Chapter one

Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics

 Definition
Thermodynamics
is the science primarily deals with energy stems from the
Greek word ,thermo(heat) and dynamics(power)
qThe first law of thermodynamics is simply an expression of the
conservation of energy principle, and it asserts that energy is a
thermodynamic property.
qThe second law of thermodynamics asserts that energy has
quality as well as quantity, and actual processes occur in the
direction of decreasing quality of energy.
 APPLICATION AREA

All activities in nature involve some interaction between energy

and matter; thus, it is hard to imagine an area that does not
relate to thermodynamics in some manner. Therefore,
developing a good understanding of basic principles of
thermodynamics has long been an essential part of engineering
education.
Examples
include the electric or gas range, the heating and air-conditioning
systems, the refrigerator, the humidifier, the pressure cooker,
the water heater, the shower, and even the computer and the
TV. the design and analysis of automotive engines, rockets, jet
engines, and conventional or nuclear power plants, solar
collectors, and the design of vehicles from ordinary cars to
airplanes.
CONTI.

The human body

Air-conditioning Airplanes
systems

Car radiators Power plants Refrigeration systems

CONTI.

Power plant
(or Heat engine
 Dimension and unit system
Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions. The magnitudes
assigned to the dimensions are called units.
Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and temperature T
are selected as primary or fundamental dimensions, while others such as
velocity V, energy E, and volume V are expressed in terms of the primary
dimensions and are called secondary dimensions, or derived dimensions.
Systems and Control Volume (Closed and Open Systems)
Thermodynamic System is defined as a quantity of
matter or a region in space chosen for study.
Surroundings
Everything external to the system (the mass or region outside
the system).
Boundary
ü is Surface that separates the system from the surroundings.
It may be fixed or m ovable, real or im aginary.
ü is contact surface shared by both the system and the
surroundings.
ü Mathematically speaking, the boundary has zero thickness,
and thus it can neither contain any mass nor occupy any
volume in space.
CONTI.

Fig. System, surroundings, and boundary.

CONTI.
Systems may be considered as
v closed system( control mass)
v open system (control volume)
depending on whether a fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is
chosen for study.
A closed system (also known as a control mass) consists of a fixed
amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary.
That is, no mass can enter or leave a closed system, as shown in fig.
below. But energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary;
and the volume of a closed system does not have to be fixed. If, as a
special case, even energy is not allowed to cross the boundary, that
system is called an isolated system.
Conti.
Conti.
open system ( a control volume)
üBoth mass and energy can cross the boundary of
control volume.
ü It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow
such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
Conti.
Properties of a system
Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
Example: pressure (P), temperature( T), volume( V), and mass( m)
Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive

Intensive properties are those that are independent of the mass of a system,
such as temperature, pressure, and density.
Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the size-or extent-of
the system.
Total mass, total volume, and total momentum are some examples of
extensive properties.
An easy way to determine whether a property is intensive or extensive is to
divide the system into two equal parts with an imaginary partition, as shown
in Fig. below. Each part will have the same value of intensive properties as
the original system, but half the value of the extensive properties.
 Conti.

Extensive properties per unit mass Some examples of specific properties are
are called specific properties. specific volume (v = V/ m) and specific total
energy (e =E/ m).
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density is defined as mass per unit volume

The reciprocal of density is the specific volume v, which is defined as

volume per unit mass. That is,
 Conti.
Note that substances with specific gravities less than 1
are lighter than water, and thus they would float on
water.

The weight of a unit volume of a substance is called specific weight and is

expressed as
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM

State
is the condition of the system which is described by a
set of properties (e.g.Temperature,pressure…).
üAt a given state, all the properties of a system have
fixed values.
üIf the value of even one property changes, the state
will change to a different one

Fig. A system at two different states.

Conti.
Equilibrium
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.
Equilibrium
ü implies a state of balance.
ü no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system.
There are many types of equilibrium, example
Thermal equilibrium
A system is in thermal equilibrium if the temperature is the same
throughout the entire system

fig. A closed system reaching thermal

equilibrium.
Conti.
Mechanical equilibrium
A system is in mechanical equilibrium if there is no change in pressure at any
point of the system with time.
Phase equilibrium
A system involves two phases, it is in phase equilibrium when the mass of
each phase reaches an equilibrium level and stays there.
chemical equilibrium
A system is in chemical equilibrium if its chemical composition does not
change with time, that is, no chemical reactions occur.
N.B.A system will not be in equilibrium unless all the relevant
equilibrium criteria are satisfied.
PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Process
any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium
state to another.
Path
the series of states through which a system passes during a
process

To describe a process completely, one

should specify the initial and final states of
the process, as well as the path it follows,
and the interactions with the surroundings.

Fig. A process between states 1and 2 and

the process path.
CONTI.
The state of a system is defined when it is in equilibrium.
non-quasi-equilibrium process
If we change the state very fast it is not in equilibrium during the process (non
-quasi-equilibrium process)
The system is not in equilibrium during the process. States during the process
are undefined. We can only define the initial and final states.
quasi-static process or quasi-equilibrium process(is an ideal process)
If we change state slowly then the system is in equilibrium during the process
(quasi-static process or quasi-equilibrium process)
The system is very near to equilibrium in all successive states during the
process.

Fig.Quasi-equilibrium and non quasi-equilibrium

compression processes.
Conti.
In thermodynamics, we have different processes, such
as
Isothermal process
is a process during which the temperature T remains constant
Iso baric proce ss
is a process during which the pressure P remains constant
Iso choric (or isom etric) proce ss
is a process during which the specific volume v remains
constant.
NOTE: The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for
which a particular property remains constant
A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its
initial state at the end of the process. That is, for a cycle the
initial and final states are identical.
CONTI.
Steady-Flow Process
The terms steady and uniform are used frequently in
engineering,
The term steady implies no change with time. The opposite of
steady is unsteady, or transient.
The term uniform, however, implies no change with location over
a specified region.

A large number of engineering devices operate for long periods of time under
the same conditions, and they are classified as steady-flow devices. Processes
involving such devices can be represented reasonably well by a somewhat
idealized process, called the steady-flow process, which can be defined as a
process during which a fluid flows through a control volume steadily . As
shown in fig.below.
Conti.

Fig. During a steady-flow process, fluid properties within the control

volume may change with position but not with time

In steady flow device, the fluid properties can change from point to
point within the control volume, but at any fixed point they remain the
same during the entire process. Therefore, the volume V, the mass m, and
the total energy content E of the control volume remain constant during a
steady flow process as shown in the fig below.
Conti.

Fig. Under steady-flow conditions, the mass and

energy contents of a control volume remain constant.
TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Temperature: Degree of hotness of coldness

The zeroth law of therm odyn am ics
states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third
body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
is one of the basic law of thermodynamics.
It cannot be concluded from the other laws of thermodynamics,
and it serves as a basis for the validity of temperature
measurement. By replacing the third body with a thermometer,
The zeroth law can be restated as two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even if
they are not in contact.
CONTI.

—T A TB

TC
Conti.
Temperature Scales : To relate temperatures that
we read from different devices we need a standard
scale of temperature
The temperature scales used in the SI and in the English
system today are
ü Celsius scale
üFahrenheit scale
On the Celsius scale, the ice and steam points were
originally assigned the values of 0 and 100°C,respectively.
The corresponding values on the Fahrenheit scale are 32 and
212°F.These are often referred to as two-point scales since
temperature values are assigned at two different points.
Conti.
Thermodynamic(absolute) temperature scale
Ø is temperature scale that is independent of the
properties of any substance or substances.
Ø The thermodynamic temperature scale in the SI is the
Kelvin scale. The temperature unit on this scale is the
Kelvin, which is designated by K (not °K).
The lowest temperature on the Kelvin scale is absolute
zero, or 0 K.
üThermodynamic temperature scale in the English system
is the Rankine scale. The temperature unit on this scale is
the Rankine, which is designated by R.
Conti.
The reference temperature chosen in the original Kelvin
scale was 273.15 K (or 0°C), which is the temperature at
which water freezes (or ice melts) and water exists as a
solid–liquid mixture in equilibrium under standard
atmospheric pressure (the ice point).
The triple point of water (the state at which all three phases of
water coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value
273.16 K(0.01°C).
The boiling temperature of water (the steam point) was
experimentally determined to be again 100.00°C.
CONTI.
Conti.
Conti.
When we are dealing with temperature differences T, the
temperature interval on both scales is the same.
PRESSURE
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.
We speak of pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid.
The counterpart of pressure in solids is norm al stress. Since pressure is
defined as force per unit area, it has the unit of Newton per square
meter (N/ ), which is called a Pascal (Pa). That is,
Conti.
Three other pressure units commonly used in practice, especially
in Europe, are bar, standard atmosphere, and kilogram-force
per square centimeter:
Conti.
The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it
is measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
Most pressure-measuring devices, however, are calibrated to read zero in the
atmosphere as shown in the fig. below, and so they indicate the difference
between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. This
difference is called the gage pressure.
Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures and
are measured by vacuum gages that indicate the difference between the
atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure. Absolute, gage, and
vacuum pressures are all positive quantities and are related to each other by
Conti.
Conti.

Fig. Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures.

Variation of Pressure with Depth
Pressure in a fluid increases with depth because more fluid rests
on deeper layers, and the effect of this “
extra weight”on a
deeper layer is balanced by an increase in pressure

Fig. The pressure of a fluid at rest increases with depth

(as a result of added weight).
Conti.
To prove,
consider a rectangular fluid element of height z, length x,
and unit depth (into the page) in equilibrium, as shown in
Fig. below. Assuming the density of the fluid to be
constant, a force balance in the vertical z-direction gives
Conti.

Fig. Free-body diagram of a rectangular fluid element in equilibrium.

The pressure difference between two points in a constant density fluid is

proportional to the vertical distance z between the points and the density of
the fluid. In other words, pressure in a fluid increases linearly with depth. This is
what a diver experiences when diving deeper in a lake. For a given fluid, the
vertical distance z is sometimes used as a measure of pressure, and it is called the
pressure head.
Conti.
For small to moderate distances, the variation of pressure with height is
negligible for gases because of their low density. The pressure in a tank
containing a gas, for example, can be considered to be uniform since the
weight of the gas is too small to make a significant difference. Also, the
pressure in a room filled with air can be assumed to be constant as shown
in the fig.

Fig.In a room filled with a gas, the variation of pressure with height
is negligible.
Conti.

Fig. Pressure in a liquid at rest increases linearly with distance from the
free
surface.
Conti.
Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape or cross section of the
container. It changes with the vertical distance, but remains constant in
other directions. Therefore, the pressure is the same at all points on a
horizontal plane in a given fluid.

Fig. The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid
regardless of geometry, provided that the points are interconnected by the same fluid.
Conti.
Pascal’
s law
A consequence of the pressure in a fluid remaining constant in the horizontal
direction is that the pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the
pressure throughout by the same amount. This is called Pascal’ s law.
Pascal also knew that the force applied by a fluid is proportional to the surface
area. He realized that two hydraulic cylinders of different areas could be
connected, and the larger could be used to exert a proportionally greater
force than that applied to the smaller. “Pascal’ s machine”has been the
source of many inventions that are a part of our daily lives such as hydraulic
brakes and lifts. This is what enables us to lift a car easily by one arm, as
shown in fig. below.
Conti.

Fig. Lifting of a large weight by a small force by the application

of Pascal’ s law.

,Since both pistons are at the same level (the effect of small height
differences is negligible, especially at high pressures), the ratio of output force to
input force is determined to be
Conti.
Manometer

It is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences. A

manometer mainly consists of a glass or plastic U-tube containing one or
more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil. To keep the size of the
manometer to a manageable level, heavy fluids such as mercury are used if
large pressure differences are anticipated.
since pressure in a fluid does not vary in
the horizontal direction within a fluid, the
pressure at point 2 is the same as the
pressure at point 1,
example
A manometer is used to measure the pressure in a tank. The fluid used has a
specific gravity of 0.85, and the manometer column height is 55 cm, as
shown in Fig. below. If the local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa, determine
the absolute pressure within the tank.

Solution
Conti.
some manometers involve multiple immiscible fluids of different densities
stacked on top of each other.
Conti.
Manometers are particularly well-suited to measure pressure drops
across a horizontal flow section between two specified points

Fig.Measuring the pressure drop across a

flow section or a flow device by a
differential manometer
THE BAROMETER AND ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE

Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the

atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.

FIG. The basic barometer

CONTI.
The pressure at point B is equal to the atmospheric pressure, and the pressure
at C can be taken to be zero since there is only mercury vapor above point C
and the pressure is very low relative to and can be neglected to an
excellent approximation. Writing a force balance in the vertical direction
gives