ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

(Early Childhood Education and Elementary Teacher Education Department)

Course: Research Methods in Education (8604)

Semester: Autumn,2022

Level: B. Ed (1.5 Year)

Submitted By: Himayat Hussain

Registration Number: 0000388203

Assignment: 1 (Unit 1-5)

 (Unit 1-5)
Q1: Discuss different methods used as a tool of acquiring knowledge.
Compare the various steps in scientific method with steps in research
process?

Answer: Introduction of Scientific Methods. The scientific method has great

importance in the education fields. Take a minute to ponder some of what you know and
how you acquired that knowledge. Perhaps you know that you should make your bed in the
morning because your mother or father told you this is what you should do, perhaps you
know that swans are white because all of the swans you have seen are white, or perhaps
you know that your friend is lying to you because she is acting strange and won’t look you in
the eye. But should we trust knowledge from these sources The methods of acquiring
knowledge can be broken down into five categories each with its own strengths and
weaknesses.

Steps of Scientific Methods in Research.

1. Science as a Method of Knowing. This book is a formal introduction to the scientific method.
2. The Scientific Method.
3. Identify a Problem.
4. Develop a Research Plan.
5. Conduct the Study.
6. Analyze and Evaluate the Data.
7. Communicate the Results.
8. Generate More New Ideas.

Scientific Method of Knowing to Problems. This is the first step of scientific research.
The first method of knowing is intuition. When we use our intuition, we are relying on our
guts, our emotions, and/or our instincts to guide us. Rather than examining facts or using
rational thought, intuition involves believing what feels true. The problem with relying on
intuition is that our intuitions can be wrong because they are driven by cognitive and
motivational biases rather than logical reasoning or scientific evidence. While the strange
behavior of your friend may lead you to think s/he is lying to you it may just be that s/he is
holding in a bit of gas or is preoccupied with some other issue that is irrelevant to you.
However, weighing alternatives and thinking of all the different possibilities can be paralyzing
for some people and sometimes decisions based on intuition are actually superior to those
based on analysis (people interested in this idea should read 
The Scientific Method. This is second step of scientific research method in this method
we see our problems in science. Perhaps one of the most common methods of acquiring
knowledge is through authority. This method involves accepting new ideas because some
authority figure states that they are true. These authorities include parents, the media,
doctors, Priests and other religious authorities, the government, and professors. While in an
ideal world we should be able to trust authority figures, history has taught us otherwise and
many instances of atrocities against humanity are a consequence of people unquestioningly
following authority (e.g., Salem Witch Trials, Nazi War Crimes). On a more benign level,
while your parents may have told you that you should make your bed in the morning, making
your bed provides the warm damp environment in which mites thrive. Keeping the sheets
open provides a less hospitable environment for mites. These examples illustrate that the
problem with using authority to obtain knowledge is that they may

Nevertheless, much of the information we acquire is through authority because we don’t

have time to question and independently research every piece of knowledge we learn
through authority. But we can learn to evaluate the credentials of authority figures, to
evaluate the methods they used to arrive at their conclusions, and evaluate whether they
have any reasons.

Identify a Problem. This is third step of scientific research method. This is the most
important step for scientific research problems. Empiricism involves acquiring
knowledge through observation and experience. Once again many of you may have
believed that all swans are white because you have only ever seen white swans. For
centuries people believed the world is flat because it appears to be flat. These
examples and the many visual illusions that trick our senses illustrate the problems
with relying on empiricism alone to derive knowledge. We are limited in what we can
experience and observe and our senses can deceive us. Moreover, our prior
experiences can alter the way we perceive events. Nevertheless, empiricism is at the
heart of the scientific method. Science relies on observations. But not just any
observations, science relies on structured observations which is known as
systematic.
Develop a research Plan. In this step we develop a plan about research which research
paper is given to us for solving. The scientific method is a process of systematically
collecting and evaluating evidence to test ideas and answer questions. While

scientists may use intuition, authority, rationalism, and empiricism to generate new ideas
they don’t stop there. Scientists go a step further by using systematic empiricism to make
careful observations under various controlled conditions in order to test their ideas and they
use rationalism to arrive at valid conclusions. While the scientific method is the most likely of
all of the methods to produce valid knowledge, like all methods of acquiring knowledge it
also has its drawbacks. One major problem is that it is always feasible to use the scientific
method; this method can require considerable time and resources. Another problem with the
scientific method is that it cannot be used to answer all questions. As described in the
following section, the scientific method can only be used to address empirical questions.
This book and your research methods course are designed to provide you with an in-depth
examination of how psychologists use the scientific method to advance our understanding of
human behavior and the mind.

Conduct the study. In this we conduct the study about our research problems. This type
of supervision gives absolute freedom to the teachers to deliver their teaching in his own
light that he feels the best for his students. There is no hard and fast rule for him to follow
guidelines of a sound teaching programmed and appropriate methods of teaching for
different subjects. This type of supervision is not suitable in the modern context as it stresses
on the autocratic attitude of the teacher in teaching in one point and no inspecting authority
to inspect his teaching. However, it is a type of supervision which was used in United States
of America ones upon a time. When his plea is asked, the sultan accepts his mistake. The
judge declares the sultan as guilty because of what he has done and decides to punish him
with the same thing he has done for the architect which means his hand will be cut off.

Q:2 Describe different types of research categorized on the basis of methods

used and the purpose of research.

Answer: Meaning of Basic Research. Basic research is mainly concerned with

generalizations and the formulation of theory. It is driven by curiosity or interest in a subject.
The main motivation is to expand man’s knowledge, not to create or invent something. Many
scientists believe that basic research lays the foundation for the applied research that
follows.

Strengths of Basic Research. Therefore, it has some merits and according to R.

Stephen Berry (2011) basic research has following merits:

Basic research is typically curiosity-driven and researchers develop their curiosity

through their observations.

1. Basic research frequently leads to new insights into the essence of nature, the
human mind, and the complex interactions between their elements.
2. It is usually unpredictable in terms of its course and outcomes.
3. It requires a special way of thinking that often combines seemingly unrelated
facts and explores unknown fields necessary to make new discoveries. It is
for this reason that basic research is frequently multidisciplinary in nature.
4. It is the verifiable which makes scientific knowledge a firmer kind of
knowledge that anything else we have. This information includes not only data
in databases, but also the information found in journals and textbooks, the
interpretation of data, and the concepts that underlie these.

Limitations of Basic Research. It is limited in nature as it never helps to make

discoveries, create or invent anything. But it just expands one’s knowledge as it is a
theoretical but not practical research.

Applied Research. Another type of research by purpose is applied research or field

research. It involves practical problems of the society. It can be argued that the goal of
applied research is to improve the human condition. An example of applied research could
be a study to find out how the school feeding program has affected school enrollment rates
in drought-prone districts. Applied research is increasingly gaining favor as it helps to
address the problems facing the world today such as overpopulation, pollution, depletion of
natural resources, drought, floods, declining moral standards and disease. As Anderson,
also felt that researchers in this field try to find solutions to existing educational problems.
The approach is much more utilitarian as it strives to find information that will directly
influence practice.

Action Research. Action research is an important type of research by purpose. It is a

unique form of applied research and a reflective process of progressive problem solving. It is
also called “practitioner research” because of the involvement of the actual practitioner in
real life. Action implies that the practitioner is involved in the collection of data, analysis, and
the interpretation of results. He or she is also involved in implementing results of the
research and is thus well placed to judge the effectiveness of the interventions.
It is done simply by action, hence the name. It can also be undertaken by larger
organizations or institutions, assisted or guided by professional researchers, with the aim of
improving their strategies, practices, and knowledge of the environments within which they
practice

Purpose of Research. In the education fields the research has great importance in the

education fields. In this type of supervision autocracy goes to the inspecting personnel. It

means as the supervision is meant for the teachers in relation to their teaching performance

and it is desirable for him to deliver their teaching performance in a lucid manner. For this

they have to act in accordance to the rules and regulations of the modern principles of

teaching. But it is a matter of great regret that in this type of supervision the teacher has to

teach in accordance of the guidelines prescribed by the inspecting officers themself. As

there are inspecting officers who have their own principles of teaching which are not suitable

compel the teachers to teach accordingly. As a result of which the teacher loses his

freedom, dignity, originality ithregard. Besides he becomes afraid, frustrated and incomplete

in his teaching.

Q:3 Discuss the concept of educational research. Also examine the need and
importance of research in education.

Answer: Concept of Educational Research. Educational research is a type of

systematic investigation that applies empirical methods to solving challenges in education. It
adopts rigorous and well-defined scientific processes in order to gather and analyze data for
problem-solving and knowledge advancement. 

it defines educational research as that activity that is directed towards the development of a
science of behavior in educational situations. The ultimate aim of such a science is to
provide knowledge that will permit the educator to achieve his goals through the most
effective methods.

The primary purpose of educational research is to expand the existing body of knowledge by
providing solutions to different problems in pedagogy while improving teaching and learning
practices. Educational researchers also seek answers to questions bothering on learner
motivation, development, and classroom management. 

Characteristics of Education Research .

While educational research can take numerous forms and approaches, several
characteristics define its process and approach. Some of them are listed below:

1. It sets out to solve a specific problem.

 2. Educational research adopts primary and secondary research methods in its data
collection process. This means that in educational research, the investigator relies on
first-hand sources of information and secondary data to arrive at a suitable
conclusion. 
3. Educational research relies on empirical evidence. This results from its largely
scientific approach.
4. Educational research is objective and accurate because it measures verifiable
information.
5. In educational research, the researcher adopts specific methodologies, detailed
procedures, and analysis to arrive at the most objective responses
6. Educational research findings are useful in the development of principles and
theories that provide better insights into pressing issues.
7. This research approach combines structured, semi-structured, and unstructured
questions to gather verifiable data from respondents.
8. Many educational research findings are documented for peer review before their
presentation. 

Educational research is interdisciplinary in nature because it draws from different fields and
studies complex factual relations.

Importance of Educational Research. In the education the research is most important

in the education fields. It defines that education research explain the problems. This is the
first and foremost function of supervision that classes are to be inspected by the inspecting
officers. It may be the headmaster of the concerned school or school inspector. This is the
first supervision in the sense that the teacher becomes alert about his duties and
responsibilities after being sure that his duties can be inspected all of sudden when he is in
the classroom. So this type of supervision activates the teacher to have proper readiness to
deliver good teaching in the classroom.

Besides, there are teachers who don’t discharge their duties properly after knowing all these
things. And it has been seen that they are penalized for not taking the class in time. On the
contrary the sincere teachers are rewarded for rendering proper duties and responsibilities.
This type of supervision is acceptable in almost all the developed countries of the world till
now because of its balanced and positive effect on all the elements which are closely
associated with it.

Importance of Education. The word education has great importance in the life, without
education we cannot get progress. In short, we discuss all types of supervision which are
important in the education fields. All types have its own importance and value but according
to my ideas absolute freedom is better types for our school in supervision. This type of
supervision is appreciated in the modern educational system because of its positive and
lasting impact on the teaching performance of teachers. To this supervision as students or
pupils are the central points in the teaching learning process, the teaching programmed
should be in accordance to the needs of every child. For this the teachers should be given
in-service training on the latest developed methods of teaching for different subjects. After
that the supervision work should be done. This type of supervision develops a great deal of
interest, self-confidence and creativity among teachers to teach their subjects. A good way
to begin your presentation

Q:4 What is an experiment and how you will conduct experimental research?
What will be the threats to internal and external validity and you will minimize
these threats?
Internal Validity in Research. Internal validity is the extent to which a research study
establishes a trustworthy cause-and-effect relationship.1 This type of validity depends
largely on the study's procedures and how rigorously it is performed.

Internal validity is important because once established, it makes it possible to eliminate

alternative explanations for a finding. If you implement a smoking cessation program, for
instance, internal validity ensures that any improvement in the subjects is due to the
treatment administered and not something else.

Internal validity is not a "yes or no" concept. Instead, we consider how confident we can be
with study findings based on whether the research avoids traps that may make those
findings questionable. The less chance there is for "confounding," the higher the internal
validity and the more confident we can be.

Factors That Improve Internal Validity. To ensure the internal validity of a study, you
want to consider aspects of the research design that will increase the likelihood that you can
reject alternative hypotheses. Many factors can improve internal validity in research,
including:

Blinding: Participants and sometimes researchers are unaware of what intervention

they are receiving (such as using a placebo on some subjects in a medication study)
to avoid having this knowledge bias their perceptions and behaviors, thus impacting
the study's outcome.

Experimental manipulation: Manipulating an independent variable in a study (for

instance, giving smokers a cessation program) instead of just observing an association
without conducting any intervention (examining the relationship between exercise and
smoking behavior.

External Validity in Research.

External validity refers to how well the outcome of a research study can be expected to apply
to other settings. This is important because, if external validity is established, it means that
the findings can be generalizable to similar individuals or populations.

Population validity and ecological validity are two types of external validity. Population
validity refers to whether you can generalize the research outcomes to other populations or
groups. Ecological validity refers to whether a study's findings. Can be generalized to
additional situations or settings.

Internal Validity vs External Validity.

Internal validity and external validity are two research concepts that share a few
similarities while also having several differences.

Similarities.

One of the similarities between internal validity and external validity is that both factors
should be considered when designing a study. This is because both have implications in
terms of whether the results of a study have meaning. Both internal validity and external
validity are not "either/or" concepts. Therefore, you always need to decide to what degree a
study performs in terms of each type of validity.

Each of these concepts is also typically reported in research articles published in scholarly
journals. This is so that other researchers can evaluate the study and make decisions about
whether the results are useful and valid.

Differences. The essential difference between internal validity and external validity is that
internal validity refers to the structure of a study (and its variables) while external validity
refers to the universality of the results. But there are further differences between the two as
well.

For instance, internal validity focuses on showing a difference that is due to the independent
variable alone. Conversely, external validity results can be translated.

Internal Validity Example. An example of a study with good internal validity would be if a
researcher hypothesizes that using a particular mindfulness app will reduce negative mood.
To test this hypothesis, the researcher randomly assigns a sample of participants to one of
two groups: those who will use the app over a defined period and those who engage in a
control task.

The researcher ensures that there is no systematic bias in how participants are assigned to
the groups. They do this by blinding the research assistants so they don't know which
groups the subjects are in during the experiment.

A strict study protocol is also used to outline the procedures of the study. Potential
confounding variables are measured along with mood, such as the participants'
socioeconomic status, gender, age, and other factors. If participants drop out of the study,
their characteristics are examined to make sure there is no systematic bias in terms of who
stays in.

External Validity Example. An example of a study with good external validity would be if,
in the above example, the participants used the mindfulness app at home rather than in the
laboratory. This shows that results appear in a real-world setting.

To further ensure external validity, the researcher clearly defines the population of interest
and chooses a representative sample. They might also replicate the study's results using
different technological devices.

Experiment Research. The experiment research is most important in the education fields,
to be the cornerstone phase of development for all human beings. Our development as
young children are an essential part of the process of becoming adults. Most often, the way
in which a child physically progresses follows a common sequence: the child is born, crawls,
walks, talks, etc. Yet as older children and then as adults, paths and personalities begin to
look very different from one another. We can all agree that the complexities of human
development are remarkable, going far beyond what most of us can imagine.
Q:5 Define descriptive research what are its major forms? Strengthen your
answer with the example of case studies, causal Comparative and correlation
studies?.

Descriptive Research. Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically

describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can
answer what, where, when and how questions, but not why questions.

A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods to investigate one
or more variables. Unlike in experimental research, the researcher does not control or
manipulate any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.

Descriptive research methods.

Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research, though qualitative
research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully
developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable.

Surveys.

Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed for
frequencies, averages and patterns. Common uses of surveys include:

 Describing the demographics of a country or region

 Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
 Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organization’s services.

Observations.

Observations allow you to gather data on behaviors and phenomena without having to rely
on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by psychological,
social and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life situations.

Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in the
natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses, models or theories, it’s
necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.

Case studies.
A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as a
person, group, event or organization). Instead of gathering a large volume of data to identify
patterns across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to identify the
characteristics of a narrowly defined subject.

Rather than aiming to describe generalizable facts, case studies often focus on unusual or

interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add complexity, or reveal something new
about a research problem.
Importance of Descriptive research.

Descriptive research is designed to create a snapshot of the current thoughts, feelings, or

behavior of individuals. This section reviews three types of case studies, surveys,
and naturalistic observation (Figure 3.4).

Sometimes the data in a descriptive research project are based on only a small set of
individuals, often only one person or a single small group. These research designs are
known as descriptive records of one or more individual’s experiences and behavior.
Sometimes case studies involve ordinary individuals, as when developmental psychologist
Jean Piaget used his observation of his own children to develop his stage theory of cognitive
development. More frequently, case studies are conducted on individuals who have unusual
or abnormal experiences or characteristics or who find themselves in particularly difficult or
stressful situations. The assumption is that by carefully studying individuals who are socially
marginal, who are experiencing unusual situations, or who are going through a difficult
phase in their lives, we can learn something about human nature.

Sigmund Freud was a master of using the psychological difficulties of individuals to draw
conclusions about basic psychological processes. Freud wrote case studies of some of his
most interesting patients and used these careful examinations to develop his important
theories of personality. One classic example is Freud’s description of “Little Hans,” a child
whose fear of horses the psychoanalyst interpreted in terms of repressed sexual impulses
and the Oedipus complex (Freud, 1909/1964).

Correlational Research.

In contrast to descriptive research, which is designed primarily to provide static

pictures, correlational research involves the measurement of two or more relevant variables
and an assessment of the relationship between or among those variables. For instance, the
variables of height and weight are systematically related (correlated) because taller people
generally weigh more than shorter people. In the same way, study time and memory errors
are also related, because the more time a person is given to study a list of words, the fewer
errors he or she will make. When there are two variables in the research design, one of them
is called the predictor variable and the other the outcome variable. The research design can
be visualized as shown in Figure 3.9, where the curved arrow represents the expected
correlation between these two variables.