FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED BIOSCIENCIES AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

NAME: YOLANDA N. MUPITA

REG NO: R217480Y

LEVEL: 2:2

M.O.E: CONVENTIONAL

LECTURER: DR R.J. MAPAYA

MODULE: HABB 236

QUESTION 1: WRITE AN ESSAY ON THE ECOLOGICAL ANATOMY OF

XEROPHYTES.[25]
INTRODUCTION

Ecological anatomy involves a correlation between structure and habitat, well defined
anatomical adaptations and some environmental factors such as salinity ,soil moisture or
dryness. (Neales et al. 1968).

According to Fahn and Cutler (1992) xerophytes are plants growing in dry habitats where the
availability of water is less adequate. Xeric habitat characterizes xerophytes. Xerophytes
evolved to survive in an ecosystem where there is deficiency in available water. This includes
the areas that are subjected to drought like deserts where low rainfall is the norm. The areas
may also include physiologically dry soil where uptake of water becomes difficult due to
salinity in soil water. Therefore, xerophytes have evolved a wide variety of adaptations.
These adaptations primarily aim to limit water loss, conserve water and obtain water as much
as possible from the environment.

Plants which grow in dry habitats or xeric conditions are called xerophytes. Places where
available water is not adequate quantity are termed xeric habitats. They grow in deserts or in
very dry places and for this purpose they have certain peculiar adaptations. The xerophytic
plants have to guard against excessive evaporation of water; this they do by reducing
evaporating surface. Plants form a long tap root which goes deep into the sub-soil in search of
moisture. To retain the water absorbed by the roots; the leaves and stems of certain plants
become very thick and fleshy e.g., Aloe and Agave. Water tissue develops in them for storing
up water; this is further facilitated by the abundance of mucilage contained in them. Multiple
epidermis sometimes evolves in the leaf e.g., Nerium. Modification of the stem into the
phylloclade for storing water and food and at the same time performing functions of leaves is
characteristic of many desert plants e.g., Opuntia and other cacti. (Mader, 2010 ).

Anatomical Features of Xerophytes

Epidermis and Thick Cuticle:

Heavy cuticularization of the epidermis and sub-epidermal cells are common in xerophytes.
In extreme xerophytes the cuticle may be as thick as the diameter of the epidermal cell. In
addition to the presence of thick cuticle, the walls of epidermal cells become cutinized and
sometimes those of underlying cells. Along with well-evolved cutinized layers the epidermal
and subepidermal cells also become lignified. In some cases, the covering of wax is formed
on the epidermis e.g., Calotropis. The epidermal cells are usually radially elongated. In the
leaves of Nerium and Ficus, the epidermis becomes multi-layered. In many xerophytes in
addition to a cutinized epidermis, single to multi-layered hypodermis is also present. In most
plants, the hypodermis of leaves is morphologically mesophyll and can be in the form of a
sheet of fibrous tissue or a layer of sclereids. The hypodermis of the stems seems to be a part
of the cortex. The hypodermis of stems and leaves can be cutinized to lignified. In many
plants, the mucilage, gums and tanning are commonly found in hypodermis. (Xunling and Ji,
1999).

Hairs
In several xerophytic plants, especially those of alpine regions exposed to strong winds, a
covering of matted epidermal hairs on the underside of the leaves prevents water loss. Hairs
can also be abundant over the entire aerial part of the plant. The thick matting of hairs also
prevents rapid evaporation through stomata. The xerophytes that contain abundant hairs, on
their leaves and stems, are commonly called trichophyllous. (Mader, 2010 ).

Structure of Stomata:
The stomata are very minute openings formed in the epidermal layer in green aerial parts of
the plants. The stomata are essential for intake of carbon dioxide and oxygen and for the
passage inward and outward of other gases. The evaporation of the surplus water takes place
through the stomata. When the stomata are open, water escapes even when water loss is
harmful to the plant. This way, the reduction of transpiration is of great importance in
xerophytes. The xerophytes may possess less stomata, either by reduction of leaf surface or of
stomatal number per unit area. To reduce excessive transpiration, usually the stomata that
remain sunken in pits are formed. Such stomata are commonly known as sunken stomata
(e.g., Pinus, Hakea, Agave, etc.). In certain cases, the stomata are found in groups and they
remain confined to depressions found on leaf surface (e.g., Nerium, Banksia, etc.). Usually,
the depressions contain hairs in them which protect the stomata from direct attack of wind
gusts. (Neales et al. 1968).

Sclerenchyma
The xerophytes commonly have a large proportion of sclerenchyma in their leaf structure
than is observed normally in mesophytes. The sclerenchyma is either found in groups or in
continuous sheet. For example, in Banksia, there is a continuous thin sheet of sclerenchyma
between the hypodermis and the mesophyll.In Dasylirion, there is well-developed
sclerenchyma below the epidermis. The sheets of sclerenchyma check excessive transpiration
to some extent and also give mechanical support to the plant body. The xerophytes that
possess heavy sclerification of the leaves are known as sclerophyllous. (Mader, 2010 ).

Rolling of leaves

The leaves of several xerophytic grasses roll tightly under dry conditions. In these grasses,
the stomata are confirmed to the ventral surface of the leaf, so that when the leaf edges roll
inward, the stomata are effectively shut away from the outside air. As the stomata are situated
on the inner surface of the leaf, the air enclosed by the rolled leaf soon becomes saturated
with water arid the outward water diffusion stops. In Ammophila arenaria, there is tight
upward folding of the leaf and also the sheltered situated of the stomata in furrows, greatly
reduce air movement over stomatal areas. Special motor cells (hinge) on the upper surface of
the leaf are responsible for the inward rolling of leaves. In the xerophytic grasses, the motor
cells are well evolved. (Mader, 2010 ).

Reduced Leaf Surface

In many xerophytes, reduction of the leaf surface partly checks water loss because the total
exposed surface of the plant body is relatively small as compared with that of normal
mesophytes (viz., Casuarina, Asparagus, etc.). In such xerophytes the leaves are either scale-
like or very small in size. Generally, they are not found in the mature plant, or they persist as
small scales or bracts. The reduction of leaf surface is usually accompanied by well-evolved
sclerenchyma, water storage tissue and sunken stomata. Xerophytes, with reduced leaves, are
called micro- phyllous (Kang,et al 2013).

The leaves of many xerophytic grasses roll tightly under dry conditions. In these grasses, the
stomata are confined to the ventral surface of the leaf, so that when the leaf edges roll inward
the stomata are effectively shut away from the outside air. As the stomata are located on the
inner surface of the leaf, the air enclosed by the rolled leaf soon becomes saturated with
water under the outward water diffusion stops. In Ammophila arenaria, there is tight upward
folding of the leaf and also the sheltered location of the stomata in furrows, greatly reduce air
movement over stomatal areas. Special motor cells (hinge) on the upper surface of the leaf
are responsible for the inward rolling of leaves. In the xerophytic grasses, the motor cells are
well developed . (Xunling and Ji, 1999).
Water Storage Tissue
Many fleshy xerophytes contain water storage tissue and mucilaginous substance in them. In
leaves such tissues are situated beneath the upper or the lower epidermis or upon both sides
of the leaf and sometimes in the centre too. The storage cells are visually large and often
thin- walled, as in Begonia. The storage tissue can actually serve as a source of reserve water
during drought. The xerophytes, that possess fleshy leaves or stems, are called
malacophyllous. (Neales et al. 1968).

Abundant Palisade Parenchyma

In the stems of several xerophytes, the palisade tissue is present (e.g., Capparis decidua). In
the xerophytic leaves the palisade is abundant and completely arranged. (Xunling and Ji,
1999).

Latex Tubes
In many xerophytic stems and leaves the laticiferous canals are present (e.g., Calotropis,
Euph: orbia, Asclepias, etc.). Because of viscosity latex the transpiration is reduced to some
extent. . (Xunling and Ji, 1999).

CONCLUSION

In conclusion ,the unique ecological anatomy of xerophytes has resulted in plants developing
structural and physiological adaptations .These specific features in the leaves ,roots and stems
of xerophytes have provided advantages for the plant to live successfully .The adaptations aid
in water balance of xerophytes allowing them to carry out essential life processes, increasing
their chances of survival in their environment. (Neales et al. 1968).
REFERENCES

Fahn, A., & Cutler, D.F., (1992), Xerophytes, Gebruder Borntraeger.

Kang, Jianjun; Duan, Jiaojiao; Wang, Suomin; Zhao, Ming; Yang, Zihui (2013). "Na
compound fertilizer promotes growth and enhances drought resistance of the succulent
xerophyte Haloxylon ammodendron". Soil Science and Plant Nutrition. 59 (2): 289–299.

Mader, S. (2010) Biology (10th Ed), New York: McGraw-Hill Companies

Neales, T.F., Patterson, A.A. & Hartney, V.J., (1968), Physiological adaptation to drought
in the carbon assimilation and water loss of xerophytes, Nature, 219,pp.469–472.

Xunling, W.,& Ji, M., (1992), A study on leaf structure and the biodiversity of xerophytes
ecology adaptation, Acta Ecologica Sinica, 19(6),pp.787-792.