PHYSICS 21.

01
MODULE 1
LESSON 2 MECHANICAL WAVES
(Chapter 16)

Learning objectives

At the end of the lesson you are expected to

a. describe a mechanical wave and cite examples of mechanical waves;

b. describe the motion of particles relative to the motion of the wave in transverse and
longitudinal waves;
c. explain the meaning of the following wave characteristics: wavelength, frequency,
amplitude, angular frequency, period, wave speed;
d. explain the following wave properties: reflection, refraction, superposition and
interference, diffraction;
e. explain the occurrence of standing waves in a string and column of air inside a tube;
f. cite the relationship between the fundamental resonant frequency and the harmonics in
standing waves;
g. cite the relationship between the length of the string/tube to the wavelengths
associated with the resonant frequencies; and
h. define and calculate wave speed.

A MECHANICAL WAVE requires a medium for transmission. Some examples of MECHANICAL WAVES
are sound waves created by vibrating objects, seismic waves created by movements in the Earth’s
crust and water waves. An ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE (from gamma ray to radio wave) does not
require a medium for transmission. The Sun’s energy reaches the Earth through the propagation of
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, in the vacuum of space.

Watch this video clip that demonstrates that sound, being a mechanical wave, does not travel
through vacuum. In the demo an electric bell is place inside a bell jar, initially at atmospheric
pressure. The ringing of the bell is audible. Then a vacuum pump is used to remove the air from the
bell jar and the sound from the ringing bell becomes inaudible.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zcl1MCvvtrg

A wave, whether it’s mechanical or electromagnetic, is basically a form of energy transfer from one
point in space to another. In the case of the mechanical wave, you may be able to observe the
movement of the medium. When you dip your finger on the surface of the water on a basin, for
example, you see the disturbance spread out radially away from the source. You observe the
manifestation of the waves’ kinetic energy transferred towards the walls of the container. The
particles in the medium do not seem to move with the disturbance.

A mechanical wave is classified according to the direction of motion of the particles in comparison to
the direction of propagation of the wave. In a LONGITUDINAL WAVE, the particles in the medium
move parallel to the direction of motion of the wave. In a TRANSVERSE WAVE the particles in the
medium move in a direction perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave.

A slinky spring toy is a good device to illustrate the difference between a LONGITUDINAL WAVE and
TRANSVERSE WAVE. Watch this video clip. The opening scene illustrates the longitudinal wave and
the second part shows the transverse wave.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BLeeTi_Ua6Q
One of my favorite Physics lecture demonstration apparatus at Faura Hall F-230 is the PASCO
Complete Wave Demonstrator. The figure below, which I got from the PASCO website, shows how it
looks like. It’s made of three parts which can be connected in tandem. One can demonstrate a lot of
properties common to waves using this device.

https://www.pasco.com/products/lab-apparatus/waves-and-sound/ripple-tank-and-standing-
waves/se-9600

Maybe someday when we go back to our normal lives I can show you this on a live Physics lecture.
But for now let’s be contended of watching the video of this wave demonstrator. I will mention the
time frame and the corresponding wave property being demonstrated. Open this video clip.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bOJ7CoAFTJU

The wave generator is made up of steel rods welded on a thin strip of metal. The rods, with tips
painted yellow, represent the particles within the medium where the wave propagates. Watch how
they move relative to the wave motion and watch the reflection and interference of waves.

Time frame

0:06 -0:12 A wave pulse is generated from one end and moves to the other end. Watch that
the incident pulse is curved downward and gets reflected at the free end. The shape
of the reflected pulse is similar to that of the incident pulse.

0:32- 0:52 The free end is now rigidly held. Observe how the reflected wave pulse differs from
the case where the end was free to move. A phase shift is said to occur.

0:58-1:18 Two wave pulses are simultaneously generated from both ends. They move towards
each other and “meet” or interfere at around the center. Observe that the
amplitude of the resulting interference of two waves is higher because of the
superposition.

1:18-1:35 Two out-of-phase wave pulses are generated from both ends. They move towards
each other and “meet” or interfere at the center. Observe the wave form generated.
How is it different from the wave pulses which are in phase?

Another of my favorite Physics lecture demonstration apparatus is the ripple tank. The ripple is filled
with water and water waves are generated on its surface. Light from above the water generates
shadow which makes the wave phenomena visible. This is the link to the video clip.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8fKck9TJsPs

1:36-1:44 Observe the interference of two spherical waves from two in-phase sources.
1:45-1:50 A barrier with a small opening is place in front of the path of parallel water waves.
Watch as spherical waves are generated at the slit and propagates outward. This
wave phenomenon is called diffraction, in particular, single slit diffraction.

1:53-1:58 The barrier of the plane water waves contains two slits. The phenomena shown here
is called the two-slit diffraction. From each slits comes out spherical waves which
propagate outward. They also interfere with each other.

2:01-2:18 Parallel water waves are reflected on different shapes of surfaces – flat, concave and
convex surfaces.

2:19- 2:24 The water waves manifest a change in the direction of propagation when they change
their speed along the shallow portion of the ripple tank. This wave phenomenon is
called refraction.

The Wave Speed

The speed of a wave propagating in a medium is given by the equation

v=λ/T
or
v=λf

where λ is the wavelength

T is the period
f is the frequency

The wavelength λ is the distance traveled by the wave within the period T. The unit of wave speed
can be m/s, km/h, and mi/h.

Describing Traveling Waves

The figure in the following page shows a physical appearance of a snapshot (taken at t= to) of
traveling transverse wave. The vertical axis is the displacement of the medium along the y direction
while the horizontal axis is the position of the different parts of the medium along the x-axis.
Remember that the shape of the wave depends on the motion of the individual particles of the
medium.

The maximum displacement from the equilibrium position is called the amplitude (A). The unit is m,
km, and other units of distance. The peak in the + y axis is called the crest while the lowest point in
the –y axis is called the trough. The distance between two adjacent crests (or troughs) is called the
wavelength (symbol is λ). In the same figure the amplitude is 1.0 m and the wavelength is around 6.4
m.
 λ

This graph can be described mathematically by

y = A sin [(2π /λ)x] = A sin [kx] (at t = to))

where k =2π /λ is called the wavenumber

At any position (x=xo) along the medium, the displacement as a function of time is shown in the y vs.
t plot. An example is shown below. The maximum displacement along the y-axis is called the
amplitude (A), the same as in the y vs. x graph. The time difference between two adjacent crests (or
troughs) is called the period (T). In the example below, the amplitude is 1.0 m and the period is
about 6.4 s.

This graph can be mathematically represented by the equation

y = A sin [(2π/T)t] = A sin [2πft] = A sin ωt (at x = xo)

where ω = 2πf is called the angular frequency.

Standing waves in a string and resonant frequencies

A wave pulse propagating, say to the right, in a string gets reflected when it reaches the other end.
An incident wave train in the string will generate a wave train of reflected waves. It’s interesting that
these two traveling waves interfere or superpose in such a way that a standing wave pattern may be
produced. This is demonstrated in this video clip.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9-5giMUecLQ

In this figure the driving frequency is 11.7 Hz and the standing wave pattern has large amplitude in
the middle (called the antinode). This wave pattern is associated with the resonant fundamental
frequency of vibration f1 of the string. In this case f1 = 11.7 Hz. It’s also called the first harmonic.

In this second figure the wave pattern has two antinodes and a node in the middle. The driving
frequency is 24.0 Hz which is around twice that of the previous one. This is the wave pattern of the
second resonant frequency or 2nd harmonic, f2 = 24.0 Hz.

The next pattern occurs with three antinodes and two nodes between the ends. The driving
frequency is 34.5 Hz. This is third resonant frequency or 3rd harmonic, f3.

You will notice that there is a mathematical relationship between the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, nth harmonic to the
1st harmonic:

fn = nf1, where n = 1,2,3,4,…

If L is the length of the string between the supports at the two ends, then the wavelength and L are
related by the equation

L = n (λ/2), where n = 1, 2, 3, 4,…

Let’s consider a problem related to standing waves in a string.

A violin string has a length of 36 cm and mass of 0.42 g. If the tension is 90 N, what are the three
lowest three harmonics, f1 ,f2 and f3?

Solution:

The figure below shows the physical representation of the violin string which is under tension and
vibrating in the fundamental frequency.

The fundamental frequency maybe calculated from the equation of the wave speed:

v=λf

or f=v/λ

The wave speed of the string of mass/length (µ) and under tension (T) is given by

v = (T / µ)1/2

= [(90 N/(0.00042kg/0.36m)]1/2

= 277.7 m/s

When the string vibrates at the fundamental frequency, the wavelength is

λ1 = 2 L

= 2 (0.36m)

= 0.72 m

We can calculate the fundamental frequency.

f1= v /λ

= (277.7 m/s) / (0.72 m)

= 385.7 Hz

The 2nd harmonic is

f2=2 f1
=2 (385.7 Hz)
=771.4 Hz
and the 3rd harmonic is
f3=3 f1
=3 (385.7 Hz)
=1157.1 Hz
The three lowest resonant frequencies of the violin string are 385.7 Hz, 771.4 Hz and 1157.1 Hz.
Standing sound waves in air columns within a tube
Similar to a transverse traveling wave in a string, a longitudinal wave propagating inside a tube also
undergoes reflection at one end. The incident and reflected longitudinal waves may superpose to
form interference patterns inside the tube. This is not visible to the eye, unlike the standing waves in
a string, but they manifest as changes in the loudness of the sound. A standing wave is characterized
by a loud sound. In the lab this is usually done by changing the length of the tube while using a
monotone sound.

In the figure below, the resonance tube has a small speaker (at the left end) driven at a given
frequency by a function generator. At the right end is a movable piston which is used to adjust the
effective length of the tube (which the sound wave can propagate). The sound is amplified, that is, a
standing sound wave has been created inside the tube at some tube lengths.

A similar set-up can be viewed in this video:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCVGzieIIUU

Similar to the waves on a string, there are conditions for which standing sound waves are formed in
tubes. (We will use the transverse wave model, although we know that sound waves are longitudinal
waves, because it is more convenient to draw.)

A. A tube with both ends closed

In a tube which is closed on both ends, there are displacement nodes (DN) on both ends since the
air molecules are constrained to move; they are compressed with minimal motion; the gas pressure
is relatively high so they are also called pressure antinodes (PA).

A standing wave oscillating in the first harmonic has a displacement antinode (DA) at the center,
where there’s maximum displacement of the gas molecules (about their equilibrium position). The
pressure is low at this point so it’s also called a pressure node (PN). If the length of the tube is L then
the wavelength of the first harmonic is

L = λ /2

or λ = 2 L.
 DA or PN

DN DN
or or
PA PA

DA or PN DN or PA DA or PN
DN DN
or or
PA PA

In the second harmonic, there are displacement nodes (or pressure antinodes) at the center and at
both ends. There are two displacement antinodes (or pressure nodes).

The frequency fn of the nth harmonic is related to fundamental resonant frequency f1:

fn = n f1 where n = 1,2,3,4,..

The wavelength associated with the nth harmonic is related to the length of the tube:

L = n (λ/2)

or λ = 2L /n

B. A tube with both ends open

The open ends of the tube have displacement antinodes since the air molecules are less constrained
and have relatively large displacements about their equilibrium position. However, the gas pressure
is lower so the open ends have pressure nodes.

In the case of the fundamental or first harmonic, there is a displacement node (or pressure
antinode) at the center. The waveform in the tube of length L consists of two quarter waves so that

L = 2 (λ /4)

or L = λ / 2.
In the second harmonic f2, the waveform contains 4 quarter wavelengths. So, L = 4 (λ /4)
or L = 2 (λ/2). In the case of the 3rd harmonic, L = 6 (λ /4) = 3 (λ/2).

The frequency fn of the nth harmonic is related to the fundamental resonance frequency f1:

fn = n f1 where n = 1,2,3,4,..

The wavelength associated with the nth harmonic is related to the length of the tube:

L = n (λ/2)

or λ = 2L /n where n = 1,2,3,4, …

C. A tube with one end closed and one end open

There is a displacement antinode (pressure node) at the open end since the air molecules are less
constrained and have relatively large displacements about their equilibrium position. There is a
displacement node at the closed end (pressure antinode).

In the case of the fundamental or first harmonic, the waveform in the tube of length L consists of a
quarter waves so that L = λ /4 or λ = 4L.

L = λ/4

L = 3 (λ/4)
 L = 5 (λ/4)

In the second harmonic there are two displacement antinodes (one inside and another at the
opening of the tube) and two displacement nodes (one inside and at the closed end). The waveform
contains 3 quarter wavelengths, L =3 (λ /4) or λ = 4L/3.

In the third harmonic, L = 5 (λ /4) or λ = 4L /5.

The frequency fn of the nth harmonics is related to the fundamental resonant frequency f1:

fn = n f1 where n = 1,3,5, …

The higher resonant frequencies are odd multiples of the fundamental resonant frequency in this
type of tube.

The wavelength associated with the nth harmonic is related to the length of the tube:

L = n (λ/4)

or λ = 4L /n n = 1, 3, 5, …

Example problem related to standing waves in a tube.

Problem 60, page 688 College Physics by OpenStax

The ear canal resonates like a tube closed at one end. If ear canals range in length from 1.80 to 2.60
cm in an average population,

a) what is the range of fundamental resonant frequencies? Take air temperature to be 37.0oC ,
which is the same as body temperature.

b) How does this result correlate with the intensity versus frequency graph (Figure 17.36) of
the human ear?

Solution:

In the figure below the ear drum is located at the closed end of the tube. We will assume the ear
canal to be a uniform cylinder with a length L which ranges from 1.80 cm to 2.60 cm.

The fundamental frequency can be calculated from the equation of wave speed:

v = λf

or f = v /λ
The speed of sound at an air temperature T (in K) is given by

v = (331 m/s) (T /273 K)1/2

At 37.0oC ( 310.15 K) the speed of sound is

v = (331 m/s) (310.15K/273K)1/2

= 352.8 m/s

Next we’ll calculate the wavelength. At the fundamental frequency the wavelength is given by

λ=4L

For the case where L = 1.80 cm (0.018 m),

λ = 4 (0.018 m)

= 0.072 m

and the frequency is f=v/λ

= (352.8 m/s) / (0.072 m)

= 4,900 Hz

For the case where L = 2.60 cm (0.026 m),

λ = 4 (0.026 m)

= 0.104 m

and the frequency is f=v/λ

= (352.8 m/s) / (0.104 m)

= 3,392 Hz

The range of fundamental resonant frequencies is 3,392 Hz to 4,900 Hz. These range of values are
within the range of frequencies which the human ear is most sensitive, based on equal loudness
contour (Fig. 17.35).