = 1 × 30
Thus, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15 and 30 are the factors of 30. Thus, 1 and 30 are also factors of 30.
You will notice that 1 is a factor of any
Of these, 2, 3 and 5 are the prime factors of 30 (Why?)
number. For example, 101 = 1 × 101.
A number written as a product of prime factors is said to However, when we write a number as a
be in the prime factor form; for example, 30 written as product of factors, we shall not write 1 as
2 × 3 × 5 is in the prime factor form. a factor, unless it is specially required.
The prime factor form of 70 is 2 × 5 × 7.
The prime factor form of 90 is 2 × 3 × 3 × 5, and so on.
Similarly, we can express algebraic expressions as products of their factors. This is
what we shall learn to do in this chapter.
14.1.2 Factors of algebraic expressions
We have seen in Class VII that in algebraic expressions, terms are formed as products of
factors. For example, in the algebraic expression 5xy + 3x the term 5xy has been formed
by the factors 5, x and y, i.e.,
5xy = 5 × x × y Note 1 is a factor of 5xy, since
Observe that the factors 5, x and y of 5xy cannot further 5xy = 1 × 5 × x × y
be expressed as a product of factors. We may say that 5, In fact, 1 is a factor of every term. As
x and y are ‘prime’ factors of 5xy. In algebraic expressions, in the case of natural numbers, unless
we use the word ‘irreducible’ in place of ‘prime’. We say that it is specially required, we do not show
5 × x × y is the irreducible form of 5xy. Note 5 × (xy) is not 1 as a separate factor of any term.
an irreducible form of 5xy, since the factor xy can be further
expressed as a product of x and y, i.e., xy = x × y.

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218 MATHEMATICS

Next consider the expression 3x (x + 2). It can be written as a product of factors.

3, x and (x + 2)
3x(x + 2) = 3 × x × ( x + 2 )
The factors 3, x and (x +2) are irreducible factors of 3x (x + 2).
Similarly, the expression 10x (x + 2) (y + 3) is expressed in its irreducible factor form
as 10x (x + 2) (y + 3) = 2 × 5 × x × ( x + 2) × ( y + 3) .

14.2 What is Factorisation?

When we factorise an algebraic expression, we write it as a product of factors. These
factors may be numbers, algebraic variables or algebraic expressions.
Expressions like 3xy, 5 x 2 y , 2x (y + 2), 5 (y + 1) (x + 2) are already in factor form.
Their factors can be just read off from them, as we already know.
On the other hand consider expressions like 2x + 4, 3x + 3y, x2 + 5x, x2 + 5x + 6.
It is not obvious what their factors are. We need to develop systematic methods to factorise
these expressions, i.e., to find their factors. This is what we shall do now.
14.2.1 Method of common factors
• We begin with a simple example: Factorise 2x + 4.
We shall write each term as a product of irreducible factors;
2x = 2 × x
4=2×2
Hence 2x + 4 = (2 × x) + (2 × 2)
Notice that factor 2 is common to both the terms.
Observe, by distributive law
2 × (x + 2) = (2 × x) + (2 × 2)
Therefore, we can write
2x + 4 = 2 × (x + 2) = 2 (x + 2)
Thus, the expression 2x + 4 is the same as 2 (x + 2). Now we can read off its factors:
they are 2 and (x + 2). These factors are irreducible.
Next, factorise 5xy + 10x.
The irreducible factor forms of 5xy and 10x are respectively,
5xy = 5 × x × y
10x = 2 × 5 × x
Observe that the two terms have 5 and x as common factors. Now,
5xy + 10x = (5 × x × y) + (5 × x × 2)
= (5x × y) + (5x × 2)
We combine the two terms using the distributive law,
(5x× y) + (5x× 2) = 5x × ( y + 2)
Therefore, 5xy + 10x = 5 x (y + 2). (This is the desired factor form.)

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 FACTORISATION 219

Example 1: Factorise 12a2b + 15ab2

Solution: We have 12a2b = 2 × 2 × 3 × a × a × b
15ab2 = 3 × 5 × a × b × b
The two terms have 3, a and b as common factors.
Therefore, 12a2b + 15ab2 = (3 × a × b × 2 × 2 × a) + (3 × a × b × 5 × b)
= 3 × a × b × [(2 × 2 × a) + (5 × b)] (combining the terms)
= 3ab × (4a + 5b)
= 3ab (4a + 5b) (required factor form)
Example 2: Factorise 10x2 – 18x3 + 14x4
Solution: 10x2 = 2 × 5 × x × x
18x3 = 2 × 3 × 3 × x × x × x
14x4 = 2 × 7 × x × x × x × x
The common factors of the three terms are 2, x and x.
Therefore, 10x2 – 18x3 + 14x4 = (2 × x × x × 5) – (2 × x × x × 3 × 3 × x)
+ (2 × x × x × 7 × x × x)
= 2 × x × x ×[(5 – (3 × 3 × x) + (7 × x × x)] (combining the three terms)
= 2x2 × (5 – 9x + 7x2) = 2 x 2 (7 x 2 − 9 x + 5)

  

TRY THESE Do you notice that the factor

form of an expression has only
Factorise: (i) 12x + 36 (ii) 22y – 33z (iii) 14pq + 35pqr one term?

14.2.2 Factorisation by regrouping terms

Look at the expression 2xy + 2y + 3x + 3. You will notice that the first two terms have
common factors 2 and y and the last two terms have a common factor 3. But there is no
single factor common to all the terms. How shall we proceed?
Let us write (2xy + 2y) in the factor form:
2xy + 2y = (2 × x × y) + (2 × y)
= (2 × y × x) + (2 × y × 1)
Note, we need to
= (2y × x) + (2y × 1) = 2y (x + 1) show1 as a factor
Similarly, 3x + 3 = (3 × x) + (3 × 1) here. Why?
= 3 × (x + 1) = 3 ( x + 1)
Hence, 2xy + 2y + 3x + 3 = 2y (x + 1) + 3 (x +1)
Observe, now we have a common factor (x + 1) in both the terms on the right hand
side. Combining the two terms,
2xy + 2y + 3x + 3 = 2y (x + 1) + 3 (x + 1) = (x + 1) (2y + 3)
The expression 2xy + 2y + 3x + 3 is now in the form of a product of factors. Its
factors are (x + 1) and (2y + 3). Note, these factors are irreducible.

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220 MATHEMATICS

What is regrouping?
Suppose, the above expression was given as 2xy + 3 + 2y + 3x; then it will not be easy to
see the factorisation. Rearranging the expression, as 2xy + 2y + 3x + 3, allows us to form
groups (2xy + 2y) and (3x + 3) leading to factorisation. This is regrouping.
Regrouping may be possible in more than one ways. Suppose, we regroup the
expression as: 2xy + 3x + 2y + 3. This will also lead to factors. Let us try:
2xy + 3x + 2y + 3 = 2 × x × y + 3 × x + 2 × y + 3
= x × (2y + 3) + 1 × (2y + 3)
= (2y + 3) (x + 1)
The factors are the same (as they have to be), although they appear in different order.
Example 3: Factorise 6xy – 4y + 6 – 9x.
Solution:
Step 1 Check if there is a common factor among all terms. There is none.
Step 2 Think of grouping. Notice that first two terms have a common factor 2y;
6xy – 4y = 2y (3x – 2) (a)
What about the last two terms? Observe them. If you change their order to
– 9x + 6, the factor ( 3x – 2) will come out;
–9x + 6 = –3 (3x) + 3 (2)
= – 3 (3x – 2) (b)
Step 3 Putting (a) and (b) together,
6xy – 4y + 6 – 9x = 6xy – 4y – 9x + 6
= 2y (3x – 2) – 3 (3x – 2)
= (3x – 2) (2y – 3)
The factors of (6xy – 4y + 6 – 9 x) are (3x – 2) and (2y – 3).

EXERCISE 14.1
1. Find the common factors of the given terms.
(i) 12x, 36 (ii) 2y, 22xy (iii) 14 pq, 28p2q2
2
(iv) 2x, 3x , 4 (v) 6 abc, 24ab , 12 a2b
2

(vi) 16 x3, – 4x2, 32x (vii) 10 pq, 20qr, 30rp

2 3 3 2 2 2
(viii) 3x y , 10x y ,6 x y z
2. Factorise the following expressions.
(i) 7x – 42 (ii) 6p – 12q (iii) 7a2 + 14a
3 2
(iv) – 16 z + 20 z (v) 20 l m + 30 a l m
(vi) 5 x2 y – 15 xy2 (vii) 10 a2 – 15 b2 + 20 c2
2
(viii) – 4 a + 4 ab – 4 ca (ix) x2 y z + x y2z + x y z2
(x) a x2 y + b x y2 + c x y z
3. Factorise.
(i) x2 + x y + 8x + 8y (ii) 15 xy – 6x + 5y – 2

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 FACTORISATION 221

(iii) ax + bx – ay – by (iv) 15 pq + 15 + 9q + 25p

(v) z – 7 + 7 x y – x y z
14.2.3 Factorisation using identities
We know that (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 (I)
2 2 2
(a – b) = a – 2ab + b (II)
2 2
(a + b) (a – b) = a – b (III)
The following solved examples illustrate how to use these identities for factorisation. What
we do is to observe the given expression. If it has a form that fits the right hand side of one
of the identities, then the expression corresponding to the left hand side of the identity
gives the desired factorisation.
Example 4: Factorise x2 + 8x + 16
Solution: Observe the expression; it has three terms. Therefore, it does not fit
Identity III. Also, it’s first and third terms are perfect squares with a positive sign before
the middle term. So, it is of the form a2 + 2ab + b2 where a = x and b = 4
such that a2 + 2ab + b2 = x2 + 2 (x) (4) + 42
Observe here the given
= x2 + 8x + 16 expression is of the form
Since a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2, a2 – 2ab + b2.
Where a = 2y, and b = 3
by comparison x2 + 8x + 16 = ( x + 4)2 (the required factorisation) with 2ab = 2 × 2y × 3 = 12y.
Example 5: Factorise 4y2 – 12y + 9
Solution: Observe 4y2 = (2y)2, 9 = 32 and 12y = 2 × 3 × (2y)
Therefore, 4y2 – 12y + 9 = (2y)2 – 2 × 3 × (2y) + (3)2
= ( 2y – 3)2 (required factorisation)
Example 6: Factorise 49p2 – 36
Solution: There are two terms; both are squares and the second is negative. The
expression is of the form (a2 – b2). Identity III is applicable here;
49p2 – 36 = (7p)2 – ( 6 )2
= (7p – 6 ) ( 7p + 6) (required factorisation)
Example 7: Factorise a2 – 2ab + b2 – c2
Solution: The first three terms of the given expression form (a – b)2. The fourth term
is a square. So the expression can be reduced to a difference of two squares.
Thus, a2 – 2ab + b2 – c2 = (a – b)2– c2 (Applying Identity II)
= [(a – b) – c) ((a – b) + c)] (Applying Identity III)
= (a – b – c) (a – b + c) (required factorisation)
Notice, how we applied two identities one after the other to obtain the required factorisation.
Example 8: Factorise m4 – 256
Solution: We note m4 = (m2)2 and 256 = (16) 2

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222 MATHEMATICS

Thus, the given expression fits Identity III.

Therefore, m4 – 256 = (m2)2 – (16) 2
= (m2 –16) (m2 +16) [(using Identity (III)]
Now, (m + 16) cannot be factorised further, but (m2 –16) is factorisable again as per
2

Identity III.
m2–16 = m2 – 42
= (m – 4) (m + 4)
Therefore, m – 256 = (m – 4) (m + 4) (m2 +16)
4

14.2.4 Factors of the form ( x + a) ( x + b)

Let us now discuss how we can factorise expressions in one variable, like x2 + 5x + 6,
y2 – 7y + 12, z2 – 4z – 12, 3m2 + 9m + 6, etc. Observe that these expressions are not
of the type (a + b) 2 or (a – b) 2, i.e., they are not perfect squares. For example, in
x2 + 5x + 6, the term 6 is not a perfect square. These expressions obviously also do not
fit the type (a2 – b2) either.
They, however, seem to be of the type x2 + (a + b) x + a b. We may therefore, try to
use Identity IV studied in the last chapter to factorise these expressions:
(x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b) x + ab (IV)
For that we have to look at the coefficients of x and the constant term. Let us see how
it is done in the following example.
Example 9: Factorise x2 + 5x + 6
Solution: If we compare the R.H.S. of Identity (IV) with x2 + 5x + 6, we find ab = 6,
and a + b = 5. From this, we must obtain a and b. The factors then will be
(x + a) and (x + b).
If a b = 6, it means that a and b are factors of 6. Let us try a = 6, b = 1. For these
values a + b = 7, and not 5, So this choice is not right.
Let us try a = 2, b = 3. For this a + b = 5 exactly as required.
The factorised form of this given expression is then (x +2) (x + 3).

In general, for factorising an algebraic expression of the type x2 + px + q, we find two

factors a and b of q (i.e., the constant term) such that
ab = q and a+b=p
2
Then, the expression becomes x + (a + b) x + ab
or x2 + ax + bx + ab
or x(x + a) + b(x + a)
or (x + a) (x + b) which are the required factors.

Example 10: Find the factors of y2 –7y +12.

Solution: We note 12 = 3 × 4 and 3 + 4 = 7. Therefore,
y2 – 7y+ 12 = y2 – 3y – 4y + 12
= y (y –3) – 4 (y –3) = (y –3) (y – 4)

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 FACTORISATION 223

Note, this time we did not compare the expression with that in Identity (IV) to identify
a and b. After sufficient practice you may not need to compare the given expressions for
their factorisation with the expressions in the identities; instead you can proceed directly
as we did above.
Example 11: Obtain the factors of z2 – 4z – 12.
Solution: Here a b = –12 ; this means one of a and b is negative. Further, a + b = – 4,
this means the one with larger numerical value is negative. We try a = – 4, b = 3; but
this will not work, since a + b = –1. Next possible values are a = – 6, b = 2, so that
a + b = – 4 as required.
Hence, z2 – 4z –12 = z2 – 6z + 2z –12
= z(z – 6) + 2(z – 6 )
= (z – 6) (z + 2)
Example 12: Find the factors of 3m2 + 9m + 6.
Solution: We notice that 3 is a common factor of all the terms.
Therefore, 3m2 + 9m + 6 = 3(m2 + 3m + 2)
Now, m 2 + 3m + 2 = m2 + m + 2m + 2 (as 2 = 1 × 2)
= m(m + 1)+ 2( m + 1)
= (m + 1) (m + 2)
2
Therefore, 3m + 9m + 6 = 3(m + 1) (m + 2)

EXERCISE 14.2
1. Factorise the following expressions.
(i) a2 + 8a + 16 (ii) p2 – 10 p + 25 (iii) 25m2 + 30m + 9
(iv) 49y2 + 84yz + 36z2 (v) 4x2 – 8x + 4
(vi) 121b2 – 88bc + 16c2
(vii) (l + m)2 – 4lm (Hint: Expand ( l + m)2 first)
(viii) a4 + 2a2b2 + b4
2. Factorise.
(i) 4p2 – 9q2 (ii) 63a2 – 112b2 (iii) 49x2 – 36
(iv) 16x5 – 144x3 (v) (l + m)2 – (l – m)2
(vi) 9x2 y2 – 16 (vii) (x2 – 2xy + y2) – z2
(viii) 25a2 – 4b2 + 28bc – 49c2
3. Factorise the expressions.
(i) ax2 + bx (ii) 7p2 + 21q2 (iii) 2x3 + 2xy2 + 2xz2
(iv) am2 + bm2 + bn2 + an2 (v) (lm + l) + m + 1
(vi) y (y + z) + 9 (y + z) (vii) 5y2 – 20y – 8z + 2yz
(viii) 10ab + 4a + 5b + 2 (ix) 6xy – 4y + 6 – 9x

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224 MATHEMATICS

4. Factorise.
(i) a4 – b4 (ii) p4 – 81 (iii) x4 – (y + z)4
(iv) x4 – (x – z)4 (v) a4 – 2a2b2 + b4
5. Factorise the following expressions.
(i) p2 + 6p + 8 (ii) q2 – 10q + 21 (iii) p2 + 6p – 16

14.3 Division of Algebraic Expressions

We have learnt how to add and subtract algebraic expressions. We also know how to
multiply two expressions. We have not however, looked at division of one algebraic
expression by another. This is what we wish to do in this section.
We recall that division is the inverse operation of multiplication. Thus, 7 × 8 = 56 gives
56 ÷ 8 = 7 or 56 ÷ 7 = 8.
We may similarly follow the division of algebraic expressions. For example,
(i) 2x × 3x2 = 6x 3
Therefore, 6x3 ÷ 2x = 3x 2
and also, 6x3 ÷ 3x2 = 2x.
(ii) 5x (x + 4) = 5x2 + 20x
Therefore, (5x2 + 20x) ÷ 5x = x + 4
and also (5x2 + 20x) ÷ (x + 4) = 5x.
We shall now look closely at how the division of one expression by another can be
carried out. To begin with we shall consider the division of a monomial by another monomial.
14.3.1 Division of a monomial by another monomial
Consider 6x3 ÷ 2x
We may write 2x and 6x3 in irreducible factor forms,
2x = 2 × x
6x3 = 2 × 3 × x × x × x
Now we group factors of 6x3 to separate 2x,
6x3 = 2 × x × (3 × x × x) = (2x) × (3x2)
Therefore, 6x3 ÷ 2x = 3x2.
A shorter way to depict cancellation of common factors is as we do in division of numbers:
77 7 × 11
77 ÷ 7 = = = 11
7 7
6 x3
Similarly, 6x3 ÷ 2x =
2x
2×3× x × x × x
= = 3 × x × x = 3x2
2× x
Example 13: Do the following divisions.
(i) –20x4 ÷ 10x2 (ii) 7x2y2z2 ÷ 14xyz
Solution:
(i) –20x4 = –2 × 2 × 5 × x × x × x × x
10x2 = 2 × 5 × x × x

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 FACTORISATION 225

−2× 2×5× x× x× x× x
Therefore, (–20x4) ÷ 10x2 = = –2 × x × x = –2x2
2×5× x × x
7× x× x× y× y× z× z
(ii) 7x2y2z2 ÷ 14xyz =
2×7× x× y× z
x× y×z 1
= = xyz
2 2

TRY THESE
Divide.
(i) 24xy2z3 by 6yz2 (ii) 63a2b4c6 by 7a2b2c3

14.3.2 Division of a polynomial by a monomial

Let us consider the division of the trinomial 4y3 + 5y2 + 6y by the monomial 2y.
4y3 + 5y2 + 6y = (2 × 2 × y × y × y) + (5 × y × y) + (2 × 3 × y)
(Here, we expressed each term of the polynomial in factor form) we find that 2 × y is
common in each term. Therefore, separating 2 × y from each term. We get
5 
4y3 + 5y2 + 6y =2 × y × (2 × y × y) + 2 × y ×  × y  + 2 × y × 3
2
 5 
= 2y (2y2) + 2y  y  + 2y (3)
2
 2 5 
= 2 y  2 y + y + 3 (The common factor 2y is shown separately.
2
Therefore, (4y3 + 5y2 + 6y) ÷ 2y
5
2 y (2 y 2 + y + 3) Here, we divide
4 y3 + 5 y 2 + 6 y 2 5
= = = 2y2 + y + 3 each term of the
2y 2y 2 polynomial in the
Alternatively, we could divide each term of the trinomial by the numerator by the
monomial in the
monomial using the cancellation method.
4y + 5y + 6y
3 2 denominator.
(4y3 + 5y2 + 6y) ÷ 2y =
2y
3
4y 5 y2 6 y 5
= + + = 2y2 + y + 3
2y 2y 2y 2
Example 14: Divide 24(x2yz + xy2z + xyz2) by 8xyz using both the methods.
Solution: 24 (x2yz + xy2z + xyz2)
= 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × [(x × x × y × z) + (x × y × y × z) + (x × y × z × z)]
= 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × x × y × z × (x + y + z) = 8 × 3 × xyz × (x + y + z) (By taking out the
Therefore, 24 (x2yz + xy2z + xyz2) ÷ 8xyz common factor)
8 × 3 × xyz × ( x + y + z )
= = 3 × (x + y + z) = 3 (x + y + z)
8 × xyz

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24 x 2 yz 24 xy 2 z 24 xyz 2
Alternately,24(x yz + xy z + xyz ) ÷ 8xyz =
2 2 2 + +
8 xyz 8 xyz 8 xyz
= 3x + 3y + 3z = 3(x + y + z)

14.4 Division of Algebraic Expressions Continued

(Polynomial ÷ Polynomial)
• Consider (7x2 + 14x) ÷ (x + 2)
We shall factorise (7x2 + 14x) first to check and match factors with the denominator:
7x2 + 14x = (7 × x × x) + (2 × 7 × x)
Will it help here to = 7 × x × (x + 2) = 7x(x + 2)
divide each term of
the numerator by 7 x 2 + 14 x
Now (7x2 + 14x) ÷ (x + 2) =
the binomial in the x+2
denominator?
7 x( x + 2)
= = 7x (Cancelling the factor (x + 2))
x+2
Example 15: Divide 44(x4 – 5x3 – 24x2) by 11x (x – 8)
Solution: Factorising 44(x4 – 5x3 – 24x2), we get
44(x4 – 5x3 – 24x2) = 2 × 2 × 11 × x2(x2 – 5x – 24)
(taking the common factor x2 out of the bracket)
= 2 × 2 × 11 × x2(x2 – 8x + 3x – 24)
= 2 × 2 × 11 × x2 [x (x – 8) + 3(x – 8)]
= 2 × 2 × 11 × x2 (x + 3) (x – 8)
Therefore, 44(x4 – 5x3 – 24x2) ÷ 11x(x – 8)
2 × 2 × 11 × x × x × ( x + 3) × ( x – 8)
=
11 × x × ( x – 8)
We cancel the factors 11,
= 2 × 2 × x (x + 3) = 4x(x + 3)
x and (x – 8) common to
Example 16: Divide z(5z2 – 80) by 5z(z + 4) both the numerator and
denominator.
Solution: Dividend = z(5z2 – 80)
= z[(5 × z2) – (5 × 16)]
= z × 5 × (z2 – 16)
= 5z × (z + 4) (z – 4) [using the identity
a2 – b2 = (a + b) (a – b)]
5 z ( z − 4) ( z + 4)
Thus, z(5z2 – 80) ÷ 5z(z + 4) = = (z – 4)
5 z ( z + 4)

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 FACTORISATION 227

EXERCISE 14.3
1. Carry out the following divisions.
(i) 28x4 ÷ 56x (ii) –36y3 ÷ 9y2 (iii) 66pq2r3 ÷ 11qr2
(iv) 34x3y3z3 ÷ 51xy2z3 (v) 12a8b8 ÷ (– 6a6b4)
2. Divide the given polynomial by the given monomial.
(i) (5x2 – 6x) ÷ 3x (ii) (3y8 – 4y6 + 5y4) ÷ y4
(iii) 8(x3y2z2 + x2y3z2 + x2y2z3) ÷ 4x2y2z2 (iv) (x3 + 2x2 + 3x) ÷ 2x
(v) (p3q6 – p6q3) ÷ p3q3
3. Work out the following divisions.
(i) (10x – 25) ÷ 5 (ii) (10x – 25) ÷ (2x – 5)
(iii) 10y(6y + 21) ÷ 5(2y + 7) (iv) 9x2y2(3z – 24) ÷ 27xy(z – 8)
(v) 96abc(3a – 12) (5b – 30) ÷ 144(a – 4) (b – 6)
4. Divide as directed.
(i) 5(2x + 1) (3x + 5) ÷ (2x + 1) (ii) 26xy(x + 5) (y – 4) ÷ 13x(y – 4)
(iii) 52pqr (p + q) (q + r) (r + p) ÷ 104pq(q + r) (r + p)
(iv) 20(y + 4) (y2 + 5y + 3) ÷ 5(y + 4) (v) x(x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 3) ÷ x(x + 1)
5. Factorise the expressions and divide them as directed.
(i) (y2 + 7y + 10) ÷ (y + 5) (ii) (m2 – 14m – 32) ÷ (m + 2)
(iii) (5p2 – 25p + 20) ÷ (p – 1) (iv) 4yz(z2 + 6z – 16) ÷ 2y(z + 8)
(v) 5pq(p2 – q2) ÷ 2p(p + q)
(vi) 12xy(9x2 – 16y2) ÷ 4xy(3x + 4y) (vii) 39y3(50y2 – 98) ÷ 26y2(5y + 7)

14.5 Can you Find the Error?

Task 1 While solving an equation, Sarita does the following. Coefficient 1 of a
term is usually not
3x + x + 5x = 72 shown. But while
Therefore 8x = 72 adding like terms,
72 we include it in
and so, x= =9 the sum.
8
Where has she gone wrong? Find the correct answer. Remember to make
Task 2 Appu did the following: use of brackets,
For x = –3 , 5x = 5 – 3 = 2 while substituting a
negative value.
Is his procedure correct? If not, correct it.
Task 3 Namrata and Salma have done the
multiplication of algebraic expressions in the
Remember, when you multiply the
following manner. expression enclosed in a bracket by a
constant (or a variable) outside, each
Namrata Salma term of the expression has to be
multiplied by the constant
(a) 3(x – 4) = 3x – 4 3(x – 4) = 3x – 12 (or the variable).

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228 MATHEMATICS

(b) (2x)2 = 2x2 (2x)2 = 4x2

Remember, when you
(c) (2a – 3) (a + 2) (2a – 3) (a + 2) square a monomial, the
Make sure, numerical coefficient and
before = 2a2 – 6 = 2a2 + a – 6 each factor has to be
applying any squared.
formula,
whether the
(d) (x + 8)2 = x2 + 64 (x + 8)2
formula is = x2 + 16x + 64
really
applicable. (e) (x – 5)2 = x2 – 25 (x – 5)2 = x2 – 10x + 25
Is the multiplication done by both Namrata and Salma correct? Give reasons for your
answer.
a+5
Task 4 Joseph does a division as : = a +1
5
While dividing a a+5
polynomial by a His friend Sirish has done the same division as: =a
monomial, we divide 5
each term of the
polynomial in the a+5 a
numerator by the And his other friend Suman does it this way: = +1
monomial in the
5 5
denominator. Who has done the division correctly? Who has done incorrectly? Why?

Some fun!
Atul always thinks differently. He asks Sumathi teacher, “If what you say is true, then
64 4
why do I get the right answer for = = 4?’’ The teacher explains, “ This is so
16 1
64 16 × 4 4
because 64 happens to be 16 × 4; 16 = 16 ×1 = 1 . In reality, we cancel a factor of 16
and not 6, as you can see. In fact, 6 is not a factor of either 64 or of 16.” The teacher
664 4 6664 4
adds further, “Also, = , = , and so on”. Isn’t that interesting? Can you
166 1 1666 1
64
help Atul to find some other examples like ?
16

EXERCISE 14.4
Find and correct the errors in the following mathematical statements.
1. 4(x – 5) = 4x – 5 2. x(3x + 2) = 3x2 + 2 3. 2x + 3y = 5xy
4. x + 2x + 3x = 5x 5. 5y + 2y + y – 7y = 0 6. 3x + 2x = 5x2
7. (2x)2 + 4(2x) + 7 = 2x2 + 8x + 7 8. (2x)2 + 5x = 4x + 5x = 9x
9. (3x + 2)2 = 3x2 + 6x + 4

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 FACTORISATION 229

10. Substituting x = – 3 in
(a) x2 + 5x + 4 gives (– 3)2 + 5 (– 3) + 4 = 9 + 2 + 4 = 15
(b) x2 – 5x + 4 gives (– 3)2 – 5 ( – 3) + 4 = 9 – 15 + 4 = – 2
(c) x2 + 5x gives (– 3)2 + 5 (–3) = – 9 – 15 = – 24
11. (y – 3)2 = y2 – 9 12. (z + 5)2 = z2 + 25
13. (2a + 3b) (a – b) = 2a2 – 3b2 14. (a + 4) (a + 2) = a2 + 8
3x 2
15. (a – 4) (a – 2) = a2 – 8 16. =0
3x 2
3x 2 + 1 3x
=
1 3
=
1
17. = 1 + 1 = 2 18. 19.
3x2 3x + 2 2 4x + 3 4x
4x + 5 7x + 5
20. =5 21. = 7x
4x 5

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. When we factorise an expression, we write it as a product of factors. These factors may be
numbers, algebraic variables or algebraic expressions.
2. An irreducible factor is a factor which cannot be expressed further as a product of factors.
3. A systematic way of factorising an expression is the common factor method. It consists of three
steps: (i) Write each term of the expression as a product of irreducible factors (ii) Look for and
separate the common factors and (iii) Combine the remaining factors in each term in accordance
with the distributive law.
4. Sometimes, all the terms in a given expression do not have a common factor; but the terms can be
grouped in such a way that all the terms in each group have a common factor. When we do this,
there emerges a common factor across all the groups leading to the required factorisation of the
expression. This is the method of regrouping.
5. In factorisation by regrouping, we should remember that any regrouping (i.e., rearrangement) of
the terms in the given expression may not lead to factorisation. We must observe the expression
and come out with the desired regrouping by trial and error.
6. A number of expressions to be factorised are of the form or can be put into the form : a2 + 2 ab + b2,
a2 – 2ab + b2, a2 – b2 and x2 + (a + b) + ab. These expressions can be easily factorised using
Identities I, II, III and IV, given in Chapter 9,
a2 + 2 ab + b2 = (a + b)2
a2 – 2ab + b2 = (a – b)2
a2 – b2 = (a + b) (a – b)
x2 + (a + b) x + ab = (x + a) (x + b)
7. In expressions which have factors of the type (x + a) (x + b), remember the numerical term gives ab. Its
factors, a and b, should be so chosen that their sum, with signs taken care of, is the coefficient of x.
8. We know that in the case of numbers, division is the inverse of multiplication. This idea is applicable
also to the division of algebraic expressions.

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230 MATHEMATICS

9. In the case of division of a polynomial by a monomial, we may carry out the division either by
dividing each term of the polynomial by the monomial or by the common factor method.
10. In the case of division of a polynomial by a polynomial, we cannot proceed by dividing each term
in the dividend polynomial by the divisor polynomial. Instead, we factorise both the polynomials
and cancel their common factors.
11. In the case of divisions of algebraic expressions that we studied in this chapter, we have
Dividend = Divisor × Quotient.
In general, however, the relation is
Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder
Thus, we have considered in the present chapter only those divisions in which the remainder
is zero.
12. There are many errors students commonly make when solving algebra exercises. You should avoid
making such errors.

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 INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS 231
CHAPTER

Introduction to Graphs
15
15.1 Introduction
Have you seen graphs in the newspapers, television, magazines, books etc.? The purpose
of the graph is to show numerical facts in visual form so that they can be understood
quickly, easily and clearly. Thus graphs are visual representations of data collected. Data
can also be presented in the form of a table; however a graphical presentation is easier to
understand. This is true in particular when there is a trend or comparison to be shown.
We have already seen some types of graphs. Let us quickly recall them here.
15.1.1 A Bar graph
A bar graph is used to show comparison among categories. It may consist of two or more
parallel vertical (or horizontal) bars (rectangles).
The bar graph in Fig 15.1 shows Anu’s mathematics marks in the three terminal
examinations. It helps you to compare her performance easily. She has shown good progress.

Fig 15.1
Bar graphs can also have double bars as in Fig 15.2. This graph gives a comparative
account of sales (in `) of various fruits over a two-day period. How is Fig 15.2 different
from Fig 15.1? Discuss with your friends.

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232 MATHEMATICS

Fig 15.2

15.1.2 A Pie graph (or a circle-graph)

A pie-graph is used to compare parts of a whole. The circle represents the whole. Fig 15.3
is a pie-graph. It shows the percentage of viewers watching different types of TV channels.

Fig 15.3
15.1.3 A histogram
A Histogram is a bar graph that shows data in intervals. It has adjacent bars over
the intervals.

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 INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS 233

The histogram in Fig 15.4 illustrates the distribution of weights (in kg) of 40 persons of
a locality.

Weights (kg) 40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60 60-65

No. of persons 4 12 13 6 5

In Fig 15.4 a jagged line

( ) has been used along
horizontal line to indicate
that we are not showing
numbers between 0 and 40.

Fig 15.4

There are no gaps between bars, because there are no gaps between the intervals.
What is the information that you gather from this histogram? Try to list them out.
15.1.4 A line graph
A line graph displays data that changes continuously over periods of time.
When Renu fell sick, her doctor maintained a record of her body temperature, taken
every four hours. It was in the form of a graph (shown in Fig 15.5 and Fig 15.6).
We may call this a “time-temperature graph”.
It is a pictorial representation of the following data, given in tabular form.

Time 6 a.m. 10 a.m. 2 p.m. 6 p.m.

Temperature(°C) 37 40 38 35

The horizontal line (usually called the x-axis) shows the timings at which the temperatures
were recorded. What are labelled on the vertical line (usually called the y-axis)?

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234 MATHEMATICS

Fig 15.5 Fig 15.6

Each piece of data is shown The points are then connected by line
by a point on the square grid. segments. The result is the line graph.

What all does this graph tell you? For example you can see the pattern of temperature;
more at 10 a.m. (see Fig 15.5) and then decreasing till 6 p.m. Notice that the temperature
increased by 3° C(= 40° C – 37° C) during the period 6 a.m. to 10 a.m.
There was no recording of temperature at 8 a.m., however the graph suggests that it
was more than 37 °C (How?).

Example 1: (A graph on “performance”)

The given graph (Fig 15.7) represents the total runs scored by two batsmen A and B,
during each of the ten different matches in the year 2007. Study the graph and answer the
following questions.
(i) What information is given on the two axes?
(ii) Which line shows the runs scored by batsman A?
(iii) Were the run scored by them same in any match in 2007? If so, in which match?
(iii) Among the two batsmen, who is steadier? How do you judge it?
Solution:
(i) The horizontal axis (or the x-axis) indicates the matches played during the year
2007. The vertical axis (or the y-axis) shows the total runs scored in each match.
(ii) The dotted line shows the runs scored by Batsman A. (This is already indicated at
the top of the graph).

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 INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS 235

(iii) During the 4th match, both have scored the same
number of 60 runs. (This is indicated by the point
at which both graphs meet).
(iv) Batsman A has one great “peak” but many deep
“valleys”. He does not appear to be consistent.
B, on the other hand has never scored below a
total of 40 runs, even though his highest score is
only 100 in comparison to 115 of A. Also A has
scored a zero in two matches and in a total of 5
matches he has scored less than 40 runs. Since A
has a lot of ups and downs, B is a more consistent
and reliable batsman.
Example 2: The given graph (Fig 15.8) describes
the distances of a car from a city P at different times
when it is travelling from City P to City Q, which are
350 km apart. Study the graph and answer the following:
(i) What information is given on the two axes?
(ii) From where and when did the car begin its
journey? Fig 15.7
(iii) How far did the car go in the first hour?
(iv) How far did the car go during (i) the 2nd hour? (ii) the 3rd hour?
(v) Was the speed same during the first three hours? How do you know it?
(vi) Did the car stop for some duration at any place? Justify your answer.
(vii) When did the car reach City Q?

Fig 15.8

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236 MATHEMATICS

Solution:
(i) The horizontal (x) axis shows the time. The vertical (y) axis shows the distance of the
car from City P.
(ii) The car started from City P at 8 a.m.
(iii) The car travelled 50 km during the first hour. [This can be seen as follows.
At 8 a.m. it just started from City P. At 9 a.m. it was at the 50th km (seen from graph).
Hence during the one-hour time between 8 a.m. and 9 a.m. the car travelled 50 km].
(iv) The distance covered by the car during
(a) the 2nd hour (i.e., from 9 am to 10 am) is 100 km, (150 – 50).
(b) the 3rd hour (i.e., from 10 am to 11 am) is 50 km (200 – 150).
(v) From the answers to questions (iii) and (iv), we find that the speed of the car was not
the same all the time. (In fact the graph illustrates how the speed varied).
(vi) We find that the car was 200 km away from city P when the time was 11 a.m. and
also at 12 noon. This shows that the car did not travel during the interval 11 a.m. to
12 noon. The horizontal line segment representing “travel” during this period is
illustrative of this fact.
(vii) The car reached City Q at 2 p.m.

EXERCISE 15.1
1. The following graph shows the temperature of a patient in a hospital, recorded
every hour.
(a) What was the patient’s temperature at 1 p.m. ?
(b) When was the patient’s temperature 38.5° C?

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 INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS 237

(c) The patient’s temperature was the same two times during the period given.
What were these two times?
(d) What was the temperature at 1.30 p.m.? How did you arrive at your answer?
(e) During which periods did the patients’ temperature showed an upward trend?
2. The following line graph shows the yearly sales figures for a manufacturing company.
(a) What were the sales in (i) 2002 (ii) 2006?
(b) What were the sales in (i) 2003 (ii) 2005?
(c) Compute the difference between the sales in 2002 and 2006.
(d) In which year was there the greatest difference between the sales as compared
to its previous year?

3. For an experiment in Botany, two different plants, plant A and plant B were grown
under similar laboratory conditions. Their heights were measured at the end of each
week for 3 weeks. The results are shown by the following graph.

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(a) How high was Plant A after (i) 2 weeks (ii) 3 weeks?
(b) How high was Plant B after (i) 2 weeks (ii) 3 weeks?
(c) How much did Plant A grow during the 3rd week?
(d) How much did Plant B grow from the end of the 2nd week to the end of the
3rd week?
(e) During which week did Plant A grow most?
(f) During which week did Plant B grow least?
(g) Were the two plants of the same height during any week shown here? Specify.
4. The following graph shows the temperature forecast and the actual temperature for
each day of a week.
(a) On which days was the forecast temperature the same as the actual temperature?
(b) What was the maximum forecast temperature during the week?
(c) What was the minimum actual temperature during the week?
(d) On which day did the actual temperature differ the most from the forecast
temperature?

5. Use the tables below to draw linear graphs.

(a) The number of days a hill side city received snow in different years.
Year 2003 2004 2005 2006
Days 8 10 5 12
(b) Population (in thousands) of men and women in a village in different years.
Year 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Number of Men 12 12.5 13 13.2 13.5
Number of Women 11.3 11.9 13 13.6 12.8

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 INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS 239

6. A courier-person cycles from a town to a neighbouring suburban area to deliver a

parcel to a merchant. His distance from the town at different times is shown by the
following graph.
(a) What is the scale taken for the time axis?
(b) How much time did the person take for the travel?
(c) How far is the place of the merchant from the town?
(d) Did the person stop on his way? Explain.
(e) During which period did he ride fastest?

7. Can there be a time-temperature graph as follows? Justify your answer.

(i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)

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15.2 Linear Graphs

A line graph consists of bits of line segments
joined consecutively. Sometimes the graph may
be a whole unbroken line. Such a graph is called
a linear graph. To draw such a line we need to
locate some points on the graph sheet. We will
now learn how to locate points conveniently on
a graph sheet.
15.2.1 Location of a point
The teacher put a dot on the black-board. She asked the
students how they would describe its location. There were
several responses (Fig 15. 9).

The dot is The dot is

The dot is very close to
near the left
in the upper the left
edge of the
half of the upper corner
board
board of board

Fig 15.9
Can any one of these statements help fix the position of the dot? No! Why not?
Think about it.
John then gave a suggestion. He measured the distance of the dot from the left edge of
the board and said, “The dot is 90 cm from the left edge of the board”. Do you think
John’s suggestion is really helpful? (Fig 15.10)

Fig 15.10 Fig 15.11

A, A1, A2, A3 are all 90 cm away A is 90 cm from left edge and
from the left edge. 160 cm from the bottom edge.

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 INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS 241

Rekha then came up with a modified statement : “The dot is 90 cm from the left edge
and 160 cm from the bottom edge”. That solved the problem completely! (Fig 15.11) The
teacher said, “We describe the position of this dot by writing it as (90, 160)”. Will the point
(160, 90) be different from (90, 160)? Think about it.
The 17th century mathematician Rene Descartes, it is said, noticed the movement
of an insect near a corner of the ceiling and began to think of determining the
position of a given point in a plane. His system of fixing a point with the help of
two measurements, vertical and horizontal, came to be known as Cartesian system,
in his honour.
Rene Descartes
15.2.2 Coordinates (1596-1650)
Suppose you go to an auditorium and
search for your reserved seat. You need to
know two numbers, the row number and
the seat number. This is the basic method
for fixing a point in a plane.
Observe in Fig 15.12 how the point
(3, 4) which is 3 units from left edge and 4
units from bottom edge is plotted on a graph
sheet. The graph sheet itself is a square grid.
We draw the x and y axes conveniently and
then fix the required point. 3 is called the
x-coordinate of the point; 4 is the
y-coordinate of the point. We say that the
coordinates of the point are (3, 4).
Fig 15.12
Example 3: Plot the point (4, 3) on a graph
sheet. Is it the same as the point (3, 4)?
Solution: Locate the x, y axes, (they are
actually number lines!). Start at O (0, 0).
Move 4 units to the right; then move 3 units
up, you reach the point (4, 3). From
Fig 15.13, you can see that the points (3, 4)
and (4, 3) are two different points.
Example 4: From Fig 15.14, choose the
letter(s) that indicate the location of the points Fig 15.13
given below:
(i) (2, 1)
(ii) (0, 5)
(iii) (2, 0)
Also write
(iv) The coordinates of A.
(v) The coordinates of F. Fig 15.14

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242 MATHEMATICS

Solution:
(i) (2, 1) is the point E (It is not D!).
(ii) (0, 5) is the point B (why? Discuss with your friends!). (iii) (2, 0) is the point G.
(iv) Point A is (4, 5) (v) F is (5.5, 0)
Example 5: Plot the following points and verify if they lie on a line. If they lie on a line,
name it.
(i) (0, 2), (0, 5), (0, 6), (0, 3.5) (ii) A (1, 1), B (1, 2), C (1, 3), D (1, 4)
(iii) K (1, 3), L (2, 3), M (3, 3), N (4, 3) (iv) W (2, 6), X (3, 5), Y (5, 3), Z (6, 2)
Solution:

(i) (ii)
These lie on a line. These lie on a line. The line is AD.
The line is y-axis. (You may also use other ways
of naming it). It is parallel to the y-axis

(iii) (iv)
Fig 15.15
These lie on a line. We can name it as KL These lie on a line. We can name
or KM or MN etc. It is parallel to x-axis it as XY or WY or YZ etc.
Note that in each of the above cases, graph obtained by joining the plotted points is a
line. Such graphs are called linear graphs.

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 INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS 243

EXERCISE 15.2
1. Plot the following points on a graph sheet. Verify if they lie on a line
(a) A(4, 0), B(4, 2), C(4, 6), D(4, 2.5)
(b) P(1, 1), Q(2, 2), R(3, 3), S(4, 4)
(c) K(2, 3), L(5, 3), M(5, 5), N(2, 5)
2. Draw the line passing through (2, 3) and (3, 2). Find the coordinates of the points at
which this line meets the x-axis and y-axis.
3. Write the coordinates of the vertices
of each of these adjoining figures.
4. State whether True or False. Correct
that are false.
(i) A point whose x coordinate is zero
and y-coordinate is non-zero will
lie on the y-axis.
(ii) A point whose y coordinate is zero
and x-coordinate is 5 will lie on
y-axis.
(iii) The coordinates of the origin
are (0, 0).

15.3 Some Applications

In everyday life, you might have observed that the more you use a facility, the more you
pay for it. If more electricity is consumed, the bill is bound to be high. If less electricity is
used, then the bill will be easily manageable. This is an instance where one quantity affects
another. Amount of electric bill depends on the quantity of electricity used. We say that the
quantity of electricity is an independent variable (or sometimes control variable) and
the amount of electric bill is the dependent variable. The relation between such variables
can be shown through a graph.

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

The number of litres of petrol you buy to fill a car’s petrol tank will decide the amount
you have to pay. Which is the independent variable here? Think about it.

Example 6: (Quantity and Cost)

The following table gives the quantity of petrol and its cost.
No. of Litres of petrol 10 15 20 25
Cost of petrol in ` 500 750 1000 1250
Plot a graph to show the data.

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244 MATHEMATICS

Solution: (i) Let us take a suitable scale on both the axes (Fig 15.16).

Cost (in `)

Fig 15.16
(ii) Mark number of litres along the horizontal axis.
(iii) Mark cost of petrol along the vertical axis.
(iv) Plot the points: (10,500), (15,750), (20,1000), (25,1250).
(v) Join the points.
We find that the graph is a line. (It is a linear graph). Why does this graph pass through
the origin? Think about it.
This graph can help us to estimate a few things. Suppose we want to find the amount
needed to buy 12 litres of petrol. Locate 12 on the horizontal axis.
Follow the vertical line through 12 till you meet the graph at P (say).
From P you take a horizontal line to meet the vertical axis. This meeting point provides
the answer.
This is the graph of a situation in which two quantities, are in direct variation. (How ?).
In such situations, the graphs will always be linear.

TRY THESE
In the above example, use the graph to find how much petrol can be purchased
for ` 800.

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 INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS 245

Example 7: (Principal and Simple Interest)

A bank gives 10% Simple Interest (S.I.) on deposits by senior citizens. Draw a graph to
illustrate the relation between the sum deposited and simple interest earned. Find from
your graph
(a) the annual interest obtainable for an investment of ` 250.
(b) the investment one has to make to get an annual simple interest of ` 70.
Solution:

Sum deposited Simple interest for a year

100 ×1×10
` 100 ` = ` 10 Steps to follow:
100
1. Find the quantities to be
plotted as Deposit and SI.
200 ×1×10 2. Decide the quantities to be
` 200 ` = ` 20
100 taken on x-axis and on
y-axis.
300 ×1×10 3. Choose a scale.
` 300 ` = ` 30 4. Plot points.
100
5. Join the points.
500 ×1×10
` 500 ` = ` 50
100

` 1000 ` 100

We get a table of values.

Deposit (in `) 100 200 300 500 1000

Annual S.I. (in `) 10 20 30 50 100

(i) Scale : 1 unit = ` 100 on horizontal axis; 1 unit = ` 10 on vertical axis.

(ii) Mark Deposits along horizontal axis.
(iii) Mark Simple Interest along vertical axis.
(iv) Plot the points : (100,10), (200, 20), (300, 30), (500,50) etc.
(v) Join the points. We get a graph that is a line (Fig 15.17).
(a) Corresponding to ` 250 on horizontal axis, we
get the interest to be ` 25 on vertical axis. TRY THESE
(b) Corresponding to ` 70 on the vertical axis,
we get the sum to be ` 700 on the horizontal Is Example 7, a case of direct variation?
axis.

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246 MATHEMATICS

Fig 15.17
Example 8: (Time and Distance)
Ajit can ride a scooter constantly at a speed of 30 kms/hour. Draw a time-distance graph
for this situation. Use it to find
1
(i) the time taken by Ajit to ride 75 km. (ii) the distance covered by Ajit in 3 hours.
2
Solution:
Hours of ride Distance covered
1 hour 30 km
2 hours 2 × 30 km = 60 km
3 hours 3 × 30 km = 90 km
4 hours 4 × 30 km = 120 km and so on.
We get a table of values.

Time (in hours) 1 2 3 4

Distance covered (in km) 30 60 90 120

(i) Scale: (Fig 15.18)

Horizontal: 2 units = 1 hour
Vertical: 1 unit = 10 km
(ii) Mark time on horizontal axis.
(iii) Mark distance on vertical axis.
(iv) Plot the points: (1, 30), (2, 60), (3, 90), (4, 120).

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 INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS 247

Fig 15.18

(v) Join the points. We get a linear graph.

(a) Corresponding to 75 km on the vertical axis, we get the time to be 2.5 hours on
the horizontal axis. Thus 2.5 hours are needed to cover 75 km.
1
(b) Corresponding to 3 hours on the horizontal axis, the distance covered is
2
105 km on the vertical axis.

EXERCISE 15.3
1. Draw the graphs for the following tables of values, with suitable scales on the axes.
(a) Cost of apples

Number of apples 1 2 3 4 5

Cost (in `) 5 10 15 20 25

(b) Distance travelled by a car

Time (in hours) 6 a.m. 7 a.m. 8 a.m. 9 a.m.

Distances (in km) 40 80 120 160

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248 MATHEMATICS

(i) How much distance did the car cover during the period 7.30 a.m. to 8 a.m?
(ii) What was the time when the car had covered a distance of 100 km since
it’s start?
(c) Interest on deposits for a year.

Deposit (in `) 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Simple Interest (in `) 80 160 240 320 400

(i) Does the graph pass through the origin?

(ii) Use the graph to find the interest on ` 2500 for a year.
(iii) To get an interest of ` 280 per year, how much money should be deposited?
2. Draw a graph for the following.
(i) Side of square (in cm) 2 3 3.5 5 6

Perimeter (in cm) 8 12 14 20 24

Is it a linear graph?

(ii) Side of square (in cm) 2 3 4 5 6

Area (in cm2) 4 9 16 25 36

Is it a linear graph?

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. Graphical presentation of data is easier to understand.
2. (i) A bar graph is used to show comparison among categories.
(ii) A pie graph is used to compare parts of a whole.
(iii) A Histogram is a bar graph that shows data in intervals.
3. A line graph displays data that changes continuously over periods of time.
4. A line graph which is a whole unbroken line is called a linear graph.
5. For fixing a point on the graph sheet we need, x-coordinate and y-coordinate.
6. The relation between dependent variable and independent variable is shown through a graph.

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CHAPTER

Playing with Numbers

16
16.1 Introduction
You have studied various types of numbers such as natural numbers, whole numbers,
integers and rational numbers. You have also studied a number of interesting properties
about them. In Class VI, we explored finding factors and multiples and the relationships
among them.
In this chapter, we will explore numbers in more detail. These ideas help in justifying
tests of divisibility.

16.2 Numbers in General Form

Let us take the number 52 and write it as
52 = 50 + 2 = 10 × 5 + 2
Similarly, the number 37 can be written as
37 = 10 × 3 + 7
In general, any two digit number ab made of digits a and b can be written as
ab = 10 × a + b = 10a + b Here ab does not
mean a × b!
What about ba? ba = 10 × b + a = 10b + a
Let us now take number 351. This is a three digit number. It can also be written as
351 = 300 + 50 + 1 = 100 × 3 + 10 × 5 + 1 × 1
Similarly 497 = 100 × 4 + 10 × 9 + 1 × 7
In general, a 3-digit number abc made up of digits a, b and c is written as
abc = 100 × a + 10 × b + 1 × c
= 100a + 10b + c
In the same way,
cab = 100c + 10a + b
bca = 100b + 10c + a and so on.

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250 MATHEMATICS

TRY THESE
1. Write the following numbers in generalised form.
(i) 25 (ii) 73 (iii) 129 (iv) 302
2. Write the following in the usual form.
(i) 10 × 5 + 6 (ii) 100 × 7 + 10 × 1 + 8 (iii) 100 × a + 10 × c + b

16.3 Games with Numbers

(i) Reversing the digits – two digit number
Minakshi asks Sundaram to think of a 2-digit number, and then to do whatever she asks
him to do, to that number. Their conversation is shown in the following figure. Study the
figure carefully before reading on.

It so happens that Sundaram chose the number 49. So, he got the reversed number
94; then he added these two numbers and got 49 + 94 = 143. Finally he divided this
number by 11 and got 143 ÷ 11 = 13, with no remainder. This is just what Minakshi
had predicted.

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 PLAYING WITH NUMBERS 251

TRY THESE
Check what the result would have been if Sundaram had chosen the numbers shown
below.
1. 27 2. 39 3. 64 4. 17

Now, let us see if we can explain Minakshi’s “trick”.

Suppose Sundaram chooses the number ab, which is a short form for the 2-digit
number 10a + b. On reversing the digits, he gets the number ba = 10b + a. When he adds
the two numbers he gets:
(10a + b) + (10b + a) = 11a + 11b
= 11 (a + b).
So, the sum is always a multiple of 11, just as Minakshi had claimed.
Observe here that if we divide the sum by 11, the quotient is a + b, which is exactly the
sum of the digits of chosen number ab.
You may check the same by taking any other two digit number.
The game between Minakshi and Sundaram continues!
Minakshi: Think of another 2-digit number, but don’t tell me what it is.
Sundaram: Alright.
Minakshi: Now reverse the digits of the number, and subtract the smaller number from
the larger one.
Sundaram: I have done the subtraction. What next?
Minakshi: Now divide your answer by 9. I claim that there will be no remainder!
Sundaram: Yes, you are right. There is indeed no remainder! But this time I think I know
how you are so sure of this!
In fact, Sundaram had thought of 29. So his calculations were: first he got
the number 92; then he got 92 – 29 = 63; and finally he did (63 ÷ 9) and got 7 as
quotient, with no remainder.

TRY THESE
Check what the result would have been if Sundaram had chosen the numbers shown
below.
1. 17 2. 21 3. 96 4. 37
Let us see how Sundaram explains Minakshi’s second “trick”. (Now he feels confident
of doing so!)
Suppose he chooses the 2-digit number ab = 10a + b. After reversing the digits, he
gets the number ba = 10b + a. Now Minakshi tells him to do a subtraction, the
smaller number from the larger one.
• If the tens digit is larger than the ones digit (that is, a > b), he does:
(10a + b) – (10b + a) = 10a + b – 10b – a
= 9a – 9b = 9(a – b).

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252 MATHEMATICS

• If the ones digit is larger than the tens digit (that is, b > a), he does:
(10b + a) – (10a + b) = 9(b – a).
• And, of course, if a = b, he gets 0.
In each case, the resulting number is divisible by 9. So, the remainder is 0. Observe
here that if we divide the resulting number (obtained by subtraction), the quotient is
a – b or b – a according as a > b or a < b. You may check the same by taking any
other two digit numbers.
(ii) Reversing the digits – three digit number.
Now it is Sundaram’s turn to play some tricks!
Sundaram: Think of a 3-digit number, but don’t tell me what it is.
Minakshi: Alright.
Sundaram: Now make a new number by putting the digits in reverse order, and subtract
the smaller number from the larger one.
Minakshi: Alright, I have done the subtraction. What next?
Sundaram: Divide your answer by 99. I am sure that there will be no remainder!
In fact, Minakshi chose the 3-digit number 349. So she got:
• Reversed number: 943; • Difference: 943 – 349 = 594;
• Division: 594 ÷ 99 = 6, with no remainder.

TRY THESE
Check what the result would have been if Minakshi had chosen the numbers shown
below. In each case keep a record of the quotient obtained at the end.
1. 132 2. 469 3. 737 4. 901

Let us see how this trick works.

Let the 3-digit number chosen by Minakshi be abc = 100a + 10b + c.
After reversing the order of the digits, she gets the number cba = 100c + 10b + a. On
subtraction:
• If a > c, then the difference between the numbers is
(100a + 10b + c) – (100c + 10b + a) = 100a + 10b + c – 100c – 10b – a
= 99a – 99c = 99(a – c).
• If c > a, then the difference between the numbers is
(100c + 10b + a) – (100a + 10b + c) = 99c – 99a = 99(c – a).
• And, of course, if a = c, the difference is 0.
In each case, the resulting number is divisible by 99. So the remainder is 0. Observe
that quotient is a – c or c – a. You may check the same by taking other 3-digit numbers.
(iii) Forming three-digit numbers with given three-digits.
Now it is Minakshi’s turn once more.

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 PLAYING WITH NUMBERS 253

Minakshi: Think of any 3-digit number.

Sundaram: Alright, I have done so.
Minakshi: Now use this number to form two more 3-digit numbers, like this: if the
number you chose is abc, then
• ‘the first number is cab (i.e., with the ones digit shifted to the “left end” of
the number);
• the other number is bca (i.e., with the hundreds digit shifted to the “right
end” of the number).
Now add them up. Divide the resulting number by 37. I claim that there will
be no remainder.
Sundaram: Yes. You are right!
In fact, Sundaram had thought of the 3-digit number 237. After doing what Minakshi had
asked, he got the numbers 723 and 372. So he did:
2 3 7
+ 7 2 3 Form all possible 3-digit numbers using all the digits 2, 3 and
7 and find their sum. Check whether the sum is divisible by
+ 3 7 2 37! Is it true for the sum of all the numbers formed by the
digits a, b and c of the number abc?
1 3 3 2
Then he divided the resulting number 1332 by 37:
1332 ÷ 37 = 36, with no remainder.

TRY THESE
Check what the result would have been if Sundaram had chosen the numbers
shown below.
1. 417 2. 632 3. 117 4. 937

Will this trick always work?

Let us see. abc = 100a + 10b + c
cab = 100c + 10a + b
bca = 100b + 10c + a
abc + cab + bca = 111(a + b + c)
= 37 × 3(a + b + c), which is divisible by 37

16.4 Letters for Digits

Here we have puzzles in which letters take the place of digits in an arithmetic ‘sum’, and
the problem is to find out which letter represents which digit; so it is like cracking a code.
Here we stick to problems of addition and multiplication.

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254 MATHEMATICS

Here are two rules we follow while doing such puzzles.

1. Each letter in the puzzle must stand for just one digit. Each digit must be
represented by just one letter.
2. The first digit of a number cannot be zero. Thus, we write the number “sixty
three” as 63, and not as 063, or 0063.
A rule that we would like to follow is that the puzzle must have just one answer.
Example 1: Find Q in the addition.
3 1 Q
+ 1 Q 3
5 0 1
Solution:
There is just one letter Q whose value we have to find.
Study the addition in the ones column: from Q + 3, we get ‘1’, that is, a number whose
ones digit is 1.
For this to happen, the digit Q should be 8. So the puzzle can be solved as shown below.
3 1 8
+ 1 8 3
5 0 1
That is, Q = 8
Example 2: Find A and B in the addition.
A
+ A
+ A
B A
Solution: This has two letters A and B whose values are to be found.
Study the addition in the ones column: the sum of three A’s is a number whose ones digit
is A. Therefore, the sum of two A’s must be a number whose ones digit is 0.
This happens only for A = 0 and A = 5.
If A = 0, then the sum is 0 + 0 + 0 = 0, which makes B = 0 too. We do not want this
(as it makes A = B, and then the tens digit of BA too becomes 0), so we reject this
possibility. So, A = 5.
Therefore, the puzzle is solved as shown below.
5
+ 5
+ 5
That is, A = 5 and B = 1. 1 5

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 PLAYING WITH NUMBERS 255

Example 3: Find the digits A and B.

BA
× B 3
5 7 A
Solution:
This also has two letters A and B whose values are to be found.
Since the ones digit of 3 × A is A, it must be that A = 0 or A = 5.
Now look at B. If B = 1, then BA × B3 would at most be equal to 19 × 19; that is,
it would at most be equal to 361. But the product here is 57A, which is more than 500. So
we cannot have B = 1.
If B = 3, then BA × B3 would be more than 30 × 30; that is, more than 900. But 57A
is less than 600. So, B can not be equal to 3.
Putting these two facts together, we see that B = 2 only. So the multiplication is either
20 × 23, or 25 × 23.
The first possibility fails, since 20 × 23 = 460. But, the 2 5
second one works out correctly, since 25 × 23 = 575. × 2 3
So the answer is A = 5, B = 2. 5 7 5

DO THIS

Write a 2-digit number ab and the number obtained by reversing its digits i.e., ba. Find
their sum. Let the sum be a 3-digit number dad
i.e., ab + ba = dad
(10a + b) + (10b + a) = dad
11(a + b) = dad
The sum a + b can not exceed 18 (Why?).
Is dad a multiple of 11?
Is dad less than 198?
Write all the 3-digit numbers which are multiples of 11 upto 198.
Find the values of a and d.

EXERCISE 16.1
Find the values of the letters in each of the following and give reasons for the steps involved.
1. 3 A 2. 4 A 3. 1 A
+ 2 5 + 9 8 × A
B 2 C B 3 9 A

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4. A B 5. A B 6. A B
+ 3 7 × 3 × 5
6 A C A B C A B

2 A B
7. A B 8. A 1 9.
+ A B 1
× 6 + 1 B
B 1 8
B B B B 0

10. 1 2 A
+ 6 A B
A 0 9

16.5 Tests of Divisibility

In Class VI, you learnt how to check divisibility by the following divisors.
10, 5, 2, 3, 6, 4, 8, 9, 11.
You would have found the tests easy to do, but you may have wondered at the same
time why they work. Now, in this chapter, we shall go into the “why” aspect of the above.
16.5.1 Divisibility by 10
This is certainly the easiest test of all! We first look at some multiples of 10.
10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, ... ,
and then at some non-multiples of 10.
13, 27, 32, 48, 55, 69,
From these lists we see that if the ones digit of a number is 0, then the number is a
multiple of 10; and if the ones digit is not 0, then the number is not a multiple of 10. So, we
get a test of divisibility by 10.
Of course, we must not stop with just stating the test; we must also explain why it
“works”. That is not hard to do; we only need to remember the rules of place value.
Take the number. ... cba; this is a short form for
... + 100c + 10b + a
Here a is the one’s digit, b is the ten’s digit, c is the hundred’s digit, and so on. The
dots are there to say that there may be more digits to the left of c.
Since 10, 100, ... are divisible by 10, so are 10b, 100c, ... . And as for the number a
is concerned, it must be a divisible by 10 if the given number is divisible by 10. This is
possible only when a = 0.
Hence, a number is divisible by 10 when its one’s digit is 0.
16.5.2 Divisibility by 5
Look at the multiples of 5.
5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50,

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We see that the one’s digits are alternately 5 and 0, and no other digit ever
appears in this list.
So, we get our test of divisibility by 5.
If the ones digit of a number is 0 or 5, then it is divisible by 5.
Let us explain this rule. Any number ... cba can be written as:
... + 100c + 10b + a
Since 10, 100 are divisible by 10 so are 10b, 100c, ... which in turn, are divisible
by 5 because 10 = 2 × 5. As far as number a is concerned it must be divisible by 5 if the
number is divisible by 5. So a has to be either 0 or 5.

TRY THESE
(The first one has been done for you.)
1. If the division N ÷ 5 leaves a remainder of 3, what might be the ones digit of N?
(The one’s digit, when divided by 5, must leave a remainder of 3. So the one’s digit
must be either 3 or 8.)
2. If the division N ÷ 5 leaves a remainder of 1, what might be the one’s digit of N?
3. If the division N ÷ 5 leaves a remainder of 4, what might be the one’s digit of N?

16.5.3 Divisibility by 2
Here are the even numbers.
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, ... ,
and here are the odd numbers.
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, ... ,
We see that a natural number is even if its one’s digit is
2, 4, 6, 8 or 0
A number is odd if its one’s digit is
1, 3, 5, 7 or 9
Recall the test of divisibility by 2 learnt in Class VI, which is as follows.
If the one’s digit of a number is 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8 then the number is divisible by 2.
The explanation for this is as follows.
Any number cba can be written as 100c + 10b + a
First two terms namely 100c, 10b are divisible by 2 because 100 and 10 are divisible
by 2. So far as a is concerned, it must be divisible by 2 if the given number is divisible by
2. This is possible only when a = 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8.

TRY THESE
(The first one has been done for you.)
1. If the division N ÷ 2 leaves a remainder of 1, what might be the one’s digit of N?
(N is odd; so its one’s digit is odd. Therefore, the one’s digit must be 1, 3, 5, 7 or 9.)

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2. If the division N ÷ 2 leaves no remainder (i.e., zero remainder), what might be the
one’s digit of N?
3. Suppose that the division N ÷ 5 leaves a remainder of 4, and the division N ÷ 2
leaves a remainder of 1. What must be the one’s digit of N?

16.5.4 Divisibility by 9 and 3

Look carefully at the three tests of divisibility found till now, for checking division by
10, 5 and 2. We see something common to them: they use only the one’s digit of the
given number; they do not bother about the ‘rest’ of the digits. Thus, divisibility
is decided just by the one’s digit. 10, 5, 2 are divisors of 10, which is the key
number in our place value.
But for checking divisibility by 9, this will not work. Let us take some number say 3573.
Its expanded form is: 3 × 1000 + 5 × 100 + 7 × 10 + 3
This is equal to 3 × (999 + 1) + 5 × (99 + 1) + 7 × (9 + 1) + 3
= 3 × 999 + 5 × 99 + 7 × 9 + (3 + 5 + 7 + 3) ... (1)
We see that the number 3573 will be divisible by 9 or 3 if (3 + 5 + 7 + 3) is divisible
by 9 or 3.
We see that 3 + 5 + 7 + 3 = 18 is divisible by 9 and also by 3. Therefore, the number
3573 is divisible by both 9 and 3.
Now, let us consider the number 3576. As above, we get
3576 = 3 × 999 + 5 × 99 + 7 × 9 + (3 + 5 + 7 + 6) ... (2)
Since (3 + 5 + 7 + 6) i.e., 21 is not divisible by 9 but is divisible by 3,
therefore 3576 is not divisible by 9. However 3576 is divisible by 3. Hence,
(i) A number N is divisible by 9 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9. Otherwise it is
not divisible by 9.
(ii) A number N is divisible by 3 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3. Otherwise it is
not divisible by 3.
If the number is ‘cba’, then, 100c + 10b + a = 99c + 9b + (a + b + c)

= 9(11c + b) + ( a + b + c)

 
divisible by 3 and 9

Hence, divisibility by 9 (or 3) is possible if a + b + c is divisible by 9 (or 3).

Example 4: Check the divisibility of 21436587 by 9.
Solution: The sum of the digits of 21436587 is 2 + 1 + 4 + 3 + 6 + 5 + 8 + 7 = 36.
This number is divisible by 9 (for 36 ÷ 9 = 4). We conclude that 21436587 is divisible by 9.
We can double-check:
21436587
= 2381843 (the division is exact).
9

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Example 5: Check the divisibility of 152875 by 9.

Solution: The sum of the digits of 152875 is 1 + 5 + 2 + 8 + 7 + 5 = 28. This number
is not divisible by 9. We conclude that 152875 is not divisible by 9.

TRY THESE
Check the divisibility of the following numbers by 9.
1. 108 2. 616 3. 294 4. 432 5. 927

Example 6: If the three digit number 24x is divisible by 9, what is the value of x?
Solution: Since 24x is divisible by 9, sum of it’s digits, i.e., 2 + 4 + x should be
divisible by 9, i.e., 6 + x should be divisible by 9.
This is possible when 6 + x = 9 or 18, ....
But, since x is a digit, therefore, 6 + x = 9, i.e., x = 3.

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

1. You have seen that a number 450 is divisible by 10. It is also divisible by 2 and 5
which are factors of 10. Similarly, a number 135 is divisible 9. It is also divisible
by 3 which is a factor of 9.
Can you say that if a number is divisible by any number m, then it will also be
divisible by each of the factors of m?
2. (i) Write a 3-digit number abc as 100a + 10b + c
= 99a + 11b + (a – b + c)
= 11(9a + b) + (a – b + c)
If the number abc is divisible by 11, then what can you say about
(a – b + c)?
Is it necessary that (a + c – b) should be divisible by 11?
(ii) Write a 4-digit number abcd as 1000a + 100b + 10c + d
= (1001a + 99b + 11c) – (a – b + c – d)
= 11(91a + 9b + c) + [(b + d) – (a + c)]
If the number abcd is divisible by 11, then what can you say about
[(b + d) – (a + c)]?
(iii) From (i) and (ii) above, can you say that a number will be divisible by 11 if
the difference between the sum of digits at its odd places and that of digits at
the even places is divisible by 11?

Example 7: Check the divisibility of 2146587 by 3.

Solution: The sum of the digits of 2146587 is 2 + 1 + 4 + 6 + 5 + 8 + 7 = 33. This
number is divisible by 3 (for 33 ÷ 3 = 11). We conclude that 2146587 is divisible by 3.

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Example 8: Check the divisibility of 15287 by 3.

Solution: The sum of the digits of 15287 is 1 + 5 + 2 + 8 + 7 = 23. This number is not
divisible by 3. We conclude that 15287 too is not divisible by 3.

TRY THESE
Check the divisibility of the following numbers by 3.
1. 108 2. 616 3. 294 4. 432 5. 927

EXERCISE 16.2
1. If 21y5 is a multiple of 9, where y is a digit, what is the value of y?
2. If 31z5 is a multiple of 9, where z is a digit, what is the value of z?
You will find that there are two answers for the last problem. Why is this so?
3. If 24x is a multiple of 3, where x is a digit, what is the value of x?
(Since 24x is a multiple of 3, its sum of digits 6 + x is a multiple of 3; so 6 + x is one
of these numbers: 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, ... . But since x is a digit, it can only be that
6 + x = 6 or 9 or 12 or 15. Therefore, x = 0 or 3 or 6 or 9. Thus, x can have any of
four different values.)
4. If 31z5 is a multiple of 3, where z is a digit, what might be the values of z?

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. Numbers can be written in general form. Thus, a two digit number ab will be written as
ab = 10a + b.
2. The general form of numbers are helpful in solving puzzles or number games.
3. The reasons for the divisibility of numbers by 10, 5, 2, 9 or 3 can be given when numbers are
written in general form.

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