1 Bme
1 Bme
1 Bme
Internal Energy: The Internal Energy (U) of a system is the total energy content of the system. It is
the sum of the kinetic, potential, chemical, electrical, and all other forms of energy possessed by the
atoms and molecules of the system. The Internal Energy (U) is path independent and depends only
on temperature for an ideal gas. Internal energy may be stored in the system in following forms:
Kinetic energy of molecules
Molecular vibrations and rotations
Chemical bonds that can be released during chemical reaction
Potential energy of the constituents of the system
Work: Work in thermodynamics may be defined as any quantity of energy that flows across the
boundary between the system and surroundings which can be used to change the height of a mass
in the surroundings.
Heat: Heat is defined as the quantity of energy that flows across the boundary between the system
and surroundings because of a temperature difference between system and surroundings. The
characteristics of heat are as follows:
Heat is transitory and appears during a change in state of the system and surroundings. It is
not a point function.
The net effect of heat is to change the internal energy of the system and surroundings in
accordance to first law.
If heat is transferred to the system, it is positive and if it is transferred from the system it is
negative.
Enthalpy: Enthalpy, h, of a substance is defined as h = u + PV. It is intensive properties of a substance
and measured in terms of kJ/kg.
1.3 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
1.3.1 Specific Heat at Constant Volume (Cv)
The rate of change of internal energy with respect to absolute temperature at constant volume is
known as specific heat at constant volume (Cv).
Enthalpy is sum of internal energy and product of pressure and volume, i.e., h = u + PV. But
Q = u + PdV = u + (PV) = (u + PV) = h
since dP = 0 at constant pressure.
1.3.2 Specific Heat at Constant Pressure (C)
The rate of change of enthalpy with respect to absolute temperature when pressure is constant is
known as specific heat at constant pressure (Cp).
where m is mass of the system, v is velocity of the system, h is height from reference point, and U is
internal energy of the system. The change in the total energy E of a stationary system is equal to the
change in its internal energy, U since the changes in kinetic, and potential energies in stationary
close system are negligible.
1.4.3 Physical Interpretation of Internal Energy
Internal energy can be defined as the sum of all the microscopic forms of energy of a system. It is
related to the molecular structure and the degree of activities at molecular level and can be viewed
as the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the molecules. Let us consider a system for
analysis of internal energy at molecular level. Due to different type of movements of molecules, such
as translational, rotational, and vibrational, kinetic energy in the system is developed.
Vibrational motion of the molecules becomes more significant at higher temperature. If we analyse
the system at atomic level, the fundamental particles rotate in their orbits around the nucleus and
also spin about their own axis. Thus, rotational kinetic energy and spin energy are associates with
the system. The part of internal energy associated with the kinetic energy is known as sensible
energy and proportional to the temperature of the system. At higher temperature, degree of activity
at molecular level will be larger and system will have higher internal energy.
Internal energy may be presented in the form of binding force at atomic level. If external energy is
supplied to break the bond and to change the phase from solid to liquid or liquid to solid, a certain
amount of energy is stored as latent energy. This latent energy represents internal energy of the
system. Similarly, it may be associated with nuclear and some other forms of energy in the system.
1.4.4 Energy Transfer Across the System Boundary (Heat and Work)
Energy transfer across the boundary of a closed system may occur in the form of heat and work.
When a closed system is left in a medium of different temperature, energy transfer takes place
between the system and the surrounding until thermal equilibrium is reached. The direction of
energy transfer is always from the higher temperature side to the lower temperature side. Once the
temperature equilibrium is established, energy transfer stops. In the processes described earlier,
energy is said to be transferred in the form of heat. Heat is defined as the form of energy that is
transferred between two systems or between a system and its surroundings by virtue of a
temperature difference.
During adiabatic process heat transfer is negligible. A process can be adiabatic when either the
system is well insulated so that only a negligible amount of heat can pass through the boundary or
both the system and the surroundings are at the same temperature. Even though there is no heat
transfer during an adiabatic process, the energy content, and thus the temperature of a system can
still be changed by other means such as work, i.e., the heat can be transformed into work. If the
energy crossing the boundary of a closed system is not heat, it must be work. Heat is easy to
recognize as its driving force is a temperature difference between the system and its surroundings.
Then we can simply say that an energy interaction that is not caused by a temperature difference
between a system and its surroundings is work.
Sign Conventions for Heat and Work Interaction
Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the complete description of a heat or work
interaction requires the specification of both the magnitude and direction. One way of doing that is
to adopt a sign convention. The generally accepted formal sign convention for heat and work
interactions is as follows:
Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are positive.
Heat transfer from a system and work done on a system are negative.
Similarity Between Heat and Work
Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms between a system and its surroundings. Some of the
similarities between heat and work are as follows:
Heat and work are boundary phenomena.
Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.
Both are associated with a process, not a state.
Both are path functions.
1.4.5 Non-flow Processes
The various non-flow processes and their characteristics are shown in Figure 1.3.
Adiabatic Process
In this process, heat transfer is equal to zero.
Work done during adiabatic process
Polytropic Process
In this process, the law is governed by PVn = constant.
Work done during adiabatic process
Example 1.3: A system undergoes the cyclic process abcde. The values of Q, W, and u for the
individual process are as follows:
Solution:
2.
3.
4.
5.
Example 1.6: A cylinder consists of a frictionless spring loaded piston as shown in Figure 1.5; the
pressure of gas at an instant is 5 bar. The spring force exerted on the piston is proportional to the
volume of gas. Also, additional atmospheric pressure of 1 bar acts on spring side of piston as shown
in Figure 1.5. Calculate the work done by gas in expansion from 0.2 to 0.8 m3.
Figure 1.5 Cylinder Piston Arrangement
Solution:
The pressure exerted on spring by the piston,
Example 1.7: A cylinder fitted with a piston has an initial volume of 0.1 m3 and contains nitrogen at
150 kPa, 25C. The piston is moved compressing the nitrogen until the pressure becomes 1 MPa and
temperature becomes 150C. During the compression process heat is transferred from nitrogen and
work done on nitrogen is 20 kJ. Determine the amount of this heat transfer. Assume R = 2,968 J/kg K
and Cv = 743 J/kg.
Solution:
Example 1.8: Figure 1.6 shows two reversible process a b c a and a d c a. Change in
internal energy from c to a is 50 kJ and work done by the system during the process a d is 30 kJ.
Find
2.
3.
Example 1.9: A hydraulic brake is used to test an engine at speed of 1,200 rpm. The measured
torque of the engine is 15,000 N m and the water flow rate is 0.8 m 3/s, its inlet temperature is 15C.
Calculate the water temperature at exit, assuming that the whole of the engine power is ultimately
transformed into heat which is absorbed by the water flow.
Solution:
Example 1.10: In a cyclic process, amount of heat transfers are given as 15J, 27, 4 and 32 kJ.
Calculate the net work done in the cyclic process.
Solution:
Example 1.11: In a cyclic process, an engine engages in two work interactions: 18 kJ to the fluid and
48 kJ from the fluid, and two heat interactions out of three are given as: 80 kJ to the fluid and 44 kJ
from the fluid. Find the magnitude and direction of the third heat transfer.
Solution:
Example 1.12: During a certain period of analysis, a refrigerator consuming the energy at the rate of
1.5 kJ/h loses internal energy of its system by 4,500 kJ. Calculate the heat transfer for the system for
that period.
Solution:
Example 1.13: Two kilograms of water having a constant specific heat 4.18 kJ/kg K is stirred in a well-
insulated jar results in rise of temperature by 18C. Find the u and W of the process.
Solution:
1.4.6 Application of First Law of Thermodynamics in Steady Flow Process and Variable Flow
Process
Steady Flow Process
In a steady flow process, thermodynamic properties at any section remain constant with respect to
time; it can vary only with respect to space. A schematic diagram of steady flow process is shown
in Figure 1.7.
This is known as steady flow energy equation (SFEE) for single stream.
Variable Flow Process
In some flow process, mass flow rate is not steady but varies with respect to time. In such a case, the
difference in energy flow is stored in system as Ev.
Rate of energy increase = Rate of energy inflow Rate of energy outflow
Example 1.14: An air conditioning system, as shown in Figure 1.8, handling 1 kg/s of air at 37C and
consumes a power of 20 kW and rejects heat of 38 kW. The inlet and outlet velocities of air are 50
and 80 m/s, respectively. Find the exit air temperature, assuming adiabatic conditions. Take Cp of air
as 1.005 kJ/kg.
Example 1.15: In a cooling tower of a power plant (Figure 1.9), air enters at a height of 1 m above
the ground and leaves at 8 m. The inlet and outlet velocities are 18 and 27 m/s, respectively. Water
enters at a height of 10 m and leaves at a height of 0.5 m. The velocity of water at entry and exit are
5 and 1.5 m/s, respectively. Water temperatures are 85 and 42C at inlet and exit, respectively. Air
temperatures are 27 and 70C at entry and exit, respectively. The cooling tower is fully insulated and
a fan of 2.5 kW drives air through the cooler. Find the air per second required for 1 kg/s of water
flow. The values of Cp of air and water are 1.005 and 4.18 kJ/kg K, respectively.
Example 1.16: In a centrifugal air compressor, initial pressure, and specific volume are 1 bar and 1
m3/kg, respectively. The air flow rate is 30 kg/min. Heat liberated to atmosphere from compressor is
100 kW and inlet velocity of air = 10 m/s, outlet velocity of air = 5 m/s. Find
1. Compressor work.
2. Ratio of inlet and outlet area, if internal energy at outlet is 100 kJ more than that of inlet.
Solve the problem using SFEE.
Solution:
1.
2.
Example 1.17: Air enters in a compressor at the rate of 0.5 kg/s, at 8 m/s with a pressure of 1 bar
and a specific volume of 0.85 m3/kg, and leaving at 5 m/s with a pressure of 6 bar and a specific
volume of 0.2 m3/kg (Figure 1.10). The internal energy of the air leaving is 80 kJ/kg greater than that
of the air entering. Cooling water in a jacket surrounding the cylinder absorbs heat from the air at
the rate of 70 W. Calculate the power required to drive the compressor and the inlet, and outlet
cross-sectional areas.
Solution:
Figure 1.12 The Violation of the KelvinPlanck Statement Leads to Violation of Clausius
1.5.3 Equivalence of KelvinPlanck and Clausius Statement
Violation of KelvinPlank Statement by Violating Clausius Statement
From Figure 1.13 (a) let us assume that a heat pump receives heat QL from low temperature
reservoir at TL and supplies it to high temperature sink at TH without any external work, thus
violating the Clausius statement. A larger quantity of heat (QH + QL) is supplied to heat engine (by
high temperature source at TH) which produces net work output, Wnet, equal to QHand rejects an
amount of heat, QL, to low temperature reservoir. The composite of two devices is shown in Figure
1.13 (b). It shows that the heat pump helps the heat QL to flow from low temperature reservoir to
high temperature reservoir, whereas the heat engine supplies back heat QL from high temperature
reservoir to low temperature thermal energy reservoir. The equivalent system receives heat QH from
high temperature reservoir and produces an equivalent amount of work, as shown is Figure 1.13 (c).
The efficiency of an irreversible (real) cycle is always less than the efficiency of the Carnot cycle
operating between the same two reservoirs.
Carnot Corollaries
The two corollaries of the second law known as Carnot corollaries:
1. The thermal efficiency of an irreversible power cycle is always less than the thermal
efficiency of a reversible power cycle when each operates between the same two thermal
reservoirs.
2. All reversible power cycles operating between the same two thermal reservoirs have the
same thermal efficiency.
1.8 THE CLAUSIUS INEQUALITY
The Clausius inequality is given by the equation
where Q represents the heat transfer at a part of the system boundary during a portion of the
cycle, and T is the absolute temperature at that part of the boundary. The symbol is used to
distinguish the differentials of non-properties, such as heat and work, from the differentials of
properties, written with the symbol . The subscript b indicates that the integrand is evaluated at
the boundary of the system executing the cycle. The symbol indicates that the integral is to be
performed over all parts of the boundary and over the entire cycle. The Clausius inequality can be
demonstrated using the KelvinPlanck statement of the second law, and the significance of the
inequality is the same: the equality applies when there are no internal irreversibilities as the system
executes the cycle, and the inequality applies when internal irreversibilities are present.
The Clausius inequality can be expressed alternatively as
where Sgen can be viewed as representing the strength of the inequality. The value of Sgen is positive
when internal irreversibilities are there and zero when no internal irreversibilities are
there; Sgen cannot be negative. Thus, Sgen is a measure of the irreversibilities within the system
executing the cycle.
1.9 ENTROPY AND ENTROPY GENERATION
1.9.1 Entropy
Defining entropy in an exact word or line is impossible. It can be viewed as a measure of molecular
disorder or molecular randomness. As a system becomes more disordered, the positions of the
molecules become less predictable and the entropy increases. Thus, the entropy of a substance is
lowest in the solid phase and highest in the gas phase. Heat is, in essence, a form of disorganized
energy, and some disorganization (entropy) will flow with heat. Work instead is an organized form of
energy and is free of disorder or randomness, and thus free of entropy. There is no entropy transfer
associated with energy transfer as work. Unlike energy, entropy is a non-conserved property.
In terms of rate:
For an adiabatic system (when dQ = 0):
2.
Example 1.18: A heat engine having an efficiency of 35% is used to run a refrigerator of COP of 4,
what is the heat input into the each MJ removed from the cold body by the refrigerator? If this
system is used as a heat pump (Figure 1.16), how many MJ of heat would be available for heating for
each MJ of heat input to the engine?
Example 1.19: A heat pump working on a Carnot cycle takes in heat from a reservoir at 8C and
delivers heat to the reservoir at 50C. The heat pump is driven by a reversible heat engine taking
heat from a reservoir at 850C and rejecting heat to reservoir at 50C (Figure 1.17). The reversible
heat engine also drives a machine of input required of 25 kW. If the heat pump extracts 15 kJ/sec
from the 8C reservoir, determine (a) the rate of heat supply from the 850C source, and (b) the rate
of heat rejection to 50C sink.
Example 1.20: A reversible heat engine as shown in Figure 1.18 during a cycle of operation draws 5
MJ from the 400 K reservoir and does 840 kJ work. Find the amount and direction of heat interaction
with other reservoirs.
Example 1.21: Two blocks of metal each of mass M and specific heat C, initially at absolute
temperature T1 and T2, respectively, brought to the same final temperature Tf by means of reversible
process. Derive an expression for the amount of work obtained during the process in terms of M, C,
T1 and T2.
Solution:
Let T1 > T2 and final temperature be Tf.
For reversible process, total entropy = 0
Example 1.22: An insulated tank of 1 m3 volume contains air at 0.1 MPa and 300 K. The tank is
connected to high pressure line in which air at 1 MPa and 600 K flows. The tank is quickly filled with
air by opening the valve between the tank and high pressure line. If the final pressure of air in tank is
1 MPa (Figure 1.19), determine the mass of air which enters the tank and the entropy change
associated with filling process. Take universal gas constant = 8.314 kJ/kg mole K.
Example 1.24: Calculate the entropy change when 5 kg of water at 20C is mixed with 5 kg of water
at 100C. The specific heat of water is 4.18 kJ/kg.
Solution:
Let Tf is final temperature
P1V1 = P2V2
where P1 and V1 are pressure and volume, respectively, at condition 1 and P2 and V2 are pressure
and volume, respectively, at condition 2.
Example 1.25: A sample of nitrogen collected in the laboratory occupies a volume of 720 ml at a
pressure of 1 atm. What volume will the gas occupy at a pressure of 2 atm, assuming the
temperature remains constant?
Solution:
Given: V1 = 720 ml; P1 = 1 atm; P2 = 2 atm; V2 = ?
where T1 and V1 are absolute temperature and volume, respectively, at condition 1 and T2 and V2 are
absolute temperature and volume, respectively, at condition 2.
Example 1.26: A container of a gas has a volume of 360 ml at a temperature of 20C. What volume
will the gas occupy at 60C?
Solution:
Given: V1 = 360 ml; T1 =273 + 20 = 293 K; T2 = 273 + 60 = 333 K; V2 = ?.
Example 1.28: A sample of a gas has a volume of 80.0 ml at a pressure of 1 atm and a temperature
of 20C. What volume will the gas occupy at 1.5 atm and 45C?
Solution:
Given: V1 = 80 ml; P1 = 1 atm; T1 = 273 + 20 = 293 K; P2 = 1.5 atm; T2 = 273 + 45 = 318 K; V2= ?
This constant can be calculated by using the above values in this law.
When the values of 22.4 l and 273 degrees Kelvin are applied, the value of R is found to be
If we use CGS units, P will be expressed in dynes per square cm, V is the volume of a mole (i.e., the
volume occupied by 6.0221 1023 molecules) and the value of the universal gas constant is 8.3145
107 erg/mole K. If we use SI units, P will be expressed in Pascal (N/m2), V will be the volume of a
kilomole (i.e., the volume occupied by 6.0221 1026 molecules) and the value of the universal gas
constant is 8.3145 103 J/kilomole K.
SUMMARY
The chapter can be summarized as follows:
Thermodynamics is a branch of science that deals with conversion of energy from one form
to another form.
System is the subject of the investigation which is a fixed quantity of matter and/or a region
that can be separated from everything else by a well-defined boundary/surface.
The defining surface is known as the control surface or system boundary.
The control surface may be movable or fixed. Everything beyond the system is
the surroundings.
The system plus surroundings both jointly known as universe.
At any instant of time, the condition of a system is called state.
The state at a given instant of time is defined by the properties of the system such as
pressure, volume, temperature, etc.
There are two types of propertiesextensive and intensive.
Extensive properties depend on the size or mass of the system. Volume, mass, energy, and
entropy are examples of extensive properties.
An extensive property is additive in the sense that its value for the whole system equals the
sum of the values for its molecules.
Intensive properties are independent of the size or extent of the system. Pressure and
temperature are examples of intensive properties.
When any property of a system changes in value there is a change in state, and the system is
said to undergo a process.
When a system from a given initial state goes into a sequence of processes and finally
returns to its initial state, it is said to have undergone a cycle.
Phase refers to a quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout in its chemical
composition and physical structure.
In thermodynamics the concept of equilibrium includes not only a balance of forces, but also
a balance of other influencing factors, such as thermal equilibrium, pressure equilibrium,
phase equilibrium, etc.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics is law of thermal equilibrium; it states that if a system A is in
thermal equilibrium with systems B and C, then systems B and C will be in thermal
equilibrium.
When a process proceeds in such a way that the system remains infinitesimally close to an
equilibrium state at all times, it is call a quasi-static process.
Temperature is a property of a substance by which it can be differentiate from other
substance in terms of degree of hot or cold.
The Internal Energy (U) of a system is the total energy content of the system.
Work in thermodynamics may be defined as any quantity of energy that flows across the
boundary between the system and surroundings.
Heat is defined as the quantity of energy that flows across the boundary between the
system and surroundings because of a temperature difference between system and
surroundings.
Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are positive.
Heat transfer from a system and work done on a system are negative.
The rate of change of internal energy with respect to absolute temperature at constant
volume is known as specific heat at constant volume.
The rate of change of enthalpy with respect to absolute temperature when pressure is
constant is known as specific heat at constant pressure.
First law of thermodynamics: (a) When a small amount of work (dw) is supplied to a closed
system undergoing a cycle, the work supplied will be equal to the heat transfer or heat
produced (dQ) in the system. (b) If Q amount of heat is given to a system undergoing a
change of state and W is work done by the system and transferred during the process, the
net energy (Q W) will be stored in the system named as internal energy or simply energy of
the system (U).
In a steady flow process, thermodynamic properties at any section remain constant with
respect to time; it can vary only with respect to space.
In some flow process mass flow rate is not steady but varies with respect to time. In such a
case, the difference in energy flow is stored in system as Ev.
Second law of thermodynamics: The KelvinPlanck statement of the second law can be given
as: It is impossible for any system to operate in a thermodynamic cycle and deliver a net
amount of energy by work to its surroundings while receiving energy by heat transfer from a
single thermal reservoir.
It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect other
than the transfer of heat from a lower temperature body to higher temperature body.
A process is said to be reversible if it is possible for its effects to be eradicated in the sense
that there is some way by which both the system and its surroundings can be exactly
restored to their respective initial states. (It is not physically possible; it is an idealization.)
A process is irreversible if there is no means by which the system and its surroundings can be
exactly restored to their respective initial states.
The thermal efficiency of an irreversible power cycle is always less than the thermal
efficiency of a reversible power cycle when each operates between the same two thermal
reservoirs.
All reversible power cycles operating between the same two thermal reservoirs have the
same thermal efficiency.
Entropy is degree of measurement of disorderness of a system.
Third law of thermodynamics states that it is impossible to reduce any system to absolute
zero in a finite series of operations.
Boyles law states that the volume and pressure of a sample of gas are inversely proportional
to each other at constant temperature.
Charless law states that the volume of a sample of gas is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature when pressure remains constant.
GayLussacs law states that the pressure of a sample of gas is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature when volume remains constant.
The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy of a system and
is denoted by U.
Due to different type of movements of molecules, such as translational, rotational and
vibrational, kinetic energy in the system is developed.
Internal energy may be presented in the form of binding force at atomic level.
If external energy is supplied to break the bond and to change the phase from solid to liquid
or liquid to solid, a certain amount of energy is stored as latent energy. This latent energy
represents internal energy of the system.
In constant volume process, work done is equal to zero.
In adiabatic process, heat transfer is equal to zero.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. A closed system is one, which
a) permits the passage of energy and matter across boundaries
b) does not permit the passage of energy and matter across boundaries
c) permits the passage of energy but does not permit the passage of matter
d) does not permit the passage of energy but permits the matter
2. An isolated system is one, which
a) permits the passage of energy and matter across boundaries
b) permits passage of energy only
c) does not permit the passage of energy and matter across boundaries
d) permits the passage of matter only
3. A system comprising of single phase is known as
a) open system
b) closed system
c) homogeneous system
d) heterogeneous system
4. Control volume refers to
a) a specified mass
b) a fixed region in space
c) a closed system
d) none of the above
5. Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
a) by unit degree of a substance
b) by unit degree of a unit mass
c) of a unit mass by 5C
d) none of these
6. Internal energy of a perfect gas depends upon
a) temperature only
b) temperature and pressure
c) temperature, pressure and specific heats
d) none of these
7. For a closed system, the difference between the heat added to the system and work done by the
gas is equal to the change in
a) enthalpy
b) entropy
c) internal energy
d) temperature
8. The properties of the system, whose value for the entire system is equal to the sum of their
values for individual parts of the system, are known as
a) thermodynamic properties
b) extensive properties
c) intensive properties
d) none of the above
9. Temperature of a system is
a) thermodynamic properties
b) extensive properties
c) intensive properties
d) none of the above
10. When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other
a) zeroth law of thermodynamics
b) first law of thermodynamics
c) second law of thermodynamics
d) none of the above
11. The measurement of thermodynamic properties known as temperature is based on
a) zeroth law of thermodynamics
b) first law of thermodynamics
c) second law of thermodynamics
d) none of the above
12. Heat and work are mutually convertible. This statement is
a) zeroth law of thermodynamics
b) first law of thermodynamics
c) second law of thermodynamics
d) none of the above
13. Second law of thermodynamics defines
a) enthalpy
b) entropy
c) heat
d) work
14. KelvinPlancks law deals with
a) conversion of work into heat
b) conversion of heat into work
c) conservation of work
d) conservation of heat
15. According to KelvinPlancks statement, a perpetual motion machine
a) of first kind is possible
b) of first kind is impossible
c) of second kind is impossible
d) of second kind is possible
16. A perpetual motion machine of the first kind, i.e., a machine which produces power without
consuming any energy is
a) possible according to the first law of thermodynamics
b) impossible according to first law of thermodynamics
c) impossible according to second law of thermodynamics
d) possible according to second law of thermodynamics
17. Heat flows from cold substance to hot substance with the aid of external work. This statement is
given by
a) Kelvin
b) Joule
c) Gay Lussac
d) Clausius
18. Specific heat at constant volume is given by
a)
b)
c)
d)
19. Specific heat at constant pressure is given by
a)
b)
c)
d)
20. The condition for reversibility of a cycle is
a)
b)
c)
d) none of the above
21. The condition for irreversibility of a cycle is
a)
b)
c)
d) none of the above