Water

 Water has many useful properties, and so it

is ubiquitous in life on earth. The useful properties of water
arise from its structure.
 A Water molecule consists of two Hydrogen
atoms covalently bonded to an Oxygen atom. Because
oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, it has
a greater pull on the shared electrons. This that the oxygen
atom is slightly negative (δ-) (because of the closer
electrons), and hydrogen is slightly positive (δ+). Water is
therefore called a Polar Molecule.

 The slightly negative and slightly positive regions of the water

molecule are attracted to charged regions of other
molecules, forming Hydrogen Bonds (which are weak in
comparison with other chemical bonds). Water will form
Hydrogen Bonds within itself.

 Hydrogen bonds within water give it a high stability, which

means that a large amount of energy is required to raise the
temperature of water. This property means
that oceans and lakes provide a stable environment in
which organisms can live. This also means that a large amount
 of heat is required to evaporate water, so it is very useful
in cooling, for example, some animals sweat to cool down.
 As water decreases in temperature, its molecules are less
able to break the Hydrogen bonds, as they have less kinetic
energy. This means that a semi-crystalline structure is
formed, which holds the water molecules apart, making ice
less dense than liquid water, such that it floats. This means
that it insulates the water beneath, allowing organisms in the
liquid water to survive.
 Cohesion is the tendency of molecules within a substance to
‘stick together’. Water has a high Cohesion because of
Hydrogen bonding. This is important as transport of water in
the Xylem in plants relies on water being pulled up. Cohesion
also gives the water a high surface tension, allowing small
organisms, such as Pond Skaters, to walk along it.
 Water is good solvent for other polar molecules since it can
interact with the charged regionsand dissolve the
substance. It is also a good solvent for ionic substances,
since the water molecules cluster around the
ions and separate them, thus dissolving the substance. This
property, along with the fact that water is liquid over a wide
range of temperatures, makes it ideal for acting as a
medium in which metabolic reactions can occur, and also as
a transport vehicle.
 Water also takes part in some metabolic reactions, for
example, in Hydrolysis andCondensation reactions.

Water- Structure and Properties

Structure of Water molecule
In a water molecule, each hydrogen atom shares an electron pair with the oxygen
atom. The geometry of the water molecule is dictated by the shapes of the outer
electron orbitals of the oxygen atom, which are similar to the bonding orbitals of
carbon. These orbitals describe a rough tetrahedron, with a hydrogen atom at each
of the two corners and un-shared electrons at the other two.
The H—O—H bond angle is 104.5°, 5° less than the bond angle of a perfect
tetrahedron which is 109.5°; the non-bonding orbitals of the oxygen atom slightly
compress the orbitals shared by hydrogen.

The oxygen nucleus attracts electrons more strongly than does the hydrogen
nucleus (i.e., the proton); oxygen is more electronegative. The sharing of electrons
between H and O is therefore unequal; the electrons are more often in the vicinity of
the oxygen atom than of the hydrogen. This unequal electron sharing creates two
electric dipoles in the water molecule, one along each of the H—O bonds.

The oxygen atom bears a partial negative charge (δ−), and each hydrogen a partial
positive charge (δ+). The resulting electrostatic attraction between the oxygen atom
of one water molecule and the hydrogen of another water molecule constitutes a
hydrogen bond.

Physical Properties of Water

The physical properties of water differ markedly from those of other solvents. For
example, water as a hydride of oxygen (H2O) has a higher melting point, boiling
point, heat of vapourization and surface tension than do the comparable hydrides of
sulfur (H2S) and nitrogen (NH3) and most other common liquids. These unusual
properties are a consequence of strong attractions between adjacent water
molecules, which give liquid water great internal cohesion.

Water has some unusual properties of physiological importance as below:

1. Expansion on freezing
Most substances decrease in volume (and hence increase in density) as their
temperature decreases. But in case of water, there is a temperature at which its
density exceeds that at higher or lower temperatures. This temperature is 4 °C.
In fact, water just above the freezing point is heavier than water at the freezing
 point. Therefore, it moves towards the bottom, freezing begins at the surface
and the bottom is last to freeze. Organisms living at the bottoms of fresh-water
lakes are, hence, protected from freezing.
2. High surface tension
Like a stretched membrane, the surface of a liquid tends to contract as much
as possible. This phenomenon is called surface tension. Water has the highest
surface tension (of 72.8) of any known liquid. And it is the reason why water
rises to unusually high levels in narrow capillary tubes. This has great
significance in physiology.
3. High heat capacity
There occurs a smaller temperature rise in water as compared to most other
substances, when a given amount of heat is applied. Thus, water acts as a
temperature buffer. It maintains its temperature more successfully than most
other substances. We may, thus, say that has a high heat capacity (1,000
cal/g).
4. High solvent power
Water is a solvent for a great number of molecules which form ionized solutions
in water. It may, thus, be called a universal solvent which facilitates chemical
reactions both outside of and within biological systems.

The Biological Importance of Water

 Water is the basis of life on our planet. It exists in different physical states –
solid, liquid and gas – and makes up 70% of the surface of Earth, plus 65 –
90% of the weight of all living organisms. Water also plays an important role in
all vital processes of living organisms.

 The water molecule, H2O, is composed of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen
atoms. These atoms are bound covalently (by a covalent bond). In a water
molecule, hydrogen carries a positive molecular charge, while oxygen carries a
negative molecular charge. Thus, a water molecule is a ‘polar’ molecule,
because it has both positive and negative poles.

 Close water molecules are attracted to each other by a relatively low electrical
attraction, (negative hydrogen atoms attract positive oxygen atoms in other
molecules). This bond is called a ‘hydrogen bond’. Water has unique properties
 because of its polarity and the hydrogen bonds between its molecules.

1- Water is a polar solvent.

 Water is regarded as the ‘general solvent’ or ‘universal solvent’ due to the

polarity of its molecules.
For example, when sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolves in water, it produces
positive sodium ions and negative chlorine ions. The positive oxygen atoms in
water attract the negative chlorine ions, and the negative hydrogen atoms
attract the positive sodium ions. All polar substances (substances containing
ions) can dissolve in polar solvents, such as water.
 All the essential substances for living organisms (vitamins, salts, amino acids,
gases, and glucose) transport inside their bodies in the form of solutes
dissolved in water. These substances take part in metabolic reactions inside
the cells.

2- Water has the ability to ionize molecules, which are necessary for life.

 This means that water has the ability to disassociate the molecules necessary
for life into positive and negative ions (water can do so due to the polarity of its
molecules).
For example, the pancreas secretes sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3). This
compound ionizes in water into positive hydrogen ions and negative
bicarbonate ions, which makes the medium alkaline and thus suitable for the
enzymes’ work.

3- Water has high specific heat.

  Specific heat is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of one
gram of matter by 1 degree Celsius.
 Water has the highest specific heat on Earth due to the hydrogen bonds
between its molecules.
 As a result of having high specific heat, water needs a great amount of energy
to increase its temperature and loses a great amount of energy when its
temperature decreases. This helps living organisms to have a constant
temperature which is essential for the vital processes occurring within their
bodies. Cells contain lots of water to keep their temperature constant.
 Animals and plants lose water by sweating and transpiration processes to
decrease their temperature.
 The high specific heat of water provides living organisms with temperatures
suitable for life on Earth.
 Water forms almost 70% of the surface area of Earth. If water didn’t exist in
such a great amount, the temperature of the Earth would decrease dramatically
because the substances forming the Earth’s crust have low specific heat.
 The water that makes up oceans absorb a great number of sun rays in the
morning and spread them into the atmosphere at night in order to keep the
temperature of the Earth suitable for living organisms.

4- Water has low viscosity and high surface tension.

 Surface tension is the cohesion of the molecules on the surface of a fluid to

occupy the least possible volume. Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid to
flowing.
 Water has low viscosity and high surface tension due to the hydrogen bonds
between its molecules; these conditions are suitable for life.

These properties are important because:

1- They work on the cohesion of cell substances.

2- It slows down water loss in plants’ leaves through pores.

3- Some insects can walk on water due to the cohesion of the molecules on its
surface.

5- Water density decreases under 4◦C.

 Water expands when its temperature becomes less than 4 ◦C (instead of

shrinking). THis decreases its density and makes it float. In frozen lakes, we
find ice on the surface, while we find liquid water underneath.
 This property is because of the hydrogen bonds between water molecules.
  This property is important because it enables living organisms to live in oceans
and seas. Without this property, all oceans and seas will turn into ice, rather
than just the surface. Surface freezing works as an insulator to prevent the rest
of water from freezing.

6- The freezing point of water decreases if it has substances dissolved in it.

 This property is very important for living organisms, as it prevents the water in
the cells of from freezing when exposed to temperatures less than 0◦C.

7- Water can turn into vapour in temperatures lower than boiling point (100◦C).

 Water vapour formed on the surfaces of oceans is carried by convection

currents to cold layers in the atmosphere. This changes into clouds which
provide living organisms with rain and water.

8- Water rise in capillary tubes.

 Water has the ability to rise in capillary tubes without being pumped and in
opposition to external forces such as gravity. This property helps water
transport from trees’ roots to all of its parts.

The Biological Significance of Water

From a Biological point of view, water is important for a number of reasons: 

As a metabolite: Water is involved in many (bio)chemical reactions inside cells -

metabolism. 

For example, the chemical reactions of condensation and hydrolysis involve the
removal and addition of water, and water is essential for the light-dependent
reactions of photosynthesis. 

As a solvent: many biological and inorganic chemicals dissolve in water, and can be
transported and react with other chemicals within cells (and in laboratory test-
tubes). 

Substances that dissolve in water are called hydrophilic ("water-liking"). 

In contrast, substances that do not dissolve in water are called hydrophobic ("water-
hating"). These can form structures like the cell membrane and internal cellular
membranes which keep water-soluble chemicals in compartments within the cell. 

A number of unusual physical properties are a direct consequence of cohesion

between water molecules due to hydrogen bonds formed between -H and -O- of
different water molecules. 

Water has a particularly high heat capacity - higher than any other common
substance. This is the amount of heat (usually expressed in calories, kilocalories, or
joules) needed to raise the temperature by one degree (usually expressed in Celsius
or Kelvin). Specific heat takes mass into account. The specific heat of water is 1
calorie/gram °C = 4.186 joule/gram °C, 

This makes water useful for storing heat energy, and stabilises temperature within
bodies of water (ponds, lakes, seas) as well as the bodies of animals. 

Water has a large latent heat of vaporisation. This permits efficient cooling by

means of sweating. 

Water shows cohesive properties. This allows long columns of water to be formed

and drawn up in the vascular tissue of trees (and smaller plants). It is also responsible
for surface tension where water meets air - an important feature for small pond
insects, and in the functioning of lungs. 
In addition water is unusual in that its solid form - ice - has a lower density than the
liquid form, so it floats. It forms an insulating layer at the top of ponds and lakes,
with water beneath at an even 4 °C. 
 Hydrogen bonding keeps water molecules close to each other,
and this cohesion helps pull water upward in the microscopic
water-conducting cells of plants. Hydrogen bonding is also responsible
for water’s surface tension.
• Water has a high specific heat: Heat is absorbed when hydrogen
bonds break and is released when hydrogen bonds form. This
helps keep temperatures relatively steady, within limits that permit
life. Evaporative cooling is based on water’s high heat of
vaporization. The evaporative loss of the most energetic water
molecules cools a surface.
• Ice floats because it is less dense than liquid water. This property
allows life to exist under the frozen surfaces of lakes and polar
seas.
• Water is an unusually versatile solvent because its polar molecules
are attracted to ions and polar substances that can form hydrogen bonds. Hydrophilic substances have an affinity for
water; hydrophobic substances do not.