School of informatics 2012

Chapter 5
Data Communications and Computer Networks
5.1. Introduction to computer networking and its applications

A communication system can be defined as the collection of hardware & software that facilitates
intersystem exchange of information between different devices. Data communication is the
exchange of data between two devices via some form of wired or wireless transmission medium.
It includes the transfer of data, the method of transfer and the preservation of the data during the
transfer process.

Data Communication Components:

There are five basic components in data communication system:

i.Message: It is the information that is to be communicated

ii.Sender: The sender is the device that sends the message
iii.Receiver: The Receiver is the device that receives the message.
iv. Medium: The transmission medium is the physical path that communicates the message
from sender to receiver.
v. Protocols: Protocols refers to a set of rules that coordinates the exchange of information.

Data Transmission Mode:

It refers to the direction of signal flow between two linked devices. Following are the three
types of transmission modes:

i. Simplex: Simplex transmission is unidirectional. The information flows in one direction

across the circuit, with no capability to support response in other direction. Only one of the
communicating devices transmits information, the other can only receive it.
ii. Half Duplex: In this mode, each communicating device can receive and transmit
information, but not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only
receive at that point of time.
iii. Full- Duplex: This mode allows both communicating devices to transmit and receive data
simultaneously.
Data Communication Measurement:

The measurement of quantity of data that can be passed down a communicating link in a given
time is done in terms of bandwidth. Fundamentally, bandwidth refers to the maximum volume
of information that can be transferred over any communication medium. Bandwidth is the
range of frequencies that is available to for the transmission of data. A narrow range of
frequencies in a communication system is analogous to a narrow road. Wider bandwidth
permits more rapid information flow. Thus, wider the bandwidth of a communication system,

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the more data it can transmit in a given period of time. The communication data transfer rate
is measured in a unit called baud. In general usage, baud is identical to bits per second.

In the popular digital context, the level of bandwidth falls into three categories:

 Narrowband: In narrowband, there is a single transmission channel of 64 Kbps or less.

There can also be a number of 64Kbps transmissions (N x 64Kbps) but not more than
1.544 Mbps.
 Wideband: In wideband, the bandwidth capacity lies between 1.544Mbps (also called T1
Lines) and 45 Mbps ( T3 Lines)
 Broadband: The bandwidth capacity in broadband is equal to 45Mbps or a T3 line.
Transmission Medium:
Transmission media refers to the physical media through which communication signals (data &
signals) are transmitted. The information or a signal transmitted from one device to another is
through electromagnetic signals. An electromagnetic signal is the combination of electric and
magnetic fields, vibrating in conjunction with each other. These signals can travel through
vacuum, air or any other transmission medium. Voice signals are generally transmitted as current
over metal cables. Radio frequencies are generally transmitted through air or space. Third type of
electromagnetic energy is the visible light which is currently being used for communication
through fiber optic cable.

Transmission medium can be divided into two broad categories: Guided Media and Unguided
media.

Guided Media:

Guided media use a cabling system that guide the data signals along a specific path. The data
signals are bound by the cabling system. It is also known as bound medium. There are four basic
types of guided media: open wire, twisted pair, coaxial cable and optical fiber.

i. Open Wire: Open wire is traditionally used to describe the electrical wire system or
power transmission wires strung along power poles. No shielding or protection from
noise interference is used. It is not recommended for long data transmission distances.
ii. Twisted Pair Cable: Made of two or more pairs of insulated copper wires twisted
together. May be unshielded or shielded (UTP/STP). Examples telephone wire
installation.

a. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable: Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most
popular and is generally the best option for most networking today. This is because:
 It's cheaper than other types of cabling.
 It's easy to work with.
 It permits transmission rates considered impossible ten years ago.

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Fig: Unshielded twisted pair

The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable. The
cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number of
twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs called crosstalk and other
electrical devices. The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the
greater the cost per foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication
Industry Association) has established standards of UTP and rated five categories of wire.

Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Type Use

Category 1 Voice Only (Telephone Wire)

Category 2 Data to 4 Mbps (LocalTalk)

Category 3 Data to 10 Mbps (Ethernet)

Category 4 Data to 20 Mbps (16 Mbps Token Ring)

Category 5 Data to 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet)

Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector. This is a
plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-style connector. A slot allows the RJ-45 to be
inserted only one way. RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that the connector follows a
standard borrowed from the telephone industry. This standard designates which wire goes with
each pin inside the connector.

Fig. 2. RJ-45 connector

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b. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable: A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to
radio and electrical frequency interference. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for
environments with electrical interference; however, the extra shielding can make the cables quite
bulky. Shielded twisted pair is often used on networks using Token Ring topology.

iii. Coaxial Cable: Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic
layer provides insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield.
The metal shield helps to block any outside interference from fluorescent lights,
motors, and other computers.

Fig. Coaxial cable

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In

addition, it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable.
The two types of coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.

Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin
coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment
length being 200 meters. In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin coaxial
cable is popular in school networks, especially linear bus networks.

Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick
coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length being 500
meters. Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away
from the center conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when running longer lengths
in a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it does not bend easily and is
difficult to install.

Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman
(BNC) connector. Different types of adapters are available for BNC connectors, including a T-
connector, barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors on the cable are the weakest points in
any network. To help avoid problems with your network, always use the BNC connectors that
crimp, rather than screw, onto the cable.

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Fig. BNC connector

iv. Fiber Optic Cable: Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several
layers of protective materials (See fig. 5). It transmits light rather than electronic signals
eliminating the problem of electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments
that contain a large amount of electrical interference. It has also made it the standard for
connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and
lighting.

Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and
twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity
broadens communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and
interactive services. The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it
is more difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF refers to the specifications for fiber optic cable
carrying Ethernet signals.

Fig.. Fiber optic cable

Facts about fiber optic cables:

 Outer insulating jacket is made of Teflon or PVC.

 Kevlar fiber helps to strengthen the cable and prevent breakage.
 A plastic coating is used to cushion the fiber center.
 Center (core) is made of glass or plastic fibers.

Fiber Optic Connector

The most common connector used with fiber optic cable is an ST connector. It is barrel shaped,
similar to a BNC connector. A newer connector, the SC, is becoming more popular. It has a
squared face and is easier to connect in a confined space.

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Cable Summary

Specification Cable Type Maximum length

10BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair 100 meters

10Base2 Thin Coaxial 185 meters

10Base5 Thick Coaxial 500 meters

10BaseF Fiber Optic 2000 meters

100BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair 100 meters

Installing Cable - Some Guidelines:

When running cable, it is best to follow a few simple rules:

 Always use more cable than you need. Leave plenty of slack.
 Test every part of a network as you install it. Even if it is brand new, it may have
problems that will be difficult to isolate later.
 Stay at least 3 feet away from fluorescent light boxes and other sources of electrical
interference.
 If it is necessary to run cable across the floor, cover the cable with cable protectors.
 Label both ends of each cable.
 Use cable ties (not tape) to keep cables in the same location together.

Unguided Media:

Unguided transmission media is data signals that flow through the air. They are not
guided or bound to a fixed channel to follow. Wireless systems are used where normal
cabling cannot be used. If great distances must be travelled or cables cannot be run,
wireless systems provide a necessary but expensive solution.
i. Infra-red: Using Infrared emitters, these types of connections can be used for
small networks where cables cannot be laid as an entire network media, or as a
point-to-point signaling method over medium distances.
ii. Radio Frequency: Radio frequency (RF) is used where longer distances are
needed or cables cannot go. Signals wary in strength (Amplitude) and tone

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(Frequency) in order to offer a broad range of services, from short-range to

extremely long-range.
iii. Microwave: Microwave transmissions are normally used in satellite
communications, and are point-to-point transmissions. They are meant for
extremely long-range communications, and are extremely expensive.

Common Network Devices

i. The Network Interface Card (NIC)

The network interface card (NIC) is the expansion card you install in
your computer to connect (interface) your computer to the network.
This device provides the physical, electrical, and electronic
connections to the network media. NICs are either an expansion card
(the most popular implementation) or built in to the motherboard of
the computer.

ii. The Repeater

A repeater amplifies (or repeats) network signals to extend the maximum reach of
a network. Repeaters receive network signals on one port, amplify them, and
repeat them out on the other port. Repeaters can interconnect different media
types but cannot convert protocols.

iii. The Hub

A hub is the central device in a star topology. Most hubs are simple
multiport repeaters. That is, they receive a signal on one port and repeat it
to all other ports.

iv. The Bridge

A bridge is a network device that logically separates a single network into two segments. The
primary use for a bridge is to keep traffic meant for stations on one segment on that side of the
bridge and not let that traffic pass to the other side. Bridges can improve network performance
because traffic is not propagated unnecessarily on all network segments.

v. The Ethernet Switch

These are in essence high-performance multi-interface bridges. Like bridges, switches subdivide
larger networks and prevent the unnecessary flow of network traffic from one segment to
another, or in the case of cross-segment traffic, switches direct the frames only across the
segments containing the source and destination hosts.

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Vi. The Router

A router is a network device that connects multiple, often dissimilar, network segments into an
internetwork. The router, once connected, can make intelligent decisions about how best to get
network data to its destination.

A router is more like a special-purpose computer than a simple electronic device. The classic
definition of a router is a device that reads the source and destination address of a packet and
forwards it based on the information it gathers about the network. Routers can make intelligent
decisions about the best way to forward packets.

5.2.Types of networks

Computer Network is a collection of computers and terminal devices connected by a

communication system. The use of computer network is to share resources such as data, a
printer, an Internet connection, applications, or a combination of these.
Network, techniques, physical connections, & computer programs used to link two or more
computers. The interconnection of computers is known as computer networks.
A network has three layer components
 Application software
 Network software
 Network hardware
The network users are able:
 To share files, printers, & other resources
 Send electronic messages
 Run programs on other computers
Basically we have three types of networks. These are Local Area Network (LAN), Metropolitan
Area Network & Wide Area Network (WAN).
Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN refers to the idea of connecting computers & peripherals within a limited geographical
area, such as within a building or within a university campus. This can be done using only wires
(cables).
One computer is designated as the file server which stores all the software that controls the
network along with the software that can be shared by the computers attached to the network.
Other computers connected to the file server re called workstations.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
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MAN is a network of computers spread over a ‘metropolitan’ areas such as a city and its suburbs.
It can be a single network such as a cable television network or it may be a means of connecting
a number of LANs. Example one organization which have several offices in one city can use
MAN.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN refers to the idea of connecting computers within a larger geographical area; such as
between countries or between continents or between provinces. This can be done using the
telephone lines & a MODEM. We know that computers process & transmit data in digital form,
and the telephone line uses analog during transmission. So there is a conversion from analog to
digital during reception of information by computer, & from digital to analog during
transmission by a computer. This is done by a device known as MODEM, an abbreviation of
MODulator & DEModulator. So every computer which is part of a WAN must have a MODEM.
MODulator: - is used to convert analog signal to digital form
DEModulator: - is used to convert digital signal to analog form
5.2.1. Network topology

Topology refers to the way in which multiple devices are interconnected via communication
links. There are four major types of network topologies.
 Bus topology - is a network architecture in which a set of clients are connected via a
shared communications line, called a bus.

 Star topology - is one of the most common computer network topologies. Each
computer in a star topology is connected to a central device (hub) by a separate
cable..

 Ring topology - Each computer is connected directly to two other computers in the
network.

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 Mesh topology - Each computer is directly connected to every other computer.

5.3.Internet

Internet is a computer based global information system. It is composed of many interconnected

computers networks. Each network may link tens, hundreds, or even thousands of computers,
enabling them to share information with one another. The Internet has made it possible for
people all over the world to effectively & inexpensively communicate with one another.
Common features of Internet
The Internet has brought new opportunities to government, business, & education institution to:
 make information available to others
 search information provided by others
 distribute information & communicate with others and soon
So companies, individuals, & institutions use the Internet in many ways
The following are some of an Internet services.
 Electronic- Mail (E-mail): - it is one of the most widely used services on the Internet. It is
easy to send, read, reply to messages, and it is fast and convenient. E-mail is also global,
allowing messages to pass from Japan to the U.S in minutes, regardless or the time they were
sent. It is much cheaper to send an e-mail message than a letter, or to make a long distance
telephone call. Another advantage of e-mail is it is possible to send the same message to any
number of individuals as long as you know their e-mail address.
 World Wide Web (WWW):- Is one of the newest Internet services. The WWW allows you
to combine text, a video, graphics, and even animation to make a document viewed easily.

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Links within WWW documents can take you quickly to other related documents. WWW is a
set of sites that you can go on for information. To access the WWW, it is necessary that you
run Web browser on your computer.
 UseNet: - It is one of the Internet services which allow users from anywhere on the Internet
to participate a discussion groups (News groups). It is an organized electronic mail (e-mail)
system, except there is no single user that mail is sent to. Instead, the messages you and
everyone else using UseNet write are sent to a newsgroup section, available for anyone who
accesses that news group.
 Telnet:- it is a program that lets you log into a remote computer directly through the Internet
and you can work on that computer.
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP):- it enables you to examine the files of remote hosts on the
Internet and to transfer files b/n your hosts and the others. Using FTP programs we can
upload or download files. But to do this there should be an admission from the remote
computer.
Video Conferencing: - it enables making a conference on the Internet by individuals who live in
different locations. The individuals speak and see each other.

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