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Received: 18 May 2019    Revised: 5 February 2020    Accepted: 5 February 2020

DOI: 10.1111/ijcs.12574

ORIGINAL ARTICLE
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Fast-food addiction and anti-consumption behaviour:

The moderating role of consumer social responsibility

Maya F. Farah1  | Muhammad Faisal Shahzad2

1
Adnan Kassar School of Business, Lebanese
American University, Beirut, Lebanon Abstract
2
Business School, Sichuan University, This study aims to understand the drivers of fast-food addiction and the role of
Chengdu, China
consumer social responsibility (CSR) on the relationship between fast-food addic-
Correspondence tion and anti-consumption. Due to growing health concerns, an increasing number
Maya F. Farah, Adnan Kassar School of
of consumers have been avoiding the consumption of fast food. Based on a sam-
Business, Lebanese American University,
P.O. Box 13-5053, Chouran, Beirut 1102 ple of 539 respondents, all pertaining to generation Y in Pakistan, this study tests a
2801, Lebanon.
model including addiction and anti-consumption behaviour. Empirical results provide
Email: [email protected]
strong evidence that individual and sociocultural factors together with advertising
practices influence consumers’ fast-food addiction. Results also reveal that CSR mod-
erates the relationship between fast-food addiction and anti-consumption behaviour.
Interestingly, the present study pioneers the discussion on how addiction can drive
anti-consumption. The findings can help public policy makers and managers to un-
derstand consumers’ anti-consumption tendencies and help promote healthier con-
sumption habits.

KEYWORDS

addiction, advertising practices, anti-consumption, consumer social responsibility, fast food,

individual and sociocultural factors

1 |  I NTRO D U C TI O N (García-de-Frutos, Ortega-Egea, & Martínez-del-Río, 2018), reli-

gious or cultural animosity reasons (Abosag & Farah, 2014) and/or
Zavestoski (2002) defines anti-consumption as “a function of a pref- other business practices (Sandıkcı & Ekici, 2009). Likewise, individual
erence to consume one object over another”, whereas more pro- health interests, lifestyle factors, sustainability and social respon-
found anti-consumption attitudes include “a resistance to, distaste sibility are significant factors that drive anti-consumption practices
of, or even resentment or rejection of consumption more generally” (Black & Cherrier, 2010; Lee, Roux, Cherrier, & Cova, 2011). Herman
(p. 121). The extant research focuses on fast-food product anti-con- and Mack (1975) proposed restrained theory (RT), indicating that
sumption, taking into consideration the addictive behaviour, thus controlled eating is a conscious practice enforced by individuals’
defining addiction as excessive physical or psychological depen- personal preferences as well as their environment (Tosun & Yanar
dence on a substance or activity (Abdo, Zeenny, & Salameh, 2016; Gürce, 2018). This implies that a person's consumption behaviours
Chatzidakis & Lee, 2013). Anti-consumption studies have generated are directly associated with both his/her individual characteristics
recurrent attention among marketing practitioners and academics (Goyal & Singh, 2007) and his/her sociocultural context.
alike (Oral & Thurner, 2019). Nonetheless, research indicates that fast-food stimuli are often
Extant research reveals that consumers can form anti- hard to control, even among the most health-conscious consumers
consumption behaviour for a variety of reasons (Farah & Newman, (Akbay, Tiryaki, & Gul, 2007). In addition, mindful food consumption
2010; Lee, Motion, & Conroy, 2009). Indeed, consumers may habits tend to be less common among members of Generation Y
boycott a product for environmental sustainability concerns (Donazar-Ezcurra, López-del Burgo, & Bes-Rastrollo, 2017).

Int J Consum Stud. 2020;44:379–392. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ijcs© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd    379 |
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Nevertheless, a positive self-image is believed to generate anti- Fast-food addiction and its related risks of obesity highlight the
consumption feelings, especially in young individuals (Chao, Yang, need to examine the factors affecting food addiction and the asso-
& Chiou, 2012). Accordingly, a positive self-image tends to restrict ciated drivers of anti-consumption behaviour. Nonetheless, analy-
a consumer's likelihood to consume food excessively, as he/she is sis of the related literature indicates a large knowledge gap in this
more likely to closely monitor his/her weight. area (Galvagno, 2011; Shaban & El-Bassiouny, 2017; Tosun & Yanar
Even so, a growing trend of fast-food consumption has emerged Gürce, 2018). Specifically, few studies if any have been conducted
among the youth. Health practitioners indicate that the recent rise on the subject in developing countries. However, research is largely
in obesity is caused by modern eating and drinking habits, and par- needed within the specific context of Pakistan. Significant foreign
ticularly fast-food consumption. Additionally, fast-food overcon- investment in Pakistan has focused on the area of food services,
sumption has caused an increase in cases of heart disease, which with over $US492 million spent on this sector alone (SMEDA, 2016);
has sparked global attention. Indeed, a recent WHO report indicates this investment is causing a significant change in consumer eating
that obesity is a major risk factor for chronic diseases, which can be habits (Chao et al., 2012). The resulting rise in obesity rates among
reduced significantly through changes in consumption and dietary the Pakistani youth has reached alarming levels, thus urging authori-
patterns (Donazar-Ezcurra et al., 2017). ties in Pakistan to promote healthy eating habits (Ehsan, 2012).
In spite of the health warnings, fast-food consumption has in- Accordingly, this study contributes to the existing literature by
creased in recent years (Ehsan, 2012). Moreover, food addiction is presenting and discussing the factors that can initiate addictive be-
being catalyzed by the abundance of food adverts that motivate haviour and how the latter can drive anti-consumption. It aims to
unhealthy consumption habits, resulting in the development of examine the factors that drive consumer addiction and the subse-
various eating disorders and harmful food consumption behaviours quent impact of addiction on anti-consumption behaviour within
(Contini, Boncinelli, Gerini, Scozzafava, & Casini, 2018). In their the Pakistani context. This study aims to utilize the findings to
effort to increase consumption and promote sales, advertisers help public policy makers and managers to understand consumers’
have often induced consumer addictive behaviour (Chen, 2009). anti-consumption tendencies and help promote healthier consump-
Nonetheless, research on this matter is inconsistent; few studies as- tion habits.
sess the impact of consumer addictive behaviour on fast-food anti-
consumption behaviour (Burmeister, Hinman, Koball, Hoffmann, &
Carels, 2013). Existing research highlights the conflict between con- 2 | LITE R AT U R E R E V I E W
sumer willingness to avoid fast-food consumption and their attach-
ment (and at times addiction) to this type of food (Chao et al., 2012). 2.1 | Anti-consumption
Thus, further understanding of consumer anti-consumption trig-
gers and behaviours is necessary (Gupta, Smithers, Harford, Merlin, Anti-consumption is defined as a form of “resistance that is both
& Braunack-Mayer, 2018). The deteriorating quality of life resulting a consumer activity and an attitude” (Cherrier, 2009, p. 181). It is
from unsustainable consumption has further increased the need for further defined as a consumer sense of resentment or aversion to-
anti-consumption research (Tosun & Yanar Gürce, 2018). Consumer wards the consumption of a given product group (Armstrong Soule
social responsibility (CSR) also calls for research attention towards & Sekhon, 2019). It encompasses all behaviours whereby a con-
unhealthy consumption practices and ways to control them in sumer purposefully avoids the purchase of a given product or brand
order to promote the overall well-being of society (Sudbury-Riley & (Shaban & El-Bassiouny, 2017). Anti-consumption can occur due to:
Kohlbacher, 2018). Likewise, and from a consumer welfare perspec- (a) personal motives and addictive tendencies, (b) negative experi-
tive, addiction is a central issue, as excessive consumption of addic- ences with the given brand/product, (c) social and environmental
tive commodities leads to obesity and negative health consequences. concerns and (d) political or social activism (Abosag & Farah, 2014).
However, in-depth analysis of the existing literature indicates a large Indeed, research indicates that the various types of consumer anti-
knowledge gap concerning this topic. Research primarily asserts that consumption behaviours include boycotting, switching (Farah, 2016)
food product anti-consumption is associated with sustainability and anti-branding, negative word of mouth and voluntary brand rejec-
health concerns (Tosun & Yanar Gürce, 2018). This is confirmed in the tion (Sudbury-Riley & Kohlbacher, 2018).
case of meat and dairy products (Allen, Goddard, & Farmer, 2018). Unfortunately, anti-consumption as a variable remains highly dif-
Nonetheless, the published research lacks insight into anti-consump- ficult to measure. Consumer preferences, especially for food, tend
tion regarding other food product categories, such as fast food, de- to be complex. For instance, a person may avoid consuming meat
spite its extensive market share due to its convenient and instant because he/she is concerned with animal welfare and environment
nature when compared with other food service operators (Ehsan, sustainability. On the contrary, individuals who choose to consume
2012). Moreover, no study has examined the relationship between meat may do so for a rich source of protein, not because they are
food anti-consumption and CSR (Sudbury-Riley & Kohlbacher, 2018). against environmental sustainability or animal welfare (Tosun &
Accordingly, this research considers the present gap in the literature Yanar Gürce, 2018). Accordingly, anti-consumption studies focus
with relation to experimental research on the antecedents of food- on determining the reasons hindering consumption and influencing
related anti-consumption behaviour (Allen et al., 2018). consumer attitudes (Galvagno, 2011).
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2.2 | Personal factors and addiction consumer's society dictates his/her cultural orientation, which
subsequently impacts consumption patterns and behaviours.
Personal factors that promote anti-consumption include internal Moreover, sociocultural orientations vary across different soci-
factors such as an individuals’ disposition and interpersonal atti- eties, which lead to diverse consumption attitudes (Gram, Hogg,
tudes that explain individuals' behaviours, thoughts and emotions Blichfeldt, & MacLaran, 2015). In addition, a consumer's attitude
(Kaynak & Ekşi, 2014). Empirical evidence indicates that hedonic towards fast-food consumption is also affected by his/her cul-
characteristics like personal beliefs and lifestyle may trigger con- ture's perceptions of fast food (Islam & Ullah, 2010). For example,
sumers’ addiction to food. Addiction is defined as the excessive western societies tend to be more accepting of fast food, as their
physical or psychological dependence on a substance, brand or culture and lifestyle favours quick and convenient dining options
activity (Mrad & Cui, 2017). Contini et al. (2018) examined the ef- (Frank, 2012). Accordingly, consumption practices within sociocul-
fects of consumer desires and eating behaviours. They revealed tural groups drive addictive behaviours, leading the researchers to
that individual characteristics (beliefs and traits) are important hypothesize the following:
determinants of consumption practices (Kaynak & Ekşi, 2014).
Likewise, researchers signify that individual personal beliefs and Hypothesis 2 Sociocultural factors regarding fast food are positively
assessments are primary drivers of food consumption and addic- associated with addictive consumption behaviour.
tion (Zlatevska & Spence, 2016). Such personal opinions and be-
liefs include taste, convenience (Bianchi & Mortimer, 2015) and
other hedonic components (Shahzad, Bilal, Xiao, & Yousaf, 2019). 2.4 | Advertising practices and addiction
This is due to the fact that addiction is largely linked to individual
impulse and affective characteristics especially among young con- Advertising is heavily used to stimulate and encourage consumer
sumers (Khalid, Nawaz, & Zahid, 2019). Indeed, food addiction is purchases (Kaur & Hundal, 2017) and tends to catalyze consumer
in itself a pathological and compulsive disorder in which consumer consumption behaviours. Thus, advertising is regularly utilized by
experience and strong hedonistic urges and cravings play a major brands to encourage purchases and generate brand loyalty (Eshghi,
role (Rosenbaum & Wong, 2012). Accordingly, the researchers Sarkar, & Sarkar, 2017). This breeds consumer familiarity with the
postulate the following: given brand, which subsequently incites continuous consumption
and addictive tendencies (Shahzad et al., 2019).
Hypothesis 1 Consumers’ opinion regarding fast food is positively re- Marketers tend to capitalize on the role of advertising in the
lated to their addictive consumption behaviour. formation of consumer addiction (Theocharous, 2015). Advertisers
use various strategies such as celebrity endorsements to reinforce
their message and promote addiction (Chan, Leung Ng, & Luk, 2013).
2.3 | Sociocultural factors and addiction Fast-food companies also greatly employ advertising channels to
induce consumption and build sustainable relationships with con-
Research signifies that consumers who share similar sociocultural sumers. Studies indicate that exposure to advertising is one of the
values and backgrounds also form collective behaviours (Shahzad, main influencers regarding fast-food consumption, especially in the
Khattak, Khattak, & Shahzad, 2015). Researches have shown that case of young consumers (Mathur & Patodiya, 2016). Indeed, stud-
an individual's consumption behaviour is not only affected by his/ ies indicate that increased exposure to fast-food advertising affects
her own motivations, but also by his/her surrounding social situa- consumer perceptions of the food products and normalizes their
tions (Guesalaga, Pierce, & Scaraboto, 2016). Consequently, con- consumption (Beaudoin, 2014). Therefore, the researchers propose
sumers’ likes and dislikes are sociocultural products formed through the following:
social interactions and relationships. Therefore, consumer addictive
states are also derived from an individual's social and cultural envi- Hypothesis 3 Advertising practices in relation to fast food are posi-
ronment (Chen, Lu, Wang, & Pan, 2018). For example, a consumer tively associated with addictive consumption behaviour.
may experience addictive urges and favour fast-food consumption
at social gatherings due to the presence of promotional deals (Ehsan,
2012); promotions tend to be a primary motivator of continuous and 2.5 | Addiction and anti-consumption behaviours
excessive consumption. In contrast, a consumer might favour anti-
consumption when he/she perceives the costs of continued indul- The above-cited literature proposes that: (a) personal factors,
gence as unacceptable. (b) sociocultural factors and (c) advertising all drive consumer addic-
Indeed, a consumer's emotions and cognitive beliefs about tion to fast food, which can lead to obesity and other physiological
a certain product/brand depend largely on his/her cultural val- problems (Hassan & Dimassi, 2017). The advent of the modern, fast-
ues. These values shape individual perceptions and convictions, paced lifestyle stimulates binge eating of convenient fast-food op-
which consequently affect addictive tendencies towards the given tions, which generates a dependence on and addiction to these foods
product/brand (Chen et al., 2018). Kashif (2019) state that a (Kaynak & Ekşi, 2014). However, consumers who are highly health
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conscious are more likely to limit their unhealthy food consump- harmful health consequences, then he/she is more likely to develop
tion, even if they enjoy such foods, (Tosun & Yanar Gürce, 2018). anti-consumption tendencies. Allen et al. (2018) also postulate that
Anti-consumption behaviours can also be developed from eating un- consumer social beliefs and values can effectively moderate the re-
healthy foods. Research implies that excessive consumption of fast lationship between consumer behaviour and anti-consumption ten-
food results in negative emotions, such as anxiety and guilt. dencies. Therefore, the researchers stipulate the following:
These negative emotions disrupt consumer attitudes and create
feelings of disenchantment and disengagement with the given brand/ Hypothesis 5 CSR moderates the relationship between fast-food ad-
product (Tore & Heinonen, 2013). In fact, studies indicate that the neg- diction and anti-consumption behaviour.
ative emotions a consumer experiences when faced with the risks and
disadvantages of his/her addiction leads to feelings of fear and shame
(Paloutzian & Park, 2013). This in turn leads the consumer to “leave 2.7 | Theoretical model
the shameful behaviour behind” and disengage from the behaviour,
displaying a sense of control and power (Suarez, 2014). Ultimately, The purpose of this study is twofold. First, the manuscript aims to
the consumer develops a sense of adhesion to the counter-behaviour identify the factors affecting food addiction, and second, it seeks to
of anti-consumption (Cova & D'Antone, 2016). As a result, such examine the role of CSR on the relationship between fast-food addic-
feelings induce brand avoidance, which subsequently breeds anti- tion and anti-consumption. It focuses specifically on the case of the
consumption tendencies and behaviours (Jayasimha, Chaudhary, & Pakistani consumer. Most importantly, this study aims to pave the way
Chauhan, 2017). The researchers thus stipulate the following: for a new theoretical model that explains consumer anti-consumption
behaviour. The existing models used in related studies, most promi-
Hypothesis 4 Fast-food addiction has a positive effect on anti- nently the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the self-congruity
consumption behaviour. theory, are limited in that they focus solely on personal factors (Kashif,
2019). However, these approaches could limit the understanding of
anti-consumption behaviour as the latter can be driven by various
2.6 | Moderating role of CSR factors all playing significant roles in shaping one's overall behaviour.
These factors include: (a) personal factors, (b) sociocultural factors,
Food consumption has a substantial effect on both societal sustain- (c) advertising factors and (d) CSR. Accordingly, this study aims to de-
ability and individual well-being (Manning, 2013). This has become vise a new theory that incorporates all the latter factors as this would
even more evident through the constantly changing dietary patterns add significant theoretical value to the existing literature in the field.
worldwide. Moreover, the links between health consciousness and Accordingly, Figure 1 provides a conceptual model of the variables and
food practices are constantly discussed in the mainstream media relationships under study. The proposed theory indicates fast-food
channels; therefore, this impacts consumer attitudes, individual be- anti-consumption as the dependent variable and food addiction as
liefs and overall consumption decisions (Enderwick, 2009). Various the independent variable. Moreover, consumer personal, sociocultural
personal, social and environmental factors also play an important factors and advertising practicing are proposed as the predicting vari-
role in food intake and avoidance (Wang, Xiang, Yang, & Ma, 2018). ables of addictive behaviour. CSR is proposed as a moderating force in
For example, research has focused on resistance to meat dairy prod- the relationship between addiction and anti-consumption behaviour.
uct consumption, which is motivated by factors such as lactose in-
tolerance, allergies, cultural norms, religious connotations or CSR
(Allen et al., 2018). 3 | M E TH O D O LO G Y
CSR refers to an individual's conscious choice to make consump-
tion decisions based on his/her individual moral beliefs. It is also de- This study applies a quantitative approach in order to assess how
fined as “the application of instrumental, relational, and moral logic fast-food addiction drives anti-consumption. The study's target
by an individual, group, and corporate and institutional agents seek- population is Generation Y individuals; Generation Y is the genera-
ing to influence a broad range of consumer-oriented responsibilities” tion of those born between the years 1977 and 1994, character-
(Eteokleous, Leonidou && Katsikeas, 22016). CSR not only focuses ized by an increased use of and familiarity with modern technology
on avoiding harm to society, but also on acting proactively for the and media channels when compared to older generations. This
collective social benefit in all stages and aspects of consumption generation was chosen as the target group, since they are gener-
(Baron, 2013; Nicola Sneddon, Soutar, & Ann Lee, 2014). It can also ally: (a) highly educated and brand conscious, (b) consumption ori-
include responsibility towards brand stakeholders, consumers and ented and (c) highly involved in purchases and concerned with the
the environment as a whole (Bogueva, Marinova, & Raphaely, 2017). overall impact of their purchase decisions on both their individual
Vlachos (2012) noted that CSR plays a moderating role in the well-being and social welfare (Lazarevic, 2012). The researchers
formation of anti-consumption behaviours, especially if a consumer deemed university students to be the most representative and ac-
believes his/her actions are harmful in the long run. For example, if cessible consumer group within this generation cohort. This is be-
a consumer believes that his/her addiction to fast food will lead to cause Gen Y university students tend to consume fast food due to
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F I G U R E 1   Conceptual model

(a) its convenience and (b) its cost-effectiveness when compared extant literature. These scales were adapted to ensure content va-
to other foods (Goyal & Singh, 2007). lidity. Before proceeding to the second section, a question asked re-
spondents whether they are reluctant to consume fast food, eliciting
a yes or no answer. If respondents answered “no”, they were thanked
3.1 | Sample selection and size for their participation and asked not to complete the questionnaire.
The authors wanted to understand the reasons behind consumer
Five major cities from Pakistan were selected for the purpose reluctance and anti-consumption tendencies, which will not be dis-
of sample generalizability and representativeness: (a) Islamabad, played by regular consumers of fast food.
(b) Rawalpindi, (c) Lahore, (d) Sargodha and (e) Faisalabad. These cit- The remaining questions within this section utilized a 7-point
ies were chosen as sites housing the majority of the Pakistani urban Likert-scale whereby 7 = strongly agree and 1 = strongly disagree.
population. The sample was drawn on the basis of convenience sam- The first question assessed consumer anti-consumption tenden-
pling, and it included both undergraduate and graduate students. cies utilizing a five-item scale adopted from Tosun and Yanar Gürce
Convenience sampling was chosen due to time and cost concerns (2018). This scale has previously been utilized to assess consumers’
and based on the need to investigate this specific cohort for the pur- meat anti-consumption behaviour. It assesses the reasons behind
pose of this study. According to Nunnally (1978), the size of a con- consumers’ reluctance to consume fast food in relation to (a) body
venience sample should be above or near 300 to prevent biases and image, (b) health consciousness, (c) quality, (d) human welfare and
errors. Accordingly, a total of 800 questionnaires were distributed (e) environmental sustainability.
across university students within the five afore-mentioned cities. Next, a nine-item scale was applied to measure food addiction
based on the work of Gearhardt, Roberto, Seamans, Corbin, and
Brownell (2013), whose scale was developed by experts in the ad-
3.2 | Instrument and data collection diction and obesity. The scale assessed consumer control, anxiety,
physical response and emotional response to fast-food consumption,
An online version of the questionnaire was developed and distrib- which facilitated the measurement of fast-food addiction tendencies.
uted among the targeted cohort; this particular form was utilized The following question incorporated a ten-item measure of
as it allowed for greater reach and because Gen Y consumers sociocultural factors adapted from a scale developed by Shahzad
demonstrate high acceptability of technology and media (Kotler & et al. (2015) to measure the degree to which consumer addiction is
Armstrong, 2013). WhatsApp student groups from the main univer- influenced by sociocultural factors (Chen et al., 2018). It was used
sities in the five cities were identified, and the e-version of the ques- to assess cultural acceptance and encouragement of fast-food con-
tionnaire was sent to these groups with a request for the students to sumption, while also questioning levels of consumption by family,
fill out the questionnaire and share it with other students. This mode friends and colleagues.
of data collection was adopted in line with previous studies that have Respondents were then asked to evaluate their agreement with a
reported the use of mobile applications to target student groups for five-item scale measuring individual motivation factors towards fast-
data collection in academic studies conducted in China (Xu, Kang, food consumption; the latter scale was based on an original scale de-
Song, & Clarke, 2015). veloped by Ghoochani, Torabi, Hojjati, Ghanian, and Kitterlin (2018).
The questionnaire consisted of two sections. The first section This scale was adapted to measure the degree to which the following
included a series of demographic questions: (a) gender, (b) marital individual factors namely (a) accessibility, (b) convenience, (c) satis-
status, (c) employment status, (d) age, (e) education level and (f) city faction, (d) attractiveness and (e) nutritional value of fast food drive
of residence of the respondent. In the second section, respondents addiction.
were asked to rate the importance of various factors with regard The subsequent section addressed advertising appeal through
to fast-food addiction using academically validated scales from the the employment of a six-item scale adopted from Cheng, Blankson,
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Wang, and Chen (2009). These questions gauges whether consum- TA B L E 1   Respondents’ demographic characteristics
ers perceive fast-food advertising to be accessible, reliable, relevant
Variables Frequency Percentage
and informative.
Gender    
The final section included a scale assessing CSR and consump-
Male 301 55.8
tion of products on a nine-item scale adapted from Arli and Tjiptono
Female 238 44.2
(2018). The scale measures respondents’ satisfaction with the
safety, convenience, nutritional value, price, taste, ethics, choices, Marital status    

behaviours, and accessibility of fast food and their respective Married 67 12.4
restaurants. Unmarried 472 87.6
Employment    
Employed 106 19.7
3.3 | Sample demographics Unemployed 433 80.3
Year of birth    
A quantitative survey methodology was adopted for its generaliz-
1980–1985 56 10.4
ability potential (Farah, 2017). A total of 800 questionnaires were
1986–1990 174 32.3
distributed across university students, while 617 were returned, of
1991–1996 309 57.3
which 539 were complete and fit for analysis. The respondents were
Education    
55.8% male and 44.2% female. The majority of respondents were
Undergraduate degree 286 53.1
born in the period of 1991–1996 at 57.3%, whereas 32.3% were born
in the years 1986–1990, with only 10.4% born in the years 1980– Graduate degree 234 43.4

1985. The sample is also representative of all cities, with 17.3% from Doctoral degree 19 3.5

Islamabad, 14.3% from Rawalpindi, 24.5% from Lahore, 21.5% from City    
Sargodha and the remaining 22.4% from Faisalabad. In terms of mar- Islamabad 93 17.3
ital status, 87.6% of the survey respondents were unmarried, and Rawalpindi 77 14.3
only 19.7% of them were employed. Finally, the sample showed var- Lahore 132 24.5
ied education levels, with 53.1% at the bachelor degree level, 43.4% Sargodha 116 21.5
at the master degree level and 3.5% at the doctoral level. A detailed Faisalabad 121 22.4
summary of the sample demographics is provided in Table 1.
Note: Sample size: 539 respondents.

4 |   R E S U LT S and the scores obtained by measuring them are empirical.” According
to the results presented in Table 3, the constructs had a significantly
4.1 | Measurement model higher square root of AVE values compared to their correlations with
other constructs; hence, the results of the measurement model test
SPSS 21.0 and AMOS were used for data analysis. The following in- fulfilled the required validity and reliability criteria. The constructs and
dices were used, including comparative fit index (CFI), relative χ2 measurement model items of the present study were deemed appro-
(CMIN/df), root mean square residual (RMR) and goodness of fit priate to test the developed propositions and structural models.
index (GFI). The result of the particular indices (AGFI = .894, CFI = .94, Confirmatory factor analysis techniques by means of AMOS were
GFI = .92, CMIN/df = 1.431, RMSEA = .052, RMR = .039 and TLI = .932) used to test the measurement model and to test the reliability of
show data correctness indicating the model fitness. All constructs and scales, as this method provides strong evidence of model fit and fur-
variables were tested for both convergent validity and discriminant va- ther tests the effect of latent variables (Farah, Hasni, & Abbas, 2018).
lidity. For reliability purposes, measures of composite reliability (CR)
and the average variance extracted (AVE) values were considered. To
accept the convergent validity of all variables, the cut-off value of the 4.2 | Structural model and hypothesis testing
CR for all variables must be above .60, and the AVE values above .50
(Sekaran & Bougie, 2013, p. 160). The CR and Cronbach's α reliability Structural equation modelling (SEM) offered the essential measure-
values are presented in Table 2, with all measures being greater than .7 ment of the anti-consumption tendencies and how relationship addic-
(Bagozzi & Yi, 1988), indicating good internal consistency. Moreover, tion leads to anti-consumption behaviour. SEM is a statistical modelling
the AVE of the constructs achieved a cut-off value of .5, and all factor method of analysis that enables the testing of a series of separate, yet,
loadings for the tested items were found to be significant at p = .001. interrelated constructs and regression equations, allowing for the anal-
Discriminant validity was tested using Fornell and Larcker's (1981) ysis of multiple relationships at once (Farah & Ramadan, 2017, 2020;
approach. According to Sekaran and Bougie (2013, p. 160), discriminant Ramadan, Farah, & Kassab, 2019). The following indices were utilized
validity occurs when “two variables are predicted to be uncorrelated, to evaluate the fit of the model: the CMIN/df, the GFI, the adjusted
TA B L E 2   Convergent validity results

Measures Factor loading Cronbach's α Composite reliability(CR) AVE

Anti-consumption   .791 .795 .603

I am reluctant to eat fast food, …        
FAC1: Because I want be slim and fit, and maintain bodyweight .912      
FARAH and SHAHZAD

FAC2: Because controlling the quantity of fast food intake and replacing it with fruit and vegetables helps avoid .889      
diseases associated with fast food consumption
FAC3: Because it is hard to find high-quality fast food .764      
FAC4: For human welfare reasons .886      
FAC5: Because it is better for the environment .81      
Fast food-addiction   .894 .872 .701
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FFA1 I find that when I start eating certain foods, I end up eating much more than I had planned .871      
FFA2: Not eating or cutting down on certain types of food is something I worry about .769      
FFA3: I spend a lot of time feeling sluggish or lazy from overeating .886      
FFA4: There have been times when I consumed certain foods so often or in such large quantities that I spent .901      
time dealing with negative feelings from overeating
FFA5: I kept consuming the same types of food or the same amount of food even though I was having emotional .842      
and/or physical problems
FFA6: Over time, I have found that I need to eat more and more to get the feeling I want, such as reduced .798      
negative emotions or increased pleasure
FFA7: I have had withdrawal symptoms when I cut down or stopped eating certain foods .791      
FFA8: My behaviour with respect to fast food & eating causes significant distress .881      
FFA9: I experience significant problems in my ability to function effectively (daily routine, job/school, social .861      
activities, family activities) because of fast food & eating
Sociocultural factors   .823 .834 .614
SC1: In my culture, it is suitable to eat fast food .782      
SC2: My tradition supports my eating fast food .863      
SC3: I eat fast food because my family members do eat .865      
SC4: I eat fast food because my friends do eat .734      
SC5: I eat fast food because my colleagues do eat .773      
SC6: I talked with my peers about the product on Social media .801      
SC7: I talked with my peers about buying the fast food product on the Internet .874      
SC8: I asked my peers for advice about the fast food product .811      
SC9: I obtained the fast food product information from my peers .804      
SC10: My peers encouraged me to buy the fast food product .791      
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(Continues)
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TA B L E 2   (Continued)
|

Measures Factor loading Cronbach's α Composite reliability(CR) AVE

386      

Individual factors   .814 .834 .661

IF1: I tend to consume fast food because it is very accessible .812      
IF2: I tend to consume fast food because I can obtain it near my workplace .765      
IF3: Fast food products have the potential for feeling pleasant .785      
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IF4: Fast food products are attractive .863      

IF5: The nutritional values of fast food equal that of traditional foods .877      
Advertising   .704 .713 .584
A1: Advertising makes product information immediately accessible .83      
A2: Advertising is a convenient source of product information .81      
A3: Advertising is a good source of up-to-date product information .78      
A4: Advertising supplies relevant product information .74      
A5: Ad informs me of the latest products and information available on the market .81      
A6: Advertising helps me get special product price news .69      
Consumer social responsibility   .804 .843 .664
In general, I am satisfied …        
CSR1: With the safety of fast foods available today .824      
CSR2: With the convenience of fast food available today .881      
CSR3: With the nutritional value of fast foods available today .719      
CSR4: With the prices I have to pay for fast food today .769      
CSR5: With the taste of fast food available today .799      
CSR6: With the ethics of the way in which fast food is produced today .817      
CSR7: With the choice of fast foods available today .763      
CSR8: With the behaviour of fast food companies today .766      
CSR9: With where most of the fast food available today comes from .788      
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TA B L E 3   Discriminant validity results

Factor 1 2 3 4 5 6

Sociocultural 1 (.614)          
factors
Individual factors .51 1 (.661)        
Advertising practices .42 .46 1 (.584)      
Fast food addiction .41 .44 .37 1 (.701)    
Fast food .51 .52 .43 .41 1 (.603)  
anti-consumption
Consumer social .44 .51 .52 .41 .44 1
responsibility

Note: All correlations are significant at the p = .01, square-root AVE scores are displayed in
parentheses.

F I G U R E 2   Structural equation model

path coefficients

goodness of fit index (AGFI), the CFI, the Root Mean Square Error of R2 = .14; F (2,163) = 5.12, p = .001. Results revealed a significant
Approximation (RMSEA), as well as the root mean residual (RMR) and FFA*CSR interaction AC (R2-chng = .01; b = .01, F = 3.72, p = .05). The
the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI). All of these indices and the estimation of values of the moderated indirect and direct effects of CSR in influ-
the model showed a good fit (Steenkamp & Baumgartner, 2000) with: encing anti-consumption (Hypothesis 5) are shown in Table 5. Low
CMIN/df = 1.812, GFI = .84, AGFI = .832, CFI = .871, RMSEA = .054, and medium levels of CSR have a significant positive indirect effect
RMR = .041 and TLI = .883. Figure 2 reflects the path coefficients of [indirect effect (low) = .80, 95% CI. = .20, 1.39; and indirect effect
the structural equation model. (medium) = .54, 95% CI = .14, .94]. However, for higher values of
The examination of the hypotheses was based on the t-value, CSR, there is an insignificant relation (indirect effect [high] = .29, 95%
with a value greater than 1.96 (Hair, Andreson, Tatham, & Black, CI  =  −.20, .83) for Hypothesis 5. The conditional indirect effect is
1998) representing a significant path. Results reveal a positive, sig- positive, but declines as the CSR increases. Figure 3 shows the
nificant relationship between consumer individual factors and fast- values of the indirect and direct effect (fast-food addiction and anti-
food addiction (β = .189, t = 3.954, p < .001), while a positive link consumption) at varying levels of CSR with a 95% confidence inter-
was also found between sociocultural factors and fast-food addic- val. The result of Figure 3 suggests that the indirect effect between
tion (β = .201, t = 3.141, p < .001). Likewise, advertising practices fast-food addiction and anti-consumption is conditional upon the level
displayed a positive and significant effect on fast-food addiction of CSR, such that at a certain level of CSR, anti-consumption motives
(β = .192, t = 3.870, p < .001), thereby supporting Hypotheses 1–3, decrease. The Johnson-Neyman technique results are shown in Tables
respectively. Finally, fast-food addiction showed a significant pos- 6. Results suggest that the relationship between fast-food addiction
itive influence on anti-consumption behaviour (β = .276, t = 4.321, and anti-consumption are significant only up to a certain level (i.e., .46)
p < .001), thus confirming Hypothesis 4. The results of the SEM are beyond which this relationship becomes insignificant.
presented in Table 4.

5 | D I S CU S S I O N
4.3 | Testing moderation effects
This study has investigated the phenomenon of fast-food ad-
Data were analysed using Hayes’ (2017) Process macro, Model 1, in diction based on the constructs of consumer individual, social-
SPSS 21.0. The regression model produced the following statistics: cultural factors and advertising practices to better predict
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FARAH and SHAHZAD

TA B L E 4   SEM estimates
Path
Standardized
From To Hypotheses estimate (CR)

Individual factors Fast food addiction Hypothesis 1 .189 (3.954)

Sociocultural Fast food addiction Hypothesis 2 .201 (3.141)
Advertising Fast food addiction Hypothesis 3 .192 (3.870)
Fast food addiction Anti-consumption Hypothesis 4 .276 (4.321)

Note: CR = 1.96 (α = .05 level).

TA B L E 5   Conditional effect of FFA

Conditional
on AC at different value levels of the
direct effects W Effect SE t p LLCI ULCI
moderator (CSR)
Low CSR 2.9012 .80 .28 2.63 .01 .20 1.39
Average CSR 3.3234 .54 .18 2.79 .01 .14 .94
High CSR 3.7559 .29 .26 1.23 .21 −.20 .83

Abbreviations: AC, anti-consumption, CSR, consumer social responsibility; FFA, fast food
addiction.

F I G U R E 3   A plot of fast food

addiction (FFA) on Anti-consumption (AC)
versus the moderator (Consumer social
responsibility) with fast food [Colour
figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.
com]

consumer addiction behaviour and its validating role in anti- addiction through their focus on advertising activities and promo-
consumption behaviours (Tosun & Yanar Gürce, 2018). The study tional appeals, which not only increase purchase intention, but also
highlights the fact that both personal and sociocultural factors incite brand loyalty (Srivastava, 2015). In addition, the proliferation
affect consumer fast-food addiction. In today's fast-paced soci- of these advertisements across various media channels also creates
ety, whereby consumers spend large period of time at work or at frequent exposure, thus stimulating familiarity and inducing more
school, fast food has become an easy option due to its conveni- purchases.
ence, accessibility and affordability (Goyal & Singh, 2007). Many Nonetheless, this study indicates that fast-food addiction may
families also prefer quick and easy meals consumed with their nu- breed negative emotions and feelings that stimulate anti-consump-
clear families instead of the traditional elaborate family meals pre- tion tendencies. These findings are in line with the findings by Chao
viously prepared with extended family members (Islam & Ullah, et al. (2012) that shame and guilt due to obesity and negative body
2010). Accordingly, the modern consumer's lifestyle and related image accelerate anti-consumption tendencies. Yielding to temp-
societal changes all induce fast-food addiction. tation and consuming fast food in an addictive manner can create
Moreover, the study highlights the positive impact advertising internal conflict and cognitive dissonance, whereby the sense of
has on fast-food consumption and addiction. In fact, exposure to ad- pleasure derived by the consumption is quickly replaced by regret
vertisements and promotions plays a significant role in influencing and remorse (Hofmann, Kotabe, & Luhmann, 2013). These negative
consumer perception of fast food, whereby frequent exposure to the feelings can also be attributed to increasing health consciousness
same enhances consumer inclination to purchase fast food (Mathur among modern consumers, especially among the younger genera-
& Patodiya, 2016). Furthermore, fast-food companies stimulate tion (Luomala et al., 2015).
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TA B L E 6   Conditional effect for different values of the advertising practices affect addiction significantly. Nonetheless,
moderator (CSR) using the Johnson-Neyman technique fast-food addiction generates negative feelings and emotions that
CSR Effect SE t p LLCI ULCI   generate anti-consumption behaviours, while CSR moderates these
behaviours. Therefore, this study offers a number of theoretical and
5.41 1.01 .42 2.30 .03 .12 1.90 5.41
practical implications. First, this study expands on the existing un-
5.12 .97 .39 2.37 .03 .14 1.79 5.12
derstanding of the anti-consumption phenomenon in the context of
4.77 .91 .35 2.45 .02 .16 1.68 4.77
Pakistan to address the factors affecting fast-food addiction. It also
4.47 .88 .32 2.54 .02 .18 1.58 4.47
serves as a practical guide for advertisers and public policymakers
4.16 .83 .29 2.63 .02 .19 1.47 4.16
seeking to limit fast-food consumption and decrease unhealthy eat-
3.85 .79 .27 2.73 .02 .20 1.37 3.85 ing and obesity. This study indicates that social and cultural pres-
3.53 .74 .24 2.83 .02 .21 1.28 3.53 sures may play an important role in these factors. In Pakistan, the
3.22 .70 .22 2.92 .01 .21 1.19 3.22 prevalence of obesity has increased due to higher fast-food con-
2.91 .65 .20 2.97 .01 .20 1.10 2.91 sumption, thus confirming the importance of healthy eating aware-
2.60 .61 .18 2.97 .01 .19 1.03 2.60 ness. For instance, fast-food chains can offer advertising movements
2.28 .56 .17 2.88 .01 .16 .96 2.28 to persuade their customers to engage in physical activity. The stim-

1.97 .52 .17 2.71 .01 .12 .91 1.97 uli can accordingly be generated by promoting positive body image.

1.83 .47 .17 2.44 .02 .07 .88 1.83

1.62 .43 .18 2.11 .04 .00 .85 1.62
7 | LI M ITATI O N S A N D FU T U R E S T U D I E S
1.33 .41 .19 1.95 .05 −.01 .84 1.33
1.03 .38 .20 1.77 .06 −.10 .84 1.03
While this study offers many valuable contributions to the literature, it
.72 .34 .22 1.45 .11 −.18 .83 .72
exhibits some limitations. First, the study utilizes a convenience sam-
.41 .29 .24 1.16 .21 −.28 .83 .41 pling design, which often limits the generalizability of findings. Second,
.10 .25 .27 .90 .32 −.38 .84 .10 it is focused on Pakistani Gen Y university students, which confines the
−.21 .20 .30 .68 .45 −.49 .85 −.21 findings to young, highly educated people and is not representative of
−.52 .16 .33 .50 .57 −.59 .86 −.52 the Pakistani society as a whole. Future studies can adopt a noncon-
−.83 .11 .36 .34 .68 −.61 .88 −.83 venience sampling technique that includes wider consumer groups of
various ages and backgrounds. Moreover, this study was conducted
Notes: To investigate the interaction of Fast food addiction (FFA) and
consumer social responsibility (CSR) on Anti-consumption (AC), the in Pakistan, largely a collectivist society where social group influence
PROCESS MACRO incorporating the Johnson-Neyman technique was plays a significant role in shaping consumption behaviour. Accordingly,
utilized, using arbitrary points of the moderator (i.e. CSR). The results future research can be conducted with other types of cultures and
reveal all ranges of the moderator in which the focal predictor (FFA) is a
societies to offer more generalizable insights. Across-cultural design
significant predictor of the outcome (i.e. AC). Italic values indicate that
the conditional effect was a significant predictor of AC. across various countries would be most insightful. Finally, future stud-
ies could examine other food groups, categories and brands.

This study reveals that CSR moderates and reinforces the re- ORCID
lationship between fast-food addiction and anti-consumption be- Maya F. Farah  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6251-4096
haviour (Allen et al., 2018). This is due to the fact that an individual is Muhammad Faisal Shahzad  https://orcid.
more likely to favour a product that he/she perceives to be healthy org/0000-0001-6971-9177
and environmentally friendly (Hartmann, Keller, & Siegrist, 2016).
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