Deterioration of Agriculture

Deterioration of Agriculture under British Rule
Indian agriculture began to stagnate and even deteriorate as a result of overcrowding in

agriculture, excessive land revenue demand, and growth of landlordism, increasing indebtedness,
and growing impoverishment of cultivators, resulting in extremely low yields per acre. Between
1901 and 1939, total agricultural production fell by 14%. Overcrowding in agriculture and an
increase in subinfeudation resulted in land being divided and fragmented into small holdings, the
majority of which were unable to maintain their cultivators. The overwhelming majority of
peasants were unable to improve agriculture by using better cattle and seeds, more manure and
fertilisers, and improved production techniques due to their extreme poverty.
Land Revenue System under the British Rule:
The Britishers in India established the zamindari system. Under this system, the
zamindars were the permanent owners of the land. For their ownership rights, they were
required to pay a fixed sum to the government as land revenue and they were given full
freedom to charge any revenue they wanted from the tillers. The zamindars had lavish
and extravagant lifestyles and they mercilessly exploited the poor tillers, and did nothing
for their upliftment.
In the very beginning of British rule in Bengal, the policy of Clive and Warren Hasting of
extracting the largest possible land revenue had led to such devastation
 By 1815, half the total land in Bengal had passed into hands of money-lenders,

merchants, and rich peasants who usually got the land cultivated by tenants. The new
zamindars, with increased powers but with little or no avenues for new
investments, resorted to land-grabbing and sub-infeudation.Warren Hastings’
policy of auctioning the rights of revenue collection to the highest bidders, (Izaredari
System)
Rise of Intermediaries, Absentee Landlordism, and Ruin of Old Zamindars
 By 1815, half of Bengal's total land had passed into new hands—merchants,
moneylenders, and other wealthy urban dwellers.
 With increased powers but few or no avenues for new investments, the new zamindars
resorted to landgrabbing and sub-infeudation.
 The increase in the number of intermediaries who had to be paid led to absentee
landlordism and increased the burden on the peasant.
 Because there was such a high demand for land, prices rose, as did the peasant's
liabilities.
 The zamindar had no incentive to invest in agricultural improvement because he had no
traditional or benevolent ties with the tenants.
 The zamindars' only interests were in the continuation of British rule and in opposing the
national movement.
Deterioration of Agriculture
 The cultivator lacked both the means and the motivation to invest in agriculture.
 The zamindar had no ties to the villages, and the government spent little money on
agriculture, technology, or mass education.
 All of this, combined with land fragmentation caused by sub-infeudation, made it
difficult to introduce modern technology, resulting in a perpetually low level of
productivity.
Famine and Poverty
 The recurrence of famines became a regular feature of daily life in India.

 These famines were caused not only by a lack of foodgrains, but also by the poverty
unleashed by colonial forces in India.
 Famines killed approximately 2.8 crore people between 1850 and 1900.
Commercialisation of Agriculture
 Agriculture had previously been regarded as a way of life rather than a business venture.
Commercial considerations began to have an impact on agriculture.
 Certain specialised crops began to be grown for sale in national and even international
markets, rather than for consumption in the village.
 Cotton, jute, groundnut, oilseeds, sugarcane, tobacco, and other commercial crops were
more profitable than foodgrains.
 Perhaps the commercialisation trend reached its pinnacle in the plantation sector, i.e., tea,
coffee, rubber, indigo, and so on, which was dominated by Europeans and the produce
was for sale in wider market.
 Commercialisation appeared to be a forced process to the Indian peasant.
 Given his subsistence level, there was little surplus for him to invest in commercial crops,
while commercialisation linked Indian agriculture to international market trends and
fluctuations.
 Cotton, for example, pushed up prices in the 1860s, but this mostly benefited the
intermediaries, and when prices fell in 1866, it hit the cultivators the hardest, causing
heavy indebtedness, famine, and agrarian riots in the Deccan in the 1870s.
 As a result, the cultivator hardly fared any better as a result of the new commercialisation
trend.
Lack of Resources: Because the tillers had to pay huge amounts of rent, they were not
left with any surplus to be able to provide for resources needed in agriculture in the form
of fertilisers or providing for irrigation facilities. This further lowered the agricultural
productivity.
While the Indian government had spent more than 360 crores of rupees on railways by 1905, as
demanded by British business interests, it had spent less than 50 crores on irrigation, which
would have benefited millions of Indian farmers. Despite this, irrigation was the only area where
the government made progress.

• At a time when agriculture around the world was being modernised and revolutionised,
Indian agriculture was stuck in the past, with little modern machinery being used. Worse, even
everyday implements were hundreds of years old. In 1951, for example, there were only 930,000
iron ploughs in use, compared to 31.8 million wooden ploughs.

• Inorganic fertilisers were almost unknown, and a large portion of animal manure, such as cow
dung, night soil, and cattle bones, was thrown away. Only 1.9 percent of all cropped land was
under improved seeds in 1922—23. This percentage had only increased to 11% by 1938-39.

• Agricultural education was also completely overlooked. There were only six agricultural
colleges in 1939, with a total of 1306 students.

• In Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, and Sind, there was not a single agricultural college. Peasants were
also unable to improve themselves through self-study. Primary education, let alone literacy, was
scarcely available in rural areas.

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Deterioration of Agriculture under British Rule

Indian agriculture began to stagnate and even deteriorate as a result of overcrowding in

Land Revenue System under the British Rule:

 By 1815, half the total land in Bengal had passed into hands of money-lenders,

Rise of Intermediaries, Absentee Landlordism, and Ruin of Old Zamindars

Famine and Poverty

 The recurrence of famines became a regular feature of daily life in India.

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