Understanding the Self: The Self from Various Perspective: Philosophy

Learning Objectives: At the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
• Discuss the different representation and conceptualization of the self from various disciplinal
perspective.
• Compare and contrast how the self has been represented across different disciplines and
perspectives.
• Examine the different influences, factors, and forces that shape the self.
• Demonstrate critical and reflective thought in analyzing the development of one’s self and
identity by developing a theory of the self

Introduction: How well do you know yourself? Are you aware of your talents? Skills?
Weaknesses? Strengths? The Persistent question, “Who am I?” is rooted in the human need to
understand the basis of the experiences of the self. When people are asked to explain their
understanding of the word, the usual answers are: “It’s who I am.” “It’s me, my essence.” “It’s
what makes me unique and different from everyone else.” For a more meaningful
understanding of the self, numerous studies have been conducted and various approaches have
been developed from concepts about it. Important philosophers from ancient to contemporary
times sought to describe the essential qualities that compose a person’s uniqueness. On the
other hand, sociology sees the self as a product of social interactions, developed overtime
through social activities and experiences. Anthropology views the self as a culturally shaped
construct or idea. Anthropologists assert that it is an autonomous participant in the society as
much as it is submerged in the community. Meanwhile, rather than giving a definition,
psychology sees the self as having characteristics or properties that can be used to describe it.
Pioneers in the study pointed out that the self is related to its physical and social environment,
it is unique, and it is necessary to its experiences. Eastern and western civilizations have always
sought to understand the self. Their views, however, stand on different perspective. British
philosopher Alan Watts (known for his interpretations of Eastern philosophy and mythology)
talked about the great myths of the self. However, it should be noted that the term myth here
is not used to described a false story, rather it is used as a means to interpret a reality.
According to Watts, the pervading myth in the West is that the world is an artefact. This means
there is a clear distinction between the creator and the creation. This perspective indicates that
the Western interpretation of the selfpossesses an internal distinction from its external
environment. That even though the “self” functions in the world, the self is still its own. In the
East however, the myth is that the world is a drama and all things are actors with specific parts
to play. There is no distinction between the creator and the creation as all that exists is
immersed in one and the same existence. This perspective suggests that the self in Eastern
traditions is seen through the eyes of a community, rather than a detached, single, entity.
However, Watts further clarified that his statements on the two great myths of the self is only a
description of what is like in that civilization, and not a definition of what it is. Learning the
various fundamental concepts of the self is significant because these ideas lay the foundation
that will foster in you, the learner, a deep reflection and insight into the continuous pursuit of
self-discovery. Socrates Socrates was a Greek Philosopher and one of the very few individuals
who shaped Western thoughts. However, unlike the other philosophers during his time,
Socrates never wrote anything. Knowledge about Socrates is through-second hand information
from the writings of his student Plato and historian Xenophon. Socrates was known for his
method of inquiry in testing an idea. This is called the Socratic Method whereby an idea was
tested by asking a series of questions o determine underlying beliefs and the extent of
knowledge to guide the person toward better understanding (Maxwell, 2015). Socrates was
described to have gone about in Athens questioning everyday views and popular Athenian
beliefs. This apparently offended the leaders in his time. He was then accused of impiety or lack
of reverence for the Gods and for corrupting the minds of the youth. At 70 years old, Socrates
was sentenced to death by drinking a cup of poison hemlock (Brickhouse & Smith, 2002). Some
of Socrates’ idea were: • The soul is immortal • The care of the soul is the task of Philosophy •
Virtue is necessary to attain happiness Socrates believed that philosophy had a very important
role to play in the lives of the people. One of his most-quoted phrases is, “The unexamined is
not worth living.” According to him, self-knowledge or the examination of one’s self, as well as
the question about how one ought to live one’s life are very important concerns because only
by knowing yourself can you hope to improve your life (Rappe, 1995). He added that self-
knowledge would open your eyes to your true nature; which contrary to pop culture, is not
about what you own, how many likes you get in your social media posts, or ho successful you
are in your career. In fact, your real self is not your own body. According to Socrates, the state
of your inner being (soul/self) determines the quality of your life. Socrates said existence is of
two kinds: 1. The visible 2. The invisible The visible existence changes while the invisible
existence remains constant (Connolly, 2017). According to Socrates, this is the state of the
human being. The body which is visible, changes; the other part, the kind that is invisible to
humans yet sensed and understood by the mind remains constant. In the Socratic dialogue,
Plato wrote what Socrates have said about the body and soul; “When the soul and the body are
together nature assigns our body to be a slave and to be ruled and the soul to be the ruler and
master” (Hamilton et al., 1961; Organ, 1986). However, Socrates said that the body was a
reluctant slave, and the soul get dragged towards what is always changing. This would leave the
soul confused (Organ, 1986) Socrates also believed that the goal of life is to be happy. How
does one become happy? According to him, the virtuous man is a happy man, and that virtue
alone is the one an only supreme good that will secure his/her happiness. Virtue is defined as
moral excellence, and an individual is considered virtuous if his/her character is made up of the
moral qualities that are accepted as virtues, 1.e., courage, temperance, prudence and justice.
According to Socrates, even death is a trivial matter for the truly virtuous because he/she has
realized that the most important in life is that state of his/her soul and the acts taken from
taking care of the soul through self-knowledge. Plato Plato was the student of Socrates. He
wrote the Socratic dialogue where Socrates was the main character and speaker. Plato’s
philosophical method was what he identified as “collection and division.” In this method, the
philosopher would collect all the generic ideas that seemed to have a common characteristic
and then divided then into different kinds until the subdivisions of ideas became specific. He is
best known for his ‘Theory of Forms’ that asserted the physical world is not really the real world
because the ultimate reality exists beyond the physical world. Plato is perhaps the single most
important influence of the western concept of self. According to Plato, the soul is indeed the
most divine aspect of the human being. However, his concept of the divine is not a spiritual
being but rather one that ha intellectual connotation. The self/soul/mind according to Plato is
the aspect of the human beings by which the Forms (ideas) are known. The three parts of the
soul according to Plato are: • The appetitive (sensual) The Element that enjoys sensual
experiences, such as food, drink, and sex. The rational (reasoning) The element that forbids the
person to enjoy the sensual experiences; the part that loves truth hence, should rule over the
other parts of the soul through the use of reason. • The Spirited (feeling) The element that is
inclined toward reason but understands the demands of passion; the part that loves honor and
victory. St. Augustine St. Augustine, also called St. Augustine of Hippo, is one of the Latin fathers
of the church, one of the Doctors of the church, and one of the most significant Christian
thinkers. His philosophical approach to Christian thinking is the most influential theological
system. His written works are among the foundations of medieval and modern Christian
thought. He was deeply influenced by Plato’s ideas. Not surprisingly, he adopted Plato’s view
that the self is an immaterial (but rational) soul. Giving the Theory of Forms a Christian
perspective, Augustine asserted that these Forms were concepts exiting within the perfect and
eternal God where the soul belonged. Saint Augustine said that the soul held the truth and was
capable of scientific thinking. Saint Augustine’s concept of Self was an inner, immaterial ‘I’ that
had selfknowledge and self-awareness. He believed that the human being was both a soul and a
body, and the body possessed senses, such as imagination, memory, reason and mind through
which the soul experience the world He also reasoned that human beings through the senses
could sense the material, temporal objects as we interacted with the material world; the
immaterial but intelligible (def. able to understood only by the intellect, not by the senses) God
would only be clear or obvious to the mind if one tune into his/her immaterial self/soul. The
aspect of the self/soul according to St. Augustine are; • It is able to be aware of itself • It
recognizes itself a holistic one. • It is aware of its unity Saint Augustine believed that the human
being who is both soul and body is meant to tend to higher, divine, and heavenly matters
because of his/her capacity to ascend and comprehend truths through the mind. He connected
the ascension of the soul with his assertion that everything related to the physical world
belongs to the physical body, and if a person concerns himself/herself with this physical world
then he/she will not be any different from animals. Saint Augustine pointed out that a person is
similar to God as regards to the mind and its ability; that by ignoring to use his/her mind (or the
incorrect use of the mind) he/she would lose his/her possibility to reach real and lasting
happiness Rene Descartes Rene Descartes was a French philosopher, mathematician, and
scientist. He is considered the Father of Modern Western Philosophy. Descartes is often
regarded as the first thinker to emphasize the use of reason to describe, predict and
understand natural phenomena based on observational and empirical evidence. Descartes
proposed that doubt as a principal tool of disciplined inquiry. His method was called
hyperbolical/metaphysical doubt, also sometimes referred a methodological skepticism. It is a
systematic process of being skeptical about the truth of one’s beliefs in order to determine
which beliefs could be ascertained as true. Rene Descartes’ famous line “Cogito Ergo Sum”
translated as “I think, therefore I am” became a fundamental element of western philosophy as
it secured the foundation for knowledge in the face of radical doubt. He asserted that
everything perceived by the senses could not be used as proof of existence because human
senses could be fooled. He added that there was only one thing we could be sure of this world,
and that was everything could be doubted. In turn, by doubting his own existence, Descartes
proved that there is thinking entity that is doing the act of doubting. Descartes’ claims about
the self are: • It is constant; it is not prone to change; and it is not affected by time • Only the
immaterial soul remains the same throughout time • The immaterial soul is the source of our
identity. he further asserted that this thinking entity could exist without the body because it is
an immaterial substance. Nevertheless, this immaterial substance (self) possesses a body and is
so intimately bound/joined by it that the ‘self’ forms a union with its body. Despite this body
soul union, Descartes reasoned that the soul is still distinct from the body. Some distinctions
between the soul and the body as pointed out by Descartes are: THE SOUL It is a conscious,
thinking substance that is unaffected by time It is known only to itself (only you know your own
mental event and others cannot correct your mental states.) It is NOT made up of parts. It views
the entirety of itself with no hidden or separate compartments. It is both conscious and aware
of itself at the same time. Some distinctions between the soul and the body as pointed out by
Descartes are: THE BODY It is a material substance that changes through time. It can be
doubted; the public can correct claims about the boy. It is made up o physical, quantifiable,
divisible parts. John Locke John Locke was a philosopher and physician and was one of the most
influential Enlightenment thinkers. The Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason was an
intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the ideas in Europe during the 18th
century. If Descartes describe the self as a thinking thing, Locke expanded this definition of self
to include the memories of that thinking thing. Locke believed that the self is identified with
consciousness and this self consists of sameness of consciousness. This usually interpreted to
mean that the self consists of memory; that the person existing now is the same person
yesterday because he/she remembers the thoughts, experiences, or actions of the earlier self.
For Locke, a person’s memories provide a continuity of experience that allows him/her to
identify him/herself as the same person over time. This theory of personal identity allows Locke
to justify a defense accountability. According to Locke, since the person is the same self in the
passing time, he/she can be held accountable for past behaviors. However, Locke insisted that a
person could only be held accountable for behaviors he/she can remember. Locke believe that
punishing someone for behaviors he/she has no recollection of doing is equivalent to punishing
him/her for actions that was never performed. He asserted that the state of the person who
cannot remember his/her behavior is the same as the state of the person who never committed
the act, which meant the person was ignorant.  David Hume David Hume (1711-1776) was a
Scottish philosopher, economist and historian during the age of Enlightenment. He was a fierce
opponent of Descartes’s Rationalism. Rationalism is the theory that reason, rather that
experience, is the foundation of all knowledge. Hume alongside with John Locke ad bishop
George Berkeley, was one of the three main figureheads of the influential British Empiricism
movement. Empiricism is the idea that the origin of all knowledge is sense experience. It
emphasized the role of experience and evidence (especially sensory perceptions) in forming
concept, while discounting the notion of innate ideas. Hume is identified with the bundle
theory wherein he described the self or person (which Hume assumed to be the mind) as a
bundle or a collection of a different perceptions that are moving in a very fast and successive
manner; therefore, it is in a perpetual flux. Hume’s theory began by denying Descartes’ view of
immaterial soul and of its experiences. Empiricists like Hume believed that human intellect and
experiences are limited; therefore, it is impossible to attribute it to an independent persisting
entity (i.e., soul). David Hume concluded that the self is merely made up of successive
impressions. Hume divided the mind’s perceptions into two groups stating that the difference
between the two “consists in the degrees of force and liveliness with which they strike upon
the mind.” 1. Impressions. These are the perceptions that are the most string. They enter the
senses with most force. Theses are directly experienced; they result from inward and outward
sentiments. 2. Ideas. These are the less forcible and less lively counterparts of impressions.
These are mechanisms that copy and reproduce sense data formulated based upon the
previously perceived impressions. Hume asserted that the notion of the self could not be
verified through observation. He argued that if can directly know, then what you know are
mere objects of what your senses are experiencing. With this idea, he believed that there are
no logical justifications for the existence of anything other that on what your senses
experienced. For Hume, the self was nothing but a series of incoherent impressions received by
the senses. This description of senses revealed, according to Hume, no permanently subsisting
self. Hume compared the self to a notion; whereby a nation retains its “being a nation” not by
some single core or identity but by being composed or different, constantly changing elements,
such as people, systems, culture and beliefs. In the same manner, the ‘self’ according to Hume
is not just one impression but mix and a loose cohesion of various personal experiences. Hume
insisted that there is no one constant impression that endures throughout your life. Hume did
not believe on the existence of the self. He stressed that your perceptions are only active for a
long as you are conscious. According to Hume, should your perception be removed for any time
(such as when you are sleeping), and you can no longer sense yourself then you also cease to
exist. In this line, Hume seemed to reduce the self as a light bulb that may be switched on or
off. Hume’s self is a passive observer similar to watching one’s life pass before the eyes like a
play or on a screen; whereby the total annihilation of the self comes at death. Immanuel Kant
Philosopher Immanuel Kant is a central figure in modern philosophy. His contributions to
metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics have had a profound impact on almost every
philosophical movement that followed him. Among other ideas that Kant proposed was that,
the human mind creates the structure of human experience. Kant’s view of the self is
transcendental, which means the self is related to a spiritual and nonphysical realm. For Kant,
the self is not in the body. The self is outside the body, and it does not have the qualities of the
body. Despite being transcendental, Kant stressed that the body and its qualities are rooted to
the self. He proposed that it is knowledge that bridges the self and the material things together.
Two kinds of consciousness of self (rationality): 1. Consciousness of oneself and one’s
psychological states in inner sense, and 2. Consciousness of oneself and one’s states y
performing acts of apperception. Apperception is the material process by which a person makes
sense of an idea by assimilating it to the body or ideas he or she already possesses. Kant’s point
is that what truly exist are your ideas and your knowledge of your ideas; that you perceived the
outside world through the self with your ideas. Kant pointed out that the material world is not
just an extension, and that you are merely seeing objects. He insisted that you perceived the
outside world because there is already an idea residing within you. These ideas are what
connect you to the external world. He defended the diverse quality or state of the body and
soul (self) presenting that “bodies are objects of outer sense; souls are objects of inner sense.”
Two components of the self: 1. Inner self. The self by which you are aware of alteration in your
own state. This includes your rational intellect and your psychological state, such a moods,
feelings, and sensation, pleasure, and pain. 2. Outer self. It includes your senses and the
physical world it is the common boundary between the external world and the inner self. It
gathers information from the external world through the senses, which the inner self interprets
and coherently expresses. Kant proposed that the self organizes information in three ways: •
Raw perceptual input • Recognizing the concept • Reproducing in the imagination Kant’s self
has a unified point of self-reference you are conscious of yourself as the subject, and you are
conscious of yourself a common subject of different representations. Here Kant confirms that
the impressions you perceive point to one single common fact- the self is the subject of these
experiences. Assessment: Thought Piece #1 • In 3-5 paragraphs answer the persistent question
“Who am I?” • Describe yourself, your personal and intellectual interests, and your
social/spatial trajectory (your future plans).