Alan Wadsworth

Business Development Manager

OVERVIEW (ONE PER MONTH)

1. DC and AC Power Fundamentals

2. Power Source and Electronic Load Basics
3. Practical Power Sourcing and Measurement Considerations
4. Power Semiconductor Considerations for Converter Design

2
1. Power Basics
2. AC Power
3. Power Transmission
4. Power Conversion
5. Summary & Additional Resources

3
SECTION 1

4
QUICK REVIEW

𝑊 = 𝐹Ԧ ∙ 𝑑Ԧ
Define point A as 0 V
and  distance away.
𝑊𝐴𝐵 𝑊
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉=
𝑞0 𝑞0

𝑊𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ∆𝑊 ∆𝑞
𝑃ത = But 𝑊 =𝑉 ∙𝑞 𝑃= =𝑉 = 𝑉∙𝐼
𝑡𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

5
 -
V
R= V
I
+
I
A Wd
=R =R
d
L
L L
W

𝑉2
𝑃𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 =𝑉∙𝐼 = = 𝐼2 ∙ 𝑅
𝑅

6
W H AT D C V A L U E D I S S I P AT E S E Q U I V A L E N T P O W E R ?

+ +
VAC IAC VDC ? IDC
- -
𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑉2 1 1 𝑇 2
𝑃ത = = න 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑅 𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝑅 𝑇 0

7
 ROOT MEAN SQUARE

Rearranging and using trigonometric identities we have that

𝑇
𝑉02 𝑇
1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 𝑉02 𝑡 sin 2𝜔𝑡
𝑃ത = න 𝑑𝑡 𝑃ത = ∙ −
𝑅𝑇 0 2 𝑅𝑇 2 4𝜔 0

We can make use of the fact that 𝑇 = 2𝜋Τ to arrive at the result.
𝜔

2
𝑉0 𝑉0
𝑉02 2 𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 = ≜ 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆
ത
𝑃= = 2
2𝑅 𝑅

8
CIRCUIT WITH REAL AND REACTIVE ELEMENTS

VAC Resistive Reactive

Elements Elements

𝐑𝐞𝐚𝐥 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐏 𝐕 ∙ 𝐈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉

𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 = = = = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
𝐀𝐩𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐒 𝐕∙𝐈
9
 Reactance = jX(𝜔) 𝑍Ԧ 𝜔 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋Ԧ 𝜔
𝜃

Resistance = R

𝑅 = 𝑍 cos 𝜃 𝑋 = 𝑍 sin 𝜃

10
 Reactive Power = Q = 𝑉 ∙ 𝐼 sin 𝜃
𝜃

Real Power = P = 𝑉 ∙ 𝐼 cos 𝜃

Term Equation Units

Real Power 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 Watts (W)

Reactive Power 𝑄 = 𝐼2 𝑋 Volt-Amps Reactive (VAr)

Apparent Power 𝑆 = 𝐼2 𝑍 Volt-Amps (VA)

11
 K E Y T A K E A W AY S

• RMS values are a way to express periodic waveform power in an equivalent

DC format. You can express any periodic waveform in an equivalent DC
format, but the convenient formula of dividing the amplitude by 1ൗ 2 only
works for sinusoidal waveforms.
• Circuits typically contain both real and reactive elements, and only the real
elements consume actual power (Watts). However, you still need to apply
total apparent power (Volt-Amps) to the circuit for it to function.
• You can think about impedance and power in terms of a triangle, with the real
portion represented by the x-axis and the imaginary (reactive) portion
represented by the y-axis.

12
SECTION 2

13
 𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃

𝑉 𝑡 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑃 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡 ∙ sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃
𝐼 𝑡 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃
14
𝑃 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡 ∙ sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃
1
sin 𝑎 ∙ sin 𝑏 = cos 𝑎 − 𝑏 − cos 𝑎 + 𝑏
2
cos 𝑎 = cos −𝑎
𝑉0 𝐼0
𝑃 𝑡 = cos 𝜃 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃
2
𝑉0 𝐼0 𝑉0 𝐼0
= ∙ = 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 ∙ 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆
2 2 2

𝑃 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 ∙ 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 ∙ cos 𝜃 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃

𝑃ത = 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 ∙ 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 ∙ cos 𝜃

15
Resistor Case

𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡 Power

Real Power

𝑉0
𝐼 = sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑅

16
Inductor Case
𝑉0
𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝐼=− cos 𝜔𝑡
𝐿
Power

Real Power

Reactive Power

17
Capacitor Case
𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡 Power

𝐼 = 𝐶 ∙ 𝑉0 cos 𝜔𝑡

Real Power

Reactive Power

18
K E Y T A K E A W AY S

• In general, AC sinusoidal voltage and current waveforms are not in-phase but
are separated through some phase angle (Θ).
• The instantaneous power dissipated by two sinusoidal voltage and current
waveforms varies over time, but the average power is equal to the product of
the voltage and current RMS values times the cosine of their phase angle.
• Since the voltage and current flowing through a resistor are always in-phase
(Θ = 0), a resistor can only dissipate real power.
• The voltage and currents flowing through inductors and capacitors are
always out-of-phase by a fixed amount, and for sinusoidal waveforms the
power dissipated by either element over one period averages out exactly to
zero.

19
SECTION 3

20
T R A N S F O R M E R S P R O V I D E E F F I C I E N T U P / D O W N V O LTA G E C O N V E R S I O N

Flux
Transformer
Linkage
Core
(F)
Primary Secondary
Coil Coil + +
+ +
Vp Vs Vp Vs
- -
- -

Number of Primary Number of

Windings (Np) Secondary
Windings (Ns)
Transformer Details Transformer Symbol

21
By convention we have that: 𝑁𝑝 𝑉𝑝
The transformer turns ratio formula: = =n
Vp = Primary Voltage 𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑠
Vs = Secondary Voltage
Np = Number of Primary Windings
Ns = Number of Secondary Windings

Suppose we have a turns ratio of n = 4 and we apply a voltage of 120 V to the primary coil (Vp)
We can then easily determine the voltage at the secondary coil:

120 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔
4= 𝑉𝑠 = 30 𝑉
𝑉𝑠

22
+
- Note that in this configuration we
need six total lines of equal size.
+
- However, what does this look like
if we transfer power using a
three-phase system?
+
-

23
WHY IS 3-PHASE POWER TRANSMISSION USED?

Phase 1: sin 𝜔𝑡 Three Phase Power Waveforms

2𝜋 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Phase 2: sin 𝜔𝑡 +
3

4𝜋
Phase 3: sin 𝜔𝑡 +
3

2𝜋 2𝜋
120𝑜 or 120𝑜 or
3 3

24
 Z E R O S U M G I V E S M A N Y A D VA N TA G E S

Using the trigonometric identity sin 𝑎 + 𝑏 = sin 𝑎 ∙ cos 𝑏 + cos 𝑎 ∙ sin 𝑏 , we can
re-write the equations as follows:
Phase 2:
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
sin 𝜔𝑡 + = sin 𝜔𝑡 ∙ cos + cos 𝜔𝑡 ∙ sin
3 3 3 Adding together phase 2 and phase 3 give us:
2𝜋 1 3 2𝜋 4𝜋
sin 𝜔𝑡 + = − sin 𝜔𝑡 + cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 + + sin 𝜔𝑡 + = − sin 𝜔𝑡
3 2 2 3 3

Phase 3: Obviously, adding this result to Phase 1 gives

4𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋 a sum of zero.
sin 𝜔𝑡 + = sin 𝜔𝑡 ∙ cos + cos 𝜔𝑡 ∙ sin
3 3 3
4𝜋 1 3
sin 𝜔𝑡 + = − sin 𝜔𝑡 − cos 𝜔𝑡
3 2 2

25
LOWER COST POWER TRANSMISSION

+ Now we only need four

- lines, and the neutral
(return) line can be
smaller than the three
main lines.

26
T H E R E A R E T W O S E P A R AT E V O L T A G E S AV A I L A B L E

Phase 1

+ Phase Voltage
-
Neutral (N)

Phase 2
Line Voltage
Phase 3

27
Suppose the phase voltage amplitude = 120 V,

2𝜋 2𝜋
2𝜋 𝜃+ 𝜃+ 𝜃− 𝜃+
3 3
sin 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 + = 2 ∙ cos sin
3 2 2

2𝜋 𝜋
sin 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 + = − 3 cos 𝜃 +
3 3

→ Line voltage amplitude = 120 𝑉 × 3 = 208 𝑉

28
V O LTA G E S O U R C E S I N S E R I E S S U M T O G E T H E R

+
-

Both points are + + +

at zero volts - - -

+
-

29
HOW DOES THE CURRENT FLOW WORK?

I1
1

I21
I2 𝐼1 = 𝐼13 − 𝐼21
+ I13 𝐼2 = 𝐼21 − 𝐼32
- 2
𝐼3 = 𝐼32 − 𝐼13
I3 I32
3

30
• Simultaneous measurement of every waveform at 5 MSa/s with 16-
bit resolution
• A wide time base, with a maximum setting of 50 s/div (500
seconds) and a minimum setting of 20 μs/div (200 μs)
• Voltage measurement up to 1000 VRMS / 2000 Vpeak with BW up
to 2.5 MHz
• Direct current: measures using 2 internal shunts (2 Arms and 50
Arms) with BW up to 100 kHz
• Support for external current probes and transducers of up to 10 V
full scale with BW up to 2.5 MHz
• Built-in voltage and current measurement capability of waveform
characteristics, including DC, ACRMS, ACRMS with DC,
Frequency, Maximum, Minimum and Crest Factor
• Measurement and display of power parameters: Real Power,
Apparent Power, Reactive Power, Phase Angle and Power Factor
• Other capabilities include Voltage/Current harmonic measurement
up to 250 orders, Efficiency, Amp-Hours, Watt-Hours, VA-Hours

31
 K E Y T A K E A W AY S

• Power transmission is done using AC waveforms primarily due to the ease by

which AC voltages can be stepped up and down using transformers.
• Because identical three-phase sinusoidal waveforms sum to zero, it is more
economical to transmit power over long distances using three-phase systems
rather than single-phase systems.
• The Wye or Star configuration utilizes the fact that three-phase currents sum
to zero; the Delta configuration utilizes the fact that three-phase voltages sum
to zero.
• Since three-phase systems can be complex, it is best to use an instrument
specifically designed to test them when you need to verify performance
parameters.

32
SECTION 4

33
We can divide power conversion into four broad classifications:
• AC in, AC out
o Line regulators and frequency changers
• AC in, DC out
o What we normally consider to be a “power supply” – To be covered in detail in
the next session.
• DC in, AC out
o Power inverters
• DC in, DC out
o DC to DC converters

34
 W H AT I S A N A C S O U R C E / A N A LY Z E R ?

• An AC source is an instrument that can supply variable power and frequency to a load.
• AC sources allow you to verify the performance of AC powered equipment to events that
might cause failure (such as surges, harmonics, grid interruptions, etc.).
• AC sources also have measurement capabilities such as:
o DC, AC+DC and rms for both voltage and current
o Real, apparent & reactive power
o Peak voltage and current
o Harmonic analysis of waveforms & total harmonic distortion
• Typical applications include:
o Testing an uninterruptible power source (UPS)
o Efficiency testing of DC power supplies and AC power sources
o Line disturbance and brownout testing of DC power supplies and AC power sources
o Efficiency and safety testing of transformers

35
 AC6800 Series 6800C Series
Basic AC Sources Performance AC Sources
AC6801B AC6802B AC6803B AC6804B 6811C 6812C 6813C

Phases Single-phase
Max. Output Power 500 VA 1000 VA 2000 VA 4000 VA 375 VA 750 VA 1750 VA

AC Output Mode
Voltage range 155 Vrms / 310 Vrms 300 Vrms
Max. rms current 5 A/2.5 A 10 A/5 A 20 A/10 A 40 A/20 A 3.25 A 6.5 A 13 A

Max. peak current 15 A/7.5 A 30 A/15 A 60 A/30 A 120 A/60 A 40 A 40 A 80 A

Frequency 500 Hz 1 kHz

Measurement Voltage, current & power

Transients & advanced N/A Includes pre-programmed standard waveforms and

measurements Note: Basic transient capability via Optional Analog card (AC68BALGU) transient generation system

DC Output Mode
Voltage range 190 V/380 V 425 V
Max. current 4 A/2 A 8 A/4 A 16 A/8 A 32 A/16 A 2.5 A 5.0 A 10.0 A

Max. instantaneous current 12 A/6 A 24 A/12 A 48 A/24 A 96 A/48 A 40 A 40 A 80 A

Power capacity 400 W 800 W 1600 W 3200 W 285 W 575 W 1350 W

36
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Fast output transient response • Low efficiency (typically no better than

• Low output noise and ripple voltage 60% at full output and decreasing with
Linear DC power supply • Low common mode noise current lower output voltage settings)
• Cost competitive at lower output power • Large physical size and weight
levels (<500 W) • Higher cost at higher power (>500 W)
• High efficiency (typically 85% or better
independent of the output voltage
• High output noise and ripple current
settings)
Traditional switching DC • High common mode noise current
• Small size and light weight, especially at
power supply • Slow transient response to AC line and
higher power
DC output load changes
• Cost-effective, especially at higher
power
• High efficiency (typically 85% or better
independent of the output voltage
High-performance settings)
• Typically, higher cost
switching DC power • Small size and light weight, especially at
supply higher power
• Fast output transient response
• Low output noise and ripple voltage

37
POWER INVERTERS

38
Total Loss = Conduction Loss + Switching Loss + Driving Loss
Key
Parameters: Ron Rg, Crss, Coss Qg

Conduction Loss Switching Loss • Conduction loss is due to the

Driving Loss
on-resistance of the transistor
(usually very small for WBG
devices).
+ • Switching loss is due to the
VDS transistor capacitances and
- gate resistance.
LOAD
• Driving loss is due to the gate
charge requirements of the
transistor.

39
T Y P I C A L A P P L I C AT I O N S

DC to DC Circuit
Battery
Converter

40
Common DC to DC converter performance metrics and tests:
• Efficiency – The ratio of output power to input power.
• Load Regulation – Output stability under varying output loads.
• Line Regulation – Output stability under varying input voltage.
• The time-based response of the output to sudden changes in output load.

A A

DC to DC
V V E-Load
Converter

DC Source Electronic Load

41
IDEAL FOR DC-TO-DC CONVERTER TESTING

• 4-slot mainframe holds up to 600 W of total power and

up to 4 modules. More than 30 DC power modules
available.
• Voltmeter accuracy: Up to 0.025% + 50 µV, up to 18 bits
• Ammeter accuracy: Up to 0.025% + 8 nA, up to 18 bits
• Arbitrary waveform generator function: Bandwidth up to
100 kHz, output power up to 500 W
• Scope function: Digitizes voltage and current at up to
200 kHz, 512 kpts, up to 18 bits
• Data logger function: Measurement interval from 20 µs
to 60 s, max of 500 M readings per datalog
• 4 GB of non-volatile data storage for data log, scope
traces, instrument settings

42
43
44
45
 K E Y T A K E A W AY S

• There are four main types of power conversion: AC to AC, DC to AC, AC to

DC and DC to DC.
• Each power conversion type is quite complicated, and we will devote much
more time to them in future webinars.
• DC to AC power conversion has become especially important recently with
the dramatic increase in electric vehicles (which operate using AC motors).
• DC to DC power conversion is used extensively in all hand-held electronic
devices, being driven by the explosion in IoT devices.

46
SECTION 5

47
 KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER

• RMS gives us a convenient means to think about periodic (sinusoidal) voltages

and currents by converting them into equivalent DC values.
• Volt-Amps represent the total amount of power a circuit needs to function; Watts
represent the actual power consumed (dissipated) by a circuit.
• Three-phase AC power systems are the most efficient means to transmit power
over long distances.
• There are four main types of power conversion: AC to AC, DC to AC, AC to DC
and DC to DC.

48
 A C O M P R E H E N S I V E R E F E R E N C E S O U R C E ( 1 4 6 PA G E S )

Contents:
Ch 1 – Introduction
Ch 2 – Electric Power Fundamentals
Ch 3 – DC Power Supplies
Ch 4 – Electronic Loads
Ch 5 – Batteries
Ch 6 – Power Conversion
Ch 7 – Photovoltaic Power
Ch 8 – Power Supply Software

URL: https://www.keysight.com/us/en/assets/3121-1101/application-notes/The-Power-Handbook.pdf

49
W H AT ’ S C O M I N G N E X T M O N T H ?

1. DC and AC Power Fundamentals

2. Power Source and Electronic Load Basics
3. Practical Power Sourcing and Measurement Considerations
4. Power Semiconductor Considerations for Converter Design

50