Basics of Electronic

Engine Control
Subject: Automotive Electronics
Course Code: (18UECO632)
Semester: VI(A )
Academic Year: 2021-22
Course Instructor: Dr. Vyas R Murnal
Assistant Professor
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Dept of ECE, SDMCET, Dharwad
 Motivation for Electronic Engine Control
• Engine control means regulating fuel and air intake as well as
spark timing to achieve desired performance in the form of torque
or power output.
• Electronic control systems were introduced in 1970s.
• Came in part from two US government requirements
1. Legislation to regulate automobile exhaust emissions under
the authority of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
2. Thrust to improve the national average fuel economy by
government regulation.

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Q) Why did Auto Manufacturers move to electronic controls??

• Auto manufacturers found that the traditional engine controls could not
control the engine sufficiently to meet these emission limits and maintain
adequate engine performance at the same time, so they turned to electronic
controls.

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Exhaust Emissions:
• Exhaust consists of products of combustion of the air and
gasoline(hydrocarbons) mixture
• Gasoline also contains natural impurities as well as chemicals added by the
refiner
• If combustion is perfect, the exhaust gases would consist only of carbon
dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), neither of which is considered harmful to
human health in the atmosphere
• Unfortunately, the combustion of the SI engine is not perfect.
• Imperfect combustion leads to emission of carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of
nitrogen (chemical unions of nitrogen and oxygen that are denoted NOx),
unburned hydrocarbons (HC) - oxides of sulfur, and other compounds –
many are harmful
• The exhaust emissions controlled by government standards are CO, HC, and
NOx.
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 Exhaust Emissions Chemical Composition of a Car's Exhaust Gas

• CO binds to haemoglobin
stopping the oxygen transport in
the blood. Poisoning is lethal
within a short time.

• NO oxidizes rapidly in the air

to NO2, a poisonous, cough-
inducing gas. Above 21 °C, N2O4,
a corrosive and strongly oxidizing
gas, is produced

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Fuel Economy:
• Number of miles that can be driven for each gallon of gasoline consumed -
miles per gallon (MPG) or simply mileage. i.e. number of kilometers driven
for each liter of petrol( KMPL)
• Electronic engine control has ability to improve fuel economy.
• Mileage depends on size, shape, weight, and how the car is driven.
• Best mileage is achieved under steady cruise conditions
• City driving, with many starts and stops, yields worse mileage than steady
highway driving.
• The US government fuel economy standards are stated in terms of the
average rated miles per gallon fuel mileage for the production of all models
by a manufacturer for any year (known in the automotive industry by the
acronym CAFÉ (corporate average fuel economy).
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US Federal Government Test Procedures
• Chassis dynamometer is a test stand that holds a vehicle such as a car or
truck. Is equipped with instruments capable of measuring the power that
is delivered at the drive wheels of the vehicle under various conditions.
• The vehicle is held on the dynamometer so that it cannot move when
power is applied to the drive wheels.

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• Drive wheels are in contact with two large rollers.
• One roller is mechanically coupled to an electric generator that can vary the
load on its electrical output.
• Generator absorbs all mechanical power that is delivered at the drive wheels,
and the horsepower is calculated from the electrical output.
• The other roller has instruments to measure and record the vehicle speed.

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Chassis Dynamometer

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Schematic representation of a chassis dynamometer emissions
test facility

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• The controls of the dynamometer can be set to simulate the
correct load(including the effects of tire rolling resistance and
aerodynamic drag) and inertia of the vehicle moving along a road
under various conditions.
• The vehicle is operated according to a prescribed schedule of
speed and load to simulate the specified trip. One is an urban trip
and one is a highway trip.

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Highway

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• During the operation of the vehicle in the urban test, the exhaust is
continuously collected and sampled. At the end of the test, the absolute
mass of each of the regulated exhaust gases is determined.
• The regulations are stated in terms of the total mass of each exhaust gas
divided by the total distance of the simulated trip.
• Each manufacturer must determine the fuel consumption in MPG for each
type of vehicle and must compute the corporate average mileage for all
vehicles of all types produced in a year.
• Present-day regulations affect not only passenger cars but also light utility
vehicles and both heavy- and light-duty trucks.
• Different Regulations apply to a variety of fuels, including gasoline,
diesel, natural gas, and alcohol-based fuels involving mixtures of gasoline
with methanol or ethanol.
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INDIA BHARAT STAGE(BS) VI EMISSION STANDARDS
• On February 19, 2016, the Indian Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
(MoRTH) issued a draft notification of Bharat Stage (BS) VI emission standards
for all major on-road vehicle categories in India. The standards apply to light-
and heavy duty vehicles, as well as two- and three-wheeled vehicles. As
proposed, the BS VI standards will go into effect for all vehicles in these
categories manufactured on or after April 1, 2020. The draft BS VI proposal
specifies mass emission standards, type approval requirements, and on-
board diagnostic (OBD) system and durability levels for each vehicle
category and sub-classes.

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• Meeting the government regulations using mechanical systems
 Causes some sacrifice in performance
Vehicles not being cost effective
Cannot reproduce functions with sufficient accuracy across a range of
production vehicles, over all operating conditions, and over the life of the
vehicle to stay within the tolerance required by the EPA regulations.

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• The Role of Electronics
Use of digital electronic control has enabled automakers to meet the
government regulations by controlling the system accurately with excellent
tolerance.
System has long-term calibration stability
System is very flexible. Because it uses microcomputers, it can be modified
through programming changes to meet a variety of different vehicle/engine
combinations.
There is a cost incentive to use digital electronic control. The system
components—the multifunction digital integrated circuits—are decreasing in
cost, thus decreasing the system cost.

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CONCEPT OF AN ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEM
• Throttle directly regulates the power produced
by the engine at any operating condition, by
controlling the air flow into the engine.
• Engine is like an air pump such that at any RPM
the mass flow rate of air into the engine varies
directly with throttle plate angular position
• As the driver depresses the accelerator pedal,
the throttle angle θ increases, which increases
the cross-sectional area through which the air
flows, reducing the resistance to air flow and
thereby allowing an increased air flow into the
engine.

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• Role of fuel control is to regulate the fuel that is mixed with the air so that it
increases in proportion to the air flow
• The performance of the engine is affected strongly by the mixture (i.e., by
the ratio of air to fuel)
• The power produced by the engine is directly proportional to the mass flow
rate of air into the engine.
Pb = KMA
where
Pb = power from the engine (hp or kw)
MA = mass air flow rate (kg/hr)
K = constant relating power to air flow (hp/kg/hr)
 In U.S. system of units, an air flow rate of 6lb/hr produces 1 horsepower of
usable mechanical power at output of engine.
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Electronic Engine Control System
• Is an assembly of electronic and electromechanical components that
continuously varies the fuel and spark settings in order to satisfy
government exhaust emission and fuel economy regulations.

• ECU receives input electrical signals from the various sensors that measure
the state of the engine.
• The controller generates output electrical signals to the actuators that
determine the engine calibration (i.e., correct fuel delivery and spark
timing).
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Engine Functions and Control

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• Fuel metering system to set the air–fuel mixture flowing into the engine
through the intake manifold.
• Spark control determines when the air–fuel mixture is ignited after it is
compressed in the cylinders of the engine.
• The power is delivered at the driveshaft, and the gases that result from
combustion flow out of the exhaust system.
• In the exhaust system, there is a valve to control the amount of exhaust gas
being recirculated back to the input, and a catalytic converter to further
control emissions.

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DEFINITION OF GENERAL TERMS
• Parameters: A numerical value of some engine
dimension that is fixed by design.
Examples:
Piston diameter(bore), the distance the piston travels
on one stroke (stroke), length of the crankshaft lever
arm (throw),
 Displacement is the total volume of air that is
displaced as the engine rotates through two
complete revolutions (bore and stroke determine the
cylinder volume and the displacement)
 Compression ratio is the ratio of cylinder volume at
BDC to the volume at TDC
 Other parameters are combustion chamber shape,
camshaft cam profile, intake and exhaust valve size,
and valve timing 30
• Variables: A quantity that changes or may be changed as the engine
operates, typically under the control of the electronic control system
Examples:
Mass air flow rate, fuel flow rate, spark timing, power, intake manifold
pressure
• Major physical quantities that are sensed and provided to the electronic
controller as inputs are as follows: Major Controller Inputs from Engine
1. Throttle position sensor (TPS)
2. Mass air flow rate (MAF)
3. Engine temperature (coolant
temperature) (CT)
4. Engine speed (RPM) and angular position
5. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) valve position
6. Exhaust gas oxygen (EGO) concentration 31
Major physical quantities that are outputs from the controller are
1. Fuel metering control
2. Ignition control
3. Ignition timing
4. Exhaust gas recirculation control

Major Controller Outputs to Engine

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 DEFINITION OF ENGINE PERFORMANCE TERMS

Power: Rate at which the engine is doing useful work

 Normally given in kW(Kilowatts) or hp(horsepower)
 Varies with engine speed and throttle angle
 May be measured at the drive wheels or at the engine output
shaft(useful)
 Engine dynamometer is used at the engine output shaft to measure
the power

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Brake power
Power delivered by the engine to the dynamometer is called the
brake power and is designated Pb
Brake power of an engine is always less than the total amount of
power that is actually developed in the engine
 Total amount of power that is actually developed in the engine is
called the indicated power of the engine and is denoted Pi.
Loss of power in the engine is due to friction between cylinders and
pistons, and other friction losses
- Pb always lesser than Pi
i.e. Pb = Pi – friction and other losses
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BSFC (Brake-Specific Fuel Consumption )

 Ratio of the fuel flow rate (rf ) to the brake power output (Pb)
BSFC = rf / Pb
Engine is typically operated at a fixed RPM and a fixed brake power
(fixed dynamometer load), and the fuel flow rate (in kg/hr) is
measured.
Units for BSFC are kg/hr/horsepower
 By improving the BSFC of the engine, the fuel economy is improved

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Volumetric Efficiency (Breathing efficiency)
Describes how well the engine functions as an air pump, drawing
air and fuel into the various cylinders
Ratio of actual volume of air-fuel mixture filled inside to its
theoretical value that can be filled.
Depends on various engine design parameters such as piston size,
piston stroke, and number of cylinders and strongly influenced by
camshaft design
Variation in torque with RPM is strongly influenced by the
volumetric efficiency

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Engine Torque:
Twisting action produced on the
crankshaft by the cylinder pressure
pushing on the piston during
the power stroke
Torque is produced whenever a force
is applied to a lever
Torque is the product of this force and
the length of the lever
 Unit in N.m (newton meters)
 Length of the lever in the engine is
determined by the throw of the
crankshaft
Torque of a typical engine varies with
RPM
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Thermal Efficiency
• Expresses the mechanical energy that is delivered to the vehicle relative to the
energy content of the fuel
• Typically,
- 35% of the energy that is available in the fuel is lost as heat to the coolant and
lubricating oil
- 40% is lost as heat and unburned fuel in exhaust gases
- 5% is lost in engine and drive train friction
- 20% is available to drive the vehicle and accessories
Calibration
• Generally, the act of marking units of measurement on an instrument so that it
can be used for measuring something accurately
• In Engine control, the setting of the air/fuel ratio and ignition timing for the
engine.
• In recent systems, calibration is determined by the electronic engine control
system.
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ENGINE MAPPING
 What is Engine Mapping??
Process by which measurements are made of important engine variables
while the engine is operated throughout its speed and load ranges.
 Why Engine Mapping ??
Knowledge of the plant (the engine) for development of any control system,
comes primarily from a process called engine mapping.
 How is Engine Mapping Done ??
Using Engine test cells/ engine dynamometers and complex instrumentation
that collects data under computer control

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Engine Mapping Description
Step 1: Measurements are made of the important engine variables while
quantities, such as the air/fuel ratio and the spark control, are varied in a
known and systematic manner
Step 2: From mapping, a mathematical model is developed that explains the
influence of every measurable variable and parameter on engine
performance
Step 3: Then, control system designer must select an appropriate control
configuration, control variables, and control strategy from the model that
will satisfy all computed performance requirements and that are within the
other design limits such as cost, quality, and reliability

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• Three mappings
Effect of Air/Fuel Ratio on Performance
Effect of Spark Timing on Performance
Effect of Exhaust Gas Recirculation on Performance
• Exhaust gases are represented in brake-specific form - this is a standard
way to characterize exhaust gases whose absolute emission levels are
proportional to power

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Effect of Air/Fuel Ratio on Performance
• Performance variables of torque (T) and brake specific Fuel Consumption
(BSFC) v/s variations in the air/fuel ratio with fixed spark timing and a
constant engine speed
• One specific air/fuel ratio is highly significant in electronic fuel control
systems, namely, the stoichiometric mixture.
• The stoichiometric (i.e., chemically correct) mixture corresponds to an air
and fuel combination such that if combustion were perfect all of the
hydrogen and carbon in the fuel would be converted by the burning process
to H2O and CO2.
• For gasoline the stoichiometric mixture ratio is 14.7 : 1

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• Often fuel and air mixture is represented by a ratio called the equivalence
ratio, which is given the specific designation λ

• A relatively low air/fuel ratio, below 14.7 (corresponding to λ < 1), is called a
rich mixture; an air/fuel ratio above 14.7 (corresponding to λ > 1) is called a
lean mixture

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Observations:

Torque (T) reaches a maximum in the air/fuel ratio range of 12 to 14

Exact air/fuel ratio for which torque is maximum depends on the engine
configuration, engine speed, and ignition timing.
CO and unburned hydrocarbons tend to decrease sharply with increasing
air/fuel ratios because there is relatively more oxygen available for
combustion with lean mixtures than with rich mixtures.
NOx exhaust concentration increases with increasing air/fuel ratios

There is no air/fuel ratio that simultaneously minimizes all regulated

exhaust gases

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Effect of Spark Timing on Performance
• Performance variables v/s spark advance for constant speed and air/fuel
ratio

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Observations:
 Both NOx and HC generally increase with increased advance of spark timing
BSFC and torque are also strongly influenced by timing
Maximum torque occurs at a particular advanced timing referred to as
minimum advance for best timing (MBT)

• Operation at or near MBT is desirable since this spark timing tends to

optimize performance . However, optimal spark timing varies with RPM

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Effect of Exhaust Gas Recirculation(EGR) on Performance
• By adding EGR as a control variable,
undesirable exhaust gas emission of NOx
can be significantly reduced while
maintaining a relatively high level of torque.
• EGR recirculating a precisely controlled
amount of exhaust gas into the intake

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• BSNOx v/s AF ratio for different
EGR values
• Dramatic reduction in NOx
emission with increasing EGR,
when plotted against air/fuel
ratio

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Typical Variation of Engine Performance with EGR
• Emission rate of NOx is most
strongly influenced by EGR and
decreases as the percentage of
EGR increases.
• Reason: Increasing EGR tends to
lower the peak combustion
temperature; therefore, it tends
to lower NOx generation.
• HC emission rate and BSFC
increase slightly with increasing
EGR.

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CONTROL STRATEGY
• Control strategy is used for setting the variables for any given engine, for
each engine operating condition
• A typical strategy is to use a catalytic converter in the exhaust system
• Exhaust gases passed through this device are chemically altered in a way that
helps meet EPA standards.
• Catalytic converter reduces the concentration of undesirable exhaust gases
coming out of the tailpipe relative to engine-out gases
• If the catalytic converter reduces exhaust gas emission concentrations by
90%, then
 the engine exhaust gas emissions at the exhaust manifold can be about
10 times higher than the EPA requirements
this allows engine calibration to be set for better performance than would
be permitted
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Desired functions of a catalytic converter include
1. Oxidation of hydrocarbon emissions to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water(H2O)
2. Oxidation of CO to CO2
3. Reduction of NOx to nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2)

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Oxidizing Catalytic (OC) Converter
• Also called two way catalytic converter
• OC helps to increase the rate of chemical reaction, which initially takes
place in the cylinder as the compressed air–fuel mixture burns, toward an
exhaust gas that has a complete oxidation of HC and CO to H2O and CO2.

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• Extra oxygen required for this oxidation is often supplied by adding air to
the exhaust stream from an engine-driven air pump – called secondary air.

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Oxidizing Catalyst Conversion Efficiency versus Temperature
• Measure of the performance of the
OC is its conversion efficiency
nc = Mo/Mi
Mo is the mass flow rate of gas that has
been oxidized leaving the converter
Mi is the mass air flow rate of gas into
the converter
• Conversion efficiency of the OC
depends on its temperature
• Above about 300°C, the efficiency
approaches 98% to 99% for CO and
more than 95% for HC
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The Three-Way Catalyst(TWC)
• Important for modern emission control systems
• Uses a specific catalyst formulation containing platinum, palladium, and
rhodium to reduce NOx and oxidize HC and CO all at the same time
• Simultaneously reduces the concentration of all three major undesirable
exhaust gases by about 90% if used optimally – thus called “ three way”.

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Conversion Efficiency of a TWC
•Conversion efficiency depends mostly on the air/fuel ratio
•Unfortunately, the air/fuel ratio for which NOx conversion efficiency is highest
corresponds to a very low conversion efficiency for HC and CO and vice versa

•Very narrow range of air/fuel

ratio (called the window) in
which an acceptable
compromise exists between NOx
and HC/CO conversion
efficiencies
• Window is only about 0.1
air/fuel ratio wide (±0.05 air/fuel
ratio) and is centered at
stoichiometry (14.7)
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• Primary function of most modern electronic fuel control systems is to
maintain average air/fuel ratio at stoichiometry.
• The operation of the three-way catalytic converter is adversely affected by
lead. Thus, in automobiles using any catalyst, it is necessary to use lead-
free fuel.
• Controlling the average air/fuel ratio to the tolerances of the TWC window
requires
accurate measurement of mass air flow rate
 precise fuel delivery
• A modern electronic fuel control system
can meet these precise fuel requirements
can maintain the necessary tolerances for government regulations for
over 100,000 miles.
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ELECTRONIC FUEL CONTROL SYSTEM

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Primary function of this fuel control system is
 to accurately determine the mass air flow rate into the engine
precisely regulates fuel delivery such that the ratio of the mass of air to
the mass of fuel in each cylinder is as close as possible to stoichiometry
(i.e., 14.7:1)

Components:
1. Throttle position sensor (TPS)
2. Mass air flow sensor (MAF)
3. Fuel injectors (FI)
4. Ignition systems (IGN)
5. Exhaust gas oxygen sensor (EGO)
6. Engine coolant sensor (ECS)
7. Engine position sensor (EPS)/crankshaft angular speed (RPM) sensor
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• Signals from the various sensors enable the controller to determine the
correct fuel flow in relation to the air flow to obtain the stoichiometric
mixture.
• From this calculation the correct fuel delivery is regulated via fuel injectors
• Each fuel injector is an electrically operated valve that is either fully open or
fully closed
• When the valve is open, fuel is delivered at a fixed rate as set by the fuel
injector characteristics as well as fuel pressure.
• Amount of fuel delivered to each cylinder is determined by the length of the
time that the fuel injector valve is open
• This time is, in turn, computed in the engine controller to achieve the desired
air/fuel ratio
• Fuel injector open timing is set to coincide with the time that air is flowing
into the cylinder during the intake stroke
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• A beneficial property is that the catalytic converter allows for momentary
(very short term) fluctuations of the air/fuel ratio outside the narrow
window.
• As the exhaust gases flow through the catalytic converter they are actually
in it for a short (but nonzero) amount of time, during which the
conversions take place.
• Because of this time interval the conversion efficiency is unaffected by
rapid fluctuations above and below stoichiometry (and outside the
window) as long as the average air/fuel ratio over time remains at
stoichiometry.
• So, a practical fuel control system maintains the mixture at stoichiometry
but has minor (relatively rapid) fluctuations about the average

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Electronic fuel control system operates in two modes: open loop and closed
loop
Open-loop mode (also called feed-forward):
• The mass air flow rate into the engine is measured.
• Then the fuel control system determines the quantity of fuel to be delivered
to meet the required air/fuel ratio
Closed-loop control mode (also called feedback):
• A measurement of the controlled variable is provided to the controller (i.e.,
it is fed back) such that an error signal between the actual and desired
values of the controlled variable is obtained.
• Then the controller generates an actuating signal that tends to reduce the
error to zero
• Desired variables to be measured are HC, CO, and NOx concentrations
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• There is no cost-effective, practical sensor for direct measurement of HC,
CO, and NOx concentrations that can be built into the car’s exhaust system
• There is a relatively inexpensive sensor that gives an indirect measurement
of HC, CO, and NOx concentrations – which generates an output that
depends on the concentration of residual oxygen in the exhaust after
combustion - called an exhaust gas oxygen (EGO) sensor
• EGO sensor output switches abruptly between two voltage levels
depending on whether the input air/fuel ratio is richer than or leaner than
stoichiometry – appropriate for use in a limit-cycle type of closed-loop
control
• Although the EGO sensor is a switching-type sensor, it provides sufficient
information to the controller to maintain the average air/ fuel ratio over
time at stoichiometry, thereby meeting the mixture requirements for
optimum performance of the three-way catalytic converter
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• Typical modern electronic fuel control system use - partly open loop and
partly closed loop
• Open loop portion sets the air/fuel ratio at approximately stoichiometry.
• A closed-loop portion is added to the fuel delivery to ensure that time-
average air/fuel ratio is at stoichiometry
• There are exceptions to the stoichiometric mixture setting during certain
engine operating conditions, including engine start, heavy acceleration,
and deceleration.
What is Engine Cranking??
• When you turn your key to start your car, the repetitive chirping sound the
engine makes for a second or two is the starter, turning the engine over so
it can begin running under its own power.

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Engine Control Sequence
• During engine cranking the mixture is set rich by an amount
depending on the engine temperature - mixture is relatively rich
for starting and operating a cold engine as compared with a warm
engine
• Until a specific set of conditions is satisfied, the engine control
operates in the open loop mode
• Once the EGO sensor has reached its operating temperature
(typically a few seconds to about 2 min), the EGO sensor signal is
read by the controller and the system begins closed-loop
operation

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Open Loop Control
• Operates open loop any time the conditions ( especially temperature) are not met
for closed-loop operation
• Engine that is started cold initially operates in open-loop mode
• This mode requires, at minimum,
 measurement of the mass air flow into the engine
 measurement of RPM
measurement of coolant temperature
• Permits computation (by the engine controller) of the mass of air (Ma) drawn
into each cylinder during intake
• Correct fuel mass (Mf ) that is injected with the intake air is computed by the
electronic controller
Mf = rfa Ma where rfa = desired ratio of fuel to air
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• For a fully warmed-up engine, this ratio is 1/14.7 which is about 0.068 (
i.e. A/F or raf=14.7).
• The desired fuel/air ratio varies with temperature in a known way such
that the correct value can be found from the measurement of coolant
temperature.
• For a very cold engine, the mixture ratio can go as high as 0.5 (i.e. A/F=2)
• Owing to variations in manufactured components, as well as to factors
such as wear, the open-loop control would not be able to maintain the
mixture at the desired air/fuel ratio.

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Closed-Loop Control

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Operation
• Fuel metering actuator provides fuel flow to produce an air/fuel ratio
set by the controller output.
• This mixture is burned in the cylinder and the combustion products leave
the engine through the exhaust pipe.
• EGO sensor generates a feedback signal for the controller input that
depends on the air/fuel ratio in the intake mixture.
• This signal tells the controller to adjust the fuel flow rate for the required
air/fuel ratio, thus completing the loop.

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Limit Cycle Controller for Fuel control
• The oxygen level in the exhaust depends on the air/fuel ratio entering the
engine.
• The amount of oxygen is relatively low for rich mixtures and relatively high
for lean mixtures
• The exhaust gas oxygen(EGO) concentration determines the EGO output
voltage (Vo).
• The EGO output voltage abruptly switches between the lean and the rich
levels as the air/fuel ratio crosses stoichiometry.
• Higher level voltage for a rich mixture and lower level for a lean mixture.
• The EGO output voltage abruptly switches between the lean and the rich
levels as the air/fuel ratio crosses stoichiometry. The EGO sensor output
voltage is at its higher of two levels for a rich mixture and at its lower level
for a lean mixture
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• Time delay from the time that λ changes at the input until Vo changes at
the exhaust( tD), is in the range of 0.1 to 0.2 second, depending on engine
speed.
• It is the time that it takes the output of the system to respond to a change
at the input.
• The electrical signal from the EGO sensor voltage going into the controller
produces a controller output of VF, which energizes the fuel metering
actuator.

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Closed-Loop Operation
• Operates as a limit-cycle controller in which the air/fuel ratio cycles up and
down about the set point of stoichiometry
• The air/fuel ratio is either increasing or decreasing; it is never constant.
• Whenever the EGO output voltage level indicates a lean mixture, the
controller causes the air/fuel ratio to decrease, to the direction of richness
and vise-versa.

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Closed-Loop Operation
• Electronic fuel controller changes the mixture by changing the duration
of the actuating signal to each fuel injector
• Cycling back and forth between rich and lean around stoichiometry
• At the appropriate time in the intake cycle the controller reads the value
of the fuel injector duration and generates a pulse of the correct duration
to activate the proper fuel injector
• Duration of each pulse determines the quantity of fuel delivered during
that activation interval.

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Simplified Waveforms in a Closed-Loop Fuel Control System

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• tD, is in the range of 0.1 to 0.2 second, depending on engine speed. It is the
time that it takes the output of the system to respond to a change at the
input.
• Frequency of oscillation fL of this limit-cycle control system is defined as the
reciprocal of its period.

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ANALYSIS OF INTAKE MANIFOLD PRESSURE
• Simplified sketch of an intake manifold, where engine is viewed as an air
pump drawing air into the intake manifold.

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• Whenever the engine is not running, no air is being pumped and the intake
MAP is at atmospheric pressure - This is the highest intake MAP
• When the engine is running,
the air flow is impeded by the partially closed throttle plate.
This reduces the pressure in the intake manifold so it is lower than
atmospheric pressure
therefore, a partial vacuum exists in the intake.
• If the engine were a perfect air pump and if the throttle plate were tightly
closed, a perfect vacuum(corresponds to zero absolute pressure) could be
created in the intake manifold.
• However, the engine is not a perfect pump and some air always leaks past
the throttle plate.
• Therefore, the intake MAP fluctuates during the stroke of each cylinder and
as pumping is switched from one cylinder to the next.
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• Each cylinder contributes to the pumping action every second crankshaft
revolution.
• For an N-cylinder engine, the frequency fp, in cycles per second, of the
manifold pressure fluctuation for an engine running at a certain RPM is
given by

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• Torque produced by an engine at a constant RPM is approximately
proportional to the average value of MAP
• The rapid fluctuations in instantaneous MAP are not of interest to the
engine controller.
• Therefore, the manifold pressure measurement method should filter out
the pressure fluctuations at frequency fp and measure only the average
pressure.
• One way to achieve this filtering is
 to connect the MAP sensor to the intake manifold through a very small
diameter tube.
The rapid fluctuations in pressure do not pass through this tube, but the
average pressure does.
The MAP sensor output voltage then corresponds only to the average
manifold pressure. 83
Measuring Air Mass using MAP
Speed-Density Method
• This method is based on the mass density
of air
• For a given volume of air (V ) at a specific
pressure(p) and temperature (T ), the
density of the air (da) is the ratio of the
mass of air in that volume (Ma) divided by
V:

• Other way
• Mass flow rate is the product of the
volume flow rate and the air density.
volume flow rate. 84
• Rm = mass flow rate of air flowing through the intake manifold
Rv = volume flow rate of air flowing through the intake manifold
da = air density in the intake manifold

• air density in the intake manifold can be computed from measurements of

the intake manifold absolute pressure and the intake manifold air
temperature (Ti )
The intake manifold absolute pressure is determined by the ambient air
pressure (i.e., the air outside the engine), the throttle position as set by the
driver, the RPM, and by the shape and size of the intake manifold.
The intake air temperature is determined by the ambient air temperature
and by the pressure change from ambient air across the throttle.
85
• The intake air density can be computed from the basic physics of air known
as the perfect gas law.
• The density of any gas (including air) is directly proportional to pressure
and inversely proportional to absolute temperature(temperature relative to
absolute zero, Using the Fahrenheit scale).
• The intake air can be computed relative to a standard condition. Normally,
the standard condition is sea level on a so-called standard day (SLSD)
• The SLSD conditions are denoted d0, p0, T0, referring to density, absolute
pressure, and absolute temperature.
• These parameters are constants for air for the entire planet and are known
to great precision.
• So intake air density is given by

86
• If it were a perfect pump, it would draw in a volume of air equal to its
displacement for each of two complete crankshaft revolutions. Then, for
this ideal engine, the volume flow rate would be

Rv is the volume flow rate

D is the engine displacement
RPM is the engine speed
• For practical Engine, the actual volume flow rate is given by

where nv is the volumetric efficiency.

87
Volumetric Efficiency
• Is a number between 0 and 1 that depends on intake manifold pressure
(MAP) and RPM for all engine operating conditions.
• For any given engine,
 the value of nv can be measured for any set of operating conditions.
A table of values of nv as a function of RPM and MAP can be prepared
from these data.
the table can be stored in memory as a lookup table.
• By knowing the displacement of the engine, measuring the RPM and MAP,
and looking up the value of nv for that RPM and MAP, the Rv can be
computed using the previous equation.
• Volumetric efficiency is determined by the intake manifold, the valve sizes,
and locations, as well as the timing and profile of the cam lobe
characteristics.
88
• It would be desirable to vary valve timing and lift continuously as the engine
operates so as to optimize volumetric efficiency.
• Technology called variable valve phasing involves separate camshafts for
intake and exhaust valves. These two camshafts are driven via a mechanism
that varies the relative timing for intake and exhaust.
• Typically in automotive engines, the exhaust valve remains open during the
initial portion of the intake valve-opening period.
• The crankshaft angle over which the two valves are both open (or partially
open) is called overlap.
• Valve overlap permits exhaust action to assist the intake and improve
volumetric efficiency. also permits some exhaust gas to be mixed with
intake gases such that the EGR system can be eliminated.
• In a variable cam phasing system, this overlap is minimum at idle and varies
with operating conditions to optimize emissions and performance.
89
ELECTRONIC IGNITION
• Performance is strongly influenced by the spark timing relative to the
engine position during the compression stroke
• Spark advance is determined based on a number of measurements made
by sensors (intake manifold pressure, RPM, and temperature)
• To generate a spark at the correct spark advance the electronic engine
control must have a measurement of the engine position - determined by
a sensor coupled to the camshaft or the crankshaft
• At the appropriate time the controller sends a trigger signal to the driver
circuits, thereby initiating spark
• Often called a distributorless ignition system (DIS) because the multiple
coil packs and drivers are a modern replacement for the (now essentially
obsolete) distributor
90
Electronic Distributorless Ignition System

91
Operation
• Spark plugs are fired in pairs through a common coil, or high-voltage
transformer
• A trigger pulse is sent to the driver circuit for the coil associated with the
appropriate spark plug
• Trigger causes the driver circuit to interrupt the current in the primary.
• A very high voltage is induced at this time in the secondary (S) of the coil.
This high voltage is applied to the spark plugs, causing them to fire

92
Fuel Map

93
Ignition Map

94