UTS 1ST MIDTERM EXAM

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Sociology sees the “self” as a product ● philo- (loving) and Sophia

of social interactions, developed over (knowledge, wisdom).
time through social activities and
experiences.
At its simplest, philosophy means
“loving knowledge” or “loving wisdom.”
Anthropology views the “self” as a The term philosophy as originally used
culturally shaped constructor idea. by the Greeks meant “the pursuit of
Anthropologists assert that it is an knowledge for its own sake.”
autonomous participant in the society
as much as it is submerged in the
community

Psychology sees the “self” as having

characteristics or properties that can
be used to describe it. Pioneers in the
study pointed out that the “self” is
related to its physical and social
environment, it is unique, and it is
necessary to its experiences.

● the “self” functions in the world,

the “self” is still its own.

● The myth is that “the world is a

drama and all things are actors
with specific parts to play.”

Watts, the “self” is only a description of

what it is “like” in that civilization, and SOCRATES - “I know that I don’t
not a definition of what it “is.” know”

🞇 Greek philosopher and one of the

One aspect that makes us humans
very few individuals who shaped
different from all other creatures on
Western thought
earth is our capacity to build on
knowledge. We learn, we apply it in 🞇 However, unlike the other
our lives, and we use acquired ideas to philosophers during his time,
create. Socrates never wrote anything.
🞇 Knowledge about Socrates is
through second-hand information
● Philosophy is from the Greek
from the writings of his student
words
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Plato (another of the most eyes to your true nature;

influential Western thinkers) and 🞇 Is not about what you own, how
historian Xenophon. many “Likes” you get in your
🞇 Socratic Method social media posts, or how
🞇 whereby an idea was tested by successful you are in your career.
asking a series of questions to 🞇 Your real self is not even your
determine underlying beliefs and body.
the extent of knowledge to guide
the person toward 🞇 the state of your inner being
better understanding (soul/self) determines the quality
of your life.
🞇 At 70 years old, Socrates was Socrates said existence is of two
sentenced to death by drinking a kinds:
cup of poison hemlock
(Brickhouse & Smith, 2002). 🞇 The visible, and
Some of Socrates’ ideas were: 🞇 The invisible.
🞇 The soul is immortal. The visible existence changes while
🞇 The care of the soul is the task of the invisible existence remains
philosophy. constant this is the state of the
human being.
🞇 Virtue is necessary to attain
happiness 🞇 The body, which is visible,
changes; the other part, the kind
Socrates believed that philosophy
that is invisible to humans yet
had a very important role to play in
sensed and understood by the
the lives of the people. One of his
mind remains constant.
most-quoted phrases is “The
unexamined life is not worth living.”
🞇 According to Socrates, Plato - “Balance
self-knowledge or the between Mind and
examination of one’s self, as well Body
as the question about how one
ought to live one’s life, are very
important concerns because only 🞇 Plato was the student of
by knowing yourself can you Socrates.
hope to improve your life (Rappe, 🞇 He wrote the Socratic Dialogue
1995). where Socrates was the main
character and speaker.
🞇 As a person, you should
🞇 Plato’s philosophical method was
consciously contemplate, turn what he identified as “collection
your gaze inward, and analyze and division”
the true nature and values that 🞇 In this method, the philosopher
are guiding your life. would “collect” all the generic
🞇 Self-knowledge would open your ideas that seemed to have
common characteristics and then
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divided them into different kinds

until the subdivision of ideas
became specific. 🞇 Called Saint Augustine of Hippo,
🞇 Latin Fathers of the Church, one
🞇 He is best known for his Theory
of Forms that asserted the 🞇 One of the most significant
physical world is not really the Christian thinkers.
“real” world because the ultimate 🞇 His philosophical approach to
reality exists beyond the physical
world. Christian thinking is the most
🞇 According to Plato, the “soul” is influential theological system.
indeed the most divine aspect of
the human being. 🞇 Influenced by Plato’s ideas. Not
surprisingly, he adopted Plato’s
🞇 His concept of the divine is not a
view that the “self” is an
spiritual being but rather one that
immaterial (but rational)soul.
has an intellectual connotation.
Giving the Theory of Forms a
🞇 The self/soul/mind according to Christian perspective, Augustine
asserted that these Forms were
Plato is the aspect of the human concepts existing within the
beings by which the Forms perfect and eternal God where
(ideas) are known. the soul belonged. Saint
🞇 The Three parts of the soul
according to Plato are: Augustine held that the soul held
the Truth and was capable of
The appetitive (sensual) scientific thinking.
🞇 God would only be clear or
🞇 The element that enjoys sensual
experiences, such as food, drink, obvious to the mind if one tune
and sex into his/her immaterial self/soul.
The rational (reasoning) 🞇 The aspects of the self/soul
🞇 The element that forbids the according to Saint Augustine’s
person to enjoy the sensual are:
experiences; the part
🞇 It is able to be aware of itself.
🞇 that loves truth, hence, should
rule over the other parts of the 🞇 It recognizes itself as a
soul through the use of reason. holistic one.
The spirited (feeling) 🞇 It is aware of its unity.
🞇 The element that is inclined 🞇 Saint Augustine believed that the
toward reason but understands
the demands of human being who is both soul
and body is meant to tend to
🞇 passion; the part that loves honor higher, divine, and heavenly
and victory. matters because of his/her our
capacity to ascend and
comprehend truths through the
St. Augustine - “All lead mind.
to GOD.” 🞇 Saint Augustine pointed out that a
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person is similar to God as face of radical doubt. He asserted

regards to the mind and its ability; that everything perceived by the
that by ignoring to use his/her senses could not be used as
mind (or the incorrect use of the proof of existence because
mind) he/she would lose his/her human senses could be fooled.
possibility to reach real and 🞇 Descartes’ claims about the “self”
lasting happiness are:
🞇 It is constant; it is not prone
Rene Descartes - “I to change; and it is not
affected by time.
think before I AM.” 🞇 Only the immaterial soul
remains the same throughout
🞇 A French philosopher,
time.
mathematician, and scientist.
🞇 The immaterial soul is the
🞇 He is considered the father of
source of our identity.
modern Western philosophy.
🞇 Descartes is often regarded as
the first thinker to emphasize the John Locke -
use of reason to describe, Conscious Self
predict, and understand natural
phenomena based on 🞇 Human mind at birth is a tabula
observational and empirical rasa, which means that
evidence. knowledge is derived from
🞇 Descartes proposed that doubt experience
was a principal tool of disciplined 🞇 He is a philosopher and physician
inquiry. and was one of the most
🞇 His method was called influential Enlightenment thinkers.
🞇 The Age of Enlightenment or the
hyperbolical/metaphysical
Age of Reason was an
doubt, also sometimes referred
intellectual and philosophical
to as methodological
movement that dominated the
skepticism. It is a systematic
ideas in Europe during the 18th
process of being skeptical about
century.
the truth of one’s beliefs in order
to determine which beliefs could 🞇 If Descartes described the “self”
be ascertained as true. as a thinking thing, Locke
expanded this definition of “self”
🞇 René Descartes’ famous line to include the memories of that
“Cogito ergo sum” translated as thinking thing. Locke believed
“I think, therefore I am” became a that the “self” is identified with
fundamental element of Western consciousness and this “self”
philosophy as it secured the consists of sameness of
foundation for knowledge in the consciousness. This is usually
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interpreted to mean that the “self”

consists of memory; that the Gilbert Ryle - “I Act,
person existing now is the same
person yesterday because he/she therefore I Am”
remembers the thoughts,
experiences, or actions of the 🞇 Philosopher and professor,
earlier self (Natsoulas, 1994; Gilbert Ryle produced a critique
Fuchs, 2017). on Descartes’ idea that the mind
🞇 He described the “self” as a is distinct from the body.
thinking thing, Locke expanded 🞇 Wrote the concept of Mind
this definition of “self” to include
the memories of that thinking 🞇 Ryle called the distinction
thing. between mind and matter a
“category-mistake” because of its
🞇 Locke believed that the “self” is attempt to analyze the relation
identified with consciousness and between “mind” and “body” as if
this “self” consists of sameness of the two were terms of the same
consciousness. This is usually categories
interpreted to mean that the “self” 🞇 Ryle’s points against Descartes’
consists of memory; that the theory are:
person existing now is the same 🞇 The relation between mind and
person yesterday because he/she body are not isolated processes.
remembers the thoughts,
🞇 Mental processes are intelligent
experiences, or actions of the acts, and are not distinct from
earlier self. each other.
🞇 for Locke, a person’s memories 🞇 The operation of the mind is itself
provide a continuity of experience an intelligent act.
that allows him/ her to identify 🞇 Ryle described this distinction
himself/herself as the same between mind and body as “the
person over time. dogma of the ghost in the
🞇 “self” in the passing of time, machine” where he explained
he/she can be held accountable there is no hidden entity or ghost
for past behaviors. called “soul” (also understood as
mind or self) inside a machine
🞇 Locke insisted that a person called “body” (Ryle, 1992).
could only be held accountable 🞇 Ryle believed that the concept of
for behaviors he/she can a distinct “self” is not real, where
remember. do we get our sense of self? Ryle
🞇 Locke believed that punishing asserted that it is from our
someone for behaviors he/she behaviors and actions.
has no recollection of doing is
equivalent to punishing him/her
for actions that are never
🞇 For example, you think of yourself
performed. as a kind person because of your
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acts of kindness. In Ryle’s view, theory was the proposed existence

your actions define your own of the unconscious as:

.
🞇 A repository for traumatic
concept of “self” (who you are) repressed memories; and
🞇 The source of anxiety-provoking
drives that is socially or ethically
Sigmund Freud unacceptable to the individual.
“Wish fulfillment is the
road to the unconscious.”
Freud further structured the
psyche/mind into three parts:
🞇 Philosopher, physiologist, and
psychologist Sigmund Freud was 🞇 Id. It operates on the pleasure
one of the most influential principle. Every wishful impulse
thinkers of the 20th century. His should be satisfied immediately,
most important contribution, regardless of the consequences.
particularly in psychology, was When the id achieves its
psychoanalysis, a practice demands, you experience
devised to treat those who are pleasure; when it is denied, you
mentally ill through dialogue. experience “unpleasure” or
In his earlier structural division of the tension.
psyche, Freud distinguished three 🞇 Ego. It operates according to the
levels of consciousness:
reality principle. It works out
🞇 Conscious, which deals with realistic ways of satisfying the id’s
awareness of present demands (often compromising or
perceptions, feelings, postponing satisfaction to avoid
thoughts, memories, and negative consequences of
fantasies at any particular society). The ego considers social
moment; realities and norms, etiquette,
and rules in deciding how to
🞇 Pre-conscious/subconscio behave.
us, which is related to data
🞇 Superego. It incorporates the
that can readily be brought to
consciousness; and values and morals of society.
The superego’s function is to
🞇 Unconscious, which refers control the id’s impulses. It
to data retained but not easily persuades the ego to choose
available to the individual’s moralistic goals and to strive for
conscious awareness or perfection rather than simply
scrutiny. realistic ones.
The superego consists of two
Central to Freud’s psychoanalytic
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systems: mental states which most people

believe in do not exist.
🞇 Conscience. If the ego gives in 🞇 To prove his point, Churchland
to the id’s demands, the superego pointed out that in mental
may make the person feel bad conditions, such as depression, it
through guilt. is technically wrong to say that
the person is “out of his mind”
🞇 Ideal self. It is an imaginary because neuroscientists have
picture of how you ought to be. It found that brain activity, and even
represents career aspirations; brain shape, appears to be
how to treat other people; and associated with severe mood
how to behave as a member of disorders.
society. 🞇 He pointed out that if the mind
were a separate entity, then the
victim should have retained
Paul Churchland his/her personality despite the
“The physical brain and damage to the brain.
NOT the imaginary mind
gives us our sense of self Maurice Merleau-Ponty
” “physical body is an
🞇 Philosopher and professor Paul important part of the self”
Churchland is known for his 🞇 A philosopher and author.
studies in neurophilosophy and 🞇 Emphasizing the body as the
the philosophy of mind. primary site of knowing the world
🞇 His philosophy stands on a 🞇 “self” is an embodied
materialistic view or the belief that
nothing but matter exists. In other subjectivity. The term
words, if something can be seen, “embodied” is a verb that means
felt, heard, touched, or tasted, to give a body to (usually an
then it exists. There is nothing immaterial substance like a soul).
beyond the sensory experience.
🞇 Subjectivity, in philosophy, is the
🞇 Thus, in Churchland’s view the state of being a subject – an
immaterial, unchanging soul/self entity that possesses conscious
does not exist because it cannot experiences, such as
be experienced by the senses perspectives, feelings, beliefs,
(1989). and desires. Moreover, a subject
🞇 Churchland’s idea is called acts upon or affects some other
entity, which in philosophy is
eliminative materialism or the called the object. A subject,
claim that people’s therefore, is something that
common-sense understanding of exists, can take action, and can
cause real effects (on an object).
the mind (or folk psychology) is 🞇 He insisted that the mind and
false, and that certain classes of body are intrinsically conn iiected.
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By emphasizing the primacy of - Describe as having two or more

the body in an experience, he people interacting with one
also veered away from the
established notion that the center another, sharing similar
of consciousness is the mind characteristics, and whose
(Thompson, 2004). members identify themselves as
🞇 He asserted that human beings part of the group.
are embodied subjectivities, and
that the understanding of the
“self” should begin from this SOCIAL NETWORKING
fundamental fact. He added that
the body is not a mere “house” - Refers to the ties or connections
where the mind resides. Rather it that links you in your social
is through the lived experience of group.
the body that you perceive; are
informed; and interact with the
world (Varela, Thompson, &
Rosch, 2017). SOCIAL GROUP is
either Organic or
SOCIOLOGY - study of society,
patterns of social relationships, social Rational
interaction and culture of everyday life.
It is a social science that uses various 🞇 Organic group is naturally
methods of empirical investigation and occurring, and it is highly
critical analysis to develop a body of
knowledge about social order, influence by your family member.
acceptance, and change or social 🞇 Traditional societies
evolution.
🞇 Organic Motivation
● The SELF as a Product of 🞇 Self of belongingness
Modern Society Among other
🞇 Rational groups – occurs in
Constructions
modern societies. Modern
societies are made up of different
Modernization
people coming from different
- has significantly changed society,
places.
and this has affected how an individual
builds and develops his or her-identity. 🞇 Rational Motivation

- Improved people’s living conditions. MEAD AND THE SOCIAL SELF

A person in the modern society is free
to choose where to live, what to do 🞇 We watch others, like mom or
and who to be with. dad or people in the environment,
do something.
Social Group by George Simmel 🞇 We learn to do things through
and Social Network by Khan what we observe. We learn
Academy what’s safe and what’s not.
🞇 Social learning theory by
SOCIAL GROUP Albert Bandura
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🞇 Theory of the Social Self – is

based on the perspective that the
self is a product of social
interaction.
🞇 Focused on how the self
develop

TWO SIDES OF SELF: I AND ME

ME - is the product of what the

person has learned while
interacting with others and
environment

I - is that part of the self that is

unsocialize and spontaneous.
The ‘I’ does not blindly follow
rules. It understands when to
possibly bend or stretch the rules
that govern social interactions. It
constructs a response based on
what has been learned by the
‘me’
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involving both competitive product

markets and the commodification
(putting a price tag ) of labor power.

3. Institutions of surveillance, the

massive increase of power and reach
by institutions, especially in
CHAPTER 1: The Self government, and;

from Various 4. Dynamism, the most evident

Perspectives characteristic of modern society,
characterized as having vigorous
(Sociology and activity and progress.
Anthropology)
Social groups and social
network
Sociology posits that socially formed
norms, beliefs, and values come to • Social Group - described as having
exists within the person to a degree two or more people interacting with
where these become natural and one another, sharing similar
normal, thus, developing the person’s characteristics, and whose members
self-identity. identify themselves as part of the
group. (eg barkada)
Modernization has significantly
changed society, and this has affected • Social Network -refers to the ties or
how an individual builds and develops connections that link you to your social
his or her self-identity. However, it also group.
has improved people’s living
conditions compared to pre-modern The connection you have with your
society. family is your blood relation; the
connection you have with you barkada
Key Characteristics of Modernity: is your friendship; and the connection
According to Giddens (1991), the most you have with your classmates is the
patent, major characteristics of common interest to learn.
modernity Are:

1. Industrialism, the social relations A social group is either

implied in the extensive use of material organic or rational:
power and machinery in all processes
of production. • Organic group is naturally occurring
and is highly influenced by your family.
2. Capitalism, a production system We join these groups because our
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family is also part of it (organic 2. Social Experience Consists Of The

motivation). The positive effect is Exchange Of Symbols. Mead
rootedness, according to George emphasized the particularly human
Simmel. This means that the use of language and other symbols to
foundation of the social network runs convey meaning.
deep, this giving, the person a sense
of belongingness. The downside 3. Knowing Others’ Intentions
implies less freedom and greater Requires Imagining The Situation
social conformity. From Their Perspectives. Mead
believed that social experience
• Rational group occur in modern depends on our seeing ourselves as
societies. The family is not the others do, or, as he coined it, “taking
main motivation when joining social the role of the other.”
groups. These groups are formed as a
matter of self-interests and free will 4. Understanding The Role Of The
(rational motivation). These groups Other Results In Self-Awareness.
imply greater freedom, especially the Mead posited that there is an active “I”
freedom of movement. The downside self and an objective “me” self. The “I”
is that the relationship between self is active and initiates action. The
rational social networks is tenous, and “me” self continues, interrupts, or
the person feels no meaningful changes action depending on how
connection with the others. others respond. Mead believed that
the key to self-development is
George Mead understanding the role of the other. He
also outlined steps in the process of
Mead and the Social Self development from birth to adulthood.

• Sociologist George Herbert Mead Developing the self:

believed that people develop Mead developed a concept that
self-images through interactions with proposed different stages of
other people. He argued that the Self, self-development. These stages are
which is the part of a person’s language, play and game.
personality consisting of
self-awareness and self-image, is a ● Language sets the state of
product of social experience. He self-development.
outlined four ideas about how the self ● Play (role playing) enables the
develops: person to internalize some other
people’s perspectives; hence,
1. The Self Develops Solely Through he or she develops an
Social Experience. Mead rejected understanding of how the other
Freud’s notion that personality is people feel about themselves
determined partly by biological drives. (and about others too) in a
variety of Situations.
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● Game stage is the level where A UNIT BUT UNITARY:

the individual not only
internalizes the other people’s ▪ “Self” is described as encompassing
perspectives, he or she is also the “physical organism, possessing
able to take into account psychological functioning and social
societal rules and adheres to it. attributes” (Katherine Ewing, 1990).
▪ Neuroscientist Joseph LeDoux
Two sides of self: “I” and “Me” conceptualized the implicit and explicit
aspects of the self.
Mead sees the person as an active
process, not just a mere reflection of ▪ Explicit self- the aspect of self that
society. you are consciously aware of

• “Me” is the product of what the ▪ Implicit self- the one that is not
person has learned while interacting immediately available to the
with others and with the environment. consciousness.
Learned behaviors, attitudes, and even
expectations comprise the “me”. It ▪ “The self is not static; it is added to
exercises social control over the self and subtracted from by genetic
and sees to it that the rules are not maturation, learning, forgetting, stress,
broken. ageing, and disease.”

• “I” is the part of the self that is Self as representation

unsocialized and spontaneous. It is the
individual’s response to the ▪ “Self” is illusory (Ewin, 1990). “People
community’s attitude toward the construct a series of self-
person. It presents impulses and epresentations that are based on
drives and enables the person to selected cultural concepts of person
express individualism and creativity. It and selected “chains” of personal
does not follow the rules blindly. It memories. Each self- concept is
constructs a response based on what experienced as whole and continuous,
has been learned by “me”. with its own history and memories that
emerge in a specific context to be
The Self and the Person in replaced by another
Contemporary Anthropology: self-representation when the context
changes.”
Anthropology. The study of people,
past and present. It focuses on ▪ Self-representation-culturally shaped
understanding the human condition in “self” concepts that one applies to
its cultural aspect. It is concerned with oneself (Quinn, 2014).
understanding how humans evolved
and how they differ from one another. ▪ It is the mental entities that are
supposed to represent self (Schichtet,
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2009). connection between the individual to

other people.
▪ People from all cultures have been
observed to be able to rapidly project ▪ Culture can influence how you view:
different self-representations, relationships, personality traits,
depending on the context of the achievement, and expressing
situation. The person is unaware of emotions.
these shifts; however, he/she will still
experience wholeness and continuity Relationships
despite these shifts.
▪ Culture influences how you enter into
The Self Embedded in Culture and maintain relationships. For
example, relationships may be seen as
▪ How individuals see themselves, how voluntary or as duty-based. In Western
they relate to other people, and how Societies, it is essential for a person to
they relate to the environment are choose whom to marry while some
deeply defined by culture. Eastern societies still practice
arranged marriage.
▪ “Cultural traditions and social
practices regulate, express, and
Personality Traits
transform the human psyche, resulting
less in psychic unity for humankind
than in ethnic divergences in mind, self ▪ Culture influences wether (and how)
and emotion. (Shweder, 1991).” you value traits, like humility, self-
esteem, politeness, assertiveness,
▪ Two ways of self-construction: and so on, as well as how you
independent and interdependent perceive hardship or how you feel
constructs. about relying on others.

▪ Construal is an interpretation of the Achievement

meaning of something; hence, in this
sense, the meaning of “self”. ▪Culture influences how you define
success and wether you value certain
▪ The independent construct is types of individual and group
characteristic of individualistic culture achievements.
(represents self as separate, distinct,
with emphasis on internal attributes or Expressing Emotions
traits, skills, and values), such as
North America and Europe. ▪Culture influences what will affect you
emotionally, as well as how you
▪ The interdependent construct is express yourself, such as showing
typical of the collectivistic culture in your feelings in public or keeping it
East Asia stressing the essential private.
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CHAPTER 1: itself and how human comes to

acquire it.
Psychological
Perspectives Jean Piaget observed how children
processed and made sense of the
world around them and eventually
Psychology is the scientific study of developed a four-stage model of how
how people behave, think, and feel. It the mind processes the information
includes topics, such as: encountered.

● how the brain works The three basic components of

● how our memory is organized Piaget’s theory:
● how people interact in groups
how children learn about the 1. Schema
world.
These are the building blocks of
● In fact, everything that concerns
knowledge. Schemes are mental
the human being is a concern of
organizations that individuals use to
psychology.
understand their environments and
designate action.
From the basic workings of the human
brain to consciousness, memory,
reasoning and language, to personality 2. Adaptation
and mental health, and everything It involves the child’s learning
about the human experience – processes to meet situational
Psychology will scrutinize it so that you demands.
as a human being will understand how
it is to be “you.” 3. Stages of Cognitive
Four goals of Development
They reflect the increasing
Psychology: sophistication of the child’s thought
process
● Describe- what the person is doing?
● Explain- why is s/he doing that? Assimilation - is the application of
● Predict- what is he going to do? previous concepts to new concepts.
● Modify- how can we change the
behavior? ● For example, a child who was
just learned the word “fish,”
Theory of Cognitive shouts “fish!” upon seeing one.
Or when you are told that a dog
Development is a four-legged animal, the you
went to the zoo and saw a tiger,
Deals with the nature of knowledge and you think that’s a dog.
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CONCRETE OPERATIONS (7-11)

Accommodation - happens when
people encounter completely new The child demonstrates conservation,
information or when existing ideas are reversibility, serial ordering, and a
challenged. mature understanding of cause-and-
effect relationship. Thinking at this
● For example, a child knows stage is still concrete.
dogs and cats. At school, she
learns the word “animals.” The FORMAL OPERATIONS (12+)
child will then adjust her
understanding that dogs and The individual demonstrates abstract
cats are both animals. thinking at this stage is still concrete.

People often have to form a new Stages of Cognitive

schema or alter existing mental
categories to accommodate new Development
information. Parents have important
role in this. Object Permanence - It is the
ability to realize that objects still exists
Stages of Cognitive even when they are not being sense.

Development Animistic Thinking - believing

that inanimate objects are alive.
Sensorimotor (0-2)

The child learns by doing: looking, Egocentrism - not being capable

touching, sucking, the child also has a of seeing things from another person’s
primitive understanding of cause-and- perspectives
effect relationships. Object
permanence appears around 4-9
months.

PREOPERATIONAL (2-7)

The child uses language and symbols,

including letters and numbers.
Egocentrism is also evident.
Conservation marks the end of the
preoperational stage and the Psychological Self
beginning of concrete operations.
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Harter’s Self-Development
Concept According to James (1950), the “self”
has two elements: the I-self and the
● Early childhood. The child describes Me-self.
the “self” in terms of concrete,
observable characteristics, such as I-self is the pure ego. It is the
physical attributes (“I’m subjective self. It is the “self” that is
pretty/ugly/strong”), material aware of its own actions. The I-self
possessions (“I have lots of toys”), characteristically has four
behaviors (“I love playing with my features. These are:
toys”), and preferences (“I like
candies”). 1. A sense of being the agent or
initiator of behavior.
● Middle to later childhood. The self is 2. A sense of being unique.
described in terms of trait like 3. A sense of continuity.
constructs (e.g., smart, honest, 4. A sense of awareness about being
friendly, shy) that would require the aware.
type of hierarchical organizational
skills characteristic of logical thought The me-self is the self that is the
development. object. It is the “self” that you can
describe, such as your physical
● Adolescence. According to Harter, characteristics, personalities, social
this is the emergence of more abstract role, or relationships, thoughts,
self-definitions, such as inner thoughts, feelings (Newman, 2017; James,
emotions, attitudes, and motives. 1950; Pomerleau, ©2017). James
called it the empirical self. Empirical is
● Emerging adults. The marked defined as “based on, concerned with,
characteristic of “self” for emerging or verifiable by observation or
adults is having a vision of a “possible experience rather than theory or pure
self.” It is the “age of possibilities” logic” (WEB).
(Amett, 2004a). In one Australian
study (Whitty, 2002), early emerging The dimensions of the me-self include:
adulthood (ages 17—22) was found to
be a time of “grand dreams,” of being 1. Material
wealthy and having a glamorous 2. Social
occupation, but beyond emerging 3. Spiritual
adulthood (ages 28—33) the visions of
a possible-self became more realistic, Carl Ramson and Humanistic
if still optimistic. Psychology

William James and the ME ● Carl Ransom Rogers was an

-Self; I-Self American psychologist and among the
founders of the humanistic approach to
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psychology (Capuzzi, 2016). ● Rogers accentuated the need to

● Humanistic psychology is a achieve consistency between the ideal
psychological perspective that rose to self and the real self.
prominence in the mid-20th century.
This approach highlighted the ● Congruence is the alignment of the
individual’s innate drive toward real self and the ideal self.
self-actualization and the process
of realizing and expressing one’s own ● Incongruence happens when there
capabilities and creativity is inconsistency between the real self
(Hansen, 2014). and the ideal self.
● Rogers stressed that a person is an
active, creative, experiencing Gordon Allport and Personality
being who lives in the present and who Traits
thinks, feels, and responds to
his or her environment. • Functional Autonomy - human
● He coined the term actualizing motives are functionally independent
tendency, which refers to a person’s from the original motives responsible
basic instinct to succeed at his or her for the behavior.
highest possible capacity.
● The ideal self is the person that you • Traits- are enduring characteristics
would like yourself to be; it is that manifest itself almost all of the
your concept of the “best me” who is time.
worthy of admiration. It is an
idealized image of self that the • He identified 1000s of personality
individual has developed based on theory traits grouping them into 3
what you have learned and categories: cardinal traits (rare and
experienced. dominate), central traits (basic
● The ideal self could include: personality foundations) and
secondary traits (attitudes or
1. Notions influenced by your parents; preferences).
2. What you admire in others;
3. What the society sees as
Multiple vs Unified Selves
acceptable; and
4. What you think is in your best
interest. William James (1890) said, “Properly
speaking, a man has as many social
● The real self is the person you selves as there are individuals who
actually are. It is how you behave right recognize him and carry an image of
at the moment of a situation. It is who him in their head.”
you are in reality – how you
think, feel, or act at present. ● On the other hand, social
psychologist Roy Baumeister (2010)
said, “But the concept of the self loses
The Importance of Alignment
its meaning if a person has multiple
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selves...the essence of self involves several sub-selves.

integration of diverse experiences into
a unity...In short, unity is one of the ● Berne presented the ego states as:
defining features of selfhood and 1. Parent
identity.” 2. Adult
3. Child
The Unity of Consciousness
● There are Three child ego states:
-The human experience is always that
of unity. 1. First is the natural child who loves to
● The unity of consciousness was a play but is sensitive and vulnerable.
central topic for classical modern 2. The little professor is the curious
philosophers (from 1600s to 1900s). child who wants to try everything.
3. The adaptive child is the one who
● This idea was pushed by Descartes, reacts to the world. He or she could be
Kant, and James to name a few. trying to fit in
According to Rene Descartes, the or is rebelling against authority.
mind (that is the thinking, experiencing
being) is not made up of parts; thus, it ERIC BERNE: THE EGO STATES
cannot be a physical substance
because anything material has parts University professor and author Gregg
(Skirry, 2005). Descartes claimed that Henriques proposed that the
this “being” is of unified consciousness human self has three related, but
and not composed of merged separable, domains. These
fragments (Brook % Raymont, 2017). domains are:

● There is also Immanuel Kant’s “unity 1. Experiential self;

of consciousness” that can be 2. Private self-conscious; and
described as “I am conscious not only 3. Public self/persona.
of single experiences but of a great
many experiences at the same time. DOMAINS OF THE SELF
The same is true of actions; I can do
and be conscious of doing a number of TRUE SELF VS
actions at the same time.” (Brook, FALSE SELF
2016 Edition)
● Most of us need our false selves as
One Self or Many Selves? protection to survive childhood, and we
carry these layers with us through our
adult lives because these protective
Contemporary psychological studies
layers help us endure.
challenged the notion of a single,
● In 1960, an English pediatrician and
distinct, “only one” notion of self.
psychoanalyst, D. W. Winnicott
Several major personality theorists
introduced his concept of “false self”
proposed that the mind is made up of
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and “true self.” then he or she has a healthy false self.

● According to Winnicott the “self” is
simply “the person who is me” (1960; ● The healthy false self feels that it is
1965). still connected with the true self. Thus,
it can be compliant without feeling
● Winnicott also proposed that the guilty that it abandoned its true self.
healthy core of a healthy person’s self On the other hand, there is also the
is hidden from the outside world, unhealthy false self.
uninfluenced by external (harsh)
realities. ● An individual who may seem happy
and comfortable in his or her
● The false self is put up to defend the environment but actually feels forced
core from these realities and prevent it to fit in and constantly needs to adjust
from any changes. his or her behavior to adapt to the
social situation is said to have an
TRUE SELF VS FALSE SELF unhealthy false self.
FALSE SELF

Winnicott expressed that the false self

TRUE SELF
is the product of early experience.
● True self flourishes in infancy if
the mother is positively
● It is a defensive organization formed
responsive to the child’s
by the infant because of inadequate
spontaneous expressions
mothering or failures in empathy.
(Winnicott, 1960; Jones-Smith,
2011).
● He added that the false self is
developed as the infant is repeatedly
● Winnicott described true self as a
subjected to maternal care that
sense of “self” based on “spontaneous
intrudes upon, rejects, or abandons his
authentic experience.”
or her experience (Daehnert, 1998).
● It is an awareness that bodily
● The false self is also based on being
functions are working, such as the
completely obedient to the parents’
heart pumping, as well as simply
wishes.
breathing.
● Winnicott asserted that when the
● True self is a sense of being
child is constantly expected to follow
alive and real in one’s mind and
rules, a false self Develops.
body, having feelings that are
spontaneous and unforced.
● The false self is a mask or a
persona. However, when the person
● This experience of aliveness is what
has false self but can still function both
allows people to be genuinely close to
as an individual and in the society,
others and to be creative.
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● Winnicott believed that people

unconsciously repeat early
relationships (particularly the
mother-infant relationship) in one form
or another.

● A child whose mother is positively

responsive and supports the child’s
natural process of individuation will
grow up as an adult with a stable
self-image; views other people
realistically; and accepts both the
positive and negative side of every
person including himself/herself
(Jones-Smith, 2011).
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style of thinking based on dichotomy

• Fiske, Kitayama, Markus, and Nisbett and binary opposition” (Carr & Zanetti,
(1998) reported that people are 2000; Singhal, 2000). There is an
shaped by their culture, and their essential distinction between the
culture is also shaped by them. notion of the thinking subject (an
observer) that stands in natural
• One of the major proponents of opposition to observable reality
cultural psychology, Richard Shweder, (Singhal, 2000).
wrote, “Cultural traditions and social
practices regulate, express, and The psychiatrist and professor, Frank
transform the human psyche, resulting Johnson (1985), outlined four
less in psychic unity for humankind categories on how the term “self” is
than in ethnic divergences in mind, used in contemporary western
self, and emotion: (1991). discussion.

• An individual thinks, feels, and 1. Analytical

behaves similarly as that of the 2. Monotheistic
members of his or her community. 3. Individualistic
However, each community has its own 4. Materialistic/rationalistic
standards, expectations, and rules that
shape its members. EASTERN CONCEPT OF SELF
The earliest religious writings in the
• These differences are the reason East are the Vedas.
people are markedly divergent. This
divergence is evident in the eastern • It formed the Hindu philosophy and
and western concepts of “self.” dharma (the principle of cosmic order).
The chants and hymns in the Vedas
WESTERN CONCEPT OF SELF illustrate the eastern mindset of a
nondual universe but rather a creation
Ancient Grecian philosophers see that is completely unified with the
humans as the bearers of creator, with no distinction (Watts,
irreplaceable values. In medieval 1965, Wolter, 2013).
times, the philosopher and saint,
Thomas Aquinas, believed that the • According to these sacred Hindu
body constitutes individuality. The texts, the true nature of humans is
individual was the focus of described as “Brahman” which is the
Renaissance thought, with Rene divine universal consciousness
Descartes’ famous “I think, therefore I encompassing the universe. The
am” as the epitome of the Westernidea Brahman is the Self that is all within us
of self. (Watts, 1965; Wolter; 2013). Thus, one
of the main points of Hinduism is
The western tradition is generally “change your perception of the world
acknowledged to be “imbued with a to perceive the Brahman in oneself
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and in others” (Watts, 1965; Wolter, 2003).

2013).
In Confucianism, the quest for the
Buddhism is composed of the “self” in terms of substance, of spirit, of
teachings of Buddha. body, or of essence does not exist
(Klemme, 1999; Ames, 1994; Graham,
• In Buddhist traditions, the “self” is not 1990). The form that Confucius wrote
an entity, a substance, or about the concept of “self” is that of
essence. Rather, the “self” is a personality. The qualities that form a
dynamic process. It is interdependent person’s character are not something
and ever changing. that exists inherently. Rather, in
Confucian thought it is something that
• The Buddha taught a doctrine called is formed through upbringing and the
anatta, which is often defined as environment (Klemme, 1999; Ames,
“no-self or no-soul.” Annata is a 1994; Graham,
concept that the sense of being a 1990).
permanent, autonomous “self” is an
illusion. It is the teaching that there is In Confucianism, the quest for the
no eternal, unchanging “self/soul” “self” in terms of substance, of spirit, of
inhabiting our bodies or living our lives, body, or of essence does not exist
(Collins, 1982; Garfield, 1995; (Klemme, 1999; Ames, 1994; Graham,
Hopkins, 1983, 1987; Wallace, 1989, 1990). The form that Confucius wrote
1998). about the concept of ‘“self” is
thatConfucian philosophy presented
Buddhist tradition holds that the the idea that every person is born with
human being’s inborn erroneous view four beginnings. However, these do
of “self” as an enduring entity is the not yet comprise the concept of “self”
cause of his/her suffering because but when perceived together, it could
he/she tries to hold on to that which is be explained in Western terms as a
in constant flux (constantly flowing or “pre-self” or a “potential self.”
constantly changing) and has no
existence outside of shifting contexts These four beginnings are:
(Galin, 2003). Thus, a new corrective • Heart of compassion that leads to
experience of the “self” is needed. Jen;
Buddhism takes a great interest in how • Heart of righteousness that leads to
people experience their “self” rather Yi;
than just their abstract idea of it • Heart of propriety that leads to Li;
because Buddhist practices are and
designed to lead to a new (correct) • Heart of wisdom that leads to Chih.
experience of self. It takes arduous Jen, Yi, Li, and Chih are the perfection
training to modify or overcome the of the virtues that at the start were
natural state of experiencing the “self” mere potentials. Jen means goodwill,
as persisting and unchanging (Galin, sympathy toward others, politeness,
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and generosity. Yi means rightness whole). Chuang-tzu, regarded as a

and the respect of duty (you must mystic of unmatched brilliance in
respect your position as a guardian China, gave an explicit negation of the
toward nature and humanity). Li centrality of the “self.”
means having the right to practice
propriety in all that you do. Propriety • According to Chuang-tzu,”The perfect
involves not demonstrating your inner man has no self; the spiritual man has
attitude in your outer expression. Chih no achievement; the true sage has no
means wisdom; this wisdom is name.” The ideal is, thus, selflessness.
expressed by putting jen, yi, and li into
practice (Quinlan, 2001; Chinavoc, • In sum,C huang-tzu’s conception of
2007). The qualities that form a selfhood entails conscious
person’s character are not something self-transformation leading to the
that exists inherently. Rather, in attributes of a balanced life in harmony
Confucian thought it is something that with both nature and society. (Ho,
is formed through upbringing and the 1995)
environment (Klemme, 1999; Ames,
1994; Graham, 1990). The Arabic word for the word “self” is
Nafs written in the Holy Qur’an.
Personality (in the Confucian
perception) is an achieved state of • It pertains to the psyche (the totality
moral excellence rather than a given of the conscious and unconscious
human condition. However, such human mind) or the soul.
achieved personality, or self, is not to
be understood as primarily an • The Quran does not ascribe any
individual entity. The Confucian property of goodness or evil to the
concept of self is deeply embedded “nafs/self.” Instead, the “nafs/self” is
within the family and society, and it is something, which has to be nurtured
only in that context that the self comes and self-regulated, so that it can
to be what it is (Quinlan, 2001; progress into becoming “good” (or
Chinavoc, 2007). conversely, “evil”) through its thoughts
and actions.
Taoism rejects a hierarchical view of
the self, society, or cosmos. • The “self” in Islamic tradition is used
both in the individualistic and collective
• Unlike Confucianism, Taoism does sense (Nurdeen Deuraseh & Mansor
not regard the “self” as an extension of Abu Talib, 2005).
(or defined by) social relationships.
Rather, the “self” is but one of the To differentiate the western and
countless manifestations of the Tao. eastern thought:

• It is an extension of the cosmos (or • Broadly, speaking, Western society

the universe seen as a well-ordered strives to find and prove "the truth",
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while Eastern society accepts the truth

as given and is more interested in
finding the balance.

• Westerners put more stock in

individual rights; Easterners in social
responsibly.

• Eastern philosophy is a group of

philosophies and religions originating
in Asia – China, India, Japan,
Southeast Asia, and Arabic countries

• Through Christianity originated in

Asia geographically, culturally it's
considered to be a Western religion
that originated in the Mediterranean
Region
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• They believe that they should assert

and stand up for themselves. One of
their famous
quotes is, “I am the master of my fate;
I am the captain of my soul” believing
that it is
the person who determines how he or
she lives his/her life.
Individualistic cultures (such as in the
USA, Australia, Great Britain, Canada,
the
Netherlands, and New Zealand)
emphasize the moral worth of the
individual (Wood,
1972).
• Individualists encourage asserting
one’s goals and desires; they highly
value
independence and self-reliance.
• They insist that the interests of the
individual should take precedence over
the state or
a social group.
• They also strongly oppose external
interference by society or institutions
(such as the
government) upon one’s own interests.
• Individualistic cultures are oriented
around the individual: that a person
should be
independent instead of having the
mentality of identifying with a group.
• In interpersonal relationships,
Individualists see each other as only
loosely linked, and
they value personal goals over group
interests (Hofstede, 2001).
• Moreover, it is characterized with
emphasis on personal achievements
and a rational
assessment of both the beneficial and
INDIVIDUALISTIC SELF detrimental aspects of relationships
Americans are fond of saying “I am my with others
own man.”
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(Rothwell, 2010). workers, friends, etc.).

• Societies that focus on the person
create an individualistic self-concept • It is of utmost importance to be part
wherein the of and maintain social
person sees the constellation of traits networks, maintain good relationships,
and characteristics that distinguish the and fulfill obligations.
individual
within his or her social context CLOSING THE GAP
(Constantine, Brewer, & Constantine, Because of such difference in
2001). This form emphases, western self-concept has
of self-representation relies on been
interpersonal comparison processes challenged that it did not capture the
and is associated significant relationship of
with the motive of protecting or
enhancing the person psychologically. interdependence in eastern collectivist
cultures. Some contemporary self-
COLLECTIVE SELF concept theories attempted to close
the gap between cultural concepts.
A study conducted by Patricia
Licuanan, a Filipino psychologist and Baumeister (1986) proposed that
educator, determined that one of the self-concept could be
strengths of the Filipino organized in three aspects:
character is our deep love and concern 1. Private, which refers to the mental
for the family, which processes that perceive one’s
includes not simply the spouses and own traits or behaviors (e.g. I am
children, parents, and siblings, honest);
but also grandparents, aunts, uncles, 2. Public, which refers to the
cousins, godparents, and other generalized view of self, such as the
ceremonial relatives. perception of how others view you
• To the Filipino, one’s family is the (e.g., People think I’m honest);
source of personal identity, the and
source of emotional and material 3. Collective, which refers to the view
support, and the person’s main of self in a collective concept
commitment and all responsibility. (e.g., My family expects me to be
Eastern culture practiced by countries honest).
in Asia (i.e., the Philippines) It is assumed that these three aspects
base their values and self-concept in a exist in every person.
collectivist view. However, a dominant aspect would
• People in collectivistic culture probably present itself depending on
emphasize the interdependence and one’s culture (Triandis, 1986;
McInerney, 2003).
harmonious relatedness with one Thus, in an individualistic culture, the
another (e.g., the family, co- person would predominantly show
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the private self and will behave Confucian thought is the view that
according to personal beliefs, feelings, the “self” is the center of relationships.
philosophy, etc. The idea is that it is only
In a collectivist culture, the person by continually opening the self to
would present the “collective self” others that the “self” maintains its
more; and is thus more inclined to wholeness and identity.
behave according to rules, norms,
and custom.

The Self as Embedded in

Relationships and Through Spiritual
Development in Confucian Thought
The Confucian tradition as a way of
thinking and lifestyle is still
an inspiration to many East Asian
societies. Characteristic of
Confucian selfhood is the participation
of others in the dynamic
process of self and spiritual
development.
The Confucian concept of Li often
rendered as “proper conduct” or
“propriety” was originally denoted as
court rites (rituals) performed to
sustain social and cosmic order. The
current context of Li moved
beyond mere politeness or convention.
It has since been central to
Confucian human-centered
religiousness.
In the Confucian sense,
self-development is a lifelong
commitment to learning. However,
Confucian learning is not only
about reading books or taking exams;
it is also about ritual
practice. It involves practicing
discipline for the mind and
body to love life not as an isolated
individual but as an active
participant in the living community.
Perhaps the single most
important concept of the self in