Nuclear Physics

Important Terms in Nuclear Physics

1) Atomic Number: The total number of protons in a nucleus of an atom is called the atomic number. Atomic
number is denoted by Z. In a neutral atom the total number of electrons is equal to the total number of
protons. Therefore, we can tell that atomic number is nothing but the total number of electrons in an atom.
That is Atomic number = Proton number = Electron number

2) Mass Number: The total number of protons and neutrons constituting a nucleus is called mass number.
Mass number is denoted by A. If Z and N are the proton and neutron number of a nucleus, then mass
number A is represented as A = Z + N

3) Isotope: All atoms having same atomic number but different mass number are called isotopes. For example,
16 17 18
8O , 8O and 8O are the isotopes of oxygen. Because all the three atoms of Oxygen have the same atomic
number 8 but their mass number are different.

4) Isobar: Atoms having same mass number but different atomic number are called isobers. For example, 7N16
and 8O16 are isobars of the two elements nitrogen and oxygen having same mass number 16.

5) Isotone: When neutron number same but material has different proton number, then it is known as isotone.
36
S, 37Cl, 38Ar, 39K all are isotones because they have 20 neutrons.

Radioactivity
Henri Becquerel first discovered radioactivity in 1896. Radioactivity is defined as the spontaneous random
emission of particles from within the nucleus of the atom. Spontaneous random means that the particles are
emitted at irregular intervals having no definite pattern and in all possible directions.

The phenomenon of radioactivity was first observed in the elements Uranium and Thorium, these elements
emitting radiation identified as -particles and -particles. The emission of such particles may be accompanied
by the emission of -rays. It is known that all the naturally occurring nuclides with atomic number greater than
80, and a few with smaller atomic number, are radioactive. They are unstable and continuously disintegrating
by emitting - or -particles to come in a stable end product. Until a stable end product is formed radioactive
disintegration is going on. For a radioactive nuclide X, of atomic number Z and mass number A, radioactive
disintegrations may be indicated as
A A-4
ZX Z-2 X + 2He4
A A 0
ZX Z+1 X - -1e

In -particle emission the atomic number of the product nucleus is reduced by 2 from that of the original
nucleus and the mass number is reduced by 4. Beta particle emission increases the atomic number by 1, the
mass number remaining unchanged. For each - or -particle emitted by a radioactive substance one nucleus is
disintegrated.

Alpha decay
In alpha decay, the nucleus emits an alpha particle; an alpha particle is essentially a helium nucleus, so it's a
group of two protons and two neutrons. A helium nucleus is very stable.
An example of an alpha decay involves uranium-238:
238 234
92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 42𝐻𝑒
Beta decay
A beta particle is often an electron, but can also be a positron, a positively-charged particle that is the anti-
matter equivalent of the electron. If an electron is involved, the number of neutrons in the nucleus decreases by
one and the number of protons increases by one. An example of such a process is:
234 234
90𝑇ℎ → 91𝑃𝑎 + −10𝑒

Gamma decay
One of the three main types of radioactive decay is known as gamma decay (γ-decay). During gamma decay,
the energy of the parent atom is changed by the emission of a photon. The resulting energy of the daughter atom
is lower than the parent atom. A photon is a massless particle with a very small wavelength. The energy of the
photon is large and therefore has a large penetration effect. This could lead to serious problems for biological
material, such as human tissue. Examples:

The γ-decay of Plutonium-240.

240 240
94𝑃𝑢 → 94𝑃𝑢 + 00𝛾

In this example, the parent atom is lowered in energy.

Properties of Alpha, Beta and Gamma particles

Alpha particle Beta particle Gamma particle
An alpha particle is helium nucleus A beta particle is very fast moving A gamma particle is a photon that
electron. caries energy in the form of
electromagnetic wave
Positively charged particle Negatively charged particle Charge less particle
Charge value is +2e Charge value is -e Charge value is 0
Mass of an α particle is 6.694×10-27 Mass of a beta particle is 9.1×10-31 γ particle is massless
kg kg
Penetrating power is 100 times less Penetrating power is 100 times Penetrating power is (10-100) times
than β particle greater than α particle greater than β particle
Highest ionizing power due to its Reasonable ionizing power Lowest ionizing power
large mass
Speed is about 5% of the speed of Speed is about 90% of the speed of Speed is equal to the speed of light
light light
Affected by electric and magnetic Affected by electric and magnetic Not Affected by electric and
field field magnetic field

Radioactive Decay Law

Statement: “The rate of disintegration of a radioactive substance is directly proportional to the number of
atoms present at that instant”

Explanation: Let N0 be the number of atoms present in the radioactive sample at t =0 and N be the number of
atoms left after time t. then, the rate of disintegration, dN/dt is proportional to N. so,
 𝑑𝑁
− ∝𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
𝑜𝑟, = −𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡
Where λ is a constant of proportionality called as disintegration constant or decay constant. The – sign indicates
that N decreases as time increases. The number of disintegration per second, dN/dt is called the activity of
radioactive sample. The aove equation can be written as
𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆𝑑𝑡
𝑁
Integrating on both sides, we get

Radioactive decay with time

Decay Constant

This equation is known as decay equation. It shows that number of active nuclei in a radioactive sample
decreases exponentially with time as shown in the figure.

Problem 9:
A radioactive material decreased 108 number of atoms from 1010 number of initial atoms at 20 minutes.
Calculate the disintegration constant.
Solve:
We know, 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 Given: No = 1010 and N = 108
⇒ 𝑁⁄𝑁0 = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 Time, t = 20 min = 1200 sec

108
⇒ = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
1010
⇒ 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 = 0.01
⇒ 𝑒 𝜆𝑡 = 1⁄0.01
⇒ 𝜆𝑡 = ln 100
⇒ 𝜆 = 4.61⁄1200
𝝀 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏

Half Life
The time is taken by a radioactive substance to disintegrate half of its atoms is called the half-life of that
substance. It is denoted by T1/2 or simply T. Its value is different for a different substance.
Relation between half life and decay constant:
Let N0 be the initial number of atoms in a radioactive substance of decay constant λ. Then after time 𝑇1 the
2

number of atoms left behind N0/2. So,

𝑁0
𝑡 = 𝑇1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁 =
2 2
Substituting these values in the equation, 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 , we get
𝑁0 −𝜆𝑇1
= 𝑁0 𝑒 2
2
1 −𝜆𝑇1
=𝑒 2
2
𝜆𝑇1
𝑒 2 =2
𝜆𝑇1 = ln2 = 0.693
2
0.693
𝑇1 =
2 𝜆

Problem 10:
If the disintegration constant is 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏 , then calculate the half life of the radioactive material.

Average Life or Mean Life

The average life or mean life of a radioactive substance is equal to the sum of total life of the atoms divided by
the total number of atoms of element.

sum of life of all the atoms

Mean life = total number of atoms

It can be shown that the mean life of a radioactive substance is equal to the reciprocal of the decay constant.
1
𝜏=
𝜆
0.693
But 𝑇1 = , where 𝑇1 is the half life of the substance
2 𝜆 2

𝑇1
2
𝜏=
0.693

Problem 11:
The half life of Tritium is 12.5 years. After 25 years how many parts of a piece of Tritium will remain
unchanged?
Nuclear Fission
When the nucleus breaks apart, it forms two smaller atoms. Nuclear fission is a process in which nuclei of
heavy elements divides into nuclei of light elements. The nucleus of the element breaks down into two parts.
Fission takes place when the electrical forces are able to overcome the nuclear forces and the nucleus splits.
137
52
Te + 97
40
Zr + 2 01 n;
235
92 U + 1
0 n  236
92
U* 142
56
Ba + 91
36
Kr + 3 01 n; E ~ -2 x 1010 kJ/mol
144
55
Cs + 90
37
Rb + 2 01 n;

Nuclear Fusion
The combination of light nuclei is called nuclear fusion, and tremendous amounts of energy are generated by
such reactions

2
1 H + 3
1 H  4
2 He + 1
0 n; E ~ -1.7 x 109 kJ/mol

Figure: Nuclear fusion reaction

Our Sun
When four hydrogen atoms fuse together they turn into a helium atom. When this happens, some of the energy
that held together the hydrogen atoms is released as heat and light. That's why our sun is so hot and why it
produces so much light. When you're outside on a sunny day, the heat you feel from the sun's rays is actually
made by nuclear fusion!
Comparison chart
Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion
The process in which a heavy nucleus splits up into two The process in which two light nuclei are fuses
or more light nuclei is called nuclear fission together to form a single heavy nucleus is called the
nuclear fusion reaction
It is carried by bombarding the heavy nucleus with It is carried by heating light nuclei at very high
neutron. temperature.
It is a chain reaction It is not a chain reaction
A large amount of energy is released The energy released by fusion is several times
greater than the energy released by fission.
Fission reaction does not normally occur in nature Fusion occurs in stars, such as the sun.
Disposal of nuclear waste is a great environmental Disposal of nuclear waste is involved.
problem
Fission reaction can be controlled Fusion reaction cannot be controlled.
Uranium is the primary fuel for fission reaction Hydrogen isotopes (Deuterium and Tritium) are the
primary fuel for fusion reaction.

Nuclear Fission Reactor

Nuclear Reactor
It is an apparatus in which heat is produced due to nuclear fission chain reaction for the generation of electricity.

Reactor Types

After the war, the United States set up a Civilian Power Reactor Program (CPRP) to coordinate the study of
nuclear reactors for peaceful application of nuclear energy. The Atomic Energy of Canada, Limited was and
still is the Canadian body for nuclear technology applications.

After WW II, CPRP was set up to find out the most economical and safe way to convert fission energy The first
few nuclear reactors were built to study how nuclear reactors function, and perhaps to produce plutonium for
atomic bombs. to electric energy. The Program decided to investigate the following eight types of power
reactors:

 Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR)

 Aqueous Homogeneous Reactors (AHR)
 Heavy Water Moderated Reactors (HWR) (the CANadian Deuterium Uranium (CANDU) reactor)
 Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR)
 Boiling Water Reactors (BWR)
 Organic-Cooled Power Reactors (OCPR)
 Sodium Graphite Reactors (SGR)
 Gas-Cooled Reactors (GCR)
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
PWR is very much popular and it will be established in Rooppor. There are various types of reactors.
A pressurized water reactor (PWR) is the most common type. In a PWR, the reactor fuel is loaded in rods
called fuel rods, which are long thin tubes loaded with the fissionable material [typically enriched uranium
oxide UO2]. The fuel rods are inserted in a pressure vessel, which is filled with water that is under high pressure
to prevent it from boiling. Control rods are also in the vessel and contain a good absorber of neutrons, like
cadmium (Cd) or boron (B). These rods can be moved in or out to control the reaction. The water in the vessel
serves as both a moderator and a means to move hot water to a heat exchanger and eventually to a steam-driven
turbine and an alternator.

Basic Elements of Fission Reactors

Figure shows the Basic elements of fission
reactor or nuclear reactor. These elements can be
listed as-
1. Fuel rods
2. Control rods
3. Moderator
4. Shielding
5. Coolant
6. Safety Management

Description of the Main Component of Nuclear Reactor

1. Fuel roods

It consists of fissionable elements such as 235U, 239Pu etc. Cores generally have shapes of right circular cylinders
with diameters ranging from .5 to 15 metres. Fuel rods made of uranium rods clod in thin sheath of stainless
steel, zirconium or aluminium.

2. Control Rods:
It is made up of heavy mass element. It simply absorbs the neutrons so that it can either maintain or stop a
reaction. Materials with high termal-electron-capture cross section are desirable. Usually, cadmium, boron,
carbon, cobalt, silver, hafnium, and gadolinium are common elements used in control rods.
It has following purposes
i) For starting the reactor.
ii) For maintaining at that level.
iii) For shutting the reactor down under normal or emergency conditions.
3. Moderator Function:
To slow down neutrons from high velocities and hence high energy level which they have on being released
from fission process so that probability of neutron to hit the fuel rods increases. Main moderator used:
1. Water H2O, 2. Heavy water D2O, 3. Graphite, 4. Beryllium.

Properties of Moderator
i) High slowing down power
ii) Non corrosiveness
iii) High MP for solids and low for liquids Chemical and radiation stability
iv) High thermal stability D2O is best for moderator.
4. Shielding
i) Shielding is required to protect the working men from the harmful effects of the radiation.
ii) In fission, alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, slow and fast neutrons are formed in which
gamma rays and fast neutrons are of main significance.
iii) To provide protection against them, thick layers of lead or concrete provided round the reactor.
iv) Thick layers of metals or plastics are sufficient to stop alpha and beta particles.

5. Coolant / heat exchange fluid

To allow the heat produced by the core to be used to turn a turbine, the moderator liquid also acts as a heat
exchange fluid that carries the heat away from the reactor to produce steam, which drives the turbine. The
reactor shown above is the type which has a primary fluid loop of liquid sodium which heats a secondary loop
of water, producing steam to turn the turbine. Commonly used Coolant: Hg, He, CO2, H2O Mostly used gaseous
Coolant is CO2

6. Managing safety
Spent fuel rods that have been depleted in the reactor are extracted and processed or stored. They
are extremely radioactive, making them very difficult to dispose of. The reactor is surrounded by multiple
layers of shielding. There is a graphite shield that reflects neutrons back into the core, followed by a thermal
shield to prevent unwanted heat loss from the core, a pressure vessel surrounding the core to isolate and
contain everything inside the core, and lastly a biological shield of about 3 meters of concrete mixed with
lead pellets, to absorb gamma rays and neutron.