Porg Lecture - Prelim

05/02/2022
OUR LADY OF FATIMA Learning Outcomes

UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – Demonstrate understanding of inorganic and organic
chemistry and distinguish between inorganic and
Introduction: Organic organic compounds
Chemistry – Demonstrate understanding of structure and bonding

PHARMACEUTICAL
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
PORG111
Organic Chemistry History

• In 1828, Friedrich Wohler, a
• Study of carbon and carbon-related German chemist, disproved the
compounds. “Vitalism” theory which states
that all organic compounds come
• The name “organic chemistry” comes from the from living things. He was able to
isolate urea from an inorganic
word organism. It is because most of the organic compound, ammonium cyanate.
compounds were isolated or obtained from
organisms or their remains
OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111 OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111
Differences between Inorganic and
Organic Compounds
Uniqueness of Carbon OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF PHARMACY
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• Carbon is able to form 4 covalent bonds (4 valence

electrons) with other carbon or other elements.
Introduction: Structure
– Carbon atoms have the ability to bond to each other and Bonding
to form long chains or rings. PHARMACEUTICAL ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Ability to Catenate PORG111
• Carbon atoms link together to form chains of varying
length, branched chains and rings of different sizes.
OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111
Atomic Structure Elements:

Fundamental building blocks of all substances
Atoms: Smallest particle of an element

Neutron: Neutral subatomic particle
Proton: Positively charged subatomic particle (+1 charge)
Electron: Negatively charged subatomic particle (-1 charge)
Nucleus: Center of an atom; contains protons and neutrons
An atom consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons that

are equal in number to the protons of the nucleus
Atomic Number and Atomic Mass Isotopes

• The atomic number (Z) – atoms of the same element with different numbers of
– number of protons in nucleus neutrons and thus different mass
• The mass number
(A)
– number of protons plus
neutrons
number (A).
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Atomic Structure • ORBITALS

– region of space where there is a certain probability of
finding an
Orbitals electron
– Can hold 2 electrons
– Also known as WAVE FUNCTION
Atomic Structure Distribution of Orbitals within Shells

Orbitals • Each shell contains subshells known as atomic orbitals.
• Electrons are said to occupy orbitals in an atom.
No. of orbitals of Maximum number of
Subshell equal energy electrons
s 1
p 3
d 5
f 7
Distribution of Orbitals within Shells

Orbitals Maximum number Relative
contained In of electrons shell energies of
Shell each shell can hold electrons in
each shell
one 4s
three 4p five 4d
4 seven 4f orbitals 2 + 6 + 10 + 14 = 32
one 3s
3 three 3p five 2 + 6 + 10 = 18
3d orbitals
2 one 2s 2+6=8
three 2p orbitals
1 one 1s 2
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Quantum Numbers
Electron Principles
SYMBOL VALUES FUNCTION
• Aufbau Principle
– states that electrons fill lower-energy atomic orbitals Determine the size of
1. PRINCIPAL QN n 1,2,3 the particle
before filling higher-energy ones
• Pauli’s Exclusion Principle 2. AZIMUTHAL or Subshell or sublevel,
ANGULAR determines the shape
– maximum of 2 electrons can occupy the same orbital l 0 to (n-1)
only if they have opposite spins

orbitals, determines
• Hund’s Rule 3. MAGNETIC m or ml -1 to +1 orientation
– for degenerate orbitals, electrons fill the orbitals
singly before they pair up direction of spin or
4. SPIN s or ms -1/2 to +1/2 orientation
Electron Configuration Electron Configuration

• symbolic notation of the manner in which the • RULES
electrons of its atoms are distributed over 1. Lowest-energy orbitals fill first:
different atomic orbitals – 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
• summary of where the electrons are around a – (Aufbau “build-up” principle)
nucleus
Electron Configuration
• RULES
2. Electrons act as if they were spinning around an
axis. Electron spin can have only two orientations, up
↑ and down ↓. Only two electrons can occupy an
orbital, and they must be of opposite spin (Pauli
exclusion principle) to have unique wave equations.
3. If two or more empty orbitals of equal energy are
available, electrons occupy each with spins parallel
until all orbitals have one electron (Hund’s rule)
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Chemical Bonding Chemical Bonding

• joining of two atoms in a stable arrangement • Octet rule – atoms react in a way that achieve
• may occur between atoms of the same or different valence shell of eight valence electrons.
elements. • IONIC BOND
– favorable process because it always leads to lowered – bond between anion and cation
energy and increased stability – atom may lose or gain enough electrons to acquire a
completely filled valence shell
– anions (-) gain electrons; cations (+) lose electrons
Chemical Bonding
Covalent Bonding
• COVALENT BOND
LEWIS STRUCTURE
– Electron dot structure
– Valence shell electrons of an atom
are represented as dot
KEKULE STRUCTURE
– Line bond structure
– Each shared electron is
– Sharing of electrons represented by line between
the atom symbols
Lewis Structure
– H has one bond
– C has four bonds
– N has three bonds and one unshared pair of electrons
– O has two bonds and two unshared pair of electrons
– F, Cl, Br, and I have one bond and three unshared pairs
of electrons.
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Covalent Bonding Multiple Bond

• Lone-pair electrons or non-bonding electrons • When 2 atoms share more than 1 pair of
– Pair of valence electrons that are not used for bonding electron
– DOUBLE BOND
– TRIPLE BOND
*C2H4
*C2H2
Identifying Formal Charges Electronegativity and Bond Polarity

• ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Formal Charge
• Associated with any atom that does not
exhibit the appropriate number of
valence electrons.
– 1st: Determine the number of valence electrons
– 2nd: Determine whether the atom exhibits appropriate
number of electrons
– FC = [# valence e-] – [non-bonded e- + number of
bonds]
– Measure of the ability of an atom to attract electrons
Induction and Polar Covalent Bonds Induction and Polar Covalent Bonds
• Difference in electronegativity < 0.5 • Difference in electronegativity 0.5-1.7
– Non-polar covalent bond – polar covalent bond
– Equally shared electrons between the 2 atoms – not equally shared electrons between atoms
• INDUCTION
– withdrawal of electrons towards a highly
electronegative atom which causes the formation of
partial charges
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Induction and Polar Covalent Bonds sp3 hybridization

• Difference in electronegativity >1.7
– ionic bond
– electrons are not shared
– NaOH
sp3 hybridization
sp3 hybridization
sp3 hybridization sp3 hybridization

• SOLID LINE –
represents bonds in the
plane of page
• HEAVY WEDGED
LINE – bonds coming out
the page, toward the
viewer
• DASHED LINE –
bonds preceeding back
behind page, away
from the
viewer
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sp2 hybridization sp2 hybridization

• pi bonds (π) – side ways overlap of 2 atomic
orbitals
sp hybridization sp hybridization
Bond Strength & Bond Length VSEPR Theory: Predicting Geometry

STERIC NUMBER
– total number of sigma bonds and lone pairs
– indicated the number of electron pairs (bonding and
non-bonding) that are repelling each other.
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Geometry resulting from sp3 Geometry resulting from sp2

hybridization hybridization
1)Trigonal pyramidal 3. Trigonal planar
– Bond angle: 107 – 120 degrees bond angle
degrees – e.g. Boron trifluoride
– e.g ammonia
2)Bent
– Bond angle: 105
degrees
Geometry resulting from sp

hybridization
Drawing Chemical Structures

• Shorthand ways of writing structures
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OUR LADY OF FATIMA

UNIVERSITY Types of Nomenclature
COLLEGE OF PHARMACY
• Systematic Name
Hydrocarbons: – Composed wholly or especially coined or selected syllables
– Refers to the structure of compounds
Nomenclature • Trivial Name
PHARMACEUTICAL – A name no part of which is used in a systematic sense
– Refers to compounds independent of structure and
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY sometimes given before the structure is known
PORG111 • Semisynthetic-Semitrivial Name
– A name of which only a part is used in a systematic sense
OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY –

COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111
Classification of Hydrocarbons
• All organic compounds may be divided into
two broad classes based upon the pattern
of chain of carbon atoms.
–Open-chain or Aliphatic compounds
–Closed-chain or cyclic compounds
• Alicyclic compounds
• Aromatic compounds
OUR LADY OF –COLLEGE OF OUR

–POR
LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OF
PHARMACY – PORG111
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons Aliphatic Hydrocarbons

• This class includes all hydrocarbons (saturated – On the other hand, unsaturated compounds contain
a double (–C = C–) or a triple (–C ≡ C–) bond between
and unsaturated) and their derivatives which
two carbon atoms.
have open-chain structures.
– Saturated hydrocarbons are those which contain single
bonds between all carbon atoms such as
OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY –

COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111 COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111
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Cyclic Hydrocarbons Alicyclic Hydrocarbons

• These compounds have atleast one ring (cyclic) • This group includes saturated and
system. These are further divided into two unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons which
subclasses: homocyclic and heterocyclic based on resemble with the aliphatic hydrocarbons in
the atoms present in the ring. They are called properties. Some examples are given below:
homocyclic or carbocyclic when the ring is formed
by carbon atoms only.
• Homocyclic (carbocyclic) compounds may again

be divided into two groups namely alicyclic and
aromatic compounds.

OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE
Aromatic OF PHARMACY – PORG111
• The group of homocyclic compounds having

special set of properties are called aromatic
Homologous Series of Hydrocarbons
compounds. They also have characteristic
smell or aroma and hence called aromatic.
– These include aromatic hydrocarbons and their
derivatives are examples of such compounds are as
follows :
OUR LADY OF –COLLEGE OF

–POR
Nomenclature of Organic Compounds
Nomenclature of Organic Compounds
• IUPAC nomenclature is based on naming
• In order to bring uniformity and rationality in naming the
organic compounds throughout the world, International molecule’s longest chain of carbons
Union of Chemistry (in 1958) came out with a system of connected by single bonds either in chain or
nomenclature later known as IUPAC (International Union
of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system. in ring
• The purpose of the IUPAC system of nomenclature is to • Multiple bonds other than C and H, are
establish an international standard of naming compounds indicated by prefixes or suffixes according to
to facilitate communication.
• The goal of the system is to give each structure a unique specific set of priorities.
and unambigous name, and to complete each name with
a unique and unambigous structure.

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IUPAC Nomenclature of IUPAC Nomenclature of

Aliphatic Hydrocarbons Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
• ROOT WORD -It indicates the number of carbon atoms SUFFIX - It is again divided into two types.
in the longest possible continuous carbon chain also
i. Primary suffix: It is used to indicate the
known as parent chain chosen by a set of rules. The
root words used for different length of carbon chain
degree of saturation or unsaturation in the
are shown below. main chain. It is added immediately after the
root word.
ii. Secondary suffix: It is used to indicate the
main functional group in the organic
compound and is added immediately after
the 1o suffix.


–POR OUR LADY OF –COLLEGE OF
–POR

Aliphatic Hydrocarbons Acyclic Hydrocarbons
LOCANT • In branched chain hydrocarbons, one or more alkyl groups are
• Denotes the numeral or letter that indicates the position of present as side chain attached to the main straight chain of
an atom or group in a molecule. carbon atoms.
• The carbon atoms of the side chain constitute alkyl groups.
• Numerals
• These alkyl groups are written as prefixes in the IUPAC name.
– Numeral is a locant when it indicates the position of a
substituents or bond in a structure • An alkyl group is obtained from an alkane by removing one
hydrogen atom.
– separated by commas (eg. 1,2,5,6-tetrabromocyclohexane), no
space after the comma or colon • Since the general formula of alkane is CnH2n+2, the general
formula of alkyl group is CnH2n+1.
– sets of numerals are joined by hypen
• The alkyl groups are generally represented by R– and named by
– arranged in ascending order
replacing the suffix –ane of the corresponding alkane by –yl.
• place as early in a name as to not cause confusion

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Acyclic Hydrocarbons Acyclic Hydrocarbons
Rule 1. Longest chain Rule: Rule 1. Longest chain Rule:
• According to this rule, the longest possible chain
of carbon atoms is considered and the compound
is named as the derivative of the corresponding
alkane.
• If some multiple bond is present, the selected
chain must contain the carbon atoms of the
multiple bond. The number of carbon atoms in
the selected chain determines the word root and
the saturation or unsaturation will determine the
suffix.
IUPAC NAME (International Union of

Pure and Applied Chemistry)
Locant/ Suffix/
Prefix – Root – Ending
Denotes number longest functional class and
identify carbon attached groups chain

OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111 OUR
LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111

Rule 1. Longest chain Rule: Rule 1. Longest chain Rule:
• If two equally long chains are possible, the chain with
maximum number of side chains is selected as
the main chain .
OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE
OF PHARMACY – PORG111 OF PHARMACY – PORG111
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IUPAC Nomenclature of
IUPAC Nomenclature of Acyclic Hydrocarbons
Acyclic Hydrocarbons Rule 2. Lowest number or lowest sum rule:
Rule 2. Lowest number or lowest sum rule: a) The substituted carbon atoms have the lowest
• The longest carbon chain is numbered from one possible numbers.
end to another and the positions of the side chain
are indicated by the number of carbon atoms to
which these are attached. The numbering is done
in such a way that :
OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY –

COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111

Rule 2. Lowest number or lowest sum rule: Rule 3:
b) The sum of numbers used to indicate the If some multiple bond is present in the chain the
positions of various alkyl groups must be the carbon atoms involved in the multiple bond should
lowest. get the lowest possible numbers.

–POR OUR LADY OF –COLLEGE OF
–POR

Rule 4: Naming of compounds with one alkyl group as Rule 5: Naming the same alkyl groups at different
the substituent (side chain) positions or more than one alkyl groups
• If the compound contains more than one identical alkyl
groups, their positions are indicated separately and the
prefixes di (for two), tri (for three) etc. are attached to
the name of the substituents.
• The positions of the substituents are separated by
commas (,).

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Rule 5: Naming the same alkyl groups at different Rule 6: Naming different alkyl substituents
positions or more than one alkyl groups • If there are different alkyl substituents present in
the compound, their names are written in the
alphabetical order. However, the prefixes di, tri,
etc. are not considered in deciding the
alphabetical order


Acyclic Hydrocarbons Cyclic Hydrocarbons
Rule 6: Naming different alkyl substituents • Alicyclic compounds have closed chain i.e.
cyclic structures, hence their names are
derived by putting prefix ‘cyclo’ before the
word root.
• The suffix ane, ene or yne are written
according to the saturation or unsaturation in
the ring structure.
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LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OF
PHARMACY – PORG111

Cyclic Hydrocarbons Cyclic Hydrocarbons
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Alicyclic Compounds: Aromatic Compounds
• If an alkyl substituent is present, it is indicated by the • The most important members of this class are benzene and
appropriate prefix and its position is indicated by numbering the its derivatives.
carbon atoms of the ring in such a way so as to assign the least • For naming an alkyl substituted benzene, the carbon atoms
possible number to the of benzene are numbered from 1 to 6 by giving the lowest
possible number to the position of the side chain or
substituent.
substituent.
IUPAC Nomenclature of OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE
Cyclic Hydrocarbons OF PHARMACY – PORG111
Aromatic Compounds
IUPAC Nomenclature of
Cyclic Hydrocarbons
Aromatic Compounds :
• Benzene forms only one monosubstituted
derivatives like methylbenzene or ethylbenzene .

–POR
Aromatic Compounds: • Common Parent Ring System
• However, it can form three disubstituted compounds
namely 1,2; 1,3 and 1, 4 derivatives.
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OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY Learning Outcomes

COLLEGE OF PHARMACY
• At the end of this module, the student must be
able to:
Introduction to – Demonstrate understanding of organic molecules and
functional groups
Organic Molecules and – Identify general structures of different functional
Functional Groups groups
PHARMACEUTICAL ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
PORG111
Functional Groups with

Functional Groups Carbon -Carbon Multiple Bonds
• refer to specific atoms bonded in a certain • Alkenes, alkenes, and arenes (aromatic compounds)
all contain carbon -carbon multiple bonds.
arrangement that give a compound certain
physical and chemical properties
Functional Groups with Carbon Singly

Bonded to an Electronegative Atom
• Alkyl halides (haloalkanes), alcohols, ethers, amines,
thiols, sulfides, and disulfides all have a carbon atom
singly bonded to an electronegative atom – halogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur.
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Functional Groups with Carbon-Oxygen

Double Bond (Carbonyl Groups)
• Functional groups with a carbon-oxygen double bond
are present in the great majority of organic compounds
and in practically all biological molecules.
– These compounds behave similarly in many aspects but
differ depending on the identity of the atoms bonded to the
carbonyl-group carbon.
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OUR LADY OF FATIMA Learning Outcome:

UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF PHARMACY • At the end of this module, the student must
be able to:
– Demonstrate understanding of the physical and
chemical properties in relation to structure
Physical and Chemical Properties

PHARMACEUTICAL
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
PORG111
2
1 OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111
Physical Property
Intermolecular Forces
• A property that does not affect the chemical
identity of a compound • The physical properties of molecules are in part
dependent on the type's of intermolecular forces (IMF)
• Can be observed and measured without changing present.
a compound’s composition of matter – Boiling points (BP) are also dependent on the mass of the
– Any substance that has mass and can occupy space molecule.
– Solubility, the ability to dissolve into a solvent is dependent
on IMFs.
• The strength of the interaction between molecules is
also dependent on the overall shape of the molecule.
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LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111 LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111
Intermolecular Forces Hydrogen Bonding

There are 3 types of IMFs, by decreasing strength Hydrogen bonding is a complex interaction that
they are: includes dipole-dipole, as well as orbital interactions
1) Hydrogen bonding and the transfer of electron density between
2) Dipole-dipole molecules.
3) Van der Waals or London Dispersion – These are the strongest of the IMFs and range from 5
– 25 kJ/mol
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X-H ----:X-
Hydrogen Bonding Dipole-Dipole
Occur primarily between OH, NH and FH.
The more EN the atom the stronger the interaction.
Dipole-dipole forces arise from the attraction of
11(The atom H is attached to usually oppositely charged atoms (other than H) in
has a lone pair of e-) molecules. These molecules may have a
Geometry: .. ..
permanent dipole moment. Generally in organic
H O: H O:
-
O H H molecules they results from the presence of C-X
H H
+ +
bonds where X is more electronegative that C.
H H – These are generally weaker than H-bonding, ranging
H N: H N:
N H
-
+
H H from about 5-10 kJ/mol.
H
+ H +
7 OUR LADY OF FATIMA 8

UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111 OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111
Dipole-Dipole Van der Waals

• Van der Waals or (London) dispersion forces arise
from the movement of electrons within a
molecule. This natural motion can produce an
uneven distribution of the electrons (polarization
of the distribution) resulting in a temporary dipole
moment in the molecule. This will induce the
H3 C Cl +- H3 C Cl movement of electrons in adjacent molecules
producing a dipole moment in them.
H3 C Cl – These “induced” dipole moments are very brief as
+ H 3 CNC - H3 C C N
they disappear when the electrons move to new
locations within the molecule, so they forces are very
H3 C C N brief and weak, only 2-5 kJ/mol.
9 OUR LADY OF FATIMA 10

UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111 OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111
Structural Effects on Factors Affecting the Physical

IMFs Properties of Organic Compounds
– Structure of Functional Group
• The strength of the IMFs
– Molecules having a polar functional group have a higher
depend on the amount of
b.p. than others with a non-polar functional group of
contact between the
similar molecular masses.
molecules, especially for
dispersion forces. Hence
the shape of the molecule
can affect the surface area
of contact, long thin
molecules have more
surface in contact than
spherical molecules.
11 OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY 12 OUR LADY
– COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111 OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111
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Length of Carbon Chains

• Molecules with higher molecular masses have higher
m.p., b.p. and density • Molecules with branched chains
Higher molecular masses  b.p. and density lower than its straightchain
 Large molecular sizes isomer
 Stronger London dispersion forces among
molecules Straight-chain isomers have greater surface area
in contact with each other
 Greater attractive force among the molecules
15 OUR LADY 16 OUR LADY

OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111 OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111

• As a rule, larger molecules have higher boiling
(and melting) points.
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Solubility Solubility
• If the solvent is polar, like water, then a smaller • Any functional group that
hydrocarbon component and/or more charged, can donate a hydrogen bond
hydrogen bonding, and other polar groups will tend to to water (eg. alcohols, amines) will significantly
increase the solubility. contribute to water solubility.
• The number of Carbons. More carbons means more of • Any functional group that can only accept a hydrogen
a non-polar/hydrophobic character, and thus lower bond from water (eg. ketones, aldehydes, ethers) will
solubility in water. have a somewhat smaller but still significant effect on
– Anything with a charged group (eg. ammonium, carboxylate, water solubility.
phosphate) is almost certainly water soluble, unless it has – Other groups that contribute to polarity (eg. alkyl halides,
large nonpolar group, in which case it will most likely be thiols sulfides) will make a small contribution to water
soluble in the form of micelles, like a soap or detergent. solubility.
19 OUR LADY 20 OUR LADY

OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111 OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111
Boiling Point and Melting Point Boiling Point and Melting Point
• Melting and boiling are processes in which
noncovalent interactions between identical
molecules in a pure sample are disrupted.
– The stronger the non-covalent interactions, the more
energy that is required, in the form of heat, to break
them apart.
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Boiling Point and Melting Point

• The boiling points of the compounds in any
homologous series increase as their molecular
weights increase because of the increase in
van der Waals forces.
– Branching in a compound lowers its boiling point
because it reduces the area of contact. 24
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Chemical Properties
Reaction Mechanism
• A chemical reaction occurs when one substance is
• Define as the detailed knowledge of the steps involved
converted into another substance(s).
in a process in which the reactant molecules change
• A chemical reaction is accompanied by breaking of some into products.
bonds and by making of some others. • Chemical reactions involve breaking of one or more of
the existing chemical bonds in reactant molecule(s)
and formation of new bonds leading to products.
• The breaking of a covalent bond is known as bond
fission.
• During bond breaking or bond fission, the two shared
electrons can be distributed equally or unequally
between the two bonded atoms.
25 26
Heterolytic Fission
Homolytic Fission • The fission of a covalent bond involving unequal sharing of
The fission of a covalent bond with equal sharing of bonding electrons.
• This type of bond fission results in the formation of ions. The
ion which has a positive charge on the carbon atom, is known
bonding electrons. as the carbonium ion or a carbocation. On the other hand, an
ion with a negative charge on the carbon atom is known as the
carbanion.
• Free radicals are neutral but reactive species

having an unpaired electron and these can also
initiate a chemical reaction.
27 28
Heterolytic Fission Types of Reactions in

Organic Compounds
• Substitution
– A substitution reaction involves the displacement of one
• The charged species obtained by the heterolytic atom or group in a molecule by another atom or group.
Aliphatic compounds undergo nucleophilic substitution
fission initiate chemical reactions and they are
reactions.
classified as electrophiles and nucleophiles.
– For example, a haloalkane can be converted to a wide
– Electrophiles: An electrophile is an electron deficient variety of compounds by replacing halogen atom (X)
species and it may be positively charged or neutral. with different nucleophiles as shown below.
• Examples are H+ , AlCl3 , Br2 , Cl2 , Ag+ , CH3 +, BF3 etc.
– Nucleophiles : A nucleophile is negatively charged or
electron rich neutral species.
• Examples of nucleophiles are OH– , –NO2+ , H2O, :NH3 etc.
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Types of Reactions in
Organic Compounds
– Another type of substitution reaction which takes
place in an aromatic hydrocarbons. In this case, an
electrophilic reagent attacks the aromatic ring
because the latter is electron rich. The leaving group,
in this case, is always one of the hydrogen atom of the
ring.
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Types of Reactions in Types of Reactions in

Organic Compounds Organic Compounds
• Elimination • Addition
– An elimination reaction is characterized by the – Unsaturated hydrocarbons such as alkenes and
removal of a small molecule from adjacent carbon alkynes are extremely reactive towards a wide
atoms and the formation of a double bond. variety of reagents.
– The carbon-carbon double bond (–C=C–) of an alkene
contains two types of bonds. In alkynes, three
carbon-carbon bonds.
33 34
Types of Reactions in
Organic Compounds
• Molecular Rearrangements
– proceeds with a fundamental change in the
hydrocarbon skeleton of the molecule. During this
reaction, an atom or group migrates from one position
to another.
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05/02/2022

OUR LADY OF FATIMA Learning Outcomes

Chemistry – Demonstrate understanding of structure and bonding

Organic Chemistry History

Differences between Inorganic and

Uniqueness of Carbon OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY

• Carbon is able to form 4 covalent bonds (4 valence

OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – COLLEGE OF PHARMACY – PORG111

Atomic Structure Elements:

Atoms: Smallest particle of an element

An atom consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons that

Atomic Number and Atomic Mass Isotopes

Atomic Structure • ORBITALS

Atomic Structure Distribution of Orbitals within Shells

Distribution of Orbitals within Shells

only if they have opposite spins

Electron Configuration Electron Configuration

Chemical Bonding Chemical Bonding

Covalent Bonding Multiple Bond

Identifying Formal Charges Electronegativity and Bond Polarity

– Measure of the ability of an atom to attract electrons

Induction and Polar Covalent Bonds sp3 hybridization

sp3 hybridization sp3 hybridization

sp2 hybridization sp2 hybridization

Bond Strength & Bond Length VSEPR Theory: Predicting Geometry

Geometry resulting from sp3 Geometry resulting from sp2

Geometry resulting from sp

Drawing Chemical Structures

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Aliphatic Hydrocarbons Aliphatic Hydrocarbons

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Cyclic Hydrocarbons Alicyclic Hydrocarbons

• Homocyclic (carbocyclic) compounds may again

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• The group of homocyclic compounds having

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IUPAC Nomenclature of IUPAC Nomenclature of

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IUPAC Nomenclature of IUPAC Nomenclature of

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IUPAC Nomenclature of IUPAC Nomenclature of

IUPAC NAME (International Union of

OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY –

IUPAC Nomenclature of IUPAC Nomenclature of

OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY –

IUPAC Nomenclature of IUPAC Nomenclature of

OUR LADY OF –COLLEGE OF

IUPAC Nomenclature of IUPAC Nomenclature of

OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY –

IUPAC Nomenclature of IUPAC Nomenclature of

OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY –

IUPAC Nomenclature of IUPAC Nomenclature of

IUPAC Nomenclature of IUPAC Nomenclature of

IUPAC Nomenclature of IUPAC Nomenclature of

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