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Moving medium

Opposing waves

Mathematical description

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Standing wave on an infinite length string

Standing wave on a string with two fixed ends

o

Standing wave on a string with one fixed end

Standing wave in a pipe

2D standing wave with a rectangular boundary

Standing wave ratio, phase, and energy transfer

Examples

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Acoustic resonance

Visible light

X-rays
o

Mechanical waves

Seismic waves

Faraday waves

Seiches

See also

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Waves

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Standing wave
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Animation of a standing wave (red) created by the superposition of a left traveling (blue) and right

traveling (green) wave

Longitudinal standing wave

In physics, a standing wave, also known as a stationary wave, is a wave that

oscillates in time but whose peak amplitude profile does not move in space. The
peak amplitude of the wave oscillations at any point in space is constant with respect to
time, and the oscillations at different points throughout the wave are in phase. The
locations at which the absolute value of the amplitude is minimum are called nodes, and
the locations where the absolute value of the amplitude is maximum are
called antinodes.
Standing waves were first described scientifically by Michael Faraday in 1831. Faraday
observed standing waves on the surface of a liquid in a vibrating container.[1][2] Franz
Melde coined the term "standing wave" (German: stehende Welle or Stehwelle) around
1860 and demonstrated the phenomenon in his classic experiment with vibrating
strings.[3][4][5][6]
This phenomenon can occur because the medium is moving in the direction opposite to
the movement of the wave, or it can arise in a stationary medium as a result
of interference between two waves traveling in opposite directions. The most common
cause of standing waves is the phenomenon of resonance, in which standing waves
occur inside a resonator due to interference between waves reflected back and forth at
the resonator's resonant frequency.
For waves of equal amplitude traveling in opposing directions, there is on average no
net propagation of energy.

Moving medium[edit]
Kayakers surfing a standing wave in Great Falls Park

As an example of the first type, under certain meteorological conditions standing waves
form in the atmosphere in the lee of mountain ranges. Such waves are often exploited
by glider pilots.
Standing waves and hydraulic jumps also form on fast flowing river rapids and tidal
currents such as the Saltstraumen maelstrom. A requirement for this in river currents is
a flowing water with shallow depth in which the inertia of the water overcomes
its gravity due to the supercritical flow speed (Froude number: 1.7 – 4.5, surpassing 4.5
results in direct standing wave[7]) and is therefore neither significantly slowed down by
the obstacle nor pushed to the side. Many standing river waves are popular river
surfing breaks.

Opposing waves[edit]
Standing waves


Standing wave in stationary medium. The red dots represent the wave nodes.
 

A standing wave (black) depicted as the sum of two propagating waves traveling in opposite directions (red and
blue).


Electric force vector (E) and magnetic force vector (H) of a standing wave.
 

Standing waves in a string – the fundamental mode and the first 5 harmonics.



A standing wave on a circular membrane, an example of standing waves in two dimensions. This is the
fundamental mode.
 

A higher harmonic standing wave on a disk with two nodal lines crossing at the center.

As an example of the second type, a standing wave in a transmission line is a wave in

which the distribution of current, voltage, or field strength is formed by
the superposition of two waves of the same frequency propagating in opposite
directions. The effect is a series of nodes (zero displacement) and anti-
nodes (maximum displacement) at fixed points along the transmission line. Such a
standing wave may be formed when a wave is transmitted into one end of a
transmission line and is reflected from the other end by an impedance mismatch, i.e.,
discontinuity, such as an open circuit or a short.[8] The failure of the line to transfer power
at the standing wave frequency will usually result in attenuation distortion.
In practice, losses in the transmission line and other components mean that a perfect
reflection and a pure standing wave are never achieved. The result is a partial standing
wave, which is a superposition of a standing wave and a traveling wave. The degree to
which the wave resembles either a pure standing wave or a pure traveling wave is
measured by the standing wave ratio (SWR).[9]
Another example is standing waves in the open ocean formed by waves with the same
wave period moving in opposite directions. These may form near storm centres, or from
reflection of a swell at the shore, and are the source of microbaroms and microseisms.

Mathematical description[edit]
This section considers representative one- and two-dimensional cases of standing
waves. First, an example of an infinite length string shows how identical waves traveling
in opposite directions interfere to produce standing waves. Next, two finite length string
examples with different boundary conditions demonstrate how the boundary conditions
restrict the frequencies that can form standing waves. Next, the example of sound
waves in a pipe demonstrates how the same principles can be applied to longitudinal
waves with analogous boundary conditions.
Standing waves can also occur in two- or three-dimensional resonators. With standing
waves on two-dimensional membranes such as drumheads, illustrated in the animations
above, the nodes become nodal lines, lines on the surface at which there is no
movement, that separate regions vibrating with opposite phase. These nodal line
patterns are called Chladni figures. In three-dimensional resonators, such as musical
instrument sound boxes and microwave cavity resonators, there are nodal surfaces.
This section includes a two-dimensional standing wave example with a rectangular
boundary to illustrate how to extend the concept to higher dimensions.
Standing wave on an infinite length string[edit]
To begin, consider a string of infinite length along the x-axis that is free to be
stretched transversely in the y direction.
For a harmonic wave traveling to the right along the string, the string's displacement in
the y direction as a function of position x and time t is[10]
The displacement in the y-direction for an identical harmonic wave traveling to the
left is
where

 ymax is the amplitude of the displacement of the string for each wave,

 ω is the angular frequency or equivalently 2π times the frequency f,
 λ is the wavelength of the wave.
For identical right- and left-traveling waves on the same string, the total
displacement of the string is the sum of yR and yL,
Using the trigonometric sum-to-product identity ,
 
 
(1
)
 
Note that Equation (1) does not describe a traveling wave. At any
position x, y(x,t) simply oscillates in time with an amplitude that varies in
the x-direction as .[10] The animation at the beginning of this article depicts
what is happening. As the left-traveling blue wave and right-traveling
green wave interfere, they form the standing red wave that does not
travel and instead oscillates in place.
Because the string is of infinite length, it has no boundary condition for its
displacement at any point along the x-axis. As a result, a standing wave
can form at any frequency.
At locations on the x-axis that are even multiples of a quarter wavelength,
the amplitude is always zero. These locations are called nodes. At
locations on the x-axis that are odd multiples of a quarter wavelength
the amplitude is maximal, with a value of twice the amplitude of
the right- and left-traveling waves that interfere to produce this
standing wave pattern. These locations are called anti-nodes. The
distance between two consecutive nodes or anti-nodes is half the
wavelength, λ/2.
Standing wave on a string with two fixed ends[edit]
Next, consider a string with fixed ends at x = 0 and x = L. The
string will have some damping as it is stretched by traveling
waves, but assume the damping is very small. Suppose that at
the x = 0 fixed end a sinusoidal force is applied that drives the
string up and down in the y-direction with a small amplitude at
some frequency f. In this situation, the driving force produces a
right-traveling wave. That wave reflects off the right fixed end and
travels back to the left, reflects again off the left fixed end and
travels back to the right, and so on. Eventually, a steady state is
reached where the string has identical right- and left-traveling
waves as in the infinite-length case and the power dissipated by
damping in the string equals the power supplied by the driving
force so the waves have constant amplitude.
Equation (1) still describes the standing wave pattern that can
form on this string, but now Equation (1) is subject to boundary
conditions where y = 0 at x = 0 and x = L because the string is
fixed at x = L and because we assume the driving force at the
fixed x = 0 end has small amplitude. Checking the values of y at
the two ends,
 Standing waves in a string – the fundamental mode and the first
5 harmonics.

This boundary condition is in the form of the Sturm–

Liouville formulation. The latter boundary condition is
satisfied when . L is given, so the boundary condition
restricts the wavelength of the standing waves to [11]
 
 

 
(2
)
 

Waves can only form standing waves on this string

if they have a wavelength that satisfies this
relationship with L. If waves travel with
speed v along the string, then equivalently the
frequency of the standing waves is restricted to[11][12]
The standing wave with n = 1 oscillates at
the fundamental frequency and has a
wavelength that is twice the length of the string.
Higher integer values of n correspond to modes
of oscillation called harmonics or overtones.
Any standing wave on the string will have n + 1
nodes including the fixed ends and n anti-
nodes.
To compare this example's nodes to the
description of nodes for standing waves in the
infinite length string, note that Equation (2) can
be rewritten as
In this variation of the expression for the
wavelength, n must be even. Cross
multiplying we see that because L is a
node, it is an even multiple of a quarter
wavelength,
This example demonstrates a
type of resonance and the
frequencies that produce
standing waves can be referred
to as resonant frequencies.[11][13][14]
Standing wave on a string
with one fixed end[edit]

Transient analysis of a
damped traveling wave reflecting at a
boundary

Next, consider the same string of

length L, but this time it is only
fixed at x = 0. At x = L, the string
is free to move in the y direction.
For example, the string might be
tied at x = L to a ring that can
slide freely up and down a pole.
The string again has small
damping and is driven by a small
driving force at x = 0.
In this case, Equation (1) still
describes the standing wave
pattern that can form on the
string, and the string has the
same boundary condition of y =
0 at x = 0. However,
at x = L where the string can
move freely there should be an
anti-node with maximal amplitude
of y. Equivalently, this boundary
condition of the "free end" can be
stated as ∂y/∂x = 0 at x = L,
which is in the form of the Sturm–
Liouville formulation. The intuition
for this boundary
condition ∂y/∂x = 0 at x = L is that
the motion of the "free end" will
follow that of the point to its left.
Reviewing Equation (1),
for x = L the largest amplitude
of y occurs when ∂y/∂x = 0, or
This leads to a different set of
wavelengths than in the two-
fixed-ends example. Here, the
wavelength of the standing
waves is restricted to
Equivalently, the
frequency is restricted
to
Note that in this
example n only
takes odd values.
Because L is an
anti-node, it is
an odd multiple of
a quarter
wavelength. Thus
the fundamental
mode in this
example only has
one quarter of a
complete sine
cycle–zero at x =
0 and the first peak
at x = L–the first
harmonic has three
quarters of a
complete sine
cycle, and so on.
This example also
demonstrates a
type of resonance
and the
frequencies that
produce standing
waves are
called resonant
frequencies.
Standing wave
in a pipe[edit]
See also: Acoustic
resonance
§  Resonance of a
tube of air
Consider a
standing wave in a
pipe of length L.
The air inside the
pipe serves as the
medium
for longitudinal sou
nd waves traveling
to the right or left
through the pipe.
While the
transverse waves
on the string from
the previous
examples vary in
their displacement
perpendicular to
the direction of
wave motion, the
waves traveling
through the air in
the pipe vary in
terms of their
pressure and
longitudinal
displacement
along the direction
of wave motion.
The wave
propagates by
alternately
compressing and
expanding air in
segments of the
pipe, which
displaces the air
slightly from its rest
position and
transfers energy to
neighboring
segments through
the forces exerted
by the alternating
high and low air
pressures.[15] Equati
ons resembling
those for the wave
on a string can be
written for the
change in pressure
Δp due to a right-
or left-traveling
wave in the pipe.
where

 pmax is
the
pressur
e
amplitud
e or the
maximu
m
increase
or
decreas
e in air
pressur
e due to
each
wave,
 ω is
the ang
ular
frequen
cy or
equivale
ntly 2π t
imes
the freq
uency f,
 λ is
the wav
elength 
of the
wave.
If identical
right- and
left-
traveling
waves
travel
through the
pipe, the
resulting
superpositio
n is
described
by the sum
Note
that this
formula
for the
pressur
e is of
the
same
form as
Equatio
n (1), so
a
stationa
ry
pressur
e wave
forms
that is
fixed in
space
and
oscillate
s in
time.
If the
end of a
pipe is
closed,
the
pressur
e is
maximal
since
the
closed
end of
the pipe
exerts a
force
that
restricts
the
movem
ent of
air. This
corresp
onds to
a
pressur
e anti-
node
(which
is a
node for
molecul
ar
motions,
because
the
molecul
es near
the
closed
end
can't
move).
If the
end of
the pipe
is open,
the
pressur
e
variation
s are
very
small,
corresp
onding
to a
pressur
e node
(which
is an
anti-
node for
molecul
ar
motions,
because
the
molecul
es near
the
open
end can
move
freely).[16]
[17]
 The
exact
location
of the
pressur
e node
at an
open
end is
actually
slightly
beyond
the
open
end of
the
pipe, so
the
effective
length
of the
pipe for
the
purpose
of
determi
ning
resonan
t
frequen
cies is
slightly
longer
than its
physical
length.[18] 
This
differen
ce in
length is
ignored
in this
example
. In
terms of
reflectio
ns,
open
ends
partially
reflect
waves
back
into the
pipe,
allowing
some
energy
to be
release
d into
the
outside
air.
Ideally,
closed
ends
reflect
the
entire
wave
back in
the
other
direction
.[18][19]
First
consider
a pipe
that is
open at
both
ends,
for
example
an
open or
gan
pipe or
a record
er.
Given
that the
pressur
e must
be zero
at both
open
ends,
the
boundar
y
conditio
ns are
analogo
us to
the
string
with two
fixed
ends,
w
h
i
c
h
o
n
l
y
o
c
c
u
r
s
w
h
e
n
t
h
e
w
a
v
e
l
e
n
g
t
h
o
f
s
t
a
n
d
i
n
g
w
a
v
e
s
i
s
[18

or
equiv
alentl
y
when
the
frequ
ency
is[18][20]
where v i
s
the spee
d of
sound.
Next,
consider
a pipe
that is
open
at x =
0 (and
therefore
has a
pressure
node)
and
closed
at x = L (
and
therefore
has a
pressure
anti-
node).
The
closed
"free end"
boundary
condition
for the
pressure
at x = L c
an be
stated
as ∂(Δp)/
∂x = 0,
which is
in the
form
of the
Sturm–
Liouville
formulatio
n. The
intuition
for this
boundary
condition 
∂(Δp)/∂x 
=
0 at x = L 
is that the
pressure
of the
closed
end will
follow
that of
the point
to its left.
Examples
of this
setup
include a
bottle
and
a clarinet.
This pipe
has
boundary
condition
s
analogou
s to the
string
with only
one fixed
end. Its
standing
waves
have
waveleng
ths
restricted
to[18]
or equivalently
the frequency
standing wave
is restricted to
Note that for th
case where on
is closed, n on
takes odd valu
just like in the
of the string fix
only one end.

Molecular represe
standing wave wit
pipe that is closed
ends. Considering
longitudinal displa
note that the mole
ends and the mole
middle are not dis
the wave, represe
of longitudinal dis
Halfway between
there are longitud
displacement anti
where molecules
maximally displac
Considering press
that the molecules
maximally compre
expanded at the e
the middle, repres
pressure anti-nod
between the anti-n
pressure nodes w
molecules are nei
compressed nor e
they move.

So far, the wa
been written in
terms of its pre
as a function o
position x and
Alternatively, t
wave can be w
in terms of its
longitudinal
displacement
where air in a
segment of the
moves back a
forth slightly in
direction as th
pressure varie
waves travel in
either or both
directions. The
change in pres
Δp and longitu
displacement 
related as[22]
where ρ is
the density of
terms of longit
displacement,
ends of pipes
correspond to
since air move
restricted and
ends correspo
nodes since th
free to move.[1
similar, easier
visualize phen
occurs in long
waves propag
along a spring
We can also c
pipe that is clo
both ends. In t
both ends will
pressure anti-
equivalently b
will be displac
nodes. This ex
analogous to t
where both en
open, except t
standing wave
has a π⁄2 phase
along the x-dir
shift the locati
nodes and ant
For example,
longest wavele
resonates–the
fundamental m
again twice th
the pipe, exce
ends of the pip
pressure anti-
instead of pres
nodes. Betwee
ends there is o
pressure node
case of two clo
ends, the wav
again restricte
and the freque
restricted to
A Rubens tube
visualize the p
the standing w
two closed en
2D standin
rectangula
Next, consider
that can move
dimensional s
rectangular bo
length Lx in the
length Ly in the
Examples of th
water waves in
a rectangular
pulled taut. Th
the surface in
with z = 0 defi
the surface wh
In two dimens
coordinates, th
where

 z(x,y,t) is th
surface,
 c is the spe
To solve this d
first solve for i
with
Taking the Fo
equation,
This is an eige
frequencies co
then correspo
or eigenfunctio
of the Helmho
solved using s
[26]
 Assume
Dividing the H
This leads to t
equations. The
to x that we ca
Solving for X(x
This x-depend
with constants
conditions. Lik
respect to y th
and the disper
Solving the dif
Multiplying the
transform, z(x
product of sinu
The constants
boundary cond
conditions app
taut where z(x
the x depende
both x = 0 and
example of the
satisfies this b
with kx restricte
Likewise, the y
is satisfied by
Restricting the
resonate to
If the initial co
dependence is
So, standing w
frequencies pa
and their spati
boundary cond
middle of the r
patterns of no
Note from the
combinations
shapes for the
modes n = 1 a
Recalling that 
corresponding

Standing
Main article: S
If the two oppo
completely at
standing wave
the ratio of the
standing wave
it may undergo
partially statio
two waves: a t
indicates that
the ratio of am
A pure standin
wave is still su
travelling wave
finite, it may s
component is
definite transfe
Examples
One easy exa
they shake in
stationary poin
the rope is ma
Acoustic re
Main article: A

The hexagonal clo

explanation has re

Standing wave
traveling along
in musical inst
frequency, a s
ends and anti-
available. At th
contact with th
affect the freq
frequency nee
Visible ligh
Standing wave
cavities. Laser
Pérot interfero
exciting stand
of nanometers
waves is to me
X-rays[edit]
Interference b
short wavelen
measuring ato
X-ray beam in
reflection from
translated in s
near the surfa
relative to the
clarify the atom
surfaces,[35] an
Mechanica
Standing wave
understand ex
will form a reg
standing wave
base excitatio
location along
in frequency o
for dimensiona
Seismic wa
Standing surfa
Faraday wa
The Faraday w
instability. It ca
Seiches[edi
A seiche is an
oscillatory beh
the middle of t
from a simple 
oscillations ma
73 minutes an
seen to have r

See also[e
Waves[edit]
 Index of wa
 Amphidrom
 Clapotis
 Longitudin
 Mode-lock
 Metachron
 Resonant r
 Seiche
 Trumpet
 Kundt's tub
 Wave Equ
 One-Way W
Electronics
 Index of el
 Cavity reso
 Characteri
 Cymatics
 Impedance
 Normal mo

Notes[edit]
1. ^ Alwyn Scot
2. ^ Theodore Y
Symposium P
3. ^ Melde, Fran
Durchschnitts
4. ^ Melde, Fran
193–215.
5. ^ Melde, Fran
6. ^ Melde, Fran
7. ^ Dietsche, D
01-13.
8. ^   This artic
from the origi
9. ^ Blackstock,
10. ^ Jump up to:
11. ^ Jump up to:
12. ^ Serway & F
13. ^ Serway & F
14. ^ String Reso
15. ^ Halliday, Re
16. ^ Nave, C. R.
17. ^ Streets 201
18. ^ Jump up to:
19. ^ Streets 201
20. ^ Jump up to:
21. ^ Halliday, Re
22. ^ Halliday, Re
23. ^ Serway & F
24. ^ Thomas-Pa
at 4:11. YouT
25. ^ Mould, Stev
dihQuwrf9yQ
26. ^ Weisstein, E
Retrieved  Jan
27. ^ Gallis, Mich
and Astronom
28, 2020.
28. ^ R S Rao, M
29. ^ K A Tsokos
30. ^ A Wave Dy
Godfrey, R. F
31. ^ Barbosa Ag
763. Bibcode
32. ^ Pedrotti, Fr
42826-2.
33. ^ Batterman,
Physics.  36  (
 34. ^ Batterman,
Letters. 22 (1
35. ^ Golovchenk
Problem Usin
563. Bibcode
36. ^ Feng, Z.; K
Induced Catio
18200–18201
37. ^ Bauza, Mar
application to
8.  Bibcode:20
38. ^ "Precision E
July 2016. Re
39. ^ Chen, Pu (2
5941. doi:10.
40. ^ Lemmin, Ul
(eds.),  Encyc
753, doi:10.1
41. ^ "Lake Huro
42. ^ Korgen, Be
Water".  seag
43. ^ "Seiche".  w
44. ^ Johnson, S
original on 30

Reference
 Halliday, D
Wiley & So
 Serway, R
Publishing
 Streets, J.
Physics. P
23, 2020.

External l
  Media re
Germany

Authority control: Israel

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