Holcim Group Support Ltd

CEMENT MANUFACTURING COURSE 2001

Cement Manufacturing Course 2001: Value Chain

Sourcing Production Supply to Integrators Marketing & Sales Service

M
E F
A H
R
M E
n
g E
M
Primary Processes Raw Materials Supply etc. Clinker Production Cement Production
Distribution Ready Mix Promotion End User Supply Customer and Application Support

> Project Management X

> Raw Material Supply for Cement and Aggregrate Industry

> Theoretical Concepts of Geology

> Desk Study and Preliminary Field Investigation for Raw Material Deposit

Geophysical Methods

> Overall Prospecting for Raw Materials

X
Assessment of Raw Materials
X
Detailed Investigations of Raw Materials

Environmental Aspects of Mining and Rehabilitation

X
Project Management Raw Materials Surveys

Introduction to Quarry Visit and Case Study

> Computer Aided Raw Materials Management

Deposit Model Principles

QSO - Demonstration

> Quarrying

> Crushers

> Basic Cement Chemistry

> Raw Mix Design

> Visit Quarry

> Raw Materials Handling

 Bins and Feeders

Raw Material Preblending

Raw Material Blending

Tube Mills

Roller Mills

Separators

Roller Presses

Drying Technology

Raw Grinding Systems

Grinding Lab Visit

CBT Manufacturing Interactive

> Clinker Manufacture

Clinker Properties

Kiln Systems

Coolers
Refractories

Kiln Chain Systems

> Holspace

> Visit Holcim (Schweiz) AG

> Self Development X

> Visit to Refractechnik Germany

> Combustion

Fuel Properties

Firing Systems

Flames and Burners

Combustion Engineering
X
Alternative Fuels

Preparation of Alternative Fuels

> Circulation Phenomena

Heat Balance

> Emission Control

X X
Gaseous Emission

Dedusting X
X
Heavy Metals
X
Waste Dust
X
Main Fans

Optimising the Burning Process

> Quality Assurance

Control Concept

Sampling

Automated Quality Control

Data Evaluation and Presentation

Analytical Methods, Visit to RMP Laboratories

> Cement Manufacture

Blended and Special Cements

Optimized Cement Design

Cement Grinding Systems

Optimising the Grinding Process

Mill Control

> Sustainable Environmental Performance (SEP) Mindset

X
> Basics in Finance

Financial Accounting X

Profitability and Profit Targets X

> Marketing X

> Introduction HES

X
> Electrical Systems
X
 Power Supply and Distribution
X
Electrical Motors
X
Drive Systems X

Plant Automation
X
Sensors and Actuators
X
Information Management, Trends
X
Electrical Test X

> Visit to Holcim (Schweiz) AG

X X
> High-Level Control (HLC) Systems
X X
Gas Analysing Systems
X X
Field Preparation
X X
Concrete Laboratory
X X
> Strip-Down Investment (SDI)

> Maintenance (MAC)

> ATR (Annual Tech. Rep.) Benchmarking

Condition Monitoring

> Concrete Technology (Concrete as a building material)

Concrete Components

Fresh Concrete

Hardened Concrete

Practical Work in Concrete Laboratory

Concrete Mix Design

Concrete Categories

Laboratory Work, Discussion of Results

> Cement Standards

Materials Technology

B01 - MT I
C01 - Raw Materials Supply for Cement and Aggregate Industry

Raw Material Supply to Cement and Aggregate Industry

1. RAW MATERIAL SUPPLY TO CEMENT AND AGGREGATE INDUSTRY

1. RAW MATERIAL SUPPLY TO CEMENT AND AGGREGATE INDUSTRY

The basis for all business the in cement and aggregate industry is adequate supplies of raw material. This
raw material is found in nature in form of rock formations. In order to find and secure sufficient reserves of
such rock formations exploration work is conducted. The actual production is gained from open cast
mining of a raw material deposit (any volume of rock can represent a raw material deposit) in most cases.
Picture 1 depicts a typical quarry for a cement factory. It becomes very evident that the meaning of a
quarry is to dig a hole into the landscape. Considering the fact that for the production of clinker or
aggregates certain qualities of rock are needed, it is of paramount interest to the plant to know
beforehand what type of rock and what quality will be encountered within the mountain, behind the quarry
faces.
Picture 1 The Quarry, source of raw materials

This need for information before mining starts is the classical problem of exploration.
Two main aspects are to be considered:
¨ Geometry of the raw material deposit, that means geological boundaries like interfaces of
formations, faults and also topography
¨ Quality of the rocks in terms of chemical and mineralogical composition, physical characteristics
like hardness, abrasiveness, pozzolanic activity.
Obviously this task of exploration is not a simple one. Our means of acquiring data is limited compared to
the large size of rock volumes to be investigated. Exploration drillings provide precise but also very spotty
information on the rock volumes. In order to fill the gaps between drillholes and also in order to interpret
results of drillings, we need a model of the raw material deposit. This model is developed with the help of
the natural science GEOLOGY. Within this science, all aspects with respect to rock formation,
deformation and transformation are studied and general rules are established. These concepts of geology
are absolutely instrumental for the interpretation of any raw material deposit.
The application of geology is, however, also an ambiguous matter. There are hardly two geologists who
are of the same opinion on a given raw material deposit. This fact creates confusion especially amongst
engineers, who are used to well-defined systems, expressed in precise figures. Exactly these precise
figures can never be provided by the geologists, because of the inherent ambiguities of the geology. Why
is that so?
Geology is a relatively young natural science. It is part of nature and hence very tricky. The development
of this science is not as advanced as, for example, chemistry or physics. The reason for this lies in the
complexity of the subject. It represents a combination of every conceivable combination of physical,
chemical and biological processes at all scales.
Many phenomenons observed in nature are not understood and related processes are not controlled by
scientists. A good example of this fact is the inability to predict earthquakes.
A further reason lies in the fact that geology deals with very different dimensions, from the very tiny atoms
and molecules to finally the whole globe. Especially the large dimensions are difficult to overcome.
Additionally geology deals with a very long time span. It is an ambitious task to reconstruct the history of a
given rock because of the scarce information. Normally such a history has to be pieced together the
geologist is obliged to use his imagination to fill in gaps in the information.
Nevertheless, the geological concepts are the only help in the interpretation of raw material deposits. In
order to arrive at the best possible interpretation, it is important to ask the most adequate person for an
opinion. Considering the many different specialists which exist in the field of geology (see table 1), the
choice is not always easy. Very often different specialists contribute to the erection of a geological model
for a raw material deposit. As for instance in the field of medicine, it is important to select the correct
specialist for the purpose in mind (nobody would select as gynaecologist for an appendix operation).
Because of the difficulties described, the results of geological studies are often qualitative. For the design
of a cement or aggregate plant, however, the engineers require quantitative results. Also from this side
emerges a problem of communication between geologists and engineers. This is expressed in the fact
that qualitative statements of the geologists are discarded by engineers, and that they the base the
design of equipment on shaky but apparently precise figures. The result of this practice can be very
costly. It is the aim of the following lessons to improve on this special communication between geologists
and engineers.
¨ The geologists have to learn that quantification is an absolute must in our industry
¨ The engineers have to learn that no raw material deposit is homogenous and no deposit can be
characterized by precise figures alone.
Table 1

Geological Specialities
Stratigraphy/Biostratigraphy
Igneous Geology
Volcanology
Sedimentology
Structural Geology/Tectonics
Paleontology/Micropaleontology
Palynology
Geochemistry
Hydrology
Geophysics
Oil Geology
Engineering Geology
Paleogeography

TABLE 2

Type of raw materials used in the cement

and aggregate industry
limestone clinker/lime production aggregates
claystone/shale clinker production expanded clay
iron-ore corrective material clinker production
bauxite corrective material clinker production
laterite corrective material clinker production
kaolinite white cement production
gypsumcement additive
pozzolana cement additive
sand/gravel aggregates
crushed stone (granite, diorite, basalt etc.) aggregates

C02 - Theoretical Concepts of Geology

Theoretical concepts of Geology

1. THEORETICAL CONCEPTS OF GEOLOGY
1.1 General remarks
1.2 The structure of the earth
1.3 Rock Classification
1.4 Circuit of Geological Processes
1.5 Geological Time-Scale
1.6 Structural geology
1. THEORETICAL CONCEPTS OF GEOLOGY
1.1 General remarks
The following concepts of geology represent a very small selection of available concepts. They should
illustrate how the gaps between isolated data points are filled. In a way they represent the essence of the
"imagination" a geologist uses to produce a coherent geological model of a raw material deposit. These
concepts are derived from observations made on the actual geological process. This ongoing process,
although slow in time, can be studied and described and the results can be compared to ancient
"documents" in the form of rocks.
There is also much circumstantial information used in the construction of these concepts. By using the
existing examples of rock formation, one assumes that the conditions for these processes have not
changed with time. This is not entirely true, since certain changes to these general conditions (like for
example the polarity and the strength of the earth's magnetic field) have occurred many times in the past.
Still, the so-called actualistic model is best suited to explain the features of ancient rocks.
1.2 The structure of the earth
There is enough scientific evidence to assume that the earth consists of a series of zones (Fig. 1) which
differ distinctly from on another other in their chemical and physical characteristics. The earth's center is a
solid core of nickel and iron, surrounded by a zone of liquid material (liquid core"). The mantle lying
between the core and the crust is divided into two sections: the mantle as such and the "upper" mantle.
Both are chemically characterized by the abundantly present sulphur-oxygen compounds combined with
heavy metals. The crust itself can be divided into two portions, the oceanic crust (Silicon, Magnesium and
Iron as main elements) and the continental crust (Silicon and Alumina).
Fig.1 Structure of the Earth

Compared with the other structural elements of the earth, the crust is a very thin layer, of an average
thickness of only 30 - 40 km (Fig. 2).
Fig.2 Structure of the Earth

The crust and the upper mantle together form the lithosphere, which forms a solid plate of rock of about
100 km thickness.

1.2.1 Composition of the Lithosphere

Only approx. 10 - 15 km of the lithosphere has been sufficiently investigated to permit characterization. It
is astonishing that the predominant components in that portion of the lithosphere, which are accessible for
industrial processing, are, oxygen (50 %) and silicon (25 %, Tables 1 and 3). The remaining 25 % are
formed by eight other elements and a mere 0,8 % by the remaining 82 naturally occurring elements, many
of which are technically and industrially important (Table 2).
TABLE 1: Composition of the lithosphere

O
Si
Al
Fe
Ca
Na
K
Mg 46,6 %
27,7 %
8,1 %
5,0 %
3,6 %
2,8 %
2,6 %
2,1 % ü
ï
ý 91,0 %
ï
þ

TABLE 2: Composition of the lithosphere: minor and trace constituents

10-1 % Ti, H, Mn, P

10-2 % F, S, C, Cl, Rb, Sr, Ba, Zr, Cr, V, Zn
10-3 % Ni, Cu, Li, N, Sn, Co, Pb, Th
10-4 % As, B, Mo, Br, W, U
10-5 % Sb, Bi, Ag
10-6 % Hg, A
10-7 % Au, Pt, He

TABLE 3: Chemical composition of the earth, the lithosphere and of Portland cement

Earth Lithosphere Portland cement

Oxygen O 22,0 46,6 37,0
Silicon Si 11,0 27,7 9,5
Aluminium Al 0,6 8,1 3,2
Iron Fe 50,0 5,0 2,0
Calcium Ca 1,0 3,6 45,3
Magnesium Mg 9,0 2,1 1,2
Potassium K 2,6 0,5
Sodium Na 2,8" 0,1
Hydrogen H 0,9
Nickel Ni 6,0
Titanium Ti 0,6

1.2.2 Global Plate Tectonics

Based mainly on results of geophysical research done during the last 30 years (Geomagnetics,
Paleomagnetics, Gravity, Seismic), an old hypothesis was confirmed beyond doubt: Continents are
constantly changing their positions relative to one another, i.e. they move on the globe. Such movements
were put forward in the thirties by A. WEGENER, based on the excellent fit of the coast lines of
North/South America on one side, and Europe/Africa on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean. It has been
found that the entire globe is actually covered by so-called "plates" that comprise the crust and the solidly
crystallized part of the upper mantle (fig. 2a) (the "lithosphere"). Solid parts of this lithosphere move
constantly (continental drift), and the so-called "plate boundaries" accommodate this shift.
Three types of plate boundaries are recognized:
distensive, compressive and lateral
¨ The distensive boundaries are those sites, where new lithosphere is created, nearly exclusively
along the so-called mid-ocean ridges. Their relatively mobile liquid masses from the molten part of the
upper mantle are welling up to the sea floor and crystallise to form a solid "crust". The rising magma itself
segregates because of changes in pressure and temperature, as a result of which different rocks are
formed at different depths. The lateral rate of accretion has been measured to be in the order of 2 to 10
cm per year.
¨ The compressive plate boundaries are essential for destroying parts of the crust (otherwise, the
globe would expand). This is effected by thrusting slabs of oceanic crust + mantle down into the liquid part
of the mantle.
These slabs potentially reach a depth of 600 - 700 km, and they are the reason for the deep-seated
earthquakes. At surface, they are marked by deep-sea trenches, volcanic arcs and mountain chains (fig.
2b).
¨ The lateral boundaries are expressed as large wrench faults, normally a system of near vertical
faults which can accommodate lateral movements of the plates. These form the links between the other
two types of plate boundaries.
Plate boundaries are naturally marked by many geological activities like earthquakes, mountain forming,
rapid sedimentation, volcanism etc. The major features of these plates are well established, and a
globally compatible pattern of their movements over the last 200 - 300 mio years has been worked out. In
detail, however, there are still many problems pending, e.g. the problem of "microplates" or the
development of "marginal basins". The descriptions thus far concerned exclusively the kinematics of the
plates. The dynamics, or "the driving force", is not completely clear and still heavily contested amongst
geologists. The simplest model consists of a "convection cell" mechanism. The liquid part of the mantle
cools and sinks in certain areas, whereas in other places the hot molten material rises to the lithosphere
(fig. 2 c). Calculations of the thermodynamics involved show that even violent convection is possible,
provided the assumption of viscosities, temperatures etc. is realistic.
The global plate tectonics model for the first time in the history of the science of geology explains the
large geological features in a satisfactory way. Doubtless with the increasing amounts of reliable data
available, the model will be modified in the future.
Fig.2a Major Plate Boundaries of the Globe

Fig.2b Compressive Plate Boundary

Fig. 2c Global Plate Tectonics Model

1.3 Rock Classification

1.3.1 General remarks
Rocks are classified according to the following criteria:
¨ mineral content
¨ genesis, place of formation
¨ age
Accordingly, three large groups - each of them divided into several subdivisions - can be established:
¨ igneous rocks
¨ sedimentary rocks
¨ metamorphic rocks
1.3.2 Igneous Rocks (Fig. 3)
The magma, which originates from the deeper part of the globe (mostly the upper mantle), rises towards
the surface and forms different types of rocks depending on its cooling history and its differentiation
process. The magma can change its chemical composition by fractional crystallization and by assimilation
of rock fragments of the formations it penetrates. Slow cooling of the magma leads to the development of
large crystals, rapid cooling e.g. in a volcano eruption, leads to very small crystals or even amorphous
matter in form of volcanic glass.
Fig.3 Igneous Rocks

Rocks of this type are often used in Cement and aggregate industry, e.g. as pozolana or crushed rock
(granite, basalt), see table 4.
TABLE 4 Igneous rocks in cement and aggregate industries

Volcanics tuff
ash
lava
perlite
agglomerate
Plutonics granite
diorite
Intrusives andesite, basalt

1.3.3 Sedimentary Rocks

If rocks of any kind are exposed to weathering and erosion caused by temperature changes, atmospheric
conditions, etc. on the surface of the earth, disintegration results. Basically, weathering includes two
phenomena:
¨ weathering with undissolved products
¨ weathering with dissolved products
The formation of sediments includes the following stages
1) Disintegration of the solid rock
2) Transport of dissolved and undissolved products
3) Deposition and precipitation
4) Compaction (Diagenesis)
According to this, three types of sedimentary rocks are distinguished:

mechanical (clastics) only mechanical action

chemical precipitation of dissolved matter
organic remains of living beings
precipitation by organisms

Deposition occurs frequently in the form of a more or less horizontal layering called stratification (strata =
layer).
Sedimentary rocks are the most significant resource for the cement and aggregate industry (Table 5).
Detailed descriptions and criteria of assessment are given in section 4 "Assessment of Cement Raw
Materials".
TABLE 5 Sedimentary rocks in the cement industry

chemical limestone
gypsum
anhydrite
ironoxihydrate
aluminiumoxihydrate
rock salt

mechanical sandstone, sand

marl
clay, claystone
shale

organic limestone
coal
oil

1.3.4 Metamorphic Rocks

During rock formation, every mineral and rock is in equilibrium with its environment at a distinct pressure
(P) and the temperature (T). Metamorphosis (transformation) of rocks is mostly caused by disturbance to
this equilibrium. If one or both of these parameters change, metamorphosis takes place. Metamorphic
rocks may, therefore, be formed from igneous as well as from sedimentary rocks, whereby the chemistry
of the metamorphic rock may be virtually identical with the composition of the original rock. Metamorphic
limestone (marble) is often used as a raw material in cement industries. Other metamorphic rocks are
suitable as aggregates, even for special applications (e.g. amphibolite) as aggregates.
TABLE 6 Metamorphic rocks in the cement industry
Metamorphic rock Original rock
Amphibolite Basalt
Marble Limestone
Phyllite Shale
Quartzite Sandstone
Slate * Shale
Schist * Shale

* inaccurate terms, to be avoided

1.4 Circuit of Geological Processes
Table 7 demonstrates the interdependence of the rock types as described previously.
The geological processes, which lead to the various types of rocks, can also be demonstrated in terms of
a circuit (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4 Circuit of geological processes

Fig. 4a Circuit of geological processes

TABLE 7 Interdependence of rock types

1.5 Geological Time-Scale

A rock cannot only be classified according to its mineral content and the place of its formation, but also
according to its age. The determination of the age of a rock is normally accomplished by palaeontological
methods (investigation of the remainders of fossils) or by physical methods (radiocarbon, radio-active
decay).
Table 9 shows the worldwide accepted geological terminology regarding the time-scale. Note that
limestone being the most important raw material component for the cement industry, has occurred only (in
larger quantities) since the beginning of the Paleozoic age.
Note further, that rocks of the same age but from different locations do not necessarily have identical
characteristics.
TABLE 9 Geological time scale

Era System and

Period Series and
Epoch Stage and
Duration Absolute Age
Cenozoic Quarternary Recent Last 10'000 y.
Pleistocene 1,8 mio (millions of
years ago)
1,8
Tertiary Pliocene 3.2 mio 1,8 - 67
Miocene 20 mio
Oligocene 10 mio
Eocene 20 mio
Palaeocene 12 mio
Mesozoic Cretaceous Upper 73 mio 67 - 140
Lower
Jurassic Upper 70 mio 140 - 210
Middle
Lower
Triassic Upper 40 mio 210 - 250
Middle
Lower
Palaeozoic Permian 40 mio 250 - 290
 Carboniferous 70 mio 290 - 360
Devonian 50 mio 360 - 410
Silurian 30 mio 410 - 440
Ordovician 60 mio 440 - 500
Cambrian 90 mio 500 - 590
Pre- Proterozoic 590 - 2500
cambrian Archean (3700)
(Oldest rocks)

1.5.1 Chemical Sediments

Chemical sediments are normally formed in sea water where they precipitate under special circumstances
due to the ions concentration occurring in sea water. The average ion concentration in sea water are
shown in table 11.
TABLE 11

Element Concentration *
in Ocean Water,
10-6 g/g Concentration +
in River Water,
10-6 g/g Residence Time,

106 years
Li 0.17
B 4.6 0.013 15
C 28 11.5 0.1
N 0.5
F 1.3
Na 10,500 6.3 71
Mg 1,350 4.1 14
Al 0.01
Si 3.0 6.1 0.02
P 0.07
S 885 3.7 10
Cl 19,000 7,8 104
K 380 2,3 7
Ca 400 15 1.15
Mn 0.002 .02 0.004
Fe 0.01 0.7 0.006
Ni 0.002 0.01 0.008
Br 65 0.006-0.019 450-150
Rb 0.12
Sr 8.0 0.09 3.8
Ag 0.00004 0.001 0.02
l 0.06
Ba 0.03 0.054 0.02
Pb 0.00003 0.005 0.0003
Th 0.00005
U 0.003 0.001 0.14

* B. Mason, Principles of Geochemistry (Wiley, 1966, p. 195).

+ D. A. Livingstone (U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 440-G, 1963)
These ion concentrations are derived from weathering and dissolution processes onshore, e.g. in
mountain ranges.
Fig. 5 summarizes the chemical conditions for common sedimentary minerals :
Fig. 5 Relation of Eh and pH to regions of formation of common sedimentary minerals (after Garrels and
Christ)
Fig. 5a General model of a shallow marine carbonate platform

1.5.2 Shallow marine carbonate platform

The additional presence of H2CO3 in seawater (from the air and supplied by river water) allows the
formation of CaCO3 under special circumstances. These are governed by a complicated system of
chemical reactions:
CaCO3 ® Ca2 + CO32-
Solid aq aq
CO32- + H2O ® HCO3- + OH-
aq aq aq
HCO3- + H2O ® H2CO3 + OH-
aq aq aq
CO2 + H2O ® H2CO3
gas aq
Ca2 + CO32-- ® CaCO3
aq aq aq
Ca2+ + HCO32- ® CaHCO3+
aq aq aq
Ca2+ + SO42- ® CaSO4
aq aq aq
H2O ® H+ + OH -
aq aq
The knowledge of chemical equilibrium constants and pH of natural sea water made it possible to
calculate carbonate solubilities for various marine environments.
It has been found that in shallow, warm sea waters concentration of CaCO3 is close to saturation. This
depends largely on the peculiar behaviour of H2CO3, which dissolves calcite when present in higher
concentrations and only stimulates CaCO3 precipitation when present in small quantities. This is the case
in relatively warm water, where plants additionally remove CO2, calcite is readily removed by dissolution.
Below ~ 4000 m, the so-called "compensation depth", no calcite is normally present.
The preceeding conditions define the environment of deposition for the most important raw materials for
cement manufacturing. Located on the so called "shallow marine carbonate platform" or the continental
edges. These sites of CaCO3-formation are shallow warm sea water, where organisms like corals,
bryozoa, algae etc. form their skeletons (of CaCO3) normally in form of Aragonite.
According to the actualistic theory, it can be assumed that the Bahamas bank, the Arabic Gulf, the Red
Sea (sebkha) or the Great Barrier Reef in Australia serve as excellent models for the formation of
limestone in shallow warm sea water.
A general model of a shallow marine carbonate platform is shown in fig. 5a. According to water depth,
water circulation, water energy (waves), climate, fauna present, a number of subenvironments are
discribed. Within these subenvironments a great variety of calcium carbonate particles are produced and
deposited. These "soft" carbonate deposits form, after a long time of compaction and diagenesis, a real
limestone. Geologists can "read" these different limestones and reconstruct the original environment of
deposition of any limestone body.
1.5.3 Limestone diagenesis
All processes in time, which change the physical parameters of limestone, are summarised under this
expression. The following points are of interest:
¨ mechanical compaction due to overburden ® reduction of porosity
¨ recrystallization of aragonite (instable) to calcite, high Mg-calcite (dolomite)
¨ leaching by rain water or ground water: Early cementation of limestone grains by rapid
recrystallization
¨ chemical compaction by dissolution of calcite and recrystallization in pore spaces
¨ presence of high Mg-content in pore fluid leads to recrystallization of dolomite ® increase of
porosity.
Depending on the specific history of a limestone body, diagenesis can produce quite remarkable
differences in limestone quality, and often the local changes occur within very short distances. The
knowledge of the detailed environment of deposition very often permits a geologic interpretation including
an idea as to the spacial distribution of different limestone quantities. Especially important, is the location
of dolomitic limestone bodies through reconstruction of the original set of conditions.
Advanced stages of limestone diagenesis are characterized by the absence of porosity, large calcite
crystals as developed by progressive recrystallization, pressure solution features like e.g. stylolithes.
The original structure of the limestone is largely destroyed, and it becomes difficult to determine the
environment of deposition. Even further diagenesis is called metamophism and leads ultimately to
formation of marble.
1.5.4 Classification of limestone
Due to their economic importance, limestone and carbonates in general have been studied in great detail
by many researchers and as a consequence, there are many classifications of limestone and related
sediments. One of the most widely used was originally conceived by DUNHAM and it describes the
relation of lime components of different sizes and origin to the so-called "cement" or "ground mass". Table
12 gives an impression of the various limestone types and related names. This classification allows an
adequate description of limestone in terms of environment of deposition, but it differs greatly from the
classification of the clastic sediments.
TABLE 12: Carbonate textural classification
(Dunham, slightly modified)

1.5.5 Clastic sediments

Clastic or "mechanical" sediments are formed from solid particles which are transported from areas of
erosion to areas of deposition. The transport agent can be water, wind or ice, the most common being
water. Coarse particles require high water energy for transport, normally linked to a steep topographic
gradient, to be removed from their place of origin. During transport they are further fragmented,
chemically altered and mechanically shaped. The end product, the clastic sediment, therefore depends on
a variety of parameters, but mainly on:
¨ energy of transporting agent, defining in turn
· grain size distribution
· shape of grains or "clasts"
¨ time of transport, influencing chemical composition of particles, sorting of grains according to size
and quality
¨ nature of originally eroded rocks, which defined to a large extent what type of particles are
formed. In a rock with little chemical resistance very small particles are formed from partly altered
minerals, the clay minerals.
The complex cycle of erosion - transport - deposition results in a separation of the particles and this is
expressed with the term "maturity" of a clastic sediment. Long transport distance and time leads to the
deposition of the most resistant particles in uniform grain size distribution and well rounded like a pure
quartz sandstone. Short transport distance and time produces e.g. a breccia or conglomerate with large
components of heterogeneous mineralogical composition.
Fig. 5b Clasical environment of "mechanical" or clastic deposition

Fig. 5b Legend

1.5.6 Clastic environments of deposition

Inevitably, the clastic particles are formed on the continents, transported and ultimately end up in the
oceans. A summary of the most important environments of clastic deposition is given in Fig. 5b.
The dominant factors in forming the specific sedimentary features of clastic environments is documented
further in Figs. 5c, 5d, 5e, 5f and 5g. Three important environments, delta, coastal barrier and deep sea
fans, each of which is characterised by very distinct sedimentary structures, fossils and trace fossils.
Delta Environment
Fig.5c Schematic Diagram of Delta
Fig.5d Wave Dominated Deltas

Sub
environment Type of
particles
deposited Sedimentary
features bedding Contents of
fauna / flora
natural levee silty clay laminated plants
root disrupted
current ripples
marsh, swamps silty clay, no bedding plants
peat Burrows
channel fill sand cross bedding (plants)
clay balls
distributory sand cross nearly
channel beddingabsent
current ripples
clay balls
mouth bar sand, silt trough cross nearly
bedding, absent
wave + current
ripples
gas heave
structures
distal bar silt, clay cross dense
beddingbenthonic
ripples fauna
burrows
pro delta clay, silty lamination benthonic
(delta front slope) clay ripples fauna
graded
bedding
bioturbation

Coastal barrier environment

Fig. 5e Holocene Coastal Plain Deposits

The dominant energy source is waves, the tide and long shore currents. Particles are extensively
reworked and rearranged, refer Fig. 5e. Note the occurrence of dunes which depend also on wind
transport. According to climate, tide differences, material supply and vegetation, many variations of the
presented model may occur.
Deep sea fan (bathyal to abyssal environment)
Fig. 5f Subaqueous fan and lithological columns of various fan deposits

Fig. 5g Integrated model of deep-water sand distribution

Deep sea fans are formed by means of a special transport mechanism called "turbidity current".
Unconsolidated particles which are deposited on the shelf edge may become unstable and start to flow
downwards in form of an high density aquatic suspension. These carry large masses of sediments down
the continental slope and spread in the deep marine basins over large areas (thousands of km2). During
settling of the particles, typical "graded bedding" develops.In addition to which various other sedimentary
features such as flue casts, parallel lamination, current ripple lamination, convolute bedding and pelitic
(clay) layers.
Turbidity currents, which are triggered by earthquakes, occur frequently - about every 10'000 years under
favorable circumstances. These form a single bed, nearly instantaneously. During the intervening time
period, between consecutive turbidity currents, the normal "pelagic" deposition of clay and lime particles
continues. This covers the top of the turbidite layer with a relatively thin layer which contains normally
datable "nannoplankton" (remnants of calcareous algae floating at the surface of the open ocean).
Turbidite sequences are extremely well bedded and exhibit normal characteristic alternations of sand and
clay or limestone and clay, depending on the origin of the particles. They can represent a perfect natural
raw mix for cement manufacturing.
1.5.7 Classification of clastic sediments
Determining factors for a classification are not only genetic features, as outlined above, like
¨ specific environment of deposition
¨ sedimentary features
¨ fauna/flora content
but also parameters which can be measured objectively and are of technical relevance like
¨ grain size distribution
¨ chemical composition
¨ mineralogical composition
¨ degree of consolidation
¨ porosity, permeability
Tables 13 and 14 give two examples of the classification on the basis of grain size distribution,
considering well sorted clastic sediments.
TABLE 13: Classification of mechanical sediments

Grain size Constituents Degree of Consolidation

(mm) loose solid
> 200 boulders, blocks
200-20
20-2 coarse gravel )
fine gravel ) psephite rubble breccia
conglomerate
2-0.2
0.2- 0.02 coarse sand
fine sand ) psammite sand sandstone
0.02-0.002
< 0.002 clay silt )
colloidal clay ) pelite clay claystone

TABLE 14: Definition of grain size

1.5.8 Mixtures of Clastic and Chemical Particles

Since most of the natural sedimentary rocks are mixes of various types of rock, classification thereof can
also be accomplished with a three-component diagram (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6 Display of the definitions of rock types in the sand-clay-carbonate-system

Sandy-clayey-marly rocks are also designated as "siliceous" rocks; sandy-clayey materials as

"argillaceous" rocks. In addition, the term carbonatic can be replaced by "calcareous".
As a further example (Table 15), the carbonatic (or calcareous) rocks are selected to illustrate the
principle of classification based on chemical characteristics.
TABLE 15 Classification of calcareous and clayey materials
(according to HMC's practice)

CaCO3
% Clay minerals
% Nomenclature
100 - 95 0-5 high-grade limestone
95 - 85 5 - 15 limestone
75 - 85 15 - 25 marly limestone
65 - 75 25 - 35 calcareous marl
35 - 65 35 - 65 marl
25 - 35 65 - 75 clayey marl
15 - 25 75 - 85 marly clay
5 - 15 85 - 95 clay
0 - 5 95 - 100 high-grade clay

The same principles may be applied to the group of calcareous-siliceous (sandy) materials and the group
of siliceous and clayey rocks.
1.6 Structural geology
Structural geology deals with the deformation of rocks. This deformation is a result of tectonic
(mechanical) forces, which occur in the solid lithosphere due to movements of the continental plates. In
detail, a stressfield applied on the rock formations results in deformation in form of rupture in the case of
brittle deformation or flow in case of plastic deformation. These stressfield forces are very large and act
over long time periods. In the case of brittle deformation, the theoretical approach by means of physical -
mathematical methods is not too complex. However, as soon as plastic deformation over a long period of
time is also considered the analytical approach becomes very complicated. The study of the phenomena
of rock deformation is known as "tectonics." A science, which incorporates higher mathematics.and
physics.
In our industry the structural behaviour and characteristics of the raw material deposits is of high interest,
since it has an important impact on the distribution of rock qualities within the deposits. For the description
of deformation, one requires a reference system, which shows the effect of deformation with regard to an
original, undeformed situation. One very common system is stratification, a frequently observed
sedimentary feature. In it's original state stratification is practically horizontal, due to the gravity forces. If
strata are found in inclined position in the field, a deformation phase is normally responsible.
By measuring the inclined position of bedding planes, fault planes, joint surfaces, inclination and
orientation of folds etc. the degree and type of deformation can be determined.
The corresponding measurements are called strike and dip. For example, in order to measure the
orientation and inclination (strike and dip) of a bedding plane (refer figure 8). The intersection of the
inclined bedding plane and an imaginary horizontal plane (water line) represents a straight line in space.
This line or 'strike direction' has an astronomical orientation, which is measured, with a compass, in
degrees clockwise from the (Azimuth).
The inclination, or 'dip', of the bedding plane is measured along a line perpendicular to the strike direction.
The dip angle is measured with an inlinometer in degrees with respect to the horizontal plane. There are
normally two solutions for this dip angle depending on the orientation 'strike' of the bedding plane ie.
dipping in a N or S direction.
A complete measurement of strike and dip of a bedding plane at the locality (or position) A21 would be
"A21 - 124 / 25° N". There are various conventions in different countries for recording these
measurements. In the USA the dip direction is very often given in form of an azimuth reading such that
the above reading would be "A21 - 034 / 24°."
By means of these measurements it is often possible to define the type and intensity of rock deformation
and therefore work out the "tectonic style" of a given raw material deposit. In the case of geologic faults,
three main fault types are defined, based on the orientation of the three main stress axis of the applied
stressfield (Ó1, Ó2 and Ó3, whereby Ó1>Ó2>Ó3) (Fig. 9):
Fig. 8 Strike and Dip Measurements
¨ Ó1 vertical, Ó2 and Ó3 horizontal: the gravity becomes the largest force and therefore blocks of
rock glide downward along typically inclined faults of 60°. These faults are called normal faults. They are
typical for extensional tectonics.
¨ Ó1 and Ó2 horizontal, Ó3 vertical: This situation represents a compressional regime, where the
rock body is shortened by overthrusts and or folds. Typically, the fault planes are inclined 30° with respect
to the horizontal plane.
¨ Ó1 and Ó3 horizontal, Ó2 vertical: The result of this configuration is the so called strike-slip faults
(or wrench faults) which are generally vertical and indicate a strike which deviates 30° from the Ó1
direction.
Fig. 9 Classic Geologic Fault Types

In nature, these clear-cut cases are seldom found. Fault zones are mostly accompanied by secondary
faults and by a pattern of "joints" (small fractures).
Combination of fault types and repetitions thereof are frequently found, e.g. series of normal faults, series
of overthrusts and folds etc.
In case of folding, the variability of structures produced is also bewildering (see fig 10): depending on the
geology of the rocks involved and the stress forces applied, a wide range of different of folds types
develop.
Fig. 10 Classic Fold Types

Fig. 10 (A) Symmetrical, open, nonplunging anticline, showing the position of the axial surface (AS). (B)
Asymmetrical south-plunging folds showing the position of the axial surface (AS) in the anticline. In this
case the axial surface to the west. (C) Isoclinal, nonplunging, closed, inclined fold. (D) Overturned north-
plunging fold. Overturning is to the east. The axial surfaces (AS) dip west-ward. (E) Recumbent,
nonplunging fold. The axial surface is essentially horizontal. Sometimes referred to as "nappe structures,"
although the underlying limb is not always present (e.g., Austro-Alpine nappes). (F) Monocline. (G)
Cylindrical, east-plunging anticline. (H) Conical, west-plunging syncline. The plunge symbols diverge from
a vertex located near the east edge of the diagram.

C03 - Desk Study for Raw Materials Deposits

Desk study for deposits of raw materials

1. INTRODUCTION
2. DESK STUDY
2.1 Geological maps
2.2 Documents
2.3 Photogeology
2.4 Remote sensing
2.5 Where to look for information?
2.6 Results of the desk study

¨ Holcim approach
¨ Desk study
1. INTRODUCTION
In the following chapters, we will elaborate on the procedures developed especially for the exploration of
raw materials for cement and aggregates. The proposed scheme is based on experience and modeled
according to the needs of the cement industry. Of course, every exploration project is unique and requires
a particular approach.
Basically, the scope and extent of every exploration procedure is governed by the following series of
criteria:
¨ Scope of work
¨ Status of geological knowledge of the area to be examined
¨ Raw materials: exposures, structures, overburden
¨ Time and financial resources available
¨ Climatic conditions
¨ Physiography and topography of the area
The Holcim approach
The deposits are investigated in a stepwise fashion from a general overview to more detailed exploration
activities. Each step is defined with regard to the respective scope, extent, costs, time requirement,
reliability of the results (error limits) and the development of risk.
In practice, the proposed procedure encompasses the following sequence of events:
1) Desk study
2) Preliminary prospecting of raw materials
3) Overall investigations of raw materials
4) Detailed investigations of raw materials
Fig. 1 Shows the development of costs, time, reliability and risk during the investigations of raw
materials.

2. DESK STUDY
Once the scope of work for required investigations has been agreed on and a quotation therefore
accepted a fact finding study is conducted. This study, called a desk study, is carried out with the aim of
gathering and evaluating all the available data and information.
In consideration of the cost, field work must be focused on selected areas. A successful exploration
programme will therefore begin with a literature search and the geologist will look for the followings
documents:
2.1 Geological maps
Scale 1:1'000'000 to 1:25'000 or larger scale if available. Such maps show the distribution of the
stratigraphical units exposed in the considered region and the structures, i.e. style of deformation.
Interpretation of thematic maps such as hydrogeological, geotechnical or geophysical can give valuable
information.
For example, the geological map of the north west sector of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia(Fig. 2). The
map depicts exposures of limestone and clay on the Red Sea coastal plain, and further inland an
amphibolic schist within the metamorphic shield.
Fig. 2a Geological map of the region of Duba.

Fig 2b Legend for Figure 2a

DESCRIPTION OF MAP UNITS

2.2 Documents
Documents describing the stratigraphy, (i.e. type of rocks, age, thickness, correlation between different
units, variation of facies) and the lithology (i.e. composition of the rocks, the texture, the sedimentological
structure) are very valuable to familiarise oneself with the regional geology.
The most detailed reports depict the distribution of the lithologies as well as the mineral and chemical
compositions. Such reports or studies are normally done by students at the universities (diploma or PhD,
professors). In addition existing company reports can give a lot of information. Thes are however not
always available, whilst academic reports usually are.
2.3 Photogeology
A considerable amount of geological information can be obtained from the interpretation of from aerial
photographs,. Different rock types can be identified because of their strong tonal and textural contrasts
due to:
¨ erosion levels and patterns
¨ colour and reflectivity
¨ vegetation cover
¨ structure
Lineaments (faults or other discontinuities) may be distinguishable as any alignment of features on an
aerial photograph.
Folds are easily recognized and it is often possible to define the fold type (i.e. open, tight).
Fig. 3 shows a folded structure where it is possible to differentiate several lithologies. Dip and strike of
the layers and fold axis can be determined.
From an aerial photograph, structure and a lithology can be quickly defined.
Fig 3: Aerial photograph of a folded region and geological interpretation

2.4 Remote sensing

Apart from the traditionally used aerial photographs, the satellite pictures have become available as a
useful tool for scanning large areas.
With the help of these pictures, the general trends of the regional geology and the lithology can be
determined, which is very helpful for any prospecting campaign.
The technique employs devices such as cameras, lasers, infrared, and ultraviolet detectors in satellite or
on aircraft.
The following tools are available :

Tools Resolution (pixels)

Landsat MultiSpectral Scanner (MSS) 80 m
Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) 30 m
SPOT MultiSpectral Scanner (SPOT-XS) 20 m
SPOT Panchromatic (SPOT-P) 10 m
ERS-1 (European Radar Satellite) 10 m
RadarSat
Airborne Radar (Radar)

Passive sensors like Landsat and SPOT can not see through clouds since they depend on naturally
reflected or radiated energy. Only an active sensor, like radar, which emits a signal and records its
reflection can penetrate clouds.
In heavily vegetated areas or in regions with high sun angles or with a low relief, the use of radar will
significantly increase the visibility of the structure.
An example of prospecting for raw materials at Polpaico - Chile, by remote sensing, is given at the end of
this chapter.
2.5 Where to look for information?
¨ HMC Information Services
¨ University libraries
¨ Geological survey of the country
Aerial photographs can very often be obtained at the department of the geological survey.
2.6 Results of the desk study
The result of the desk study must depict the geological situation of the most promising deposits.
The geologist will recommend carrying out preliminary field investigations on 2 to 3 deposits.
Modern Methods of Prospecting for Limestone at Cemento Polpaico
1. GENERAL
2. THEORETICAL INTRODUCTION
2.1 General
2.2 LANDSAT satellites
2.3 Generation of images
2.4 Analysis of the information
3. GEOLOGICAL EXAMINATION
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Results of the photos
3.3 Results of examinations on site
4. CONCLUDING REMARKS

Searching for limestone deposits in the coastal Cordilleras of Central Chile with satellite photos.
Antonio Gallego M., Consultant geologist
Galcerán Marquet I., Planning engineer for strategic reserves
1. GENERAL
There are very few limestone deposits in Chile. This applies particularly to the central region of this
extremely long country of 4000 km. Only in the south (Madre de Dios archipelago) and in the cordilleras
of the Andes at an altitude of 3000 to 5000 m above sea-level near the border to Argentina, are there any
significant limestone deposits.
The two factories which satisfy the needs of the greater part of the market round Santiago and the rest of
the country utilize deposits which incur heavy raw-material costs. Cemento Polpaico utilizes a deposit of
siliceous limestone 40 km north of Santiago, a material which requires a special flotation treatment, while
Cemento Mélon exploits a lime-stone deposit of good quality situated some 120 km north of Santiago,
where it is mined 500 m below ground-level.
In view of this situation, it was decided in 1992 that prospecting for new limestone deposits should be
carried out along the coastal Cordilleras, roughly between 31 and 33° of longitude S, representing an area
of some 12 000 km2. One third of this area exhibited geological formations in which limestone could be
expected with a certain degree of probability.
The exploration of such a large area demanded many days of field work on the spot. To reduce this to a
minimum, the most interesting zones had to be selected beforehand, and then work concentrated on
them. The most obvious question was: Where are these areas and how can they be selected? To obtain
an answer it was decided to resort to the analysis of satellite photos.
This procedure is used quite often when prospecting for metallic raw material, especially in Northern
Chile, and astonishing results have been achieved. One company, for instance, located a large gold
deposit in the region of Zapaleri (high cordilleras of the Atacama region) solely with the aid of satellite
photos, and this long before the geologists working for the competitors had returned to their offices,
analyzed their data and likewise reached the conclusion that the area was of interest. With non-metallic
deposits not so much experience has been acquired, but it is nevertheless very promising, as the
discovery of large saltpetre shows deposits in the Atacama Desert. And thereby hangs a tale: When
examining the satellite photos, a line was observed which crosses the entire desert and consisted of
saltpetre. When this remarkable phenomenon was examined on site, the line was found to be the route by
which the Incas used to transport saltpetre to Peru. The saltpetre recorded in the photos was lost on the
way by the pack animals.
In view of the excellent results obtained with this method it was decided that it should be used for
limestone, despite the lack of experience with this material. First the feasibility of the method was tested
with photos of the known deposits in the area surrounding the works of Cemento Polpaico. They are
located between 32°30' and 33°30' longitude (Fig. 1). Owing to the proximity of the area and its good
accessibility, it was an easy matter to check the results. It ought to be possible to see the limestone
deposits of Cemento Polpaico and Mélon, which were of use in analysing the satellite information.
These photos and the software for their analysis cost about US$ 4000 per photo, plus US$ 10 000 for the
program. The Centro de Estudios Espaciales of the University of Chile also possesses some photos, as
well as suitable equipment and experts, so that it was possible to cooperate directly with this institute at a
cost of US$ 500 per day. For the three days occupied by evaluating the photos the total cost worked out
at US$ 1500 for an area of 5000 km2. Assuming that a field geologist would have cost US$ 50 per day, it
would have been possible to finance 30 field days at this price. But then the geologist would have had to
explore 170 km2 per day, which of course is impossible. Thus the method of analysing satellite photos
costs decidedly less.
2. THEORETICAL INTRODUCTION
2.1 General
The use of satellite photos of the Earth's surface has grown in importance for geological investigations
since the seventies, when the first satellite of the LANDSAT series was put in orbit. With satellites certain
information can be acquired quicker and more economically than with conventional methods.
The photo gives a representative impression of the surface, though vegetation can prove disturbing. For
this reason the method provides better results in semi-dry, desert-like areas where the rock strata are
more exposed.
In the latest method known as remote sensing, a sensor (or a group of sensors) suitable for measuring
the intensity in a given waveband in the electromagnetic spectrum is mounted on an aircraft, a helicopter
or a satellite, so as to cover the largest possible area for prospecting. There are a number of satellites
fitted in this way, such as LANDSAT, SPOT and NOAA, which were developed for the particular purposes.
2.2 LANDSAT satellites
The LANDSAT satellites (MSS and TM) which were put in operation by the NASA, are located in a polar
orbit which passes the illuminated area of the Earth several times a day moving west-wards so that within
16 days the whole of the Earth's surface has been covered.
The photos come from two sensors: a Multi-Spectral Scanner (MSS)and a Thematic Mapper (TM). Both
of them divide the image into small elements (pixels) and measure their intensity of radiation. The
components of the sunlight reflected by the Earth are detected in both the visible and the infrared region.
This digital information is transmitted to Earth, where it is processed to products resembling aerial photos,
false-colour photos, which are then analysed and evaluated.
The TM sensor is more useful for geology than MSS. It produces images in 7 bands of the
electromagnetic spectrum, each covering an area of 185 x 185 km, the resolution (definition of objects)
being between 30 and 120 m (thermal infrared). Each band represents a segment of the electromagnetic
spectrum, defined as follows.

Band Micrometer Spectral range

B1 0.45-0.52 visible blue
B2 0.52-0.57 visible green
B3 0.63-0.69 visible red
B4 0.76-0.90 near infrared
B5 1.55-1.75 remote infrared
B6 10.8-12.5 thermal infrared
B 2.08-2.35 remote thermal infrared (SWIR)

2.3 Generation of images

The data stored on magnetic tape can be processed at any time to obtain the desired products. These
result from a combination of three information bands, allocated beforehand to the three traditional colours
red, green or blue (R/G/B).
The information bands may contain one of the following: The various bands which are received directly
from the satellite, the product of a mathematical operation based on information from various real bands
(band sum, band quotient, etc.), or the PC (principal components). Each separately measured band
contains a definite component of the other bands depending on the technical features of the sensor. Via
statistical treatment of the data of the various bands of an image, algorithms are generated (PCl, which in
turn generate new bands with bands independent of one another. When an image is displayed, it can be
modified so that the information needed is acquired.
2.4 Analysis of the information
When generating an image, one should have a clear idea of what information is needed and how it should
be interpreted. Experience has proved that there are definite bands and combinations that are particularly
well suited for use in geology. In order to analyse an image (on the monitor or as a colour printout), one
should have a clear idea of what the false colour concept involves. This means that the colour on the
picture is not necessarily the colour of the Earth's surface, but:
¨ the colour results from the allocation of a definite band to a colour on the monitor
¨ the colour results from the actual colour of the surface;
¨ the various colours in the picture indicate a difference in the composition of the reflecting surfaces
this information is purely of a qualitative nature and does not provide any information on the material, nor
the percentage of a definite compound present.
¨ The colour observed results from the reflective properties of the analysed surface, the degree of
weathering, the humidity, the structure of the surface etc.
¨ It should also be pointed out that in view of the fact that a satellite photo is based on the reflection
of sunlight by the Earth's surface, it depends directly on the time of day, the weather conditions, the
season of the year and the angle of observation at the moment the photo is taken.
The simplest method is to compare the false colour pictures of satellite photos with known geological
formations in an area. If it proves possible to allocate a colour to a definite kind of stone, it may be
assumed that at places where the colour is the same, the lithological conditions will be the same as those
in the corresponding reference area.
Although the various bands alone already provide definite information, they can be combined and the
properties of the false colours utilized to stress other useful features. Below, some of the most frequent
combinations will be explained (shown in brackets is the colour that appears on the monitor):
B3 (red), B2 (green), B1 (blue): With this combination the various bands are shown with their real colour,
a picture being obtained which corresponds to the natural colouring.
B5 (red), B4 (green), B1 (blue): Here a distinction can be made between various rocks and soils in an
area with no vegetation. This combination is useful for exploring lithological conditions in volcanic and
sedimentary strata.
Other pictures are obtained with the aid of the quotients between the bands. B7/B4 (red), B4/B3 (green),
B5/B7 (blue): In this case red demonstrates the presence of iron, green corresponds to vegetation and
blue to hydyrophiles and carbonates.
In areas covered with vegetation the ground cannot be seen directly, but employing the following
assumption, conclusions can be drawn as to the lithological conditions and the composition of the subsoil.
Plants react to the presence of different mineral compounds, the composition of which in turn depends on
the lithological conditions. Thus on soil that is rich in calcium carbonate, the plants growing on it may
suffer from a disease known as cloriosis (which affects their chlorophyll content). If this anomaly is
observed in the plant cover, the area observed may be regarded as of interest in the prospecting for rock
containing lime.
The analysis of the PC information (principal components) is rather more complicated because it is
obtained with the aid of an algorithm and therefore bears no direct relation to the real conditions on the
Earth's surface. This algorithm is specific for each PC and each photo. Its importance can be determined
by analysing the formula, the terms of which are different weightings of the various bands. This means
that, according to the weighting factor a definite PC is influenced more by definite bands, which then give
it is true meaning.
3. GEOLOGICAL EXAMINATION
3.1 Introduction
The area selected for the examination corresponds to a segment of the coastal Cordilleras situated
roughly between 32°30' and 33°30' S in longitude. A photo was used which had been taken by LANDSAT
TM at 10 a.m. on a summer morning (March).
In summer this area also exhibits quite an appreciable coverage of vegetation (about 70%), but it
decreases notably with increasing altitude. Although this affects the method, it was hoped that interesting
places would be found in the uncovered areas as well as limestone outcrops in covered areas. At the
strongest resolution of the sensor deposits 30 m or more in size would saturate the photo to such an
extent that identification would be quite easy.
In view of the fact that carbonate cannot be identified by the bands detected by TM and, moreover, certain
bands are easily mistaken for hydroxyls, it was decided that the PC and the comparison method should
be used, using the limestone outcrops in the region of Polpaico as reference pattern. The limestone
deposits of the open quarry could not be used as reference because their white colour and the
outstanding reflection properties of the surface saturated all bands. The photos obtained by combining
different PCs and bands were therefore modified so that their colours stressed the zones in which there
were known to be limestone outcrops, whereas the rest of the photo was darkened, assuming that areas
containing unknown limestone outcrops would be stressed to the same extent.
On three pictures in which known places were discernible with high definition, zones with the same colour
were identified. These stressed regions were observed in at least two of the pictures. Finally, those places
within the geological unit were selected which very probably contain limestone deposits.
3.2 Results of the photos
Below various places are presented which were selected from the photos and corresponded to the
following combinations: Fig. 1: PC1/PC2/B1, Fig. 2: PC1/PC2/PC3, Fig. 3: PC2/PC3/PC4. They are
shown to a scale of 1 :1 000 000 on the enclosed geological map.
From the comparison of the results of the various photos, the areas marked in Fig. 4 were selected.
Already known limestone deposits are also marked on it. There is a clear relationship between their
position and the selected regions for which reason it was assumed that a method suitable for the
subsequent field work had been employed.
Fig. 1: PC1/PC2/B1: Points with a clear yellow colour and/or very weak red pigmentation were selected.

Fig. 2: PC1/PC2/PC3: Points with a pink colour and light green pigmentation were selected.

Fig. 3: PC2/PC3/PC4: Points with a definite olive-green colour and a clear light-blue tinge were selected.

3.3 Results of examinations on site

Having determined the interesting areas, the zones were subsequently examined on the spot where there
were no known deposits. These were located in the geological units Jld, Jdm J2 and west of the middle of
Ki2 and KT (this work was carried out on a geological map to a scale of 1 :250 000, which explains why
much of the analysed geological information is not reproduced) Limestone deposits were found.
Of the limestone deposits found only two proved favourable (> 80% CaCO3). Again, only one of these
exhibited a volume of 1 million tonnes. It was located to the East of Puchuncavi, which had already been
surveyed 2 months previously.
Judging from the limestone deposits found the project could not be declared as successful; this by no
means applies to the geological aspect. Indeed, the new method proved to be extremely effective,
because despite the difficult conditions of the terrain (above all due to the vegetation) a high correlation
index was obtained (in 20 of the selected 32 areas there were known or newly found deposits).
The results proved that no further deposits can be expected in the area, which in turn forces the company
to develop new geological strategies.
In the selected areas where finally no limestone was found, large areas of Andesite were found the colour
of which closely resembles that of limestone or rocks with a weathered surface rich in carbonate. Other
methods were also employed for exploring areas in which, according to literature, there are limestone
deposits but which, on account of the dense vegetation (100%), could not be recognized on the photos
(above all west of Polpaico).
Fig. 4 On account of the comparison of the results of the various photos the areas shown were selected

4. CONCLUDING REMARKS
This method can be used in the regional search for limestone deposits. The subsequent local search
does not last long and involves lower costs than when conventional methods are used (about 0.5
US$/m2), although the initial investment appears high.
Exclusive use of this method cannot solve the problem. It is essential to carefully study the literature at
the same time, in order that adequate results may be obtained.
As regards the investigation carried out, it is judged to be a success from the geological point of view. In
addition to the results (no limestone reserves in the area examined) it showed Polpaico the necessity for
developing new strategies to locate additional reserves of raw materials in other areas.
We should like to thank Cemento Polpaico for financing and supporting us in the development of this new
method, and the experts of the University of Chile for their active cooperation in analysing the information.
C04 - Preliminary Field Investigations of Deposits

Preliminary investigations of deposits

1. INTRODUCTION
2. GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATION OF THE DEPOSITS
3. GEOLOGICAL SITUATION OF THE DEPOSITS
4. SAMPLING
4.1 Sampling methods
4.2 Quantity of materials
5. QUALITY OF THE RAW MATERIALS
5.1 Quality of raw materials for cement manufacturing
5.2 Quality of pozzolanas
5.3 Quality of aggregates

1. INTRODUCTION
In the desk study, the regional geology is depicted and some potential areas are selected for further
investigations. All information obtained so far, has been collected from available published documents and
maps. During the following step, known as preliminary field investigations, the geologist is confronted with
geological features and problems as found in the field. The geologist will describe the nature, disposition
and the structure of the rock exposures of the selected areas in order to gain a first impression of the
quality and reserves of several potential sites.
The preliminary investigations are the highest risk stage in exploration. For this reason, the geological
knowledge, experience and the skills of the observer are of paramount importance to ensure a sound
basis for further work. The preliminary investigations must therefore have the lowest unit cost ($ / per
square km). If the results are negative, the whole project has to be stopped and similar investigations will
have to be conducted in other regions or areas. Positive results call for further, thorough investigations in
the promising areas. In any case, after the completion of this step, the client should be in a position to
decide on whether or not further investigations should be carried out.
The first of the so-called GO / NO GO decisions.
2. GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATION OF THE DEPOSITS
In this first reconnaissance, the morphology of the areas under consideration will be described in order to
show a real picture about
¨ Transportation infrastructure
¨ Potential plant site
¨ Climate
¨ Morphology of the deposit
¨ Quarrying possibility
¨ Environment
3. GEOLOGICAL SITUATION OF THE DEPOSITS
The exposures are described according to lithology, colour, mineralogy, fossil and microfossils. Each
outcrop is recorded on a map (sketch or good draft) of the area drawn by the geologist. The structure of
the rocks, for instance dip and strike, are measured and recorded on the map.
The aim is to show
¨ the distribution of the different lithologies of the deposit under consideration
¨ to calculate the inferred reserves and
¨ to make a preliminary qualitative determination based on surface sampling.
Further on in this chapter, we will to discuss the quality of the raw materials and the problems associated
with sampling procedures
4. SAMPLING
In the preliminary investigations, the quality of the raw materials is determined by surface sampling only.
These samples provide an initial, tentative assessment of the quality of the deposit being investigated.
The geologist establishes a sampling programme with due consideration of the geological situation, time
and finances available. The sampling locations and the methods should be chosen in order to provide
maximum information.
Surface sampling is a delicate task, which requires skill.
Sampling should be representative of the exposure.
For example, the exposure in Fig.1 shows alternating thick layers of limestone and shale. Vegetation
covers the interbeds of shale. A poor sampling process, in which only the exposed layers of limestone are
sampled, will give an incorrect image of the chemical character of the outcrop. The titration value of the
limestone layers amounts to 90%. However, the real titration value of the total outcrop (including the
interbeds of shale) is only 72 %.
Fig.1 Limestone with interbeds of shale

4.1 Sampling methods

Surface sampling can be carried out in different ways depending on :
¨ homogeneity
¨ hardness of the rocks
Sampling must be carried out perpendicular to the stratification.
4.1.1 Homogeneous and hard rocks
Chip samples
One sample, which is considered as representative, is taken from every horizon (strata) or from available
exposures.
Fig. 2 Chip samples

Composite chip samples

The same quantity of chip material is taken at a constant interval. All chip samples from one exposure are
placed in a bag which is representative of a given thickness or composite horizon. A good knowledge of
the quality of the exposure is obtained.
Fig. 3 Composite chip samples

4.1.2 Heterogeneous and hard rocks

Pondered composite sample
Every layer will be sampled. The quantity of materials is dependent on the true thickness of the strata.
The chemical composition of the exposure is well defined.
Fig. 4 Pondered composite samples

4.1.3 Heterogeneous and soft rocks

Channel sampling
The sample is collected along a continuous channel cut at right angles to the stratification. That is the
best method to obtain an accurate chemical composition of the whole exposure.
Fig. 5 Channel samples

4.2 Quantity of materials

To obtain a representative sample, the quantity of material to sample depends on the granulometry of the
material. Fig. 6 shows the relation between maximum grain size and the sample quantity.
Fig. 6 Maximum grain size versus sample quantity

In some cases, the sample quantity is also determined the testing programme to be carried out.
Experience has shown that the following quantities of cement raw materials are necessary for laboratory
tests conforming to HMC standards (Table 1).
Table 1 Sample quantity for various tests
Test Required Quantity
Chemical analysis
Mineralogival analysis
Physical properties 1 - 2 kg per component
or fist-sized specimens,
eventually
Water Analysis 1 litre
Fuel 1 kg, resp. 1 litre
Compressive strength 30 x 30 x 40 cm block
Crushing properties blocks of > 20 cm length or edges
Grindability properties 10 - 20 kg
Lime burning 10 x 10 x 10 cm block
Slurry properties 1 litre
Filtration test 50 - 150 kg

Normally, not only one but also a combination of tests is conducted on the same sample. 1 to 2 kg of raw
material component is sufficient to yield results on chemical and mineralogical compositions, for
examinations on granulation and burnability properties, to determine physical parameters such as
moisture content, porosity, density, water absorbtion etc.
5. QUALITY OF THE RAW MATERIALS
The quality of the raw materials can be appraised by
¨ geological description of the outcrops
¨ testing for chemical and thechnical parametrs
For all the types of raw materials, the following geological description of the exposure will be done:
¨ type of rocks, mineral content
¨ diagenitic process
¨ granulometry
¨ colour
¨ fossil content
¨ type of porosity
¨ structure:
dip and strike of the layers; thickness of the layers laminations; joints, density of joints, length; faults and
folding.
The macroscopic features control the physical and mechanical properties of the rocks. For instance, the
hardness of the rock depends on the type of diagenesis and porosity; the shape of the crushed rocks
depends on the anisotropy of the rocks (fine stratification, lamination, foliation).
5.1 Quality of raw materials for cement manufacturing
In the preliminary investigations, the raw materials are appraised by the chemical analyses of the surface
samples and by the general features of the rocks at the outcrops.
We want here to focus our attention on few components which could be deleterious for the clinker
production. A complete assessment of the raw materials quality parameters is shown in chapter 6.
The table 2 depicts the most frequent deleterious constituents containing in the raw materials
Table 2 Maximum permitted levels of deleterious elements in the raw meal

Constituents Max % in Raw Meal

(LOI free basis) Remarks
MgO < 5 % (abs. max. 6 %) MgO come mainly from the calcareous component
SO3 < 1 % In general, SO3 comes from the argillaceous-siliceous component
K2O
Na2O
Na equivalent
Low alkali < 1.4 %
< 0.8 %
< 1.2 %
< 0.6 %
Argillaceous-siliceous components contain the alkalis
Cl- < 0.02 % All components can have high Cl- content

From a physical point of view, the outcrops are investigated in order to determine the following features:

¨ Homogeneity of the deposit (interbeds, horizontal or vertical variation in lithology,...)

¨ Presence of chert, i.e. cryptocristalline quartz, occurring as nodules, lenses in limestone and
shales
¨ Proportion of abrasive minerals (quartz grains)
All these parameters are significant to assess the suitability of a deposit. Heterogeneous deposits will
require selected quarrying.
5.2 Quality of pozzolanas
Pozzolana is a siliceous or siliceous - aluminuous material which in itself possesses little or no cemtitious
properties. Finely ground and in presence of moisture (water), the material reacts chemically with calcium
hydroxide, Ca (OH)2 at at ambient temperature to form compounds possessing cementitious properties
(calcium silicate and calcium aluminate minerals).
The natural pozzolanas are mostly volcanic products such as ashes, tuffs (consolidated ashes) and lavas.
Other well-known natural types are diatomaceous earth, and opaline shales.
The quality of pozzolanas can only be appraised by testing of samples. The following properties of the
pozzolanas should be considered in the testing programme:
¨ Petrography: description of the texture and the mineral composition
¨ Chemical composition
¨ Mineralogical composition: Proportion of amorphous, glassy material or content of zeolithes by X
ray diffraction
¨ Hydraulic index: Keil index
¨ Pozzolanic activity. Holcim norm follows the ASTM C-311-90 standard.
Selection of suitable deposits should take place based on the tests results of several representative
samples.
Once selected, a grindability test should be carried out on the deposit.
5.3 Quality of aggregates
The outcrops have to be carefully described as mentioned under paragraph 5. However, several tests
must be carried out on representative samples.
¨ Physical tests:
· density
· porosity
· surface texture of crushed material
· shape of the crushed material
· proportion of dust/ fine material
¨ Mechanical tests
· compressive uniaxial strength
¨ Chemical analysis
· Cl content
· Alkali-silica reaction
· Alkali-carbonate reaction
· Organic content

Applied Geophysics
1. APPLIED GEOPHYSICS: ASSISTANCE IN THE INVESTIGATION OF RAW MATERIALS
2. APPLIED GEOPHYSICS: MANY ADVANTAGES AT LOW COST
3. GEOPHYSICAL METHODS AVAILABLE AND THE CRITERIA OF CHOICE
3.1 Geoelectrics
3.2 Seismics
3.3 Gravimetry
3.4 Geomagnetics
3.5 Radar
3.6 Bore hole logging
3.7 Choice of method
4. CASE STUDY
4.1 Determination of the contact basalt - granite
4.2 Determination of the thickness of the lahar layers and their qualities
4.3 Determination of the overburden thickness
4.4 Determination of the geological structure
4.5 Evaluation of reverse drill hole
4.6 Karstified limestone

1. APPLIED GEOPHYSICS: ASSISTANCE IN THE INVESTIGATION OF RAW MATERIALS

When investigating raw materials, the geologist is often confronted with many problems such as:
thickness of overburden, localisation of lithological contacts or geometry of the deposit in complex
geological situations. A geophysical reconnaissance can assist the geologist: to accurately define the
geometry of the deposit between the drilling locations, to determine the waste/ore ratio, as well as the
accurate reserves of raw materials. Due to high costs, the number of drill holes which can be done is
limited. Accurate correlation between them is not always assured and potential nasty surprises can arise
during the quarrying.
Applied geophysics may also be helpful for the determination of the physical characteristics of the rocks,
i.e. rippability. In the quarry, detailed geophysics can determine cavities. In a karstified deposit, this
geophysical reconnaissance can overcome quality fluctuations caused by the cavity materials. A constant
quality can be maintained.
2. APPLIED GEOPHYSICS: MANY ADVANTAGES AT LOW COST
The main advantages of geophysics are as follows:
¨ Investigation over a greater surface
¨ expedient execution
¨ results in form of maps and profiles
¨ accurate calculation of reserves
¨ planning of the drilling campaign
· optimisation of the drilling location
· reduction of the quantity of drilling
¨ Lower costs
Table 1 compares the cost of a geophysical investigation with that of a theoretical drilling campaign in a
gravel deposit.
Table 1

Geophysics Drilling
Logistic portable heavy drilling machine
Information 17 vertical electrical
soundings 17 drill holes (850 m)
Data Additional exploration 3 drill holes (150 m) none
Field acquisition4 days 85 days
Duration Interpretation 2 days 3 days
Additional drilling 15 days -
Total 21 days 88 days
geophysics: 10'400 US$88'000 US$
Cost add. Drillings: 16'000 US$
Total 26’4000 US$ 88’000 US$

drilling advance: 10 m/day drilling cost: 100 US$/m specialist: 1000 US$/day
2 labourers: 300 US/day each geophysical tools: 2000 US$
The cost of the application of refraction seismics will be within the same range. On the other hand, the
cost of the application of reflection seismics would be around 30% more expensive.
Nevertheless, the geophysical methods are indirect methods of reconnaissance. The results are physical
values which have to be interpreted in terms of rocks and/or sediments. The experience of the geologist /
geophysicist and a good knowledge of the local geology are indispensable prerequisites for obtaining very
accurate results. The main disadvantages are as follows:
¨ no samples
¨ drill hole of calibration
Calibration of the geophysical values within a few drill holes considerably improves the accuracy of the
results. It is also advisable to sink two to three drill holes after a geophysical campaign.
3. GEOPHYSICAL METHODS AVAILABLE AND THE CRITERIA OF CHOICE
To solve the above problem, which often appears during the investigation, the geologist has the following
methods at his disposal.
3.1 Geoelectrics
An electricity field is emitted by one or two electrodes, and the difference of potential created by this field
is measured by two other electrodes. Different types of array are available to the specialist. The most
frequently applied arrays for prospecting are as follows:
¨ Vertical electrical sounding (YES) Schlumberger type
¨ Four pole profiling (4P-PRFL)
The goal of the geoelectrical methods is as follows:
¨ With VES, to define the true resistivity . This allows to determine the kind of rocks and the
thickness of the formation
¨ With 4P-PRFL, to map the distribution of the apparent resistivity. This reveals the structure of the
subsurface for a given depth of investigation depending of the array configuration
3.2 Seismics
Waves are artificially generated by means of explosions or hammer within the earth crust. The waves are
reflected and refracted on the in homogeneous plans (fault) or on stratification. The wave characteristics
and the time during which the seismics waves pass from the emission centre to the geophones are
recorded.
In refraction seismics, only the first arrival waves are considered. The Fig. 1 shows a record of refraction
seismics. This method is suitable for determination of rock quality (i.e. rippability).
Fig. 1: Traces display

In reflection seismics, all reflected waves are considered. A shallow reflection seismics allows the
interpretation of complex geological situation on the subsurface for a few years.
In shallow reflection seismic, acquisition of raw data and its processing must be treated with great care.
In the acquisition of raw data, the distance between the points of emission and the distance between the
geophones are very important . These distances influence the data density which can be defined by the
two following parameters:
¨ Coverage: how often a point on a reflector is reached by a roll along acquisition
¨ Common depth point (CDP) corresponds to half the distance between the geophone
An example of the importance of the raw data acquisition is given in Fig 2. The effect of the variation of
the data density can be clearly seen.
Fig 2: Results of a shallow reflection seismic for different distance of emission and geophones array.

For shallow seismic surveys, the consistent use of both reflection and refraction profiling is
recommended. Although the reflection method is unrivaled for imaging the more complex geological
structures, usually better velocities of the subsurface layers are obtained by refraction analysis.
The table 2 provides a comparison of the two methods:
Table 2

Refraction seismics Reflection seismics

velocity determination very good good
thickness very good very good
geometry weak very good
complex geological situation bad very good
price cheap expensive

An estimate of the price of the shallow reflection seismic is given in Fig. 3 in relation to the depth of
investigation.
Fig. 3: Estimate of the cost of the shallow reflection seismic.

3.3 Gravimetry
This method is based on the difference of density. After applying various corrections to the raw data,
gravity anomalies can be mapped. The gravimetric maps show the distribution of heavy and light masses
in the subsurface. It is also possible to discem a dense limestone from relatively lightweight clay in a karst
system. This method is seldom applied in the investigations of raw materials for cement.
3.4 Geomagnetics
Geomagnetic method is the measure of the geomagnetic field on the surface. Iron-ore deposits are
particularly suitable for investigation with this method, but it is less suitable for investigations of raw
materials for cement.
3.5 Radar
Radar is a new method of prospecting, based on the electromagnetic waves. The tools consist of two
antennae - transmitter and receiver. The transmitter generates electromagnetic impulses of 22 up to 100
MHz frequency. The depth of investigation depends on the frequency and of the mineral composition of
the subsurface. An example of a radar is shown in Fig 4.
Fig. 4: Results of a radar investigation in a peat deposit

3.6 Bore hole logging

Nearly all geophysical parameters can be measured in drill holes in order to define the nature and the
quality of the rocks. This is especially convenient when no core samples are available (reverse circulating
drilling), or when core recovery is very poor. Nowadays slimhole logging offers extraordinary flexibility
thanks to the fact that probe series containing up to 7 probes can be assembled as desired. Thereby, the
number of runs needed is minimised and substantially reduces the field operation times.
A new logging tool is now available in the petroleum industry to determine the chemical composition of the
rock in the drill hole. The geochemical logging tool measures concentrations of 12 elements (SiO2,
Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO, SO3, K2O, TiO2, Cl, Ga, H, Th, U) and provides data to calculate the MgO
concentration of the formation. The accuracy of this tool must still be tested for use in the investigation of
raw materials for cement.
3.7 Choice of method
The choice of method of application depends on the contrast of the physical parameters between the
different rocks. The charts (Fig 5) show the expected physical value for different rocks and sediments.
¨ geoelectrics: parameter is resistivity
¨ seismics: parameter is velocity
For instance, to determine the contact aggregates - sandstones, the best method would be seismics
because of the better contrast of velocity between aggregates and sandstones.
In conclusion, geophysics is an indirect method of investigation. The results must be interpreted in
geological terms. The most important advantage of the geophysics is the quick execution at lower costs
by keeping a low profile in the field. The choice of the method is dependent on the physical parameters
between the layers under investigation.
Fig. 5 Physical parameters

4. CASE STUDY
4.1 Determination of the contact basalt - granite
Geology
In a phase of extension of the aggregates quarry, the reserves of basalt must be accurately defined. The
deposits consist of the following lithologies:
¨ overburden: fluvial sand and moraine
¨ basalt with some intercalation of tuff
¨ granite
The top of the granite is weathered and consists of argillaceous material.
Method
The weathered granite underneath the basalt shows a very good geoelectrical contrast. Indeed the
argillaceous material has a very low resistivity, and can be easily detected by the geoelectrical methods.
Results of the geoelectrical prospecting
8 vertical electrical soundings and four poles profiling were carried out.
In the vertical soundings, the low resistivity layer under the basalt is clearly identified (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6: Interpretation of a vertical electrical sounding

The apparent resistivity maps in Fig. 7 show the apparent resistivity for two different depths of
investigation. The interpretation of these maps gives the geologist an indication of the structure of the
subsurface for the investigated depth.
Fig. 7 Apparent resistivity maps

The result of this investigation is shown in the contour line map of the granite (Fig 8)
Fig. 8 Thickness of the basalt and contour line map of the top of the granite

4.2 Determination of the thickness of the lahar layers and their qualities
Geology
The field under consideration consists of several layers of lahar. A lahar consists of pyroclastic (volcanic)
materials on the flank of a volcano. The deposit is produced by a landslide or mudflow. The quality of the
lahar fluctuates due to the varying size of the matrix (coarse to fine grained). In this region, the lahar is
overlaid by a volcanic tuff
Method
With vertical electrical soundings, the quality of the lahar can be appraised according to the fine materials
in the matrix or the quantity of stone/gravel. Indeed, a fine matrix lahar or a sand have a true resistivity
less than a sand matrix lahar containing many stones and gravel. The difficulty is to differentiate a fine
matrix lahar from a sand layer, because it could have the same true resistivity.
The overburden (tuff) can be easily determined by geoelectrics due to the anticipated low resistivity.
Results
According to the results of the vertical soundings, three types of lahars have been determined. The true
resistivity of the different lahars is as follows:
¨ Lahar 1: 600 to 1300 Ohm*m. Is considered to be of good quality. The highest resistivity indicates
a consolidated lahar
¨ Lahar 2: 150 to 500 Ohm *m. Could correspond to a lahar with a fine matrix, or a sand with
stones and gravel.
¨ Lahar 3: 90 to 150 Ohm*m, corresponding to a sandy - silty layer
The overburden (tuff) has a true resistivity in the range of 10 to 30 Ohm*m.
On the basis of the VES, a geological cross section is carried out (Fig 9).
Fig. 9: Conceptual geological section based on geoelectrical results.

The results are shown in isopach maps, maps representing the thickness (Fig 10).
It was recommended to put down a few drill holes of calibration.
Fig. 10: Thickness maps of the lahar layers

4.3 Determination of the overburden thickness

Geology
The region under consideration consists of marl. In a tropical climate, the upper part of the marl is
completely weathered in kaolinite. The thickness of the weathering layer has to be determined.
Method
The application of the refraction seismics in this situation has been considered because of the difference
of velocity between the argillaceous weathered layer and the marl.
Results
With the refraction seismics, three layers have been determined. A profile is shown in Fig. 11. The
considerable thickness of the weathered zone was prohibitive for exploitation.
Fig. 11: Geological cross-section based on the results of refraction seismic

4.4 Determination of the geological structure

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the structure of the bed rock under an overburden.
The overburden consists of moraine and landslide materials.
Method
Reflection seismics are applied accurately to determine the geometry of the bedrock
Results
The results of this investigation are shown in Fig 12.
Fig. 12: Profiles of reflection seismic and geological interpretation

4.5 Evaluation of reverse drill hole

In the investigation of raw materials, the drilling campaign was carried out by reverse circulating drilling.
No core was recovered. In order to determine the lithological contact and to localise thins interbeds of
clay, a natural gamma ray logging was carried out.
With the present situation, the localisation of the thin interbeds of clay was indispensable for geotechnical
purposes. The bench stability was precarious.
The results of the gamma ray logging is shown in Fig 13.
Fig. 13: Interpretation of gamma ray logging

The lithological contact as well as the thin interbeds of clay are clearly identified.
4.6 Karstified limestone
Recognition of cavities and determination of their size is always an important factor in geotechnics.
Preliminary drill holes had shown that the subsurface consists of strongly karstified limestone. Due to the
lack of correlation between them, it was impossible to obtain a realistic image for the geotechnical
calculation. A special logging tool was used by EBRA -Tee.
A radar tomography campaign has been carried out on each drill hole pair. Spacing between two drill
holes ranges from 12 to 24 m.
Fig 14 shows the results of the tomography.
Fig. 14a: Radar tomographic measurements

Fig. 14b: Geological interpretation

C05 - Overall Raw Material Prospecting

Overall Raw Materials Investigations

1. INTRODUCTION
2. DRILLING
2.1 Diamond core drill
2.2 Other types of drilling
3. GEOLOGICAL MAPS AND CROSS -SECTIONS
3.1 Geological mapping
3.2 Geological cross-sections
3.3 Classification of reserves
4. OVERBURDEN
5. BULK SAMPLing TECHNOLOGICAL TESTS

Overall investigations of raw materials

1. INTRODUCTION
The overall raw materials exploration serves the purpose of acquiring sufficient data on a raw material
deposit in order to establish a feasibility study for a project. It is important that the investigation program is
well specified and that the responsibilities are clearly defined. This incorporates methods, responsibilities,
information flow, cost controls, schedule and milestones.
The investigations of the quality and the quantity of 1 to 3 deposits (which were shortlisted in the
preliminary field investigations) are appraised. The following work needs to be carried out in order to
obtain accurate information about the deposits:
¨ Geological mapping and cross-sections.
· Purpose : Distribution of the lithology / formations and geological structure
¨ Drilling :
· 1'000 to 2'000 m of core drilling for the main limestone deposit
· 500 to 1'000 m for the secondary deposits.
· Purpose : Description of the lithology, sedimentology, structure, moisture content, porosity,
density, compressive strength, sampling for chemical analyses
¨ Chemical analyses :
· LOI, SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, SO3, K2O,Na2O,TiO2, P2O5, Mn2O3, Cl-
¨ Calculation of reserves
¨ Geophysics if necessary
¨ Raw mix design
¨ Preliminary concept of quarrying
¨ Bulk samples for technological tests

The results of these investigations must be sufficiently precise in order to decide on the feasibility of the
project with regard to the raw material aspects.
2. DRILLING
During the overall exploration program, the deposit is investigated by drilling. In order to obtain the most
reliable knowledge with respect to the chemical composition and the structure of the rocks, a
comprehensive drilling programme is established. In this step, the drilling tool is generally a diamond core
drill. This is the finest manner in which the lithology can be precisely described (defined), geological
structures can be measured on the cores, and the core recovery of a drill hole can be accurately
measured. It is very important to have a maximum core recovery, as the accuracy of the chemical
character and the reserves determination of the deposit depends on core recovered.
2.1 Diamond core drill
These involve driving a fast rotating annular bit through the rock and so obtaining a solid undisturbed
sample. The bits are either diamond impregnated or surface set. Occasionally other materials such as
tungsten may be used. In terms of sample weight or lineal metreage this is at least three times as
expensive as any other drilling methods for similar depths.
The drilling equipment is mounted on a frame or on a truck. This includes the drill, mast and water/air
circulation pump. This frame may be mounted on skids to be towed or fitted with jack-legs (hydraulic
rams), Alternatively it can be mounted on a truck or crawler track device as a permanent configuration.
2.1.1 Bits
The bits consist of a steel blank, to the lower end of which a metallic alloy matrix is sintered. This matrix is
encrusted or impregnated with diamond grains (natural or synthetic) or occasionally with chips of tungsten
carbide or silicon carbide as special alternative.
In soft formations such as clay, larger teeth or blades are needed. The cutting edge being made of
tungsten or silicon carbide or polycrystalline diamond.
Fig. 1: Types of bits

2.1.2 Circulating fluids

The principal purpose of a circulating fluid is to remove the cuttings from the face of the bit as well as
serve as a coolant to the bit. Water or an emulsion of water and special lubricants (barite, polymer oil)
also known as drilling mud,is the common circulating fluid. The cuttings are washed up the borehole in the
annular space between the drilling rods and the borehole wall or casing. Some drilling techniques (rotary
and percussion) use air as the flushing medium. In special circumstances, air can be used to avoid
dissolving minerals and losing the core, such as halite (NaCl) in the circulating water.
2.1.3 Core barrel
Core is collected at the bottom of the borehole in a core barrel and periodically. brought to the surface A
conventional standard core barrel requires all the drilling rods to be removed from the borehole at the end
of each run, before the core can be removed. In 1961, the wireline drilling system was introduced. This
enables an innertube with the core (inner core barrel) to be withdrawn through the rods at the end of a
cable or wire. This system obviates the need to withdraw all the drilling rods thereby saving time and
money. Additionally the quality of the core and core recovery is improved when using wireline drilling.
A core barrel is that section of the drilling rods string in which the cylinder of rock is collected and can be
brought to the surface. The simplest core barrel (single tube) consists of a reamer, a corelifter and the
core barrel. The reamer serves two functions. One being to maintain the correct hole diameter to ensure
sufficient clearance between the borehole wall and drilling rods, and the other, to provide seating for the
corelifter. The corelifter consists of a tapered spring-steel ring, which allows the core to travel in one
direction only (upwards). When the rods are lifted, the core is wedged in and clamps inside the core
barrel.
The corelifter not only prevents the cut core from dropping out, but also allows the core to be broken off at
the bottom of the hole. The circulating fluid passes down through the center of the drilling rods past the
collected core (in the core barrel) and out over the bit before returning to the surface on the ouside of the
drilling rods.
In the double tube barrel, the drilling fluid is diverted away from the core to the bit by way of the annulus
between the core barrel and the innertube. This system was devised for soft, broken or friable ground,
where the core could be easily washed away by the driling fluid. In subsequent models, the innertube is
fixed with a ballrace so that it cannot rotate with the rods thereby cause grinding and wearing of core. A
further refinement is a split innertube to allow better transfer of undisturbed core into the trays.
In very soft, unconsolidated or porous rocks it is necessary to use a triple tube core barrel with split
innertube to obtain a good recovery.
2.1.4 Recovery
The drilling should be carried out in such a manner that a maximum core recovery is ensured.
The minimum core recovery is 95% per drill hole. Below 80 %, the accuracy of the geological information
derived and associated chemical analysis is doubtful.
According to Holcim drilling specifications, the client has the right to reject the core and therefore the
samples received from the drilling contractor if the core recovery is below 80%. Only if the insufficient
core recovery is due to inadequate drilling. In which event, the contractor is obliged to redrill the borehole
at no cost to the client. On the other hand the drilling contractor, cannot be held responsible if the
geologist confirms that the poor core recovery is due to lithological features (e.g. cavities, caves,
incompetent ground, etc).
Good core recovery is difficult to obtain from unconsolidated material for two reasons:
¨ large gravel pieces tend to either move about in the core bit and so prevent clean cutting or they
jam in the bit
¨ fine sand, whilst feeding into the barrel, will not be rigid enough to be retained by the core lifter.
2.1.5 Core size
Core size depends on the bit and barrel combination used. In general for our purposes, the core size will
have a minimum diameter of 45 mm (or NQ-3). In broken material, recovery will be better with a larger
core size. In very hard material, recovery is invariably very good, at lower cost when using the smallest
core which will be suitable for our purposes.
2.1.6 Core storage
The cores must be stored in wooden core boxes or trays, which are lockable. The core boxes must be
adequately marked on the outside showing borehole co-ordinates (number), box number, depth of drilling
(from… to) in meters. Generally, the inside length of the core box is 1.05m. whilst the width of the inside
sections (usually 5 sections) should be +/- 5 mm larger than the core diameter. The inside of the core box
must likewise, be adequately marked showing top and bottom depth of each section with an arrow
pointing down hole. Every run of the core barrel must be 'flagged' using tags, labels or wooden blocks.
Information on the flags indicates run number and depth. Pieces of wood of appropriate length must be
inserted into the core boxes to indicate voids or cavities, as they are encountered in the actual borehole.
The core boxes or trays, must be stored in suitable coe shed which is protected against atmospheric
conditions, vandalism and competitor interference.
2.1.7 Core sampling and preparation
The project geologist is responsible for samples selection of the cores according to acceptable geological
practice. The sample widths are to be adequately marked on the cores and recorded in the borehole log.
Samples preparation procedure is important so that representative samples are supplied to the laboratory
for analysis. The borehole cores are split (or divided) length-wise (from top to bottom) into two halves
using a stone saw or a core splitter installed on site. One half is returned to the respective core box, and
is adequately stored as the geological reference.
The other half is crushed and comminuted, sample for sample, according to the geologically defined
intervals, to a grain size of max. 2 mm. The original sample of several kilograms is in a series of several
steps of alternate crushing and quartering reduced to a final mass of about 200 grams.
The intermediate fractions not used for further processing will have to be adequately stored in labeled
plastic bags.
The +/- 200 grams final sample material is ground with a laboratory mill to 0% residue on a 60 micron
sieve (10'000 mesh per cm2).
For both client and Holcim one sample of approx. 50 g each should be prepared for chemical analysis.
2.1.8 Drilling problems
The main problems encountered during a drilling campaign are as follows:
Access
Sometimes, the access to the drillpoint is very difficult. Access roads have to be built or the drilling
equipment will have to be dismantled and carried.
Recovery
A good recovery depends on the experience of the man in charge of the drilling. In case of poor or soft
rock, which leads to bad recovery, a double or triple tube core barrel is recommended.
Others problems consist of loss of water, deviation of the drill holes, stabilility of the hole/casing, etc...
2.2 Other types of drilling
2.2.1 Auger drill
The principal component is a slowly rotating rod. The material from the hole is forced upwards by the
wedging action of the cutting bit tips and by a spiral flue (archimides screw) fitted to the rods.
These rigs are mainly used for post hole digging and sampling of soil, clay and shallow weathered rock, in
situations where disturbed samples are acceptable. These rigs are unsuitable in unconsolidated alluvial
(pebble, sand, clay) or hard rocks.
2.2.2 Rotary drill
This method uses a slowly rotating rod string at the end of which a bit scrapes and dislodges rock chips
by point pressure. The cuttings are flushed usually flushed by air although water or drilling mud (emulsion
of barite and water) is used in special circumstances. Circulation may be normal, i.e. cuttings are
exhausted from the borehole between the rod and the borehole hole wall or casing, or may be reversed
(RC), whereby cuttings are exhausted through the interior of the rods.
Reversed circulating drilling may be used for geochemical sampling. The price of the RC drilling is much
cheaper than the core drilling, but geophysical logging must be carried out to for correlation between the
drill holes. The total costs (RC drilling plus geophysics) are still good, compared to those of core drilling
(30 to 60% lower).
Rotary drilling methods are frequently applied in oil well drilling.
2.2.3 Percussion drill
As the term suggests the principle thereof is having a slowly rotating chisel impacting the rock. The
method of application of force to the chisel allows a classification as follows:
¨ uphole hammer drill
¨ downhole hammer drill.
Normally applied in production drilling (blasthole) in open pit or quarry operations.
3. GEOLOGICAL MAPS AND CROSS -SECTIONS
3.1 Geological mapping
A geological map is a representation of the surface outcrop rocks, very often superimposed on on a
topographical map. Geological mapping is therefore essential to study the spatial distribution of the
different rock types, to determine their thickness and to investigate the geological structure of the deposit.
Many folds or faults, for instance, can be discovered or confirmed (from areial photography) by geological
mapping. If seen in outcrop, these features must be mapped over a large area to be understood. Geologic
maps are the basis on which one can construct the cross sections. The shape and structure of the deposit
is therefore better understood through detailed geological mapping.
The scale of a detailed geological / topographic map is generally 1 : 1000 to 1 : 2000 with a contour line of
1 m.
Each formation encountered in the field is characterised by a specific colour or symbol on the map and
their relative age is indicated in a legend. The legend customarily has a specific sequence. The oldest
rock formation is listed at the bottom followed by the others in order of their decreasing age, ending with
the youngest formation at the top of the legend (Fig. 2)
The geologist must characterise each exposure or layer and attribute them to a formation. The fossil
content, sedimentary structures and their lithological aspects allow one to characterise them.
Moreover, the geological map shows the structures of the deposit (Fig 3). The dip and the strike of the
layers, as well as the faults and the folds are drawn on the map. Fig. 4 shows the conventional symbols.
Fig. 2: Statigraphical column with the thickness of the formations

Fig. 3: Geological map, scale 1: 2000

Fig. 4: Mapping symbols

Considering the discontinuity of the exposures due to the vegetation, overburden, alluvial deposits, etc.
geological mapping is not easy and depends on the experience of the geologist. The geologist must use
the knowledge available with regard to stratigraphy and tectonism of the region, in order to create a
geological 'model'. This 'model' will be continuously compared with the field observations to get a more
realistic image. This method of fieldwork allows one to obtain reliable knowledge very rapidly over a large
area in spite of discontinuous exposures.
3.2 Geological cross-sections
Geological cross-sections show a section in a vertical plan (Fig. 5). They show a postulated distribution of
the rocks at depth. Based on the geological situation observed at the surface (geological map) as well as
information derived from drilling and geophysical surveys.
The geologist's structural interpretation can supported by the results of the drilling campaign. Correlation
of the geological map and the results of the drillings give a reliable image of the sub-surface geological
conditions. Refer Fig 6.
The significance of the geological interpretation of the deposit structures for the calculation of reserves is
illustrated in Fig. 7.
Although the height of the outcrops of limestone is almost identical, the exploitable quantities are
significantly different. Horizontally layered deposits (Fig. 7a) contain considerably larger quantities of
exploitable materials than a deposit of inclined stratification. This is obvious for cases of where the strata
dip outwards (Fig. 7b). Equally important also important in the opposite situation where the starta dip
inwards(Fig 7c), because of increasing quantities of overburden to be removed.
Fig. 5: Geological cross-section, scale 1 : 2000

Fig. 6: Correlation between cross-section and drill hole data

Fig. 6a Limestone Correlation - Alternative Solutions

Another aspect to consider is the intercalation of soft rocks (shale) between a formation consisting of hard
rock (limestone) (Fig.8).
Fig. 7 Significance of the dip of strata for the reserve calculation

V - vertical height ¹ true thickness

T1 = V
T1 = 2 * T2
T3 = 1.5 * T1

Fig. 8 Significance of outcrop situation

Faults may reduce the potential deposit considerably (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9 Reduction of limestone reserves by fault tectonics

Folding may entail incorrect reserve estimates. In this case (Fig. 10), the claystone formation could not be
recognised at the surface. By measuring dip and strike, the anticline structure of this deposit would in all
likelyhood have been detected.
Fig. 10 Significance of Folding

Once the geological and geochemical limits are well defined within the deposit boundaries (physical,
chemical, legal, etc.) the reserve calculations can be carried out.
Prior to calculating the reserves the following parameters must be defined.
¨ Geological structure of the deposit: limit of formations
¨ Structures: dip and strike of stratas, folds, fault
¨ Overburden
¨ Groundwater level, natural drainage
¨ Qualitative limits: chemical
¨ Mineralogical
¨ Base mining level and the final slope of the quarry
¨ Physical properties
¨ Economical aspect
The volume of exploitable materials can be calculated by a range of computer programs such Surfer,
Surpac, ArcInfo, Vulcan, MOSS, Intergraph.
The reserve can be calculated by one of the geometric constructions shown in Fig. 11.
Fig 11 Geometric pattern for reserves calculations

The most suitable method to calculate the reserves is based on geological cross-sections and the
distance between each parallel cross section (Fig. 11f).
V= ((A1 + A2)/2) * L12+ ......+ ((Am + An)/2) * Lmn
V = volume
Am= surface area of the cross-section m
Lmn= distance between cross-sections m and n
For a deposit with horizontal stratification, the volume is quickly calculated by determining the area and
multiplying it by the thickness of the useable rocks.
Calculation of the tonnage
The reserves are normally indicated in tons rather than in volume. The bulk apparent specific weight has
to be determined on a few samples.
Reserves of raw material = V * r
r = density

3.3 Classification of reserves

Many attempts have been made to establish a worldwide-acceptable classification system for raw
material deposits.
It is obvious that a potential deposit of cement raw materials comprises areas which are more thoroughly
investigated than others, as well as zones which permit easier exploitation than others; i.e. according to
the criteria:
· Degree of recognition
· Degree of exploitability
The reserves of cement raw material deposits can be divided into different classes. In the interests of
presenting a useable system, we at Holcim apply the following classification.
Gelogical reserves
Raw mix reserves
Mineable reserves
Gelogical reserves.
Geological reserves refer to those geological mineral occurrences, which are identified with satisfactory
reliability of prediction (certainty of existence and geological assurance, supported with geological maps,
borehole information and detailed sampling for analysis). In addition to which the identified reserves meet
the preconditions set for the feasibility study (locality, accessibilty, availablity, quantitative and qualitative).
Raw mix reserves.
Raw mix reserves are the total reserves of all components (calcareous, siliceous and corrective), which
meet the chemical criteria set for the successful operation of a particular plant.
Mineable reserves.
Mineable reserves are those reserves which fullfil both the aforementioned paramaters and which are
practically mineable. Losses due to mining activity may include 'frozen' reserves for haulage and access
roads, government and saftey restrictions as well as losses due to practical mining problems.

Table 2: US Bureau of Mines Classification System (modified)

4. OVERBURDEN
Overburden is defined as material of any nature, consolidated or unconsolidated which overlies the
deposit of useful materials. Ideally, attempts should always be made to utilise the overburden material as
a raw material component. Should utilisation be impossible due to chemical or physical character, the
overburden is dumped in selected areas. These areas should be optimised with respect to potential
rehabilitation and transportation costs. Moreover, the dumping areas should never obstruct the
exploitation. Fig 12 shows few favourable and inappropriate dumping areas. Unsuitable areas of dumps
may render further exploitation uneconomical and may reduce the potential reserves considerably.
In the overall investigations, the amount and the quality of the overburden must be defined accurately. An
important consideration in the economics of the open pit mining is the stripping ratio, which is defined as
the ratio of total waste removed to total suitable material mined. The overburden ratio is defined as the
ratio of the vertical thickness of overburden to the vertical thickness of suitable material.
Fig 12: Dumping in quarry area
The volume of and the contact betwenn overburden/useful materials is determined during exploration
activities eg. geological mapping, drilling, geophysics etc.
5. BULK SAMPLING TECHNOLOGICAL TESTS
At the end of the overall drilling campaign, a bulk sample is taken. This bulk sample must be
representative of the deposit and comes in general from the core collection. The purpose of the bulk
sample is to carry out technological tests useful to dimensioning the machinery.
The following tests are carried out:
¨ Chemical analyses
¨ Mineralogy
¨ Burnability
¨ Abrasivness
¨ Grindability
¨ Moisture content
Other tests can be carried out such as :
Brazilian test :
Uniaxial compressive strength
Bulk density
Poisson's ratio
Young's coefficient.
Crushing test:
% of fines
etc...

C06 - Assessment of Cement Raw Materials

ASSESSMENT OF CEMENT RAW MATERIALS

1. ASSESSMENT OF CEMENT RAW MATERIALS
1.1 Definition of qualitative requirements of clinker and cement
1.2 Raw materials for the cement industry
1.3 Characteristics of cement raw material
1.4 PRINCIPLES OF RAW MATERIAL ASSESSMENT

1. ASSESSMENT OF CEMENT RAW MATERIALS

1.1 Definition of qualitative requirements of clinker and cement
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) - by far the most frequently used type of cement -consists mainly of
the four major chemical components:

Calcium oxide 64 % CaO "Lime", Calcium, C

Silicon oxide 22 % SiO2 "Silica", S
Aluminium oxide 6 % Al2O3 “Alumina", A
Iron oxide 3 % Fe2O3 “lron", F

The remainder is composed of:

Na2O, K2O "Alkali"

SO3 "Sulphur"
MgO "Magnesium
TiO2 "Titanium"
etc.

It should be noted that nature only seldomly provides a raw material of the desired chemical composition.
Normally, mixtures of various components are necessary to obtain the raw mix suitable for the production
of OPC.
1.2 Raw materials for the cement industry
1.2.1 General
Basically, the following raw material classes can be distinguished:
¨ Main components
They contribute CaO, SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3. CaO is supplied by the calcareous (carbonatic)
component

and

SiO2 Al2O3 and Fe2O3 by the argillaceous (siliceous) component (s).

¨ Corrective Materials
If there is a deficiency of either CaO, SiO2, Al2O3 or Fe2O3, respective "corrective" Materials providing
the deficient component(s), have to be utilised.
¨ Additive Materials
Materials which are added to the raw mix (i.e. to the mix consisting of main components and possibly
corrective Materials or to the clinker in order to obtain special effects, are designated as "additive"
Materials.
1.2.2 Calcareous Component
As demonstrated in chapter 1.3, the calcareous component is usually classified according to its chemical
Composition i.e. according to its carbonate content ("titration value").
The carbonate content - expressed as CaCO3 content is normally higher than 75 %, the sought after
CaCO3 content of the cement raw mix.
The following classification system is employed in the cement industry (Table 19):
Table 19 Classification of calcareous rock
(according to chemical composition)

% CaCO3 Designation
95 - 100 high-grade limestone
85 - 95 limestone
75 - 85 marly limestone

However, by applying only chemical Information nothing is stated regarding the appearance, lithology,
type of formation, etc. of such rocks. A great variety of rocks may fulfill the above classification (refer
Table 20).
Table 20 Calcareous cement raw Materials

"limestone"
marly
limestone
chalk
coral
limestone
marble
"lime-sand"
shell deposits
etc.

The above can all have an identical titration value!

According to specifications for a cement raw mix, a perfectly suited raw material would contain approx. 75
% CaCO3 and 25 % clay and sand components. Such raw Materials very seldom occur in nature as e.g.
natural cement stone".
The economic value of a Potential industrially processed cement raw material depends largely on its
conformity with the above specifications, i.e. conformity means favourable economy. It is wrong to
assume that an increased carbonate content of a calcareous raw material would result in a higher
economic value. For example, a calcareous component with 80 - 85 % CaCO3 is often preferable to a
high-grade limestone with 95 - 100 % CaCO3 because fewer other raw Materials have to be added to
meet the specifications.
Note

It should be pointed out that the titration method for the carbonate determination includes all carbonates,
i.e. the "titration value" is not identical with the CaCO3-content but includes MgCO3, FeCO3, Na2CO3,
etc.

Titration thus produces only guide values which have to be verified by means of total chemical analysis.
1.2.3 Argillaceous Component
The term "argillaceous" covers the field of cement raw materials with those chemical constituents which
are contained in insufficient quantities in the calcareous component, i.e. argillaceous materials basically
supply SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 ("silica", "alumina" and "iron").
Because of the various mechanisms in the formation of argillaceous rock, a large number of these rock
types are considered as potential cement raw materials (Table 21).
Table 21 Argillaceous materials

clay "clay"
loess

ü
ý
þ

unconsolidated,
loose
claystone
mudstone
siltstone
(slate)
shale ü
ï
ý
ï
þ
consolidated,
compact

marl
calcareous
marl
marl
clayey marl
marly clay CaCO3
65 - 75 %

35 - 65 %
25 - 35 %
15 - 25 %
others tuff
ash

phyllite
slate
amphibolite volcanic origin

metamorphic origin

1.2.4 Corrective Materials

If the main components (calcareous and argillaceous component) do not permit the proportioning of a mix
which conforms to the specifications, corrective materials have to be utilised.
Contrary to the main components, the concentration of the desired constituent (SiO2, Al2O3 or Fe2O3) in
the corrective is of utmost importance. Since corrective Materials (Table 22) are usually expensive
(bought from special suppliers) and occasionally have to be transported over long distances, the
corrective should be of high quality and used in small quantities.
Table 22 corrective Materials

To correct the
deficiency of corrective
materialminimum
concentration
"iron" (Fe2O3) Iron ore
Pyrites ash 60% Fe2O3
60% -90%
"alumina" (Al2O3) Bauxite
Laterite
Kaolinite 50% Al2O3
25% "
50%
"silica" (SiO2) Quartzsand
Quartzite 80% SiO2
80% "
"lime" (CaO) Limestone
Marble 90% CaCO3

In rare cases, where the abundant calcareous materials do not contain a sufficient amount of calcium
carbonate, a high-grade limestone (CaO) - corrective has to be supplied.
1.2.5 Additive Materials
Additive materials (Table 23) include, in most cases, only sulphate-bearing components which are added
to the clinker by inter-grinding for control of the setting of cement. In earlier times, another additive
material (fluorspar) was frequently added to the kiln feed in order to improve the burnability. Today, it is
only employed in very rare cases (manufacture of white cement).
A great variety of special cements is produced by blending OPC with either waste or by-products of other
industries (steel industry, power plants) or with naturally occurring materials, yielding latent hydraulic
properties (pozzolana).
Table 23 Additive materials

Additiveminimum
concentration purpose of addition
Gypsum
CaSO4 . 2 H2O
Anhydrite
CaSO4
35% SO3

50% SO3

production of OPC
(95% clinker + 5%
gypsum)

Fluorspar
30% F improvement of
burnability
Blastfurnace slag
Pozzolana
Fly ash
none
special cements

1.2.6 Combination of Components

Criteria for the selection and combination of raw material components are:
¨ chemical composition
(overall, homogeneity, variability, etc.)
¨ technological properties
¨ Transport and costs
¨ material casts
¨ operation (handling, preparation, etc.)
Basically, it is desirable to reduce the number of components to a minimum - taking of course the above
i.e. two-component mixes instead of three or four component mixes. For instance:

limestone
limestone instead of sand
clay iron ore
bauxite

Potential cement raw mixes with a large number of components (more than three or four) may be subject
to difficulties regarding dosage, control of components and of cement raw mixes, etc. Industrially
produced cement raw mixes are compiled in Table 24.
Table 24 Examples of combinations of components
(Holcim-Group plants)

Mississauga Guayaquil
98 - 100 % marly limestone 82 - 85 % limestone
0 - 2 % shale 12 - 15 % clay
1 - 3 % iron ore
Apasco
77 - 85 % limestone Geelong
8 - 22 % clay 55 % high-grade "limestone
0 - 4% sandy clay 44 % low-grade "limestone"
1 -3 % iron ore
Atocongo 1% pyrites ash
27 % limestone
73 % marl Hardegsen
92 % limestone
Darra 7 % sand
91 % coral 0.5 % iron ore
5 % sand 0.5 % gypsum (SO3)
3 % clay
1 % iron ore
Obourg
Dudfield 89 % limestone
88 % limestone 6 % sandy marl
6 % clay 1 % pyrites ash (Fe2O3)
6 % boiler ash (Al2O3) 1 % coal mine waste
0 - 1 % magnetite (Fe2O3) 3 % coal mine waste
pyrites ash (Fe2O3) containing combustibles
Wunstorf Gmunden
91 % limestone / marl 68 % limestone
1.5 % clay 29 % marl
4.54 % sand 3 % iron oxide
3 % iron ore

1.3 Characteristics of cement raw material

1.3.1 Chemical Characteristics
Any assessment of potential cement raw Materials is predominantly based on their chemical composition
The following system (Table 25) for the presentation of chemical results has been developed:
Table 25 Form for presentation of chemical results

Constituents Designation
*
SiO2
AL2O3
Fe2O3
CaO

“main elements”
(oxides)
MgO
SO3
K2O
Na2O
“minor elements”
TiO2
Cr2O3
Mn2O3
P2O5
Cl
F

“Trace elements”

* plus loss on ignition

It should be mentioned that the assessment of each raw material component has to be made with
consideration of a potential raw material combination; i.e. it should not be assessed in isolation but take
into account the other components involved and the specifications for the cement raw mix.
For example:
A limestone yielding 98 % carbonate content may contain 3.5% MgO. An isolated assessment would
result in the rejection of this Materials If the raw mix consists of 20 % clay (say without MgO) and 80%
limestone to achieve a carbonate content of 75%, a MgO content of approx. 2.8% (4.5 % resp. when loss
on ignition free) results, which is still tolerable for most markets.
The following tables (26 - 30) display a series of analytical results of cement raw materials and are to be
interpreted according to the above criteria.
Table 26 Analyses of calcareous cement raw materials

Table 27 Rock Analysis of argillaceous cement raw materials

Table 28 Analysis of corrective materials

Table 29 Analysis of attitive materials

Table 30 Typical analyses of cement raw materials

1.3.2 Crystallographic Characteristics

1.3.2.1 The Crystalline and Amorphous State
Most materials, e.g. rocks and soil, metals and alloys, concrete and organic substances, are "crystalline",
i.e. the atoms, ions and-molecules which form the crystals are arranged in strict geometrical order.
"Amorphous" solids on the contrary are substances with no strict geometrical order, i.e. which are not
“crystalline”. Glasses and certain resins belong to this class.
1.3.2.2 Definition of a Crystal
Crystals are chemically and physically homogeneous, regularly shamed polyhedral bodies.
1.3.2.3 Space Lattice and Unit Cell
Geometrically, a space lattice (Fig. 33) is defined as a regular and unlimited Arrangement of identical
points in space. The lattice of a crystal is merely the repetition in three dimensions of the positions
occupied by its atoms or molecules. As Fig. 33 shows, a crystal is built up of a multitude of "unit cells"
having edges ao, bo, co and angles, a, b, d,. The length of the edges, called lattice constants, is of the
order of a fraction of a nanometer ( 1 nm = 10-9 m; equivalent to 10 Ångströms as an old unit).
The unit cell may be a regular cube, a prism, a rhombohedron or, generally, a parallel epipedon. The
lattice constants ao, bo. and c. may be equal to one another or different, as may also the angles a, b, d,.,
According to the combination, seven different crystal systems occur which are summarised in Table 31.
Fig. 33 Crystal lattice

Table 31 Definition of crystal symmetry systems

According to the positions of atoms, ions and molecules (on the edges or on the faces or in the centre of
the unit cell) fourteen space lattices are possible (Fig. 34). Every crystal belongs to one of these crystal
systems and is composed of an infinite repetition in the three dimensions by one of the 14 space lattices.
A simpler presentation and characterisation of the point lattice is achieved by the introduction of "lattice
planes". Equispaced planes, i.e. parallel planes with same distance represent identical two-dimensional
arrangements of atoms and molecules (Fig. 33).
Fig. 34 Space lattice

1.3.2.4 Symmetry Elements of Crystals and Crystal Symmetry Classes

Symmetry is an essential feature of crystals. The symmetry elements are simple and few in number, viz.
axes, planes and centre of symmetry.
The symmetry properties of all crystals are combinations of these axes, planes and centre of symmetry.
The total number of possible combinations of symmetry elements leads to 32 crystal symmetry classes.
1.3.2.5 Definition of Minerals
A mineral is defined as a solid characterised by its chemical composition and crystal structure (lattice
constants and symmetry).
1.3.2.6 Ray Diffraction for Determination of Crystal Structure and Identification of Minerals
X-ray diffraction is a tool to supply data and information on the crystal structure not obtainable by other
techniques. In the cement industry it is applied for the identification of the mineralogical composition of
raw Materials clinker, rings, refractory Materials cement and hydration products. It is based on the
determination of the distance "d" between equispaced planes of the crystal lattice (4.3.2.3). A set of
characteristic d - values represent the "fingerprint" of a mineral.
When a monochromatic beam of X-rays of wavelength (X of the same order of magnitude as the distance
between lattice points) falls on a crystal, the characteristic fingerprint of the corresponding mineral is
produced by reflection. This phenomenon is not a surface reflection as with ordinary light. Rather it can be
compared with the diffraction of a monochromatic light-beam on an optical lattice. This phenomenon
normally called "X-ray diffraction" is explained as follows (Fig. 35):
Parallel to the crystal face is an infinite series of equispaced atomic planes, spaced at a distance d. The
X-rays penetrate to a depth of several million of such planes, whereby they may undergo the same
reflection as on the surface plane. If these various reflections arrive in phase, they form a composite
reflected X-ray beam. If the reflection on the multitude of identical planes occurs out of phase, the X-ray in
the crystal is absorbed and no reflection occurs.
Fig. 35 Reflection of X-rays on atomic planes

Geometrical considerations (Fig. 35) demonstrate that reflection occurs only under the following, so-
called Bragg conditions:
n l = 2d sin q or d =
n = integer, order of diffraction
For the practical application in the cement industry, x-ray diffraction analysis is carried out on finely
ground samples ("powder method"). This means that with in the powder sample an infinite number of
minute crystals is randomly distributed and oriented. Therefore, all possible series of equispaced identical
lattice planes with all the different d values are recorded.
Fig. 36 shows in a schematic way the principle of powder-x-ray diffractometry from which an x-ray
diffraction diagram results (Fig. 37).
Fig. 36 Diffractometer (Goniometer type)

The diffraction method requires only small amounts (a few grams) of material.
The main application of X-radiation in the cement industry is that of X-ray fluorescence which is used for
the determination of the chemical Composition of materials (see section 15, quality assurance, p. 15/33ff).
The differences in principle (figure 38) and application between fluorescence and diffraction are briefly
summarised in Table 31a.
Table 31a Difference between x-ray diffraction and x-ray fluorescence

Fig. 37 X-ray diffraction diagram

Fig. 38 X-ray fluorescence spectrography

1.3.2.7 Polymorphism
An element or compound is defined as polymorphic if it forms two or more crystalline solid phases
differing in atomic Arrangement with identical chemical Composition The polymorphism depends on
pressure and temperature, i.e. a particular modification is only stable under defined pressure and
temperature conditions.
As a consequence of polymorphism it occurs that materials with identical chemical Composition may
exhibit different physical and chemical properties. A good example is pure carbon in graphite and
diamond form. In the graphite form the carbon is black, soft, and is used, for example, as a lubricant or for
electrodes. In the diamond form it is clear, transparent and hard a much coveted precious stone. The
lattice structures of these two polymorphic crystalline forms are shown in Fig. 39.
Fig. 39 Lattice Structures of Carbon

Further examples of polymorphism are:

¨ CaCO3 as aragonite and calcite
¨ The crystalline forms of silica (SiO2; see also p. 4/36.ff). At atmospheric pressure silica exists
according to the temperature range in three crystalline forms (see fig. 40). Furthermore, each of
the three forms exists in a low- and high-temperature modification (fig. 41 for quartz).
Fig. 40 Polymorphism of SiO2

Fig. 41 Si-Atoms in Low and High Quartz

1.3.2.8 Temperature Influence

The lattice points joined with lines producing a lattice are illustrated in Fig. 33. In reality, the atoms, ions
and molecules are tightly packed in the crystal lattice with distances close to their atomic radii. The lattice
forces, holding together the geometrical Arrangement of atoms, ions and molecules are of a physical and
chemical nature.
At absolute zero temperature(0°K = -273°C), the atoms are at rest with their centres in the equilibrium
position. By raising the temperature, the atoms begin to oscillate: the higher the temperature, the stronger
are their oscillations. With increasing temperature, the oscillation becomes so strong that the lattices may
change their symmetry. This occurs at a defined, characteristic temperature. At even higher temperature,
the atoms oscillate so violently that they leave the lattice places; the lattice literally falls apart; the crystal
melts.
Conversion of the raw material into clinker in a cement kiln requires a high temperature which means high
energy. This is the energy required to destroy the crystal lattices of the raw material minerals in order to
transform them into crystal lattices of clinker minerals. The energy necessary to destroy the lattice
depends an the lattice forces, i.e. on the crystal system, the lattice constants, the nature of atoms and
ions, and on the perfection of the lattice. This explains why one particular raw material is more easily
burned to clinker than another. Therefore, the type and state of the crystals present in the raw material
determine burnability, i.e. the energy required to form the clinker.
Minerals with strong lattice forces which impair the burnability are :
quartz and feldspars

Minerals with weaker lattice forces and thus better burnability are :
clay minerals

Materials with a highly disordered structure, showing high reactivity are :

amorphous and glassy rocks such as tuff, lava, amorphous silica, etc.
1.3.3 Mineralogical Characteristics
1.3.3.1 General
Mineralogy is concerned with crystalline solids all kinds, whether natural or industrial. Crystalline solids of
all kinks, whether natural or industrial. Crystalline solids come in endless variety: the rocks of the earth's
crust, the concrete of buildings and steel are a few examples of materials composed of crystals.
1.3.3.2 Minerals and their Properties
For the sake of practicality, minerals are classified into rock-forming minerals, ore minerals, clinker
minerals, slag minerals, natural gemstones, synthetic gemstones, ceramic phases, etc. Whether these
are natural or artificial is irrelevant; all are crystalline phases.
The properties of minerals depend upon the crystal structure (type of crystal lattice), lattice forces
(arrangement and chemical binding of atoms) and lattice energy.
Apart from the chemical composition (4.3.1)the most important properties with regard to the cement-
making process are:
¨ Reactivity and kinetic behaviour
In many cement raw mixes, the minerals are in a stable condition with low free energy, and therefore, a
low reactivity. To produce clinker minerals much energy is needed to destroy the structure of the raw
materials and to form new structures (clinker minerals).
The following phenomena improve the reactivity of minerals:
· impurities (atoms, ions, molecules) disturbing the ideal crystal lattice
· lattice defects
They give the crystal structure a higher degree of disorder which is equal to a lower degree of crystallinity:

ideal crystal real crystal glass

(ordered lattice) (partially disordered lattice) (strongly disordered lattice)
¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾ reactivity ¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾®
¬¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾ degree of crystallinity ¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾

At room temperature conditions, a mineral or a mineral combination of raw mix is in a stable condition To
let a reaction take place, at least one condition pressure or temperature - has to be changed. The crystal
lattices of the minerals present in the raw mix have to be disintegrated in the course of the clinkering
process. This is best achieved by applying a high temperature. The minerals thus become unstable. As
there is always a tendency from unstable towards stable conditions, reactions leading to a new
equilibrium take place.
The equilibrium can be attained by e.g.:
¨ modification changes of minerals
¨ melting and evaporating reactions
¨ chemical reactions between the different minerals with the formation of new minerals
While the correct chemical raw mix composition is a requirement for the clinker phases, the mineralogical
characteristics of the mix determine how the reactions leading to these clinker phases take place.
Because of the broad variability of mineralogical properties, many different paths of reaction exist (more
details are given in section 10 concerning clinker manufacture).
Hardness
Hardness is defined as the resistance of a mineral to scratching. A scale of relative hardness was
introduced by Mohs. The Mohs scale contains 10 hardness classes each characterised by specially
selected minerals (refer Table 34, p.55 and Table 35, p.56
Other mineral properties are:
¨ Density
¨ Cleavage and fracture
¨ Electrical properties
¨ Heat conductivity and heat expansion
¨ Surface properties
1.3.3.3 Determination of Minerals
For identification and quantification of minerals, the chemical analysis is usually combined with:
¨ x-ray diffraction analysis
¨ thermal analysis
¨ light microscopy
1.3.3.4 Minerals in Cement Raw Materials
Basically, a preliminary grouping of the minerals is accomplished by the chemical Composition whereby
the mineral formulae sometimes have to be idealised.
Carbonates

Calcite CaCO3 trigonal ) polymorphic

Aragonite CaCO3 orthorombic )

Aragonite and calcite are polymorphic modifications with an identical chemical Composition but with
different crystal lattices. Aragonite is formed in the warm and shallow sea. It is unstable and transforms
readily to calcite and can thus be found only in recently deposited unconsolidated sediments.
Other carbonates are:

Magnesite MgCO3
Siderite FeCO3
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
Ankerite Ca(Mg, Fe)(CO3)2

Calcium sometimes may be substituted by significant amounts of other elements such as Mg, Mn and Fe;
for example: Mg-bearing calcite Ca1-xMgxCO3 (not identical with dolomite).
Carbonates have an excellent cleavage and a Mohs-hardness of 3 - 4.
Silicates
The lattice of all silicates are based on the SiO4-tetrahedron (Fig. 42 ). One Si-atom is situated in the
centre of the tetrahedron, whereas the four corners are occupied by oxygen atoms.
Fig. 42 Structure unit of Silicates: SiO4-Tetrahedron.

SiO4-tetrahedra can be combined in different ways (Fig. 43 - 46) leading to different silicate types:

single tetrahedron - nesosilicates : olivine and garnet groups

double tetrahedra - sorosilicates. : epidote group
rings - cyclosilicates : tourmaline, beryll
single and double chains - inosilicates pyroxene and amphibole groups
sheets - phyllosilicates: mica and clay mineral groups
framework - tectosilicates: feldspar group

Fig. 43 Types of linkage of SiO4-Tetrahedra (single/double/rings).

Fig. 44 Types of linkage of SiO4-Tetrahedra (chains - single/double).

Fig. 45 Types of linkage of SiO4-Tetrahedra (Sheets).

Fig. 46 Types of linkage of SiO4-Tetrahedra (Framework).

The fact that so many possibilities to combine the structural unit exist, may explain why the silicate group
contains a large number of different minerals (about 500). The Si of the SiO4-tetrahedron may be
replaced by Al; and nearly all silicate structures show the ability of exchanging cations (Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe,
Al, etc.). Within the structure of many of the resulting lattices, there is free space left for different cations
(e.g. Na, K, Ca, Al, Mg).
The amount of silicates in the earth's crust is estimated to be about 90 %.
As indicated on page 4/36, the group of silicates consists of several structural types such as:
Feldspar Group
Feldspars are the most abundant of all minerals. They occur in almost all siliceous components used in
cement raw mixes. By alteration and weathering feldspars change into clay minerals.
Most abundant feldspars are:

Alkali feldspar series

(K, Na) AlSi3O8 ì
í
î orthoclase

Albite KAlSi3O8

NaAlSi3O8

Plagioclase series
(Na, Ca)(Si, Al)AlSi2O8 ì
í
î

Anorthite

CaAl2Si2O8

All feldspars show good cleavage and a Mohs-hardness of 6.

Clay Minerals and Micas
Clay minerals usually are the most important siliceous compounds of cement raw mixes. Crystal lattices
of clay minerals can be characterised as shown in Figs. 47 to 49.
Fig. 47 Clay Mineral Structures (two-layer structures).

Fig. 48 Clay Mineral Structures (three-layer structures).

Fig. 49 Clay Mineral Structures (two and three-layer structures).

The main structure unit is again the SiO4-tetrahedron. In addition, a new unit having the shape of an
octahedron appears. The centre of the octahedron is occupied by a cation (e.g. Al, Mg), the corners by O
or OH-Groups (structurally bound water). The structure of a clay mineral may contain layers of Tetrahedra
and octahedra and combinations of both structural elements. The dimensions of the tetrahedral and the
octahedra layers are very similar. Composite tetrahedral-octahedral layers are readily formed leading to a
two-layer structure. Similarly, an octahedral layer sandwiched between two tetrahedral layers forms a
three-layer structure. Between these two-layer or three-layer packages different cations and/or H20-
molecules can be situated.
The many possibilities of combining the structural units are responsible for the existence of numerous
clay minerals.
The macro and microscopic appearance of clay minerals corresponds to the internal layer structure
(phyllosilicates). Properties which are very typical for clay minerals are explained by the characteristics of
their crystal lattice.
Relevant features of clay minerals are:
¨ Water adsorption capability : the water is absorbed in three different ways:
· in pores between single crystals and crystal Aggregates
· directly on the surface as "adsorptive water" due to the dipole character of the H20-molecule; this
water particularly causes clay mineral properties such as plasticity and thixotropy.
· as "interlayer water" between the two- or three-layer packages in the crystal lattice, causing
expansion of clay minerals.
¨ Capability of ion exchange : the ions placed between the layers of the crystal lattice e.g. Na+" K+,
NE+, SO4--, Cl-, are easily exchangeable.
¨ Thermal behaviour : of special interest are the temperatures of loss of water. Generally, pore
water, adsorbed water and interlayer water are set free at temperatures between 100 ° and 300 +C. The
structurally bound water (OH-groups) is driven off in the range of 400º - 900ºC. Depending on the type of
clay mine -1, the loss of the 'water types" mentioned above occurs at defined temperatures or
continuously in a certain temperature range.
Important clay minerals and micas (see also Fig. 47 to 49) are:
Kaolinite group:
Kaolinite Al2Si2O5 (OH)4
Halloysite Al2Si2O5 (H2O)4
low plasticity, without inlayer cations
Palygorskite:
Mg2.5 (H2O)2(CH)Si4O10 . 2 H2O
properties partially similar to montmorillonite and vermiculite with ability to take up and retain large
quantities of water
Montmorillonite:
Al2Si4O10 (OH)2 - x H2O
varieties with Na, K, Fe, Mg, etc., especially capable of exchanging ions, large content of interlayer water
possible, optimum plasticity therefore with water contents from 80 % up to 250 %, thixotropic behaviour of
clay suspensions or slurries, capability of expansion
Vermiculite:
Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 - x H2O
properties partially similar to those of montmorillonite, shows rapid and large expansion on heating.
Illite (Hydromica):
(K, H2O)Al2AlSi3O10 (H2O, OH)2 usually poorly crystallised, plasticity can be high depending on degree
of crystallinity.
Micas:
· Biotite
K(Mg, Fe)3 AlSi3O10 (OH)2
· Muscovite
KAI2AlSi3O10 (OH)2 usually well crystallised, no plasticity.
Chlorite series:
(Mg, Fe, AL)6 (Al, Si)4O10 (OH)8
Mixed Layers are more or less regular combination of lattices of different clay minerals, e.g. of illite-
montmorillonite by combination of two- and three-layer structures. The properties are usually close to
those of montmorillonite.
Silica
SiO2 occurs in several polymorphic forms (see 4.3.2.7) each of them being stable in different temperature
ranges under atmospheric pressure:

Low-Quartz < 573° triconal

High-Quartz 573° - 870°c hexagonal
Tridymite 870° - 147° c hexagonal
Cristobalite 1470°- 1715°c isometric
Liquid >1715° c

Amongst the crystalline forms of SiO2, low-quartz is the most abundant modification with a Mohs-
hardness of 7, without cleavage and with conchoidal fracture. With the transformation of quartz to
tridymite and cristobalite, an increase in volume occurs. SiO2 also exists in a more or less amorphous
modification, which has been formed by gradual dehydration of water containing silica-gel. This
modification is known as:
Opal or Silex: SiO2 . x H2O with Mohs-hardness of 5½ - 6½
SiO2 also occurs in almost sub-microscopic and fibrous varieties which are known as:
· Chalcedony
· Agate
· Jasper
· Chert
· Flintstone
Because of their fibrous structure, these varieties are very hard and tough.
Hydroxides
Hydroxides are formed at the earth's surface by weathering action under humid climatic conditions. They
occur in many sedimentary rocks. Common hydroxides are:
· Gibbsite (Hydrargillite) Al(OH)3
· Diaspore, Boehmite AlOOH
· Goethite, Lepidocrocite FeOOH
· Limonite FeOOH - n H2O
These minerals usually have a low degree of crystallinity and are quite reactive.
Oxides
Some of the minerals of this group are present as minor components in many rocks. They predominate in
certain ores which sometimes are used as correctives in cement raw mixes.
Abundant oxides are:
· Magnetite Fe3O4
· Haematite Fe2O3
· Ilmenite FeTiO3
Sulphides
The most abundant sulphide is:
· Pyrite FeS2
which is frequently employed as Fe-corrective after roasting to oxide (pyrite ash or pyrite cinders).
Sulphates
Two naturally occurring sulphates are important:
· Gypsum CaSO4 . 2 H20
· Anhydrite CaSO4
They are added to the clinker to produce cement.
1.3.4 Rock Characteristics
1.3.4.1 Definition
Rocks are combinations of one or more kinds of minerals being stable under given conditions of pressure
and temperature.
Equilibrium conditions exist between the minerals of a rock as well with respect to the surrounding of the
rock (conditions of low free energy). If the conditions change for some reason, reactions towards a new
equilibrium occur. This is possible in the system itself by reactions between minerals present in the rock
or by reactions with agents introduced to the system from outside.
In nature, reactions of this kind are involved in rock metamorphosis and weathering. Metamorphosis can
be schematised as follows:

Pressure P1 H2O Pressure P2

Temperature T1 CO2 Temperature T2

Rock A Þ Rock B
Minerals a, b, c Minerals a, b, e, f
Chemical
Composition I Chemical
Composition II

In the case of rock weathering, agents from outside are added to the system (water, air);

Pressure P1 H2O Pressure P3

Temperature T1 O2 Temperature T3
¯
Rock A Þ Rock C
Minerals a, b, c Minerals a, b, e, f
Chemical
Composition I Chemical
Composition II

The process of clinker formation can be compared, to some extent, with rock metamorphosis.
1.3.4.2 Properties of Rocks
The more important rock characteristics to be considered in the course of cement production are:
¨ chemical composition
¨ type and condition of minerals building up the rock
¨ grain size, distribution and geometrical Arrangement of the minerals (or of the rock fragments)
which can appear as rock compounds
¨ as well. These features are summarised by the expression "rack texture'.
¨ cleavage
¨ degree of consolidation
1.3.5 Physical Characteristics; Engineering Properties of Rocks
The physical properties of rocks are as important as the chemical and mineralogical characteristics
because they are determining factors in the choice of method and technique of raw material exploitation,
transportation, blending and comminution. They therefore affect the manufacturing process.
1.3.5.1 Density and Porosity
The term "specific weight" or density is used for the weight of a unit of volume of a specimen, dried at
105°C, excluding all pores.
The term "specific gravity" includes the-volume of the pores per unit of volume of a specimen (Table 32).
"Bulk density" refers to comminuted material, i.e. means weight per unit of volume.
"Porosity" or "pore volume" expresses the hollow space of pores and voids in percent. Porosity (Table 32)
as:
volume of pores
total volume
With regard to the sedimentary rocks, porosity depends largely on the amount of cementing material
present and the size, grading and packing of the granular constituents.
Other physical properties (e.g. strength) also depend on the porosity.
Table 32 Density and porosity of rocks

Rock Specific gravity

(density) g/cm Porosity
%
Granite 2.5 -2.8 0.5 - 1.5
Diorite 2.6 -2.9 0.1 - 0.5
Gabbro 3.0 -3.1 0.1 - 0.2
Dolerite 3.0 -3.1 0.1 - 0.5
Rhyolite 2.4 -2.6 4 - 6
Andesite 2.2 -2.3 10 - 15
Basalt 2.8 -2.9 0.1 - 0.2
Tuff 2.8 -3.0 high
Sand (loose) 1.5 -2.0 25 - 50
Sandstone (compacted) 2.0 -2.6 10 - 30
Shale 2.0 -2.4 10 - 30
Limestone 2.2 -2.6 5 - 20
Dolomite 2.5 -2.6 1 - 5
Marl 1.6 -2.6 5 - 30
Clay 1.5 -1.9 30 - 50
Claystone 1.8 -2.3 15 - 35
Gneiss 2.9 -3.0 0.5 - 1.5
Marble 2.6 -2.7 0.5 - 2
Quartzite 2.6 -2.7 0.1 - 0.5
Slate 2.6 -2.7 0.1 - 0.5

1.3.5.2 Water Absorption

Phenomena, such as consistency, plasticity, swelling, etc. are functions of porosity or water absorption.
Loose material absorbs considerably higher quantities of water than compact material. The water
absorption capability is increased significantly in the presence of clay minerals. Three kinds of absorption
are distinguished: pore water, water accumulation on clay mineral surfaces ("adsorption water"), and
water penetrating the clay mineral structure ("structural water"). The latter kind may lead to swelling.
Water absorption of clay minerals increases

from illite high crystallinity

Kaolinite high crystallinity
ß Kaolinite low crystallinity
illite low crystallinity
to Montmorillonite

1.3.5.3 Rock Strength

Compressive strength increases with:
¨ increasing content of minerals with high compressive strength potentials
¨ increasing content of cementing matter (increasing degree of intergrowth of minerals)
¨ decreasing grain size
and decreases with:
¨ increasing amount of minerals with good cleavage
¨ increasing porosity
¨ increasing content of micro-joints
¨ increasing degree of weathering
¨ increasing moisture absorption capability
Table 33: shows same compressive strength for different rocks.
Table 33 Compressive strength of rocks

Rock type Compressive strength

kg/cm2 / N/mm2 Valuation
(of compressive
strength)
Basalt
Quartzite > 2800 / > 280 very high
Granite
Diorite
Limestone
1800 - 2800 / 180 - 280
high
Sandstone
Limestone
Marble
Slate
800 - 1800 / 80 - 180

medium
Porous Limestone 400 - 800 / 40 - 80 low
Chalk, Tuff,
Shale, Clay,
Claystone
< 400 - < 40
very low

1.3.5.4 Rock Hardness

There is no absolute Definition of the term "rock hardness". Today, the terms "hard rock" or "soft rock" are
occasionally used in practical fieldwork. Rock hardness is not only determined by the mineral content but
also by the degree of intergrowth of the individual minerals. It is commonly expressed by the compressive
strength.
The mineral hardness can be measured by means of the scratch method according to Mohs (Tables 34
and 35).
Table 34 Hardness of most abundant minerals according to Mohs

Mineral Mohs scale Valuation

Quartz
Feldspar
Pyroxene
Amphibole 7
6
6
6
"hard"
minerals
Calcite
Dolomite
Mica
Chlorite
Clay minerals
3
3.5
3
2-3
2
"soft"
minerals

Table 35 Hardness Scale

1.4 PRINCIPLES OF RAW MATERIAL ASSESSMENT

1.4.1 Chemical Parameters
A check-list for the assessment of a Potential cement raw material is given in Table 36, comprising basic
chemical features.
Table 36 Check-list for potential cement raw material (chemical)

Components Parameters to
be checked Limits
(guide lines)
Calcareous Carbonate titration > 80 %
materials as CaCO3 <4%
(limestone, MgO content < 1 %
etc.) SO3 content <1%
P2O5 content < 0.1 % *
Cl
Argillaceous Total alkali as depending on
materials Na2O equivalent cement type
(clay-marl) (Na2O + 0.66 > 10 %
K2O) < 1 %
Al2O3 content < 0.1 %
SO3 content
CL content

Correctives > 25 % (Tab. 22)

for aluminium Al2O3 content > 60%
(bauxite, laterite) Fe2O3 content < 5 %
for iron ore SO3 content >80 %
(pyrites ash) SiO2 content > 90%
for silicon CaCO3 content < 2 %
(quartz sand) MgO
for
calcium
(high-grade
limestone)
Additives
(tab. 23) SO3 content > 35 %
(gypsum)

* limit variable according to process

In addition, the mineralogical characteristics have to be checked (Table 37).
Table 37 Check-list for Potential cement raw materials (mineralogical)

Components Parameters to
be checked Limits
(guide lines)
Calcareous Calcite > 80%
materials Aragonite < 5%
(limestone, etc.)Dolomite < 5%
Argillaceous Clay minerals > 30%
materials
(clay, marl)

1.4.2 Deleterious Constituents in Cement Raw Materials

"Deleterious constituents" are defined as components which:
¨ adversely affect the quality or marketability of cement
¨ appreciably increase production costs through difficulties in exploitation, reparation and
processing in the kiln
In fact, the limits established in Tables 36 and 37 are already referring to these constituents. The major
deleterious constituents (if occurring in higher amounts) are K20 and Na2O, MgO, SO3, P2O5, CL, etc. In
addition to these oxides, there are other, less important, deleterious constituents including Cr2O3,
Mn2O3, F, etc.
They are always present in small amounts and are usually not considered for the mix calculation. If the
concentration of certain minor and trace elements becomes too high, components otherwise suitable for
cement manufacturing have to be rejected or limited in amount. Suddenly occurring difficulties in a plant
very often are caused by an increase of the content of some minor and trace elements in the raw mix.
Most minor and trace elements can have a deleterious effect on the production process as well as on the
cement quality. On the other hand, it is known that a small amount of such elements is necessary to
stabilise certain modifications of clinker minerals which are preferred to be present in an industrial clinker.
The maximum content of some of these elements having a well known deleterious influence on the
cement quality is limited by the specifications (e.g. MgO).
The following description gives a summarised survey of the most important minor elements and of the
influence they have:
Alkalis
The term 'alkalis" as used in the cement industry" refers to the oxides of potassium (K20) and sodium
(Na2O). Alkalis occur mainly in minerals (Tables 38, 39) which are components of igneous rocks or their
weathered products, such as clay and sandstone.
Table 38 Alkali sources in cement raw Materials

Rock type minerals Deleterious constituents

Igneous rocks
Granite Feldspars:
Rhyolite Albite 11.8 % Na2O
Diorite orthoclase 16.9 % K2O
 Andesite 5.9 -8.3 % Na2O
Lava Micas:
Muscovite 1.8 % K2O
Biotite 10 -11 % K2O
Tuff
Sediments
Clay Feldspars as above
Shale Micas 10 - 11.8 % K2O
Sandstone
(marl) Illite 5.5 % K2O

Alkalis may cause problems particularly in the kiln section, since they are volatilized quite easily. Together
with other volatile constituents, such as chlorine and sulphur, they may cause build-ups in the form of
rings, cloggings, etc. in kilns and preheaters. Furthermore, an alkali content of > 0.6% (total alkali as
Na2O equivalent) may react with the amorphous silica present in some concrete aggregates producing
alkali silica gels which have a great affinity for water. The resulting osmotic pressures may cause
disruption of concrete. On the other hand, the initial strength development of concrete.
MgO
MgO is predominantly supplied by carbonatic raw materials such as dolomite and dolomite limestone, but
may also by present in argillaceous materials. Crystalline MgO, in the form of periclase present in cement,
tends to hydrate after setting, a condition which causes excessive expansion and possible disruption of
concrete. For this reason, MgO is limited to 5 - 6 % in cement. However, the activity of periclase is also a
function of the cooling rate of the cement clinker: slow cooling allows a large migration of ions and the
subsequent development of large periclase crystals; rapid cooling results in an significant proportion of
the MgO being frozen in various inactive solid solution.
SO3
SO3 is generally associated with gypsiferous carbonate sources or with pyrite-containing materials. SO3
inhibits the volatilisation of the alkalis. It also requires - in form of SO2 - special attention with respect to
air pollution. Furthermore, SO3 (as gypsum) above a certain optimum percentage causes a decrease in
strength and an increase in expansion.
P2O5
P2O5 is mainly found in carbonate components. Contents of >1 % P2O5 in cement reduce the cement
strength by raising the free lime content and combining with CaO in solid solution at the expense of the
C3S. Setting times are considerably affected as well.
Chloride (Cl)
Chloride is mainly supplied by sedimentary rocks containing or contaminated by salt. In wet preparation
systems chloride attacks all metal installations; during burning it easily volatilizes and causes clogging
and plugging in kilns and preheaters. Chloride in concrete jeopardises reinforcement by corroding.
Fluorine (F)
Fluorspar (CaF2) was in the past added to many cement raw mixes as a fluxing agent. Although this
material decreases the kiln reaction temperature, several undesirable effects - as deterioration of
refractory lining in kilns, increase of dusting of the clinker through a tendency to convert b-C2S to the g-
form, difficulties with setting times and a lowering of early strengths - led to a considerable reduction of
consumption in the cement industry. Aside from those reasons, recent air pollution regulations prohibit the
introduction of fluorides into the atmosphere.
Mn2O3
Manganese occurs normally as a constituent of corrective materials for iron deficiency. The presence of
larger quantities (> 2 %) may lead to a dark coloured clinker.
Cr2O3
Chromium bearing cement may lead to the "chromium ekzema"; on the other hand it is apparently
possible to improve the cement strength to a certain extent by adding Cr2O3 - bearing components to the
raw mix ("doping of alite").
It is furthermore claimed that Cr2O3 could also affect the colour of cement.
TiO2
Titanium reacts as fluxing agent decreasing the alite content and increasing the belite content in clinker. It
produces a darker cement colour, increases strength and retards initial setting.
Tab. 39 summarises the influence of some minor components.
Table 39 Mineralogy of major deleterious constituents in cement raw materials.

1.4.3 Assessment of Physical Properties

1.4.3.1 General
The description of the relevant physical ("engineering") properties is given in 4.3.5. Basically, limits or
guidelines for physical properties can hardly be given. In practice, appropriate process-technological
methods have to be selected and adapted in order to permit optimum processing.
A series of physical properties and their effects on various stages of the cement manufacturing process
are listed in Table 40. The influence of these properties is known only very generally; it is almost
impossible to express them quantitatively, because only a few out of the total can be measured exactly.
Table 40 Stages of Cement Manufacturing.

1.4.3.2 Examples of Practical Experience

Quarrying operations
The content of "hard" minerals is important. Quartz being harder than steel has an abrasive influence,
mainly on drilling equipment. In cases of large quartz content and high rock strength, drilling will progress
slowly and abrasion will be high. Such a rock has a high "rock hardness".
The water content of the material to be quarried depends partially on the minerals present. Clay minerals,
especially montmorillonite, mixed layers, illite, absorb large amounts of water. Clays thus have a high
plasticity, they become adhesive, with more water slurry-like and dry very slowly. Clogging of machinery
results, and quarry drainage becomes a problem.
Preparation
For crushing the rock strength has to be considered in the first place. It is rather the impact resistance
than the compressive strength which is important. Rocks having a high quartz content and a high
compressive strength may behave as brittle Materials during crushing, whereas clay minerals containing
rocks sometimes are better characterised to be elastic and thus more difficult to crush.
As in all disintegration processes the formation of dust is a severe problem. This is especially the case
when quartz, feldspar and micas are present in large amounts (e.g. in siliceous and related rocks),
whereas the tendency of dust formation is much lower with clay bearing rocks. Quartz dust of a certain
fineness (<5 m) is the main cause of silicosis, a disease that attacks people working for longer periods in
a dust environment (quarries, galleries, crusher buildings).
Again rock strength and mineral hardness play a determining role for grinding. In addition, the mineral
grain size as compared to the raw meal fineness is influencing the grindability. Raw meal particles may
either be mineral or rock fragments. It is assumed that coarser single minerals are disintegrated more
easily, especially when the minerals have a good cleavage (e.g. calcite), than rock pieces consisting of
different very finely grained and densely intergrown minerals. Quartz will contribute to the abrasion of the
grinding equipment-, but can also take part in the disintegration of softer minerals. Thus a difference in
mineral hardness can be an advantage.
Usually, the quartz content of coarser raw meal fractions is higher than in the fine fractions. This fact can
be utilised in cases where a limestone with a too high quartz content, e.g. silex inclusions, has to be used.
Coating sometimes becomes a problem during grinding. Among many different reasons the properties of
micas and clay minerals - flaky shape, water content, plasticity - possibly contribute to this problem. From
experience it is known that coating also may appear when aragonite is present in the raw material instead
of calcite.
For raw mix preparation, homogeneity and variability of the raw mix components are of paramount
importance. Specific physical parameters become impotent when the most suitable process has to be
selected. The wet process is considered when the raw Materials have a high water content. That can be
especially the case in the presence of clay minerals such as montmorillonite and illite absorbing large
amounts of water. The viscosity of a slurry depends strongly on the type of clay mineral present. If
montmorillonite and other clay of high plasticity are predominant, much more water is needed to get a
slurry of sufficient flow properties.
To produce nodules of sufficient strength for the Lepol process, plastic clay minerals have to be present.
Raw meals containing mainly quartz, feldspar and mica are hardly nodulizable with a reasonable water
content.
In the case of a dry kiln there are no severe restrictions to be mentioned in this stage of the process. The
question is always how much energy will have to be needed for raw material drying.
The clinkering process
The reactivity of raw mix depends on the intensity of the contact between calcareous and siliceous
components which have to react together. In an argillacecus limestone both components are tightly
intergrown within the rock texture itself. If at the same time the mineral grain size is well below the
average grain size of the raw real, each particle contains both components needed for reaction. This
results in a high reactivity which is not greatly influenced by the raw meal fineness. If the calcareous and
the siliceous components occur in different rocks or in coarse grained minerals, a much finer grinding and
a very effective homogenisation are essential for a goad reactivity.
Water bearing clay minerals react more readily than water free silicates such as quartz, feldspar and
mica, because their mineral lattices are already partially destroyed when the carbonate starts to
dissociate at about 600 - 700°C and therefore in a more reactive condition.
Poorly crystallised clay minerals and gel-like hydroxides having a low degree of crystallinity have a higher
reactivity than minerals with well defined crystal lattices. The same is true for amorphous SiO2 (i.e. silex,
opal) as compared with quartz.
The exact knowledge of the mineralogical raw mix composition shows in which form minor elements
occur. Feldspar, mica and illite e.g. are the principal alkali bearing minerals. From an illite raw mix the
alkalis evaporate at lower temperatures than from a mix rich in feldspar. Under certain conditions this fact
should be considered in practice.
The tendency to form dust depends also on the mineralogy. Mixes with water free and well crystallised
silicates tend to develop more dust than clay mineral containing mixes.

C07 - Detailed Investigations of Raw Materials

Detailed investigations of raw materials

1. INTRODUCTION
2. DETAILED DRILLING CAMPAIGN: OPTIMAL DRILL HOLE PATTERN
3. GEOTECHNICAL ASPECTS
3.1 Slope failures
3.2 Overall slope stability

1. INTRODUCTION
The overall investigations of raw materials have proved that one of the deposits investigated is suitable
for the purposes of clinker / cement production. Therefore, the proposed cement plant is feasible. The last
step of the investigations, known as detailed investigations of raw materials, is carried out in order to
define the selected deposit accurately in quantity and quality. Once these detailed investigations have
been completed, it is possible to 'construct' a computer generated block model (CADE) and implement
QSO Expert systems for medium and long term planning.
The main tasks in this step are as follows:
¨ Detailed drilling campaign in order to obtain the most accurate information with respect to the
geological structure, chemical behaviour and associated reserves of the deposit. The drilling volume
usually is in the order of between 1000 and 2000 m, whilst 300 to 1000 samples will be selected for
chemical analysis.
¨ Geotechnical data to assess the overall stability of the slopes, rock strength, fracture patterns,
groundwater circulation
¨ Quarry layout and development concept is prepared by the mining engineer
2. DETAILED DRILLING CAMPAIGN: OPTIMAL DRILL HOLE PATTERN
A question asked frequently during the exploration stage of a deposit is: "how much drilling is required to
accurately describe the deposit and to achieve the required precision of results ?"
The normal procedure is to apply geostatistics on the chemical data of the initial drilling campaign. With
the help of variograms, which are a measure of the spatial interdependence of chemical characteristics
between the drill holes, it is possible to determine the optimal drill hole pattern.
Fig 1 is a graphic display of the relationship between possible errors of estimation and number of drill
holes, using a statistical and geostatistical approach. Two important conclusions can be derived from this
figure:
¨ to achieve a required accuracy, the number of drill holes can be reduced significantly using
geostatistical methods
¨ using geostatistical analyses on the same number of drill holes, the error of estimates is reduced.
Fig. 1 Relationship between number of drill holes n and estimation error using statistics (dashed line)
and geostatistics.

n = N° of drillholes e = error limit

Fig. 2 Comparison of the errors associated to different sampling patterns.

Optimal grid design (spacing, regular, irregular, etc.) can be tested with the aim to minimise the estimation
errors in the interpretation of the data by kriging (Fig. 2)

3. GEOTECHNICAL ASPECTS
In designing the quarry slopes, we are faced with two conflicting requirements. On the one hand by
steeping the slope, the stripping ratio waste / ore to be excavated is reduced and recoverable reserves
are increased. On the other hand, loss of life and serious damage to property can result from failures
induced by excessive steepening of particular slopes. A compromise between steepness and economy
has to be found for an economically safe quarry.
A practical solution is built up from the investigations of the following criteria:
¨ Geological data: lithology (presence of thin intercalations of clay), geological mapping, strike and
dip of all types of planes and structures in the deposit
¨ Physical data: rock strength, cohesion, angle of friction
¨ Groundwater conditions: the presence of groundwater in the rock mass surrounding an open pit
has a detrimental effect upon the mining programme for the following reasons:
· water pressure reduces the stability of the slopes and increases the forces tending to induce
sliding
· high moisture content in shales decrease the stability
Freezing of groundwater during winter can cause wedging in water-filled fissures due to volume changes
in the ice. Freezing of surface water on slopes can block drainage paths resulting in a build-up of water
pressure in the slope with a consequent decrease in stability.
Discharge of groundwater into an open pit gives rise to increased operating costs because of: (a) the
requirement to pump this water out, (b) also because of the difficulty of operating heavy equipment on
very wet ground and (c) increased wear / maintenance of in-pit equipment.
Liquefaction of overburden or waste tips can occur when water pressure within the materials rises to the
point where the uplift forces exceed the weight of the soil.
By far the most important effect of the presence of groundwater in a rock mass is the reduction of stability
resulting from water pressures within the discontinuities in the rock.
3.1 Slope failures
The following stability problems could be expected in an open pit quarry:
Plane failure occurs when a geological discontinuity, such as a bedding plane, strikes parallel to the slope
face and dips into the excavation at an angle greater than the angle of friction.
Fig. 3 Plane Failure

Wedge failure (Fig. 4) occurs when two discontinuities strike obliquely across the slope face and their line
of intersection daylights in the slope face. The wedge of rock resting on these discontinuities will slide
down along the line of intersection, if the inclination of this line is greater than the angle of friction.
Fig. 4 Wedge Failure

Circular failure (Fig. 5) occurs when the materials are very weak. For example in a soil slope, or when the
rock mass is heavily jointed or broken, (waste rock dump). The failure will be defined by a single
discontinuity surface and will tend to follow a circular failure path.
Fig. 5 Circular Failure

Toppling (Fig. 6) occurs when the sub-vertical layers become unsteady and fall over.
Fig. 6 Toppling

Weathering or deterioration of certain types of rock on exposure gives rise to a loosening of a rock mass
and the gradual accumulation of loose materials on the surface and at the base of the slope.
3.2 Overall slope stability
An estimate of safe slope angle is required for the calculation of ore to waste ratios and for the pit layout.
The only structural information, which may be available at this stage, is that which has been obtained
from diamond drill cores logging and from geological mapping and structural measurements. Scant as this
information may be, it does provide a basis for the estimate of potential slope problems.
Slope height versus slope angle
In Figure 7 (after Hoek and Bray, 1981), the slope heights and corresponding slope angles in materials
classified as hard rock has been plotted. This plot shows that the highest and steepest slopes, which
have been successfully excavated, fall along a clear line shown in dashes. This line gives a useful,
practical guide to the highest and steepest slopes, which can be contemplated for normal open pit mine
planning. A steeper slope could only be justified if a very comprehensive stability study shows that there is
no risk of indicating a massive slope failure.
Fig. 7 Slope height versus slope angle (Hoek and Bray, 1981)

C08 - Environmental Aspects of Mining and Rehabilitation

Environmental aspects of mining and rehabilitation

1. INTRODUCTION
2. ECOLOGY
3. REHABILITATION OF QUARRIES
4. EXAMPLE OF REHABILITATION
4.1 Landfill of the quarry "Bärengraben", Switzerland

1. INTRODUCTION
Cement manufacturing process has various impacts on the environment and the ecology. For this reason,
most countries impose strict legislation for environmental protection. It is therefore essential to consult the
environmental regulations when selecting potential raw materials resources. Rehabilitation planning can
be carried out with the help of the special Holcim software, Quarry Engineering Design (QED). A clear
presentation of the different phases of minerals exploitation and quarry rehabilitation with 3D animation
can be shown.
2. ECOLOGY
Ecology is defined as the relationship between nature (plants, animals), man and the environment. The
environment is the sum of all external forces or influences. Every plant and animal exists within a unique
and continually changing microenvironment. The ecosystem is made up of three of ecological systems:
¨ individual
¨ population
¨ ecosystem
The ecosystem, being a balance or equilibrium of the existence and the interactions between populations,
has been disrupted by man causing a profound change of these balanced ecosystems.
In part, the quarrying activities can be disruptive, if not totally destructive to an ecosystem. Apart from the
more apparent effects of an anaesthetic pollution caused by dust and smoke, there is also the local
destruction of the flora and fauna. Usually, quarries are situated in rocky outcrop areas, where the
overburden is very thin. These areas are often the refuge of various animals and specific plants.
What can be done do to minimise, divert or correct such disruptive effects of quarrying activities?
3. REHABILITATION OF QUARRIES
Rehabilitation schemes as part of an exploration concept include the reincorporating of the quarry area
into the surrounding landscape, its re-cultivation with the purpose of creating an integral ecosystem with a
new function. The possibilities of utilising a worked-out quarry are numerous. Apart from the most
common utilisation in agriculture and forestry, it could also serve for industrial purposes such as a site for
a power plant or a refuse tipping site.
Possibilities of utilisation of a work-out quarry are as follows:
¨ Agriculture
¨ Forestry
¨ Recreation areas: woods, ponds, rock garden
¨ Scientific activities
¨ Sanctuary (wild life)
¨ Pisciculture
¨ Lakes, ponds
¨ Sporting grounds
¨ Tipping areas
¨ Commercial/ industrial : storage area, traffic area, training area...
Experience has shown that a decision on the future utilisation of an exhausted quarry should be made
very early on in the project program. Terms of an agreement between the exploiting company and the
executive of public planning authorities must be drawn up and implemented.
In each individual case, local conditions will determine the choice of the rehabilitation programme and
accordingly the cost estimates including return of investment. In the example described in table 1 which is
an average case, the cost for rehabilitation is approximatly $ 100'000 per ha or $10 per m2.
Table 1:Cost for quarry rehabilitation

Activities Cost in $/m2

Soil removal 1.00
Preparation of filling materials 1.00
0.3 m soil cover 2.00
0.35 m humus cover 2.00
Plants 1.00 -2.00
Wood 2.00
Spraying of slopes 1.00 - 2.00
Forestation 1.00

A rehabilitation or utilisation scheme is established after a thorough evaluation the most important factors,
namely geological conditions and the groundwater situation. In a second stage, data on weather
conditions, landscape planning, economy, need to be collected and evaluated.
4. EXAMPLE OF REHABILITATION
There are many examples of recultivation / rehabilitation of quarries in many countries. One such
example is the problems caused as a result of uncontrolled landfill in Switzerland.
4.1 Landfill of the quarry "Bärengraben", Switzerland
This state owned limestone quarry was exploited between 1930 and 1960 as raw materials source for a
cement plant. A thick overburden consisting of sand and conglomerate overlies the suitable limestone
resource. Exploitation of the limestone occurred on the flank of the hill, leaving an exposed open-cut
slope.
1960 to 1975. Once exploitation of limestone had ceased in 1960, the quarry was utilised as a repository
for demolition material and organic wastes. In 1975, as the quantity of waste materials increased
considerably, the local authorities decided it was necessary to establish a waste management system.
In 1975, the situation was as follows :
¨ deposition of materials of demolition materials (inert building rubble) was mixed with other waste
material. Uncontrolled waste waste deposition.
¨ drainage system (cement pipes to collect the groundwater) was defective due to aggressive water
(high content in sulphate)
From 1975 onwards, the new project of landfill consisted of (Fig 1):
¨ a new drainage system with gravel beds between waste layers and along the slopes of the quarry
¨ establishment of the final slope of the deposition materials in order to avoid slope failure
(landslides)
¨ installation of a measurement system to determine compaction
¨ cladding the external slope with soil and humus
¨ a compactor
The price of the installation and the costs of the operation amounted to CHF110.- per cubic meter of
waste.

Fig. 1 Cross-section of the landfill / quarry at Bärengraben

Compacting was regular and there were no problems with the drainage installation.
For many years, this quarry was backfilled without any control of the quality of the materials being
dumped. With the result that the waste materials consisted of building rubble and other disallowed
products. For example :
¨ domestic waste and detritus
¨ scories of two chemical plants
¨ excavation materials contaminated by acetate and acids
¨ inert materials of demolition
However, in 1986 at the end of the landfill, groundwater investigations in the valley confirmed that as a
result of the migration of contaminated water out of Bärengraben the groundwater in the main valley was
contaminated. Hazardous wastes are lixiviated by the clean groundwater flowing thorough the overburden
and limestone. This drainage water, or deposition juice, flows into a small basin of decantation on the site
before permeating back into the groundwater system. This contaminated water contains heavy metals,
which are very dangerous to the health.
The groundwater is the potable water source for many villages in the area. Fig. 2 shows the situation of
the groundwater circulation. It was estimated that 45 l/minute of contaminated water, which is not
successfully collected in the drainage pipes, flowed into the valley.
A project to collect all the contaminated water was implemented. This involved construction of a collection
tunnel behind as well as an impermeable barrier in front of the repositry, in order to prevent contaminated
water flowing into the groundwater. The cost estimation amounted to CHF40 - 60 Mio.
Early in 1990, signifcant gas emissions coming from the decomposition of organic materials incommoded
the people of the village near the old quarry. In order to collect this gas a system of boreholes and pipes
was installed. This consisted of a flow system for the gas equipped with a ventilator, an analyser
(continuous analysis of the gas) and a gas burner. The quality of gas was not sufficiently good enough for
commercial use (low methane).
Fig. 2 Hydrogeological model of the landfill of Bärengraben

C09 - Project Management Raw Materials Surveys

Significance of raw materials assessment in planning and execution of a project

1. Exploration Procedure
2. THE HOLCIM APPROACH
2.1 Desk Study
2.2 Preliminary Raw Material Prospecting
2.3 Overall Raw Material Exploration
2.4 Detailed Raw Material Exploration
3. COST OF RAW MATERIAL PROSPECTING AND EXPLORATION
4. SIGNIFICANCE OF RAW MATERIALS INVESTIGATIONS IN PROJECTS

1. EXPLORATION PROCEDURE
The following paragraphs describe a procedure developed specifically for the exploration of cement raw
material deposits. The proposed scheme is based on experience and modelled after the needs of the
cement and aggregate industry. Of course, every exploration project requires modifications necessitated
by local circumstances.
Basically, the scope and extent of every exploration procedure is governed by the following series of
criteria:
¨ Scope of work
¨ Status of geological knowledge of the area to be examined
¨ Raw material-inherent characteristics: geological exposures, etc.
¨ Time and financial resources available
¨ Climatic conditions
¨ Physiography and topography of the area
2. THE HOLCIM APPROACH
The Holcim approach to recognition and exploration of raw material deposits is to proceed from a general
basis to more detailed investigations (Fig. 65) continuously condensing the mass of information down to
the significant details only.
Fig. 65 The Holcim Approach

The procedural steps are defined with regard to their respective scope, extent, costs, time required,
reliability of results (error limits) and the development of risk (Fig. 66).
Fig. 66 Development of costs, time, reliability and risk during raw material investigations.

In practice, the proposed procedure entails the following scheme:

1) desk study
2) preliminary raw materials prospecting
3) overall raw materials exploration
4) detailed raw materials exploration
2.1 Desk Study
After the preceding activities (acquisition of the project, quotation, etc.) have been completed, a fact
finding study (or desk study) is conducted. The aim thereof is to acquire and evaluate all available
geological, chemical and topographical facts and documents in order to generate a sound basis for
subsequent investigation phases.
2.2 Preliminary Raw Material Prospecting
An initial evaluation of potential cement raw material deposits, both with regards to quality and quantity is
based on existing geological maps and a suite of surface samples from the regions or areas under
consideration. If the quantity or quality does not meet the preconditions set (ie. the results are negative),
the whole project is either shelved or similar investigations are initiated in other nearby regions.
Positive results, however, call for further, more thorough investigations in the promising areas. In any
case, after completion of this phase, the client is to decide whether or not further investigations should be
carried out.
2.3 Overall Raw Material Exploration
If by the above decision it was agreed to proceed, the next step would be the quantitative and qualitative
characterisation of potential raw material deposits in one to three areas per raw mix component. Fresh
representative raw material samples are collected from trench and/or drilling sampling. Finally, the most
suitable deposits of each component are selected on the grounds of quantity, quality, accessibility,
availability etc. The findings of this step of the investigation ought to be detailed enough to assess the
feasibility of the project with regard to the raw material aspects.
2.4 Detailed Raw Material Exploration
After the decision - based on the overall feasibility of the project - to continue with the investigations, the
selected quarry area is thoroughly investigated by drilling and subsequent quantitative and qualitative
characterisation of the respective raw material areas.
In addition, a quarry exploitation scheme for all components is established.
Fig. 67 Succession of Investigation Steps.

Note: The "Holcim" approach is described in detail in the following report:

Report MA 78/2581/E
"Procedure Manual for Raw Material Investigations"
Fig. 67 displays the above described procedure for a hypothetical case.
3. COST OF RAW MATERIAL PROSPECTING AND EXPLORATION
The cost of raw material prospecting is very often perceived to be high. However it must be stressed that
inadequate or worse still inaccurate knowledge of the cement raw material deposits will certainly create
innumerable difficulties during the subsequent processing stages (exploitation, preparation, processing,
quality assurances).
It is obvious that the more complicated and less homogeneous a deposit is, the more thoroughly it must
be investigated and the higher the costs of prospecting and exploration will be. This is especially true for
low quality raw material deposits, which are situated far from market areas.
Experience has shown that the costs of a comprehensive raw material exploration campaign normally
amounts to betweenUS $ 100'000 and US $ 300'000 excluding additional costs possibly required for extra
drilling and geophysical surveys. A vague relationship exists between capacity, investment cost and costs
for prospecting (Table 66):
Table 66: Cost of raw material prospecting versus investment costs

Plant capacity
(tons of clinker
per year) Investment
costs in
mil (US$) Cost quota of raw
material prospecting
(%) (US$)
500'00080 0.4 - 0.6 or 400'000.--
1'000'000 150 0.3 - 0.5 or 600'000.--
2'000'000 250 0.2 - 0.4 or 750'000.--
aggregate plants
tons of aggregates 15 - 20 1.5 - 2 or 300'000.--
500'000

The above figures include drilling costs, geological surveying costs etc., although it is difficult to make any
general cost estimates, particularly of drilling costs, because the total length of drilling, the characteristics
of the material to be drilled, the anticipated depth of the drill holes, water and power supply, transport and
catering of drilling equipment and crew vary from one case to the other. The drilling costs also differ
between the various countries as Table 66 a shows.
Table 66a: Cost of drilling for prospecting purposes

Country Cost: US $ per meter

Honduras 100 - 150
Libya 300 - 400
Switzerland 100 - 250
Australia 100 - 150
Saudi Arabia 100 - 200
Viet Nam 80 - 120
Volume of drilling required for exploration activities depends on the level of detail required. On average
the following drilling quantities should normally be considered:
Overall raw material exploration 1000 m

Detailed raw material exploration 1000 - 3000 m

A break-down of the drilling costs looks like this:

Components %
Labour 35.0
Lodging and wages for foremen 8.0
Transport on site 2.0
Drill bits16.0
Repairs, maintenance and spares 5.0
Fuel and lubricants 3.5
Cement and rock bolts 4.5
Water supply 2.0
Annuities and depreciation 3.5
Rock samples handling and preparation *1.0
Concession royalties, licencing & surveying 9.0
TOTAL 100

Table 70 Factors Affecting the Quality of Drilling Results

4. SIGNIFICANCE OF RAW MATERIALS INVESTIGATIONS IN PROJECTS

The term "projects" as used in this context comprises the tasks summarised in the following table:

Project Objectives of geologist

New cement plant/aggregate plant
("grass-root-project") Location and evaluation of potential
raw material reserves
Extension of existing plant
(cement or aggregate) Verification of reserves, search for additional raw materials
Acquisition of existing
(cement or aggregate) Assessment of raw material reserves; & quarrying concept
Conversion of process mainly
cement plants Technological assessment of
raw materials situation
Operational difficulties in existing plant Search for substituting materials:
& adaptation of quarrying concept
Manufacture of new cement types Location and evaluation of new
raw materials for cement type

Securing raw materials which are satisfactory with respect to quantity and quality, is the main objective in
all the above cases, but in particular for the conversion / extension projects and "grass root" projects. A
project could still be realised even if the market survey study does not provide conclusive results, or the
infrastructure and technical concept study is not evaluated thoroughly enough. However, if the raw
material investigations are not conducted with sufficient care or if pertinent results are negative, the
project as a whole would not be viable.
Naturally, the raw material investigations (Table 72) are the very beginnings of a project and forms part of
the feasibility phase. The feasibility phase, which is the basis of the decision whether or not a project
should be continued, is followed by more detailed and specific investigation, if the go-ahead is given
(Table 72).
CONCLUSION
To assess cement raw material resources means to plan and conduct the necessary investigations and to
evaluate the obtained findings according to present objectives.
Table 72 Raw Material investigation as part of a complete project

Table 73 Synopsis of the phases of a project.

Table 74 Exploration costs by method.

C10 - Case Study

Case Study
The case study is not included here

C11 - Raw Materials Management

Raw Materials Management

Clemens Mann, HMC/CTS/MT
1. THE NECESSITY of Raw Materials management
2. Holcims SYSTEM OF RAW MATERIALs Management
2.1 Block model (CADE)
2.2 Quarry Scheduling Optimisation (QSO)
2.3 Quarry Engineering and Design (QED)
2.4 Production Scheduling (QuarryMaster)
2.5 Applicability
3. COST EFFECTIVENESS

SUMMARY
The securing of raw materials, and their optimum utilisation, are essential factors for our industry, and
they represent strategic competitive advantages. It is therefore necessary to have an effective and
efficient system for the management of raw materials.
The general objectives of the management of raw materials are to ensure a continuous supply of the
required raw materials at lowest possible costs and over the longest possible lifetime.
More than 20 years ago, Holcim commenced developing a computer-aided system for this task, which
consists of four main elements:
1) inventory of the raw material resources using a block model of the deposit(s) (CADE),
2) strategic long-term planning for optimum utilisation of raw materials (QSO-Expert),
3) quarry design and visualisation (QED) and
4) daily production scheduling (QuarryMaster).
Holcim now possess a complete cement specific planning system, ranging from exploration to excavation,
which has since been accepted as a high level tool in the industry.
The assessments carried out by Holcim resulted in total yearly savings of more than 100’000 to over 1
million USD . This corresponds to savings of about 0.1 to 0.3 USD/t raw meal. This result was achieved
by reducing the waste removal and the costs of correctives, and by increasing kiln OEE with a more
uniform raw mix composition.
1. THE NECESSITY OF RAW MATERIALS MANAGEMENT
Raw materials are essential for our core business activities: production of cement and aggregates
production, and even though they may represent a relatively small part of the total cement production
cost, they can have a significant influence on the production cost and product quality. Another important
factor is that the raw materials are not renewable, and new, suitable deposits are of limited availability.
Therefore, securing of raw materials supply and their optimum utilisation are of essential for our industry,
and offer a strategic competitive advantage. Without prudent, forward-looking planning, not only the
profitability, but also the medium and long-term position of a cement manufacturer are placed at risk.
Raw material planning itself is exposed to continuously increasing requirements. The cement industry has
now attained such a level of complexity where cost-effective planning and production is no longer
possible without the use of computerised tools.
The increasing complexity in the field of securing and providing raw materials for cement is caused largely
by the following factors:
¨ higher raw material demand by larger kiln capacities, with
¨ ever stricter quality specifications for raw mix composition
¨ more complex raw mix compositions (alternative raw materials and fuels)
¨ greatly increasing environmental regulations,
¨ continuously rising costs, and
¨ growing number of cement types and rapidly changing product specifications.
All of which necessitate the accurate evaluation of the deposit and reliable planning of the exploitation.
Because of the large amount of data from exploration and production, which must be processed
continuously, and the large number of requirements and constraints which must be taken into account,
computerised tools are essential.
For these reasons, Holcim started to develop and apply a computer-aided system for the management of
raw materials more than 20 years ago. Deposit modelling systems were introduced in 1977, followed by
QSO (quarry scheduling optimisation) in 1982. The latest development in this system is QuarryMaster
launched in 1998, which is a tool for daily production scheduling.
2. HOLCIMS SYSTEM OF RAW MATERIALS MANAGEMENT
In order to fulfill the objectives
· of securing a constant and continuous supply of raw materials for the plant, and at the same time
· the cost-effective utilisation of the available raw materials, i.e. with the lowest possible costs over
the longest possible life
in the best possible way, the Holcim system consists of four main elements:
· an accurate inventory of the raw material resources using a model of the deposit (CADE),
· strategic medium and long-term plan for optimum raw material utilisation (QSO-Expert),
· quarry design and visualisation of quarry development (QED) and
· daily production planning (QuarryMaster).
The gradual development of combined application of the modules, has also lead to an array of
instruments which provide efficient and optimum solutions to the problems listed above, ranging from
strategic long-term planning to daily production planning. The most frequent questions about the
characteristics and benefits of the most important modules will be dealt with in the following sections.
2.1 Block model (CADE)
The object of calculating deposit or block models is to obtain an objective, reliable, and reproducible
description of the deposit. A block model is a complete three-dimensional description of a deposit (Fig. 1).
To calculate the model, the deposit is subdivided into a large number of small blocks. Each block
represents a quantity of quarried material corresponding to a week or a month's production. Based on
drillings and other exploration data, interpolation methods are used to assign the contents and other
parameters to each block. In other words, a variety of information such as drill results, geological
investigations, geochemical and geophysical results, etc., are converted into the best possible consistent
description of the deposit.
Fig. 1 Block model of a clay deposit.

The resulting block model is an accurate inventory of the deposit, which describes the expected quality
and quantity for each point (block). It now represents one of the most effective instruments for raw
material evaluation.
2.2 Quarry Scheduling Optimisation (QSO)
The block model only describes the state of the deposit and, in particular, the raw material reserves. The
next question is: how this given deposit may be used in the best possible way? To answer this question,
QSO is used to calculate geological and raw mix reserves whilst considering different raw mix
requirements and different corrective materials. In this way, the influence of different raw mix
compositions on the utilisation of the deposit can be investigated, and finally long and medium-term
exploitation plans can be developed. QSO uses in-built operations research techniques to determine the
optimum solution. For the optimisation procedure, QSO considers not only the chemical raw mix
requirements, but also mining rules, which are specified by the user. This results in chemically correct and
technically feasible mine plans.
The first practical application for a Holcim group company took place as early as 1982. The ideas
developed at that time, and the results achieved, were encouraging and showed the direction to be
followed. The application of these methods was, however, relatively expensive as it required large
computers and well-trained personnel. Due to the fact that QSO is a planning tool frequently used on-site,
the breakthrough happened in 1985 because of the wider spread use of PC’s. QSO is now in its fourth
generation, which is known as QSO-Expert for Windows.
Fig. 2 Example of a typical QSO-Expert screen.

2.3 Quarry Engineering and Design (QED)

In addition to the optimum raw mix composition, some technical design features for the quarry have to be
determined. These are bench height, berm width, general mining strategy (e.g. top to bottom) and mining
method (e.g. truck haulage, in-pit crushing or glory hole system).
QED also includes the integration of these technical features in the quarry plans, such as haul roads,
ramps, dewatering ponds, waste dumps etc. In this way, the optimum long-term mining strategy is
transferred into detailed technical quarry plans.
Fig. 3 Haul road design for a quarry.

In order to obtain a mining permit for a deposit, it is of utmost importance to show what the future
appearance of the quarry will be. Therefore, mine plans representing the future quarry development are
elaborated with QSO. These plans are then transformed into photo-realistic 3D-views using the technique
of digital terrain modelling, whereby the appearance of the quarry at any given time can be realistically
shown, refer the proposed quarrying plan (Fig. 4). For this task, special commercial CAD programmes
and animation software are used.
With such detailed representations of the quarry, it is possible for the authorities, and more important for
the public, to visualise the quarry development in an easily understandable way.
The same technique can also be used to analyse the visual impact of the quarry on the surroundings. The
aim of such a visibility analysis is to achieve the increasing objective of blending the quarry as
inconspicuously as possible into the landscape.

Fig. 4 Three-dimensional representation of the development of a quarry.

2.4 Production Scheduling (QuarryMaster)

The most uniform raw mix with the correct chemical composition is essential for an efficient plant
operation and a high product quality. Using QSO, the optimum long-term strategy is determined and long
and medium-term mine plans are developed. The shortest time is normally not less than one year due to
the size of the blocks. However, for daily operations, it is necessary that production for a much shorter
period of time fulfills the process requirements. That means every preblending pile, respectively the
quarry production for every day, has to be within the limits. For this very purpose QuarryMaster was
developed. It is a tool for daily or weekly production planning in the quarry.
QuarryMaster assists the quarry manager in deciding how many tons have to be mined from which blast
in order to produce the correct raw mix, with the given equipment and manpower whilst staying in line with
the long-term mine plan. QuarryMaster is based on a digital terrain model of the quarry, which means the
quarry topography can be represented in all necessary details.
Short-term planning or production scheduling requires more accurate data with respect to the raw
material situation. The average values from the block model, which are adequate for long and medium-
term planning, are not sufficiently reliable. The daily fluctuations require special consideration, which now
necessitate a more detailed database. Therefore, analyses data from blasthole dust, sampling stations, or
cross-belt analysers are used for production scheduling.
QuarryMaster is an important tool for quality control. In fact, it represents the first step in a modern
production process, as the raw mix quality must be planned at the very beginning, which means right in
the quarry. There is a strong interaction between production scheduling and quality control, and the use of
QuarryMaster ensures the link between planning and control.
Taken as a whole, it provides uninterrupted co-ordination from deposit evaluation right up to excavation
planning, and production control and quality checking. Nowadays, this is a precondition to ensure the
required quality and quantity of a product over a fairly long period, with lowest possible daily fluctuations.
At the same time best possible use of the available raw material reserves is made.
2.5 Applicability
From a mathematical point of view, the calculation of optimum excavation plans is a demanding task.
Calculation of the block models is also a computationally intensive undertaking, which is not at all simple.
Twenty years ago, it was necessary to have large and expensive scientific computers and well-trained
personnel.
Nowadays, with the powerful low-cost PC’s, most of these tasks can be carried out in close proximity to
the operation by the quarry personnel themselves. The drill hole databank, the block model, and the
excavation planning are prepared by experts, and QSO-Expert and the QuarryMaster are implemented
on-site. After a relatively short training phase (1 – 2 weeks) the quarry personnel can operate and use the
tools to their full extent.
It is important to remember that in addition to the high level of appropriate software products, one of the
success factors in implementing raw material planning systems is experience. Proof of Holcim's expertise
in this field is given with the successful completion of more than 150 projects, which have been carried
out using computer aided raw material planning. The present software system can be described as
having been developed "by a cement manufacturer for a cement manufacturer".
3. COST EFFECTIVENESS
Under the continuously mounting pressure of costs, the question of cost savings using computer-aided
raw material planning arises with increasing regularity. In addition to the indirect benefits - such as, better
and more reliable knowledge about the deposit, rapid and optimum results in evaluation and planning,
quantification of risks, evaluation of different scenarios - the main interest lies in the measurable savings
in production costs. Estimates carried out by Holcim in the past showed potential annual savings of up to
a few hundred thousand USD in various situations. Relative to one tonne of raw mix this normally means
cost savings of 10 - 30 cents. These were achieved by reductions in the quantity of overburden and in the
costs of correctives consumption, and through increased OEE of the kiln because of a more uniform raw
mix composition.
The costs of implementing a computer-aided raw materials management programme amount to between
USD 100,000-200,000. Bearing in mind the above mentioned cost savings of 10-30c/tonne of raw
material consumed, a payback period of 1-2 years more than justifies the initial investment. So far, over
150 international projects have been carried out for cement lime and aggregate producers all over the
world.

QSO-Expert for WINDOWS

Quarry Scheduling Optimisation
Using Artificial Intelligence Techniques
1. OBJECTIVES
2. THE METHODS BEHIND QSO-EXPERT
3. QSO-EXPERT IN PRACTICE
3.1 Graphical User Interface
4. EXPLANATION OF FIGURES 1 TO 4
5. HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

1. OBJECTIVES
QSO-Expert represents the most recent innovation in deposit evaluation, mining simulation and
production planning. The two main objectives of applying QSO-Expert are:
¨ secure a steady supply of raw materials from the quarry to the clinker production units
¨ economic utilisation of the raw material sources, in most cases this means at minimum cost and
maximum lifetime.
By means of improved planning, the problem of waste minimisation can be better dealt with, and capacity
of mining equipment and their constant load level can be better optimised, as can mining and transport
logistics, etc. – to mention only the most important factors.
2. THE METHODS BEHIND QSO-EXPERT
It is important to realise that QSO-Expert is not only concerned with the chemical raw mix requirements.
Mining technical and logistical questions can likewise be considered, or may even be the prime objective.
This is due to a novel approach, the combination of conventional numerical optimisation methods with
symbolic and heuristic techniques of Artificial Intelligence. A powerful user interface under the WINDOWS
environment facilitates easy computation and evaluation of various planning tasks. The results can be
interpreted "at a glance", thanks to compact graphical visualisation.
Besides the comprehensive graphical capabilities, the essential innovation is the previously mentioned
combination of numerical and heuristic methods.
Computation of solutions, which are chemically optimal and technically feasible with as little user
interaction as possible, can be a tedious task, when only numerical methods are employed. Theoretically
speaking, there are purely numerical solutions, however, computationally intractable on the PC of today.
Hence, to solve the problem - computation of chemically optimal and technically feasible plans - in an
elegant way, heuristics (''experiences and rules”) must be conceived.
Utilising a heuristic approach potential mining areas are selected (i.e. taken into consideration for mining)
and evaluated by means of numerics. The best solution is accepted. Based on it “the next solution is
computed” etc. In practice, this represents individual stages of mining progress, the quarry schedule.
Without going into further technical detail: The solutions achieved represent the chemical optimum, whilst
mining technical feasibility is warranted. The activity of a human expert is emulated, and in many respects
even exceeded. For example in:
¨ simultaneous consideration of several chemical variables
¨ special evaluation of mining areas
¨ quick computation of technically feasible plans
¨ reproducibility of results and appropriate reasoning.
It should be stressed, that it is not an uncontrolled, fully automatic quarry scheduling that is desired, but
an efficient support of the human expert. Tedious, repetitive routine is eliminated, complex chemical and
special relations are understood correctly and managed easily.
3. QSO-EXPERT IN PRACTICE
In particular, QSO-Expert offers the following possibilities.
1) Block Model content: all chemical variables and block states are displayed in form of coloured
block maps in an impressive and clearly arranged manner.
2) Geological (in-place) reserves can be calculated quickly in all detail for the total deposit or parts
of it.
3) Computation of reserves in terms of raw mix, under consideration of eventual correctives:
· without mining technical restrictions (chemically optimal)
· with mining technical restrictions (chemically and technically feasible) and the option to permit
waste, if necessary.
4) Development of medium to long-term mining plans.
5) Using blast hole dust analysis data or other continuous production data, short-term production
planning on a daily to weekly basis can be achieved. The build-up of batch type or continuous
preblending beds can be planned and controlled.
3.1 Graphical User Interface
QSO-Expert is a software package according to the WINDOWS standard. Fig. 1 to 4 show the user
interface and provide some additional detail to QSO-Expert in practice (see above).
What are the main differences between QSO-Expert (from 1989) and QSO-Expert for Windows (from
1995)?
Some new features and benefits are:
¨ simplified programme handling; fully mouse driven
¨ compatibility with WINDOWS environment (e.g. direct printing on a large variety of plotters)
¨ better waste handling (optimisation of waste treatment; maintaining constant stripping ratios)
¨ widely improved block model display (blockmaps to scale; cross-sections; perspective views;
display of world co-ordinates and topographical features)
¨ quick on-line help (context sensitive help utility)
¨ block models of up to 16'000 blocks can be dealt with, better control of quarry scheduling due to
additional advanced mining rules.
QSO-Expert represents the latest state-of-the-art by its combination of Artificial Intelligence with Linear
Programming, utilising the advantages of both methods.

4. EXPLANATION OF FIGURES 1 TO 4
Figure 1:

A certain level of the deposit is represented as a coloured block map. Each square symbolises in this
case a block of 60 x 60 x 10 m3. The colours display the lime saturation. Reddish and yellowish colours
represent high grades, greenish and bluish ones low grades. Any variable which is contained in the block
model can be shown. Thus, the deposit inventory is displayed in an impressive and easily understandable
way.
The "Planning" menu is opened and allows the selection of various activities such as: definition of product
(raw mix) requirements, specification of mining rules and constraints, checking mining feasibility,
computing optimal deposit utilisation strategies, planning actual quarry schedules and doing short-term
production scheduling by building-up a pre-blending bed.
Figure 2: The Deposit in Perspective View

Spectators view the deposit from a specified viewpoint. They see the distribution of LS not only on the
surface, but also along the cross sections. A very attractive way to provide in-sight into often complex
deposit conditions.
Figure 3: Results of a Scheduling Run

This figure shows the results of a scheduling run. The window "mix offered" describes the geological
reserves on level 6 (left window). The right window "optimiser" describes chemistry and maximum
quantity of the raw mix achieved. Quantities of the required correctives (clay, iron-ore and sand, etc.) are
reported as well. The dotted blocks (left window) are the blocks which have to be mined to achieve the
reported raw mix.
Figure 4: Short-term Planning

Each column in the left window represents a mining face, each red block represents blasted material,
known in quality and quantity. There are 50 blasts with 355'000 tons of material (window "mix offered").
The four blocks marked with a black dot plus some correctives result in 33'000 t of raw mix in the desired
quality, corresponding to the capacity of one preblending bed.
5. HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
QSO-Expert runs on PCs with Intel 386 or 486 processors (with arithmetic coprocessor), 4 MB RAM,
colour display (VGA) and an A4 colour plotter. Operating system is MS-WINDOWS 3.1 or higher.

Quarry Engineering and Design

Clemens Mann MT/CTS/HMC.
1. Introduction
2. QUARRY DESIGN
2.1 Maximum Final Depth
2.2 Overall Slope Angle for Final Pit walls
2.3 Bench Height
3. Quarry Engineering
3.1 Quarry System
3.1.1 Ripping
3.1.2 Dozing
3.1.3 In-Pit Crushing
3.1.4 Glory hole
3.2 Haul road design
3.2.1 Grade
3.2.2 Width
3.2.3 Location
3.2.4 Safety
3.2.5 Calculation of truck capacity
3.3 Dewatering
4. Visualisation of quarry development
5. Conclusion
6. REFERENCES

1. INTRODUCTION
With QSO-Expert a global strategy for the optimum utilisation of the deposit can be selected. Based on
that strategy long term mine plans (periods of 10, 5 or single years) are developed to investigate how the
exploitation should proceed so that the optimum strategy can be fulfilled period per period. These QSO
plans are then transferred into topographical maps showing the quarry development.
The objectives of Quarry Engineering and Design (QED) can be summarised as follows:
· to set up a technical design for the quarry
· to generate topographical maps of the quarry development
· to include important technical features especially haul roads, dumps, dewatering systems and
· to visualise the quarry development in a most realistic way.

QED also includes engineering work of the quarry planning such

· selection of a quarry system
· haul road design
· dewatering concept

The quarry plans show the future development of the quarry in all necessary detail. They are used for
· strategic decisions (acquisition of property, location of crushers, construction of haul roads and
waste dumps, investment for mobile equipment).
· control of exploitation progress
· environmental related planning (rehabilitation, visibility analysis, etc.) and
· the mining permission procedure.

2. QUARRY DESIGN
Before starting with the development of long-term mine plans, some basic design features for the quarry
have to be set up. The design features determine the geometrical shape of the quarry. The main
parameters are:
· quarry limits
· maximum final depth
· overall slope angle
· bench height

2.1 Maximum Final Depth

The maximum final depth is limited by the surface outline of the mining area, the maximum overall slope
angle and the minimum width of the pit bottom (Fig.1). The surface outline of the mining area is generally
restricted by external factors such as the concession or permission area, property limits and public
installations like roads, railways, power lines etc.
Fig. 1: Quarry limits and maximum final depth

From the aspect of mining cost, the final depth is often limited down to:
· the level of the crusher location to avoid up-hill haulage with the loaded trucks or
· the level of the dewatering drain to avoid pumping.
The final pit depth can also be limited by the authorities (protection of ground water horizons).

2.2 Overall Slope Angle for Final Pit walls

The overall slope angle is the angle between a horizontal and a line that joins the toe of the bottom bench
and the top edge of the quarry.
Why is the maximum slope angle for the final pit walls so important? It has a great impact on the
economy of the entire project. The steeper the angle the less overburden to be removed, or the greater
the amount of reserves to be mined within given surface boundaries. As the slope angle becomes steeper
so the risk of slope failure increases.
The stability of a slope is defined as a safety factor:

Sum of resisting forces

Factor of safety =
Sum of moving forces

The resisting forces depend on the friction angle and the cohesion of the material. As a first estimation,
we calculate, for the final pit walls in limestone quarries, an overall slope angle in the range of 50° to 60°.
Depending on the exact geological conditions (joints and fissures) and the influence of water, the
maximum angle can be lower or higher. Different types of rock have different stabilities. Therefore, a
severe geotechnical study is recommended to determine the overall slope angle. This is also most
relevant for the waste dump.
Slope angle for a bench system during quarry operation is normally much lower than the final angle
because a certain bench width is required for the manoeuvrability of the mobile equipment.
2.3 Bench Height
The bench height is one of the most important design parameters of a quarry, because it strongly
influences all sectors of the mining operation. Therefore, the selection of the correct bench height is an
important task for the planning engineer, in order to optimise the quarry operation.
Of course the bench height has to be selected in accordance with mining laws or safety regulations which
limit, in many countries, the bench height to a certain maximum (e.g. Switzerland 40 m).
Quarry and pit operators often have divergent views about bench height; while some favour high benches
from 20 to 30 m, others feel very strongly that bench height should be designed from 10 to 15 m.
Lower bench height has the following advantages:
· greater selectivity of rock excavation
· greater drillhole accuracy
· higher penetration rates over the hole

Their disadvantages are:

· construction and maintenance of more benches
· more pre-stripping at lower working slope angle
· greater difference of haulage level for down-hill haulage
· limited to a certain drillhole size
· more drill down time for shifting the drill rig
· more subdrilling
· more boulders from the top of the benches
· higher consumption of detonators

A general value of the optimum bench height which is valid for all quarries can not be calculated. The
suitable bench height has to be selected individually for each case. However, experience in recent years
has shown that in our industry there is a tendency to lower benches with a height of about 10 to 15 m.

3. QUARRY ENGINEERING
QED also includes engineering work for quarry planning such as
· selection of a quarry system
· haul road design
· dewatering concept

3.1 Quarry System

In our quarries, we have in most cases a system which consists of a drilling/blasting and a loader/truck
operation. Sometimes the quarry planning requires also the selection of a different mining system.
Because the mining system has a strong influence on the way in which the quarry can be developed and
what quality can be produced, it can not be selected without considering the quality aspects.

3.1.1 Ripping
As an alternative to a drilling/blasting operation ripping can be used in soft rock (Fig.2). Ripping has the
advantages of
· no permit, transport, storage and handling of explosives are necessary
· no ground vibrations, no air blast occur
· no specially trained personnel required and
· a continuous operation
The main question is: Can the rock be ripped? As a rule of thumb it can be stated that material up to a
seismic velocity of 2.000 m/s is rippable, but other factors such as fractures and weaknesses, weathering,
stratification and brittleness are also very important.
A rock mechanic analysis, a geological site investigation and a seismic analysis may give good
indications, but only a site test can prove the rippability of the rock. Finally, a cost comparison has to show
whether ripping provides cost benefits.
Fig. 2: Dozer with ripper

3.1.2 Dozing
Normally the haul road leads to all benches, so that the rock can be loaded and transported from each
bench. As an alternative, the muckpile is pushed by a dozer over the crest of the bench and then loaded
at the pit bottom into trucks.
The advantages of this method are that the haulage distances and the required number of trucks are
reduced, and the construction of a wide haul road to the upper benches is not necessary. This results in
low mining costs. The disadvantages are: reduced safety, poor quality control by segregation, selective
mining is difficult, less flexibility in face advance, more dust and more fines.
3.1.3 In-Pit Crushing
Haulage in the quarry is normally done by large trucks. The alternative is a combination of an in-pit
crusher and conveyor belt.
While a truck system offer:
· high flexibility
· high availability
· low initial investment
it has relatively high operating costs due to:
· high energy consumption
· each truck needs an operator
· high maintenance effort (engine, tyres, brakes etc.)
Furthermore trucks necessitate the construction of a wide and smooth haul road, and are less safe,
particularly at night and with poor weather conditions.
For this reason, many large scale open pit mines have installed in-pit crushing systems in recent years, to
reduce their truck fleets and haulage costs.
There are several kinds of in-pit crushing systems:
· fully mobile system which is fed directly at the face (Fig.3)
· semi-mobile system which is fed by wheel loaders (Fig.4)
· semi-mobile system which is fed by trucks
If a stationary crusher is used, the location of the installation is of primary importance, as it determines the
quarry operation over a long period of time.

Fig. 3: Fully mobile crusher loaded by face shovel

Fig. 4: Semi-mobile crusher loaded by wheel loaders

3.1.4 Glory hole

Should the deposit be located in steep mountains or rough terrain, it is sometimes very difficult or even
impossible to construct a haul road or a conveyor belt to transport the rock to the plant. In such cases, the
glory hole concept is used, which consists of a vertical shaft and a tunnel.
The crusher can be installed as a semi-mobile crusher on top of the glory hole or as a fixed installation at
the base of the hole. In the second case, a larger hole diameter is necessary. The glory hole concept
requires a large investment costs for the construction of the shaft and the tunnel.
3.2 Haul road design
The design and condition of the haul road is very important for the efficiency of the truck haulage
operation. In a quarry with a truck system, about 50% of the mining costs are haulage costs. Therefore,
optimised truck haulage plays an important role. Assuming mining costs of 2 USD / t and a 5 % reduction
in haulage costs with an improved road design, cost savings of 50.000 USD per year for a typical quarry
with a yearly production of 1 Mio. T can be realised.
There are three main parameters in design of haul roads:
· grade
· width
· location

3.2.1 Grade
Generally, the best road grade lies in the range of 8 - 12 % for regular rear-dump trucks. Where climatic
conditions are severe (excessive snow or rain) the tendency is to reduce the grade. Articulated haul
trucks can work in severe terrain conditions, and can cope with steeper grades (25%).
3.2.2 Width
The width of the haul road should be 3 - 3.5 times that of the truck width to allow safe two lane truck
traffic. The space required for the installation of protection berms and drains must also be added to the
total width of the haul road.
3.2.3 Location
Location of the haul road is perhaps the most difficult part. The final haul road should be established as
soon as possible to avoid construction of temporary roads, and the line of the haul road should result in
short haulage distances. A good practice is to align the haul road along a final slope, because the haul
road design influences the long-term planning, both of which must be made in accordance with each
other.
When deciding on the location of the haul road, it is also important to position the road relative to the
usable / waste contact. The haul road width normally exceeds final berm width, and consequently if the
haul road is positioned in such a way that no reserves are to be lost, then additional waste has to be
removed. The alternative is to select a location on usable reserves so that no additional waste removal is
required. The positioning of the road will be a compromise that balances additional costs for waste
removal against losses on reserves.
Sharp and steep curves on the road should be avoided as they reduce the travelling speed and increase
wear and tear on tyres and chassis. Curves should be designed with a super-elevation to counter balance
the centrifugal force.
3.2.4 Safety
Safety is an important factor on haul road design. When planning curves and hills, emphasis has to be
laid on good visibility along the haulage route. The trucks should be able to stop within the range of
visibility (Fig. 11). On long, steep haul roads break failures have to be reckoned with, leading the down-hill
traffic lane on the hill side of the road. Middle berms or emergency exits are preventative measures
against fatal accidents.
3.2.5 Calculation of truck capacity
Once the profile of the haul road has been established, the average cycle time can be calculated and the
required number of trucks for a given production rate can be determined.

3.3 Dewatering
In areas with significant rainfall, dewatering is important for a safe and efficient quarry operation.
Therefore, a good quarry design has to include a dewatering concept. That means the benches need a
slight inclination in such a way that the water runs off in a certain direction from where it can be drained
off to the quarry sump.
The drains and the sump must be designed with sufficient capacity to handle maximum expected rainfall.

4. VISUALISATION OF QUARRY DEVELOPMENT

A quarry is not a static, but a dynamic structure that greatly affects the appearance of the surrounding
area. Excellent planning is required today to cope with this continual change.
In recent years, an increased sensitivity by the public to the field of environmental protection has resulted
in approval procedures becoming increasingly difficult. A submission for granting an extension of a mining
licence can be helped by accurate computer based 3-D quarry models and easy-to-understand
illustrations. These provide detailed insight for all steps of the quarry development, from the opening to
the final recultivation. Visual displays of the quarry make operational and environmental related planning
fully transparent. In particular the effectiveness of any measures for environmental protection can be
clearly demonstrated. This accords well with the environmental policies of many cement manufacturers,
and also saves time in the face of proliferating regulations and ever-lengthier licencing procedures.

Fig. 5 Aerial view of a quarry. Clearly visible are the position of the crusher (small quarry, top left), the
access road and the quarry wall with a height of up to 250m.

Fig. 6 Quarry at ground-level view. The main issues and the camouflage wall are visible.

Fig. 7 This view is achieved using a combination of computer simulation and the current appearance of
a landscape using photomontage.
Figure 5 Shows an aerial view of a quarry. This perspective is particularly suited for the clarification of
excavation concepts, from an operational viewpoint. Clearly visible in the figure are the position of the
crusher ('small quarry' top left), the access road and, in particular, the impressive quarry wall with a height
of up to 250m.

Figure 6: Shows another quarry. Unlike the first example, this is a normal ground-level view. Here the
main issues are visibility and the camouflage wall. These topics chiefly interest authorities and the general
public.

Figure 7: Is a view achieved by a combination of computer simulation and the current appearance of the
landscape using photomontage.
This is the same quarry as in Figure 5. In this project, the authorities and the general public are taking a
close and critical look at the environmental impact, so the prospects for an excavation licence are being
studied using 3-D modelling and photo-realistic visualisations.

It must be emphasised that all visual presentations are based on exact plans, which are accurate in every
detail. These plans are based on CADE (Computer Aided Deposit Evaluation) and QSO (Quarry
Scheduling Optimisation)'. They optimally satisfy long and short-term objectives. The objectives are
steady supply of good-quality raw materials, with maximum deposit utilisation and lowest possible
production cost.
QED as a further technique allows 3-D modelling and visualisation of the quarry development. With the
method of QED, the planning becomes clear and easily understandable - clear and understandable for
both the expert and the general public.
The final decision on further investments (for example for a detailed drilling campaign) will not be reached
until later, after the prospects for an excavation licence are positive.
5. CONCLUSION
To bring raw materials management into operation the following steps have to carried out:
· The general layout of the quarry and a suitable mining procedure has to be determined.
· A long-term strategy for the quarry development has to be defined, which is guided by the
optimum use of the deposit.
· More detailed periodical quarry plans have to be developed and transferred into detailed technical
quarry maps.
· Photorealistic perspective views of the quarry development are produced to support the
permitting process
Today, integrated computerised tools are used for digital terrain modelling, volume calculations and
drawing of topographical maps. With the tendency to large scale operations and increasing environmental
awareness, the necessity for reliable and detailed quarry planning becomes increasingly evident.
6. REFERENCES
BAUMGARTNER W., Computerised raw materials management - developments and progress. World
Cement, Vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 207-213 (1990).

QuarryMaster - The new tool for daily production planning in the quarry
Michael Honerkamp and Clemens Mann MT/CTS/HMC
1. Introduction
2. The tasks of a Quarry Manager
3. Requirements for the new planning tool
4. Holcim's QuarryMaster
5. Benefits
6. QuarryMaster and Cross-Belt- Analyser

1. INTRODUCTION
Every production manager knows the benefits which are derived from a uniform raw mix with the correct
chemical composition. A proper raw mix allows you to increase kiln production, to produce a good clinker
quality, and to reduce your energy consumption etc. Therefore, the performance of the quarry operation is
an essential factor for the performance of the whole cement plant and has a significant influence on your
total operating costs.

The ultimate aim of production scheduling in the quarry is to produce a raw mix, which fulfills perfectly the
requirements of the process. Due to the generally very complex nature of our natural deposits, this is a
difficult task. But how can an integrated computerised planning tool help us to get closer to this target?

2. THE TASKS OF A QUARRY MANAGER

First, let us take a closer look at the tasks of a Quarry Manager.
He has to achieve three main targets:
¨ All exploitation has to be in-line with the long-term objectives in order to make optimal use of the
deposit. This target is quite often neglected and leads to high additional costs.
¨ He has to provide the plant with the required production in such a way that all pre-blending piles
fullfill the quality requirements.
¨ The mining operation has to be cost efficient.

The essential factor required to achieve all of these objectives at the same time, is proper production
planning.

3. REQUIREMENTS FOR THE NEW PLANNING TOOL

From the tasks of a Quarry Manager, we derive the requirements for an integrated planning tool:
¨ It has to include all necessary data: quarry topography, quality data, and equipment.
¨ Long-term plans have to be followed.
¨ The raw mix requirements have to be fulfilled.
¨ Equipment utilisation has to be optimised.

Furthermore, we require that the tool be easy-to-use in order to avoid additional working time.

4. HOLCIM'S QUARRYMASTER
QuarryMaster works on a complete 3D digital terrain model of the quarry. The quarry topography can be
represented accurately with all necessary details, and the quarry can be visualised from any viewpoint
(Fig. 1).

Fig.1: 3D view of the quarry

The user defines the blasts interactively with the mouse on the screen in the same way as he would do
with a pen on a map (Fig. 2). After blasting, the topography is automatically updated, and so the model
always shows the actual state of the quarry. Quality data from blastholes or other samples are
automatically imported from the laboratory. They can be assigned to the blast simply with a click of the
mouse, the tonnages and the chemistry of the blasts are calculated automatically (Fig. 3).

Fig.2: Definition of blast outline

Fig.3: Calculation of blast chemistry and tonnage

The computer determines the optimum production plan from the different blasts, so that the raw mix
requirements are fulfilled (Fig. 4). In addition, operational requirements are considered in the programme,
because a specific loader and the cycle times of the different truck types can be assigned to each blast.
The user has the option to investigate different scenarios for a number of preblending beds in advance,
so that he can assure the production targets not only for the next preblending bed but also for a longer
period.

Fig.4: Optimisation of production schedule

When defining the next blast, QuarryMaster provides two sources of information: First of all the long-term
planning is visualised, e.g. the plan for the next year, and secondly all past blasthole samples with their
chemical information are available. This gives the Quarry Manager a clear indication of the quality to be
expected and enables him to decide "Where to blast next"?
5. BENEFITS
· QuarryMaster enables you to produce a uniform and correct raw mix at the best point - right in the
quarry.
· Complex raw mix composition can be produced because the system is able to control multiple
quality parameters simultaneously as well as the use of several correctives.
· With an accurate, computer controlled crusher feed, the correctives consumption can be reduced,
which results in significant cost savings.
· By maximising the productivity of the mobile equipment, operational costs can be reduced.
· Due to the fact that the working hours required to fill a preblending pile can be minimised, there is
more flexibility in the quarry operation.
· Because the progress of the quarry development is continuously monitored, it is much easier to
keep the excavation in-line with the strategic long-term plan.
6. QUARRYMASTER AND CROSS-BELT- ANALYSER

A Cross-Belt-Analyser analyses the quality of the material, which is already on the preblending bed. It just
analyses what has been mined. QuarryMaster tells where to mine next in order to achieve the right mix.
With a Cross-Belt-Analyser it is neither possible to plan several preblending piles ahead nor is it possible
to control a long-term mine plan. Furthermore, a Cross-Belt-Analyser also requires a large investment and
additional technical installations.

However, a Cross-Belt-Analyser provides very accurate and reliable information about the quality of the
material already mined. So the Cross-Belt-Analyser can be used as an on-line control instrument for
production plans developed by the QuarryMaster. When QuarryMaster is combined with a Cross-Belt-
Analyser they work together as a rapid control loop and allow the production of preblending piles right on
the set point (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5: Modern control of a preblending pile using QuarryMaster

C12 - Basic Cement Chemistry

BASIC CEMENT CHEMISTRY CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

1. CHEMICAL FORMULAE
2. MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION
3. CHEMICAL PARAMETERS FOR CEMENT-SPECIFIC MATERIALS
3.1 Titration
3.2 Lime Saturation
3.3 Silica Ratio
3.4 Alumina Ratio
3.5 Na2O-equivalent
4. CONTENT OF CLINKER MINERALS ACCORDING TO BOGUE
4.1 Applied for
5. SIGNIFICANCE OF CLINKER MINERALS FOR CEMENT PROPERTIES
6. SIGNIFICANCE OF CLINKER MINERALS FOR ASTM CEMENT TYPES
7. RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CHEMICAL MODULI AND CLINKER MINERALS
8. EXERCISE FOR CALCULATION

Elemental composition in weight percentage. By convention, the elements are expressed in form of their
oxides (exception: Cl, F).
Table 1 Usual sequence of elements in cement analysis:

Examples
Limestone Clinker
L.o.l.1 42.2 0.24
SiO2 1.9 22.7
Al2O3 0.81 5.7
Fe2O3 0.52 1.9
CaO 52.2 66.0
MgO 1.4 2.0
SO3 0.56 0.33
K2O 0.22 0.74
Na2O 0.08 0.09
TiO2 0.05 0.18
Cr2O3
Mn2O3 0.02 0.03
P2O5 0.01 0.05
Cl 0.01 0.01
F

1) loss on ignition, e.g. at 1050°C

mainly due to H2O, CO2
1. CHEMICAL FORMULAE
The chemical formula indicates the elements occurring in a chemical compound:
¨ for a molecular compound, type and absolute number of elements in a molecule are given

H2O O2 C6H6
water oxygen benzene

¨ for a mineralogical compound, type and relative number of elements are given

SiO2 CaO CaCO3 Ca3SiO5

quartz lime calcite alite

Note: In mineralogical compounds, the elements need not necessarily occur in simple numerical ratios
(impurities, solid solution)
¨ in the cement chemistry, shorthand’s are often used:

CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 SO3 H2O

C S A F S H

Examples:
C3S for Ca3SiO5 (alite)
C2S for Ca2SiO4 (belite)
C3A for Ca3Al2O6 (aluminate)
C4AF for Ca4Al2Fe2O10 (ferrite)
2. MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION
Table Composition of a material, expressed in weight-percentage of the occurring minerals
Example:

Limestone
Calcite CaCO3 90%
Dolomite CaMg(C03)2 5%
Quartz SiO2 5%

Clinker
Alite C3S 58%
Belite C2S 23%
Aluminate C3A 9%
Ferrite C4AF 7%
Periclase MgO 1%
Arcanite K2SO4 1%
Free lime CaO 1%

Table Difference between chemical and mineralogical composition:

Limestone
Mineralogical comp. Chemical comp.
Calcite CaCO3 90% L.O.I.(C02) 40,0%
Dolomite CaMg(C03)2 5% SiO2 5,0%
Quartz SiO2 5% CaO 53,9%
MgO 1,1%

(simplified, minor elements not included)

3. CHEMICAL PARAMETERS FOR CEMENT-SPECIFIC MATERIALS
3.1 Titration
Content of carbonates as determined by acid-base titration, expressed as CaCO3
% Titration = 1.786 CaO + 2.48 MgO
Applied for:
¨ Limestone
¨ Marl
¨ Raw Meal
3.2 Lime Saturation

or

The LS is a measure to which extent the CaO-richest compounds C3S, C3A and C4AF can be formed
without the necessary presence of free lime. At LS > 100, free lime will unavoidably be present after
burning.
Applied for:
¨ Raw meal
¨ Clinker
¨ Cement: neat OPC only
CaO = CaOtotal - 0 7 SO3
Usual range in clinker: 85 - 100
Note: The influence of MgO can be accounted for

max. 2 % MgO may be introduced in formula (not applied in cement specifications)

3.3 Silica Ratio

Applied for
¨ Siliceous-argillaceous raw components
¨ Raw meal
¨ Clinker
¨ Cement
Usual range in clinker: 1.8 - 3.6
3.4 Alumina Ratio

Applied for
¨ Siliceous-argillaceous raw components
¨ Raw meal
¨ Clinker
¨ Cement
Usual range in clinker: 1 - 3
3.5 Na2O-equivalent
Total alkali content, expressed as Na2O
Na2O-equivalent = Na2O ~ 0.658 K2O
Note: Limit for low alkali cement
Na2O-equiv. s 0.6 %
Applied for Clinker
Cement
4. CONTENT OF CLINKER MINERALS ACCORDING TO BOGUE
Percentage content of clinker minerals, assuming that chemical equilibrium is attaint, and that no
impurities are present
C3S = 4.07CaO - 7.6SiO2 - 6.73Al2O3 - 1.43Fe2O3
C2S = 8.6SiO2 + 5.07Al2O3 + 1.08Fe2O3 - 3.07CaO
or 2.87SiO2 - 0.754C3S
C3A = 2.65Al2O3 - 1.69Fe2O3
C4AF = 3.04Fe2O3
In reality, the mineralogical composition of industrial clinkers differs to some extent from that calculated
according to Bogue.
4.1 Applied for
¨ Cement:
· OPC only (excl. blended cements)
· correction for CaO in CaSO4:
CaO = Catot - 0 70 SO3
· For ASTM: TiO2 and P2O5 to be added to Al2O3
¨ Clinker:
· CaO can be corrected for "CaSO4" or for free lime, depending on objective of calculation
5. SIGNIFICANCE OF CLINKER MINERALS FOR CEMENT PROPERTIES

C3S Contributes to early and late strength (1 d - ...)

Increases heat of hydration
C2S Contributes to late strength (28 d - ...)
C3A Contributes to early strength (1 - 3 d)
Increases heat of hydration
Impairs resistance to sulphate attack
C4AF Little effect
6. SIGNIFICANCE OF CLINKER MINERALS FOR ASTM CEMENT TYPES

Type I Portland
no restrictions regarding clinker minerals
Type II Portland with moderate sulphate resistance
C3A max. 8 %
Type III Portland with high early strength
C3A max. 15 %
Type IV Portland with low heat of hydration
C3S max. 35 %
C2S min 40%
C3A max. 7 %
Type V Portland with high sulphate resistance
C3A max. 5.0 %
C4AF + 2 C3A max. 25 %
or
C4AF + C2F max. 25 %

7. RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CHEMICAL MODULI AND CLINKER MINERALS

The following relationships are calculated for simplified clinker compositions, i.e. only containing the main
elements SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO
Fig: Clinker Minerals as Function of LS
SR=2.5 AR=1.5

Fig: Clinker Minerals as Function of SR

LS=95 AR=1.5

Fig: Clinker Minerals as Function of AR

LS=95 SR=2.5

8. EXERCISE FOR CALCULATION

Raw Mix Potential clinker composition

L.o.l. 35.1 ..........
SiO2 14.3 ..........
Al2O3 3.6 ..........
Fe2O3 2.0 ..........
CaO 42.0 ..........
MgO 1.8 ..........
SO3 0.25 ..........
K2O 0.63 ..........
Na2O 0.22 ..........
TiO2 0.17 ..........
Mn2O3 0.10 ..........
P2O5 0.06 ..........
Cl 0.01 ..........

Titration. . . . . . . . . .
LS .......... ..........
SR .......... ..........
AR .......... ..........

Na2O-equiv. ..........
C3S ..........
C2S ..........
C3A ..........
C4AF ..........

C13 - Mix Design

MIX DESIGN

1. GENERAL
2. DEFINITION OF CRITERIA FOR MIX CALCULATION
3. PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF MIX PROPORTIONING
3.1 X-Pattern
3.2 Manual Calculation
3.3 Graphical Methods
3.4 Programmable Calculator
3.5 Computer Optimisation
4. PRINCIPLES OF RAW MIX ASSESSMENT
4.1 Mix Type
4.2 Comparison of Raw Mix with Standard Specifications
4.3 Assessment of the Mineralogical Composition of Cement Raw Mixes.
4.4 Assessment of Raw Mixes with regard to Cement Production and Choice of Process
4.5 Evaluation of Laboratory Test Results

1. GENERAL
A raw mix design comprises not only raw mix proportioning but also considerations of such factors as
standard specifications of the cement types to be produced, the market situation and the available
process installations.

The selection of criteria is dictated by the standard specifications.

Designing raw mixes does not only involve the proportioning (calculation) but includes an evaluation of
the obtained results. The latter involves optimisation with respect to costs and materials.

2. DEFINITION OF CRITERIA FOR MIX CALCULATION

Any type of cement has to conform to the individual cement standards of a particular country. Standards
(standard specifications) normally include chemical specifications for clinker and cement. Together with
the physical and strength requirements, they guarantee a suitable quality potential for the respective
cement type.
With regard to the raw material aspects only the chemical requirements are significant:

In other words: the product specifications dictate the clinker/cement quality which in turn dictates the
chemical composition of the raw mix and finally the selection of the raw material components.
The above sequence can also be reversed: an existing raw material configuration with little freedom as to
the proportioning of the raw mix, may permit the manufacture of only one particular type of clinker.
Table 41 Influence of chemical requirements on raw materials

Chemical requirements Influence on raw material

min. SO3 Rejection of SO3-bearing components
(e.g.) gypsum-containing shale)
min. MgO Rejection of MgO-bearing components
(e.g. dolomitic limestone)
min. Alkali Selection of raw material with low alkali-content
min. C3A Selection of components with very low alumina content and / or high iron content

Table 41 shows the influence of chemical requirements on the choice of raw materials.
The following chemical criteria are normally used as a basis for raw mix proportioning (Table 42; on
clinker basis):
Table 42 Chemical criteria for raw mix proportioning

The proportioning of raw mixes for ordinary Portland cement is mostly based on the following specific
criteria:
¨ MgO
¨ Lime standard or lime or saturation factor (or C3S)
¨ Silica ratio
¨ Alumina ratio
As Table 42 indicates, ratios are the preferred chemical criteria for proportioning since they offer the
advantage of expressing the main and most important chemical parameters such as SiO2, Al203, Fe2O3
and CaO in one single figure.
Other important criteria such as type and composition of fuels should not be overlooked. Coal ash as a
combustion product of coal, for instance, has to be analysed quantitatively and qualitatively and should be
treated as an individual raw material component. Fuel oil has to be considered as a potential carrier of
sulphur, etc.
Additional criteria which could have bearing on the mix proportioning refer to performance characteristics,
e.g.:
¨ minimum dust emission
¨ burnability and coating properties
¨ extreme components which affect machine performance
or to economic factors, e.g.:
¨ maximum overall economy
¨ easy and simple operations
¨ minimum number of components
However, performance characteristics in particular can normally be controlled regarding the "normal"
chemical requirements for cement raw mixes. The economic factors, on the other hand, are of the same
significance as the chemical requirements.
3. PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF MIX PROPORTIONING
Proportioning (calculation) of potential cement raw mixes can be accomplished by various methods:
3.1 X-Pattern
The x-pattern represents a linear estimation of two raw material components by selecting the anticipated
titration value (total carbonate content) of the potential raw mix as basis.

or as a numerical example.

The potential raw mix with a titration value of 76% would thus consist of:

or
limestone 78,6 %
claystone 21,3 %
The resulting analysis of the raw mix has to be checked with regard to the requirements of the standard
specifications.
3.2 Manual Calculation
There are a number of mathematical methods for two and three-component systems. Formulas are not
complicated but comprise a large number of steps. The method of manual calculation as such is
outdated.
3.3 Graphical Methods
These methods require preparatory work (manual calculations) for the determination of the relevant
figures which are the basis for the construction of the diagrams and graphs. Graphical methods represent
a rather archaic stage of mix proportioning.
3.4 Programmable Calculator
Programmable calculators normally produce one solution (out of possibly several). Obviously, this method
is the best way to obtain a quick solution.
3.5 Computer Optimisation
It provides the optimum of a series of possible solutions considering the price factors as variables. If the
available raw materials cannot meet the specified requirements for the raw mix, an approximate and an
exact solution considering the missing constituents are produced (Tables 43 - 47).
Note: Mix calculations are normally based on dry raw materials. In practice, the natural moisture contents
of the raw material components have to be considered too. This may entail alterations of the original mix
proportions.
Table 43

Table 44

Table 45

Table 46

Table 47

4. PRINCIPLES OF RAW MIX ASSESSMENT

Basically, evaluation and assessment of raw material components (4.4) and raw mixes refer to the same
principles. The only difference exists in the immediate comparison of the chemical composition of a raw
mix with the standard specifications of the products for which it is intended.
4.1 Mix Type
The possible combinations of different rocks used in raw mixes can be classified as mix types. Important
varieties are:
¨ Argillaceous limestone (marl) having the composition of a natural cement. An optimum
homogenisation is realised in the rack texture itself. The reactions can easily take place even with a
coarsely grained raw mix.
¨ The same rock in a metamorphic condition contains well crystallised silicates instead of clay
minerals. Under otherwise similar conditions, the reactivity is lower than in the first case and there is a
high probability that dust formation will occur in the preparation and burning process.
¨ Contrary to the above cases is the combination of pure limestone with pure clay. To get a close
contact between lime and silicate, both components have to be ground finely and homogenised
intensively. Depending on the type of clay minerals, the mixes can be more or less reactive,
¨ A further mix type is the combination of relatively pure limestone, argillaceous limestone and
sandstone. Quartz introduced by the sandstone will decrease the grindability and the burnability to some
extent. Problems may occur when less reactive minerals are present in the other two components.
Rock combinations actually used can easily be related to this series of mix types. The situation becomes
more complicated when additions like pyrite ash, iron ore or bauxite are used.
4.2 Comparison of Raw Mix with Standard Specifications
Any raw mix composition has to be compared with the locally applied standard specifications in order to
evaluate potential conformity. As an example, Table 48 compares two analyses of typical Portland
cements with the ASTM-specifications for the five main types of Portland cement, whereby these types
are designated as follows:

Type I Ordinary Portland cement

Type II Moderate sulphate resistance or moderate heat of hydration
Type III High early strength
Type IV Low heat of hydration
Type V High sulphate resistance

Table 48 Raw mix composition and specification.

clinker
composition chemical requirements according to
ASTM specifications for type:
I II I II III IV V
Loss on
ignition 0.43 0.69 <3.0 <3.0 <3.0 <2.5 <3.0
SiO2 20.8 22.8 >21.0
Al2O3 6.0 3.8 <6.0
Fe2O3 2.5 4.4 <6.0
CaO 66.7 65.2
MgO 1.4 2.2 <6.0 <6.0 <6.0 <6.0 <6.0
So3 * 0.52 0.16 <3.0 <3.5 <3.0 <3.5 <4.0 <2.3 <2.3
K2O 0.80 0.39
NA2O 0.20 0.30
Mn2O3 0.50 0.05
P2O5 0.16 0.07
TiO2 0.27 0.26
Cl 0.01 0.01
Total 99.84 100.33
Silica
ratio 2.4 2.9
Alumina
ratio 2.4 0.9
Lime
saturation 99.6 93.4
C3S 59.9 65.1 <35
C2S 14.4 16.2 >40
C3A 11.7 2.8 <8 <15 <7 <5
C4AF 7.6 12.7 <20 **

* depending on C3A content ** C4AF + 2 C3A

It is obvious in Table 48 that mix I conforms to the specifications for type I (ordinary Portland cement) and
type III (high early strength), but not for the other types.
Mix II conforms to all cement types except type IV (low heat of hydration).
If a composition of a potential raw mix does not meet the specifications for a particular type of cement, the
following measures have to be weighed:
¨ Modification of proportioning criteria (lime saturation factor, silica ratio, C3A- or Al2O3 content,
etc.)
¨ Selection of necessary corrective materials (silica sand, etc.)
¨ Replacement of components (replacement of an alumina rich claystone by a silica-rich material
for production of ASTM type IV and V cements, etc.)
¨ Replacement of the selected fuel type or fuel quality (coal with little ash instead of coal with a high
ash content, if the coal ash composition becomes a critically influencing parameter, etc.)
Influence of minor ("deleterious") elements
The main influencing effect of the so-called deleterious constituents or elements on preparation and
production is discussed in chapter 4.4.2. The following deals only with limits and effects of these
constituents in the cement raw mix. Under normal circumstances, the following ranges and limits are to be
expected:
Table 49 Deleterious constituents in cement raw mixes

deleterious
constituents "normal" range
%
(clinker basis) limits
%
(clinker basis) remarks
Alkalis:
K20 0,5 - 0,8 0,6 for low-alkali
Na2O 0,2 - 0,4 as Na2O clinker
MgO 1 - 3 5-6 according to local specifications
SO3 0,2 - 1,0 1 - 1,5 higher SO3 in clinker reduces quantity of gypsum to be added
P2O5 0,0 .. - 0,3 0,5 - 0,8
Cl 0,01 - 0,03
(0,01 - 0,1) depending on and determining the process
F 0,01 - 0,1 air pollution
Cr2O3 0,01 - 0,04 dermatitis
Fe2O3 3 - 5 0,3 for white cement production

These limits should not be regarded as isolated figures but rather as part of a multi-component system
(including contributions from the fuel). Particular attention should be given to the systems of:
K2O ----- Na2O ----- SO3
K2O ----- Na2O ----- Cl
whereby an effort should be made to achieve equalised alkali sulphur balance in order to prevent
problems in the kiln system.
Only a few deleterious constituents are limited by specifications, e.g. the MgO and the total alkali-content
(for low-alkali clinker). The others are not specified (limited) but practical experience with processing and
quality requirements of the product (clinker/cement) dictate their quantitative limits.
4.3 Assessment of the Mineralogical Composition of Cement Raw Mixes.
A routinely performed assessment of a raw mix includes as a very important part the examination of the
mineralogical composition (Table 50).
Table 50 Mineralogical assessment of raw mix

Minerals Effects on technology

Aragonite (CaCO3) dry grinding ® coating in the mill and high
power consumption
Quartz (SiO2) grinding ® abrasion, wear and high
power consumption
burning ® impairs burnability
Feldspar burning ® impairs burnability,
low reactivity
Clay minerals:
Montmorillonite preparation ® water absorption,
Illite stickiness
Kaolinite burning ® improved burnability
Chlorite dust production ® reduced dust prod.
Mica coating properties ® facilitates coating
Palygorskite
Minerals of good crystallinity reactivity low, require more energy for transformation
Minerals of low crystallinity reactivity high, less energy necessary for transformation
4.4 Assessment of Raw Mixes with regard to Cement Production and Choice of Process
As discussed previously, the properties of the raw materials, i.e. raw mixes, largely influence the choice of
process in general, and the various stages of production. Tables 51 and 52 indicate the most significant
relations and functions.
Table 51 Significance of raw mix properties in cement production. (Compare also Table 51 p. 5/3
referring to raw material properties).

Aspects of
production Raw mix properties
Quarrying
Crushing
Transport
Storage
Grinding see Table 40
Slurry preparation clay mineral content, fineness
Drying clay mineral content, porosity
Homogenising chemical and mineralogical variability
Nodulising clay mineral content
Dewatering clay mineral, slurry characteristics(filtration)
Burnability mineralogical composition, fineness,
degree of weathering, intergrowth
and size of rock fragments
Dust formation
mineralogical composition
crystallinity
Coating formation chemical composition

It becomes obvious that the clay mineral content is of paramount importance form many aspects of
production.
Table 52 Summarises the most important raw mix properties influencing the choice of process.

Raw mix properties Related features WET

PROCESS DRY
PROCESS
moisture content clay mineral content, porosity high low
plasticity, stickiness clay mineral content high low
homogeneity chemical, physical and mineralogical variability poor high
chemical characteristics chemical composition regarding alkalis,. sulphur, chloride, etc. (contents) high
low

Table 52 only summarises raw mix aspects. However, other factors, e.g.
¨ seasonal fluctuations of moisture content
¨ transport, haulage etc.
are, of course, also determining factors in the choice of process.
4.5 Evaluation of Laboratory Test Results
The steps which are regarded as the final part of a mix design, are preparation, examination and
evaluation of test results produced in a laboratory.
4.5.1 Preparation
The proper preparation of laboratory raw mixes for testing is the prerequisite for reliable test results and
subsequent evaluation.
It is as important as sampling and it should, therefore, be emphasised that both these processes have to
be carried out under observation of strictly defined rules and controls.
4.5.2 Significance of Laboratory Investigations
The characteristics and behaviour of a cement raw material or mix during the various stages of production
can never be predicted on the basis of the test results and findings of laboratory investigations alone.
Laboratory testing has the disadvantage that many influencing and technologically important parameters
such as kiln atmosphere, industrial preparation, etc., can be neither simulated nor reproduced on a
laboratory scale. Laboratory produced test results, however, permit the recognition and interpretation of
tendencies, whereby a broad variety of individual findings assures a more reliable final evaluation. It is
thus recommendable to conduct a series of tests, the results of which can be used to support and control
each individual finding. For instance, when the filtration properties of a cement slurry have to be
assessed, mineralogical/chemical investigations grain size distribution tests, rheological tests on slurry
and specific filtration tests should be conducted rather than a specific filtration test only. The same idea is
applicable for all the other assessments of technological properties such as burnability characteristics,
grindability properties, etc.
In order to guarantee that the laboratory results correspond as closely as possible to the findings of
industrial practice, the design of the laboratory testing methods and other aspects such as limits,
reproducibility, etc. should periodically be checked and compared.
4.5.3 Summary of Laboratory Tests
The following tests are available and normally applied in the cement industry (Table 53).
Table 53 Laboratory tests

Material aspects Test designation Limits, reproducibility, practice relevance

Stickiness soil tests
Burnability burnability test tendencies only, but good practice relevance
Grindability grindability test quantitative estimate of kWh/t requirements
Volatility of circulating elements volatility test quantitative estimate of primary volatility in various
atmospheres
Coating behaviour brick selection coating test tendencies only, acceptable practice relevance
Filterability filtration test, testing of slurry rheology quantitative estimate of key-factors quantitative
assessment of rheology
Nodulisability granulation test, thermo-shock test strength test tendencies only, practice relevance
acceptable

Normally these technological tests are supported by:

¨ chemical analysis (highly accurate)
¨ mineralogical analysis (semi-quantitative)
¨ grain-size analysis (accurate)

Program for Optimal Raw Mix Design

1. MIXOPT
1.1 OPTIMAL RAW MIX DESIGN ON PERSONAL COMPUTER
2. PROGRAM FOR OPTIMAL RAW MIX DESIGN
2.1 FACILITIES

1. MIXOPT
1.1 OPTIMAL RAW MIX DESIGN ON PERSONAL COMPUTER
MIXOPT is a comprehensive program for the optimal design of raw mixes and determination of product
characteristics. It is tailored to the specific needs of the cement industry and offers a wide range of
applications in the field of raw meal preparation and product design:
¨ Up to 9 components may be included to determine a raw mix of desired characteristics.
¨ Fixed values or ranges may be set for chemical (e.g. Na2O-equivalent) and mineralogical (e.g.
C3A) constraints of product characteristics.
¨ The component quantities can also be restricted. This might be necessary in case of limited
availability or for fuel ash.
¨ Lowest cost product is determined within given product constraints if costs of components are
entered
¨ Alternatively to cost optimisation, optimisation or minimisation of a particular chemical component
is possible.
¨ Blending of materials or determination of raw meal, clinker and cement characteristics can be
accomplished apart from raw mix optimisations.
¨ Program includes data base and print facilities.
Typical MIXOPT applications are illustrated on the following pages.
The knowledge required to operate the programs can quickly be acquired. Dialogue, window menu
selection, and user's help facilities make it very user-friendly. Previous computer knowledge is not
required.
The program or further information is provided by:
Holcim Group Support Ltd.
Technical Centre Materials Division
5113 Holderbank
Switzerland
or
Holcim Group Support Ltd.
2310 Lakeshore Road W.
Mississauga
Ontario
Canada LSJ 1K2
2. PROGRAM FOR OPTIMAL RAW MIX DESIGN
2.1 FACILITIES
¨ BLENDING OF COMPONENTS
¨ DETERMINATION OF PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS
· Raw Max
· Clinker
· Cement
¨ RAW MIX DESIGN WITH UP TO 9 COMPONENTS
· Fixed Value or Range for Product Constraints of:
· Limitation of Component Concentrations
· Input Specification such as:
· Reference to Moist or Dry Components
¨ COST OPTIMISATION OF PRODUCT
¨ DATA BASE FACILITIES FOR:
· Components
· Product Constraints (e.g. for different clinker types)
· Calculated Product
¨ PRINT FACILITIES
· Single Mix Design
· Compilation of Mixes
¨ GENERAL USER FACILITIES
· Insertion and Copying Mode
· Title Specification
· File Clearing
· Help
Fig. 1 Blending of Components.

Fig. 2 Product Characteristics.

Fig. 3 Mix Optimisation.

Fig. 4 Compilation of Results.

Fig. 5 Storage of Data, Constraints and Results.

C14 - Slurry Preparation

Rheology 'Slurry preparation'

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Ideal solids
1.2 Liquids
2. LAW OF VISCOSITY
2.1 Shear stress
2.2 Shear rate
2.3 Dynamic viscosity
2.4 Kinematic viscosity
3. FLOW AND VISCOSITY CURVES
3.1 Viscosity parameters
3.2 Flow Curve
3.3 Viscosity Curve
4. SUBSTANCES
4.1 Newtonian liquids
4.2 Non-Newtonian liquids
4.3 Rheonexy
5. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
5.1 Laminar flow
5.2 Steady state flow
5.3 No slippage
5.4 Samples must be homogeneous
5.5 No chemical or physical changes in the sample during testing
5.6 No elasticity
6. ROTATIONAL VISCOMETERS
6.1 Indication of different models

Additional Information to Cement Course Lection "Slurry preparation"

1. INTRODUCTION
Several aspects to describe the slurry properties are known, some of them are mentioned below:
¨ Flow behaviour
¨ Granulometry
¨ GrindabiIity
¨ Chemistry
¨ Pumpability
¨ Slump
In this paper the aspects of rheology are considered. Rheology describes the deformation of a body under
the influence of stresses.
Ideal solids deform elastically. The energy of deformation is fully recovered when the stresses are
removed.

Ideal fluids deform irreversibly - they flow. The energy of deformation is dissipated into the fluids in the
form of heat, and it cannot be recovered just by releasing stresses.

Real bodies are neither ideal solids nor ideal fluids.

Only a few liquids of technical or practical importance come in their behaviour close to ideal liquids. The
majority of liquids show rheologically a behaviour that classifies them to a region between the liquids and
the solids: they are in varying extents both elastic and viscous and may therefore be named
"viscoelastic".
1.1 Ideal solids
Ideal Solids subjected to shear stresses react with strain.

The Young’s modulus in this equation is a correlating factor linked mainly to the chemical-physical nature
of the solid involved. It defines the resistance of the solid against deformation.
1.2 Liquids
The resistance of a fluid against any irreversible positional change of its volume elements is called
viscosity. To maintain flow in a fluid, energy must be added continuously.
Viscometry deals specifically with the measurement of the flow behaviour of liquids including those
showing a viscoelastic behaviour.
1.2.1 Flow Models
Shear induced flow in liquids can occur in 4 model cases:
1.2.1.1 Flow between two parallel flat plates
One plate moves and the other is stationary.
Flow between two parallel flat plates

1.2.1.2 Flow in the annular gap between two concentric cylinders

One of the two is assumed to be stationary while the other can rotate. This flow can be understood as the
displacement of concentric layers sitting inside of each other. A Flow of this type is realised in rotational
viscometers with coaxial cylinder sensor systems.
Flow in the annular gap between two concentric cylinders

1.2.1.3 Flow through pipes

A difference of pressure between their in and outlets forces the liquid to flow with a parabolic flow speed
distribution across the diameter. This resembles a telescopic displacement of tube-like liquid layers sliding
over each other.
Flow through pipes

1.2.1.4 Flow between tow parallel plates or between a come and a plate
When one of the two is stationary and the other rotates. This model resembles twisting a roll of coins
causing coins to be displaced by a small angle with respect to adjacent coins. This type of flow is realised
in rotational viscometers with plate/plate or cone/Plate sensor systems.
Flow between two parallel plates or between a come and a plate

2. LAW OF VISCOSITY
To measure the viscosity of liquids requires first the definition of the parameters which are involved in the
flow. Then one has to find suitable test conditions which allow the measurement of flow properties
objectively and reproducibly.
Isaac Newton was the first to find the basic law of viscometry describing the flow behaviour of an ideal
liquid:
t=hxD
The parallel plate model helps to define both shear stress and shear rate:
2.1 Shear stress
A force F applied to an area A being the interface between the upper plate and the liquid underneath
leads to a flow in the liquid layer. The velocity of flow that can be maintained for a given force will be
controlled by the internal resistance of the liquid, i.e. by its viscosity.

2.2 Shear rate

The shear stress t causes the liquid to flow in a special pattern. A maximum flow speed Vmax. will be
found at the upper boundary.
The speed drops across the gap size y down to Vmin = 0 at the lower boundary contacting the stationary
plate. Laminar flow means that infinitesimally thin liquid layers slide on top of each other, similar to cards
in a deck-of-cards. One laminar layer is then displaced with respect to the adjacent ones by a fraction of
the total displacement encountered in the liquid between both plates.
In its general form the shear rate D is defined by a differential:

In case of a linear speed drop across the gap the differential in the equation above can be approximated
by

2.3 Dynamic viscosity

Solving above equation for the dynamic viscosity h gives:

The unit of dynamic viscosity h is the "Pascal-second" [PA x s]. Often used is also the unit "milli Pascal x
second" [mPa x s].
1 Pa x s = 1000 mPa x s
It is worthwhile noting that the previously widely used units of "cementPoise" (cP) of the dynamic viscosity
h are interchangeable with the (mPa x s).
1 mPa x s = 1 cP
Typical viscosity values at 20° C:

Substance mPa x s
petrol 0,65
water 1,0
mercury 1,5
blood (at 27°C) 4 - 15
honey »104
bitumen»108

2.4 Kinematic viscosity

When Newtonian liquids are tested by means of capillary viscometers, viscosity is determined in units of
kinematic viscosity v. The force of gravity is acting as the force driving the liquid sample through the
capillary. The density of the sample is one other additional parameter.
Kinematic viscosity v and dynamic viscosity h are linked:

v = Kinematic viscosity given in the units of

Former units of kinematic viscosity were:
"Stokes" [St] or "centi Stokes" [cSt].
1 St = 100 cSt.

3. FLOW AND VISCOSITY CURVES

3.1 Viscosity parameters
Viscosity describing the physical property of a liquid to resist shear induced flow may depend on up to 5
independent parameters:
h = f (S, T, P, D, t)
(S) This parameter denotes the physical-chemical nature of a substance being the primary influence on
viscosity, i.e. whether the liquid is water, oil, honey, etc.
(T) This parameter is linked to the temperature of the substance. Viscosity is heavily influenced by
changes of temperature. As an example: The viscosity of mineral oils drops typically by 10% for a
temperature increase of only 1°C.
(P) This parameter "Pressure" is not experienced as often as the previous ones. Pressure compresses
fluids and thus increased intermolecular resistance. Liquids are compressible under the influence of very
high pressures - similar to gases but very much less. Increases of pressure tend to increase the viscosity.
(D) Parameter "shear rate D" is a decisive factor influencing the viscosity of very many liquids. Increasing
shear rates may decrease or increase the viscosity.
(t) Parameter "time" denotes the phenomenon that the viscosity of some substances, usually dispersions,
depends on the previous shear history, i.e. on the length of time the substance was subjected to
continuous shear or was allowed to rest before being tested.
3.2 Flow Curve
The correlation between shear stress and shear rate defining the flow behaviour of a liquid is graphically
displayed in a diagram of t on the ordinate and D on the abscissa. This diagram is called the "Flow
Curve".
The most simple type of a flow curve is shown below. The viscosity is assumed to be constant and
independent of D.
Simple Flow Curve

3.3 Viscosity Curve

Another diagram is very common: h is plotted versus D. This diagram is called the "Viscosity Curve":
Viscosity Curve

Viscosity measurements lead always first to the flow curve. Its results can then be rearranged
mathematically to allow plotting the corresponding viscosity curve. The different types of flow curves have
their counterparts in types of viscosity curves.
4. SUBSTANCES
4.1 Newtonian liquids
Newton assumed that the graphical equivalent of his equation for an ideal liquid would be a straight line
starting at the origin of the flow curve and would climb with a slope of an angle a. Any point on this line
defined pairs of values for t and D. Dividing one by the other gives a value of h. This value can also be
defined as the tangent of the angle a.
Because the flow curve for an ideal liquid is straight, the ratio of all pairs of t and D-values belonging to
this line is a constant. This means, that h is not effected by changes of shear rate. All liquids for which
this statement is true are called "Newtonian".
Examples: water, mineral oils, bitumen, molasses, etc.
4.2 Non-Newtonian liquids
All other liquids not showing this simple "ideal" flow behaviour are called "non-Newtonian". They
outnumber the ideal liquids by far.
Flow and Viscosity Curves for non-newtonian liquids

4.2.1 Pseudoasticity
Very many liquids show drastic viscosity decreases when the shear rates are increased from low to high
levels.
Technically this can mean that for a given force or pressure more material can be made to flow, or the
energy can be reduced to sustain a given flow rate. Materials which are thinning due to increasing shear
rates are called "pseudoplastic". Very many substances such as emulsions, suspensions, or dispersions
belong to this group.
4.2.1.1 Mechanism Leading to Pseudoplasticity
4.2.1.1.1 Entropy effect
Many liquid products that seem homogeneous throughout are in fact composed of several ingredients:
particles of irregular shape or droplets of one liquid are dispersed in another liquid. On the other hand
there are polymer solutions with long entangled and looping molecular chains. At rest all of these
materials will maintain an irregular internal order and correspondingly a sizable internal resistance against
flow, i.e. a high viscosity.
With increasing shear rates matchstick like particles suspended in the liquid will be turned lengthwise into
the direction of the flow. Chaintype molecules in a melt or in a solution can disentangle, stretch, and orient
parallel to the driving force. Particle or molecular alignments allow particles and molecules to slip past
each other more easily and this shows up as reduces viscosity.
4.2.1.1.2 Disintegration
Shear can also induce irregular lumps of aggregated primary filler particles to break up and this also helps
a material with such a filler to flow faster at a given shear stress.
4.2.1.1.3 Reversibility
For most liquid materials the shear thinning effect is reversible - often with some time lag - i.e. the liquids
regain their original high viscosity when the shearing is slowed down or is even terminated: the chain-type
molecules return to their natural state of non-orientation, deformed droplets return to ball-shape and the
aggregates reform due to the Brownian motion.
Reversibility of shear thinning effect

Shear thinning of pseudoplastic liquids is not uniform over the range of very low to very high shear rates:
Non-Uniform Shear thinning of pseudoplastic liquids

At the low shear rate range the Brownian movement of molecules keeps all molecules or particles at
random in spite of initial effects of shear orientation. At very low shear rates pseudoplastic liquids behave
similarly to Newtonian liquids having a defined viscosity independent of shear rate. Then follows a shear
rate change when the shear rate induced molecular or particle orientation by far exceeds the randomising
effect of the Brownian movement: the viscosity drops drastically. Finally the viscosity approaches a finite
level. Going to even higher shear rates cannot cause further shear thinning: The optimum of perfect
orientation has already been reached. In the low and in the high shear rate ranges - called the first and
second Newtonian ranges - the viscosity even of non-Newtonian liquids is more or less independent of
shear rate.
4.2.2 Dilatancy
There is one other type of material characterised by a shear rate dependent viscosity: "dilatant"
substances increase their viscosity whenever shear rates increase.
Dilatant flow behaviour is found for example in highly concentrated suspensions in which solid particles
are mixed with liquids such as plasticizers. The particles are densely packed and the amount of plasticizer
added is just sufficient to fill the voids between the particles. At rest or at low coating speeds the
plasticizer fully lubricates the particles surfaces and thus allows an easy positional change of particles
when forces are applied: this suspension behaves as a liquid at low shear rates. At higher shear rates
particles will wedge others apart causing a general volume increase of the plastisol. At this stage the
plasticizer's share of the total volume decreases. No longer being sufficient to fill all voids and to keep
particle surfaces fully lubricated the plastisol becomes more viscous.
Dilatancy in liquids is rare.
4.2.3 Plasticity
It describes pseudoplastic liquids which additionally feature a yield point. Plastic liquids can be classified
with good reasoning to belong to both liquids and solids. They are mostly dispersions which at rest can
build up an intermolecular/interparticle network of binding forces (polar forces, van der Waals forces,
etc.). These forces restrict positional change of volume elements and give the substance a solid character
with an infinitely high viscosity. Forces acting from outside, if smaller than those forming the network, will
deform the shape of this solid substance elastically. Only when the outside forces become so big that
they can overcome the network forces - surpass the threshold shear stress calls "yield point" - does the
network collapse. Volume elements can now change positions irreversibly: the solid turns into a flowing
liquid.
Typical substances showing yield points: oil well drilling muds, greases, lipstick masses, toothpastes.
Plastic liquids have flow curves which intercept the ordinate not at the origin, but the yield point level of t0.
4.2.4 Thixotropy
This term describes a rheological phenomenon of great industrial importance. It calls for some
explanations in simplified terms of an otherwise often very complex molecular of particle interaction:
In pseudoplastic liquids thinning under the influence of increasing shear depended mainly on the
particle/molecular orientation or alignment in the direction of flow. This orientation will again be lost just as
fast as orientation came about in the first place.
Plotting a flow curve with a uniformly increasing shear rate - the "up curve" - one will find that the "down-
curve" plotted with uniformly decreasing shear rates will just be superimposed on the "up-curve".
In the flow curve the "up-curve" is no longer directly underneath the "down-curve".
Flow and Viscosity Curves demonstrating Thixotropy

The hysteresis now encountered between these two curves surrounds an area "A" that defines the
magnitude of this property called thixotropy. This area has the dimension of "energy" related to the
volume of the sample sheared which indicates that energy is required to break down the thixotropic
structure.
4.2.4.1 Mechanism
It is typical for many dispersions that they not only show this potential for orientation but additionally for a
particle/molecule-inter-action. This will lead to bonds creating a three-dimensional network structure
which is often calls a "gel". In comparison to the forces within particles or molecules, these bonds - they
are often hydrogen or ionic bonds - are relatively weak: they rupture easily, when the dispersions is
subjected to shear over an extended period of time.
Thixotropy Mechanism

When the network is disrupted the viscosity drops until it asymptotically reaches the lowest possible level
for a given constant shear rate. This minimum viscosity level describes the "sol"-status of the dispersion.
A thixotropic liquid is defined by its potential to have its structure reformed, when the substance is allowed
to rest for an extended period of time. The change of a gel to a sol and of a sol to a gel is reproducible
any number of times.
4.3 Rheonexy
Rheopective liquids are characterised by a viscosity increase related to the duration of shear. When
these liquids are allowed to rest they will recover the original - i.e. the low - viscosity level. Rheopexy and
thixotropy are opposite flow properties.
5. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The mathematical treatment of the physical problem of a fluid being deformed under the influence of
forces will lead to very complex differential equations which in their general form cannot be solved. The
problem can only lead to an acceptable mathematical solution when test conditions are kept within the
framework of these restrictions the Newton's law of viscometry is valid.
The measurement of viscosity requires test conditions providing:
5.1 Laminar flow
The applied shear must lead only to laminar flow. In as much as laminar flow prevents exchange of
volume elements between layers samples must be homogeneous to start with. A homogenising effect on
heterogeneous samples during testing cannot be expected or permitted.
5.2 Steady state flow
In Newton's law of viscometry the shear stress applied was correlated to shear rate. The shear stress
meant was the one that was just sufficient to sustain a constant flow rate. The additional energy required
to accelerate or to decelerate the flow cannot be accounted for in the equation.
5.3 No slippage
The shear stress applied must be transmitted from the moving plate across the liquid boundary layer into
the liquid. In case that adherence between the moving plate and the liquid is insufficient to transmit the
shear stress - the moving plate slips above the non-moving liquid sample - any test results will be
meaningless. Problems with slippage often arise with fats and greases.
5.4 Samples must be homogeneous
This requirement means that the sample must react to shear uniformly throughout. If samples are
dispersions or suspensions then all ingredients, droplets, or bubbles have to be very small with respect to
the thickness of the liquid layer sheared.
In viscometry really homogeneous samples are rare. If dispersions are considered homogeneous
because every volume element contains an identical share of all the ingredients, then problems can still
occur when the increasing shear encountered during the measurements leads to phase separation, i.e.
the dispersion separates into a liquid and a solid layer.
5.5 No chemical or physical changes in the sample during testing
Changes due to processes such as hardening or degradation would be secondary influences on viscosity.
5.6 No elasticity
Samples should be purely viscous. Very many samples such as polymer melts or polymer solutions show
a viscous and an elastic response to shear stresses or shear rates. When the latter becomes sizable test
results can no longer be evaluated in terms of viscosity.
Comparison between Viscous and Elastic Liquids

In rotational viscometers with coaxial cylinder sensor systems for some samples the elastic response to
shear may be so great as to "suck" all the substance out of the annular gap.
Elasticity is a characteristic property of a sample which cannot be subdued by any means. When
measuring the viscosity of viscoelastic samples, the maximum of shear rate must be limited to keep the
normal stresses from becoming too large so that they ruin the test results.
6. ROTATIONAL VISCOMETERS
6.1 Indication of different models
The principle of rotational viscometers with coaxial cylinder sensor systems and with cone-and-plate
sensor systems allows the design of excellent and versatile absolute viscometers. The range of rotational
viscometers on the world market varies widely in sophistication and in price. The rheological criteria and
boundary conditions mentioned before are being used to grade types of instruments and explain design
features and resulting areas of application.
One might imagine that the coaxial cylinder sensor systems for rotational viscometers result from bending
both flat plates of the Newton's parallel-plate-model into an inner and outer cyliner. A liquid sample filling
the annular gap between the two cylinders can be exposed to shear. Conditions will lead to laminar flow
and allow a mathematical treatment of the problem.
6.1.1 Preselect: t look for D
The inner or the outer cylinder is subjected to a defined shear stress or a defined torque while the other
cylinder is held at rest. One can now measure the rate of rotation or shear rate resulting.
6.1.2 Preselect D: look for t
The inner or the outer cylinder rotates at a defined rotational speed while the other cylinder is held at rest.
One can now measure the resulting shear stress or torque. This is the most common design for rotational
viscometers. This type of viscometers can come in two versions:
6.1.2.1 Searle system
The inner cylinder - often called the "rotor" - rotates at a defined speed. The outer cylinder - often called
the "cup" - is held at rest. The rotating inner cylinder forces the liquid in the annular gap to flow. The
resistance of the liquid being sheared between the stationary and rotating boundaries results in a
viscosity related torque working on the inner cylinder which counteracts the torque provided by the drive
motor. A torque sensing element - normally a spring that twists as the result of the torque -. is placed
between the drive motor and the shaft of the inner cylinder. The twist of the torque spring is a direct
measure of the viscosity of the sample tested.
Most viscometer models made world-wide are Searle types. One reason for this tendency is that the good
temperature control required for viscosity measurements is more easily accomplished when the outer
cylinder does not rotate. Searle type viscometers are limited when low viscous samples have to be tested
at high rotor speed. Centrifugal forces affecting the liquid can turn laminar flow to non-laminar flow and
eventually to a fully developed turbulence.
Searle Viscometers

6.1.2.2 Couette system

The outer cylinder rotates at a defined speed. It forces the liquid sample in the annular gap to flow. The
resistance of the liquid against being sheared transmits a viscosity related torque onto the inner cylinder,
which would induce it also to rotate. This torque is measured by determining just what counteracting
torque is required to hold the inner cylinder at stand still. Couette type viscometers are more stable with
respect to centrifugal forces.
Couette Viscometers
Materials Technology Slurry preparation
Memorandum Nr.: NlA 92/41 /E
Author: A. Edlinger
Date: April 24, 1992 (tg)
Order Nr.: 3026
1. INTRODUCTION
2. RHEOLOGY
2.1 Types of viscosity
2.2 Slurry Thinners
2.3 Viscosimetry
3. PRODUCTION COST ANALYSIS
3.1 Technical functions
3.2 Optimisation

1. INTRODUCTION
Slurry preparation has technically and economically an influence in the so-called "Wet Process" and
"Semi-wet" Process of clinker burning.
Economical Considerations
The Holcim Group operates about 1/3 wet process of all plants world-wide (about 70 plants).
Subject of "Slurry preparation" therefore, has an outstanding importance on the economical situation of
the whole group.
It is anticipated that optimisation and automatic control of slurry properties will reduce the water content at
a minimum of 5% slurry as a long time average. The reduction will be in the range of 5%, as a long-term.
A reduction of 5% slurry water content saves about 400 kJ/kg cli. For the production of 11 Mio t of clinker
per year this translates into a total reduction of 150'000 t coal per year which means about 10 Mio US$
saving potential per year for the whole group.
Wet Process
The wet process in the cement industry consists of finely grinding the raw materials, such as limestone,
marl and clay with water in ball mills.
The fine slurry thus formed, which usually contains between 30 - 40% water, is then dried during the
subsequent burning process in a long "wet" kiln in the so-called “Chain zone".
A typical plant layout (Milburn Cement, New Zealand) is shown in the following picture:
Fig. 1 Milburn Cement Plant.

In a wet-process kiln, a reduction in slurry moisture results in a reduction in heat use, and since both the
amount of water vapour and the amount of combustion products are decreased, this also results in lower
exhaust fan power use. The water content of the slurry also influences the demand on pumping energy.
As a result of price increase in the past years of various types of energy carriers such as oil and coal,
great efforts are being made to use as little water as possible in the grinding of raw slurries.
A minimum amount of water must be added because the slurry is transported by pumps and must
therefore, demonstrate a sufficient flowability.
Process features
The advantages of the wet and semi-wet process are:
¨ low investment (fixed costs)
¨ simple and stabile process
¨ good compatibility with waste burning
¨ higher uniformity and quality of clinker
¨ simple operation and maintenance of the kiln.
The disadvantage is of course the higher thermal energy demand compared with the dry processes.
Slurry thinning
There are several possibilities for reducing slurry moisture while still maintaining pumpability. The most
commonly used method is the addition of small amounts of viscosity-reducing agents. Other possibilities
include carbonating the slurry with kiln exhaust gas, coarser grinding of the raw, material, preheating the
slurry and, if alternative raw material is available, substituting shale for clay.
Target values
Slurry preparation controls following items:
¨ Heat consumption due to water evaporation
¨ Consumption of mechanical energy due to
¨ evaporated steam and waste gas ventilation
¨ pumping the raw slurry, etc.
¨ Dimensioning of Piping/Filtration processes
¨ Evaluation of pumping system
¨ Mixing/Blending/Feeding
¨ Sedimentation/Flotation
¨ Corrosion
¨ Filtration (semi-wet process)

Several aspects to describe the slurry properties are known, some important ones are mentioned below:
¨ Water content
¨ Mineralogy
¨ Flow behaviour
¨ Granulometry
¨ Grindability
¨ Chemistry
¨ Pumpability
¨ Slump
¨ Specific grinding energy
2. RHEOLOGY
Rheology is the discipline describing the most important slurry property in a qualitative and quantitative
manner.
There are off-line (laboratory) and on-line (process control) methods available.
Rheology describes the deformation of a body under the influence of stresses.
Ideal solids deform elastically. The energy of deformation is fully recovered when the stresses are
removed.

Ideal fluids deform irreversibly - they flow. The energy of deformation is dissipated into the fluids in the
form of heat, and it cannot be recovered just by releasing stresses.

Real bodies are neither ideal solids nor ideal fluids.

In their behaviour only a few liquids of technical or practical importance come close to ideal liquids. The
majority of liquids show rheologically a behaviour that classifies them to a region between the liquids and
the solids: they are in varying extents both elastic and viscous and may there-fore, be named
"viscoelastic".
The resistance of a fluid against any irreversible positional change of its volume elements is called
viscosity. To maintain flow in a fluid, energy must be added continuously.
Viscometry deals specifically with the measurement of the flow behaviour of liquids including those
showing a viscoelastic behaviour.
Definition Viscosity
To measure the viscosity of liquids requires first the definition of the parameters which are involved in the
flow. Then one has to find suitable test conditions which allow the measurement of flow properties
objectively and reproducibly.
Isaac Newton was the first to find the basic law of viscosity describing the flow behaviour of an ideal
liquid:

t=hxD
h = Viscosity
t = Shear stress
D = Shear rate

The parallel plate model helps to define both shear stress and shear rate:
Fig. 2 Shear rates.

Shear stress
A force F applied to an area A being the interface between the upper plate and the liquid underneath
leads to a flow in the liquid layer. The velocity of flow that can be maintained for a given force will be
controlled by the internal resistance of the liquid, i.e. by its viscosity.

Shear rate
The shear stress r causes the liquid to flow in a special pattern. A maximum flow speed Vmax will be
found at the upper boundary.

The speed drops across the gap size y down to Vmin = 0 at the lower boundary contacting the stationary
plate. Laminar flow means that infinitesimally thin liquid layers slide on top of each other, similar to cards
in a deck-of-cards. One laminar layer is then displaced with respect to the adjacent ones by a fraction of
the total displacement encountered in the liquid between both plates.
In its general form the shear rate D is defined by a differential:

In case of a linear speed drop across the gap the differential in the equation above can be approximated
by

Dynamic viscosity
Solving above equation for the dynamic viscosity gives:

The unit of dynamic viscosity is the "Pascal-second" [Pa x s].

Viscosity Parameters
The viscosity of a slurry is a function of various factors
Viscosity describing the physical property of a liquid to resist shear induced flow may depend on up to 5
independent parameters:
h = f (S, T, P, D, t)
(S) This most important parameter denotes the physical-chemical nature of a substance being the primary
influence on viscosity (see also next pages "Material parameter").
(T) This parameter is linked to the temperature of the suspension. Viscosity is heavily influenced by
changes of temperature.
(P) This parameter npressure" is not experienced as often as the previous ones. Pressure compresses
fluids and thus increase intermolecular re-sistance. Liquids are compressible under the influence of very
high pressures - similar to gases but very much less. Increases of pressure tend to increase the viscosity.
(D) Parameter Ushear rate D" is a decisive factor influencing the viscosity of many liquids. Increasing
shear rates may decrease or increase the viscosity.
(t) Parameter "time" denotes the phenomenon that the viscosity of some sub-stances, usually
dispersions, depends on the previous shear history, i.e. on the length of time the substance was
subjected to continuous shear or was allowed to rest before being tested.

Material Parameter (S)

These parameter (S) is to be differentiated into the following sub-parameters:
A) Water Content
Approximately 30% of all Holcim-Group plants (corresponding to approximately 35% of the total clinker
production) are employing the wet-process for cement manufacture.
Fig. 3 Water content.

Generally it can be pointed out that the higher the water content, the lower the viscosity.
There are little restrictions with respect to the quality of the utilised water, i.e. water of many origin/source
and quality can be used, such as:
¨ tap water
¨ industrial water/industrial waste liquids
¨ sewage water
¨ slightly brackish water.
The only quality aspects which have to be controlled are:
¨ content of corrosive elements (C1, 0 )
¨ contents of harmful or poisoneous elements with regard to process, product and waste gases
(C1, F, B, organic substances, etc.)
¨ content of smelling compounds in the waste water, etc.

B) Slurry Fineness
The fineness of slurry fluctuates in a wide range as demonstrated in the following diagram:
Fig. 4 Slurry Fineness.

The coarser the slurry fineness, the lower the viscosity.

On the average, cement raw slurries have the following fineness characteristics:

mesh sieve Micron Wet Process Dry Process

R 900 200 1 - 6% 0.5 - 2%
R 4900 90 5 - 30% 5 - 25%

C) Water content and Plastic clay

The relationship between slurry water-content and quantity of plastic clay minerals of some 25 cement
plants, is displayed in the following figure which indicates the inter-dependence of these two parameters.
Fig. 5 Water content and Plastic clay.

The replacement of clay minerals, for instance with fly ash of thermal power plants, can reduce the water
content significant by increased slurry flowability.
Other factors such as degree of fineness and grain size distribution of the raw mix, etc., also influence the
slurry water-content, but the plastic clay mineral-content seems to be predominant.

Viscosity Diagrams
Flow Curve
The correlation between shear stress and shear rate defining the flow behaviour of a liquid is graphically
displayed in a diagram of T on the ordinate and D on the abscissa. This diagram is called the "Flow
Curve".
The most simple type of a flow curve is shown below. The viscosity is assumed to be constant and
independent of D.
Fig. 6 Flow Curve.

Viscosity Curve
Another diagram is very common: h is plotted versus D. This diagram is cal-led the " Viscosity Curve":
Fig. 7 Viscosity Curve.

Viscosity measurements lead always first to the flow curve. Its results can then be rearranged
mathematically to allow plotting the corresponding viscosity curve. The different types of flow curves have
their counterparts in types of viscosity curves.
2.1 Types of viscosity
Newtonian liquids
Newton assumed that the graphical equivalent of his equation for an ideal liquid would be a straight line
starting at the origin of the flow curve and would climb with a slope of an angle a. Any point on this line
defined pairs of values for t and D. Dividing one by the other gives a value of n. This value can also be
defined as the tangent of the angle a.
Because the flow curve for an ideal liquid is straight, the ratio of all pairs of t and D-values belonging to
this line is a constant. This means, that n is not effected by changes of shear rate. All liquids for which this
statement is true are called "Newtonian”.
Examples: water, mineral oils, bitumen, molasses, etc.

Non-Newtonian liquids
All other liquids not showing this simple "ideal" flow behaviour are called ''non-Newtonian”. They
outnumber the ideal liquids by far.
Fig. 8 Non-Newtonian liquids.

A) Pseudoplasticity
Many liquids show drastic viscosity decreases when the shear rates are increased from low to high levels.
Technically this can mean that for a given force or pressure, more material can be made to flow or the
energy can be reduced to sustain a given flow rate. Materials which are thinning due to increasing shear
rates are called "pseudoplastic”. Substances such as emulsions, suspensions, or dispersions belong to
this group.
Shear thinning of pseudoplastic liquids is not uniform over the range of very low to very high shear rates:
Fig. 9 Pseudoplasticity.

At the low shear rate range the Brownian movement of molecules keeps all molecules or particles at
random in spite of initial effects of shear orientation. At very low shear rates pseudoplastic liquids behave
similarly to Newtonian liquids having a defined viscosity independent of shear rate. Then follows a shear
rate change when the shear rate induced molecular or particle orientation by far exceeds the randomising
effect of the Brownian movement: the viscosity drops drastically. Finally the viscosity approaches a finite
level. Going to even higher shear rates cannot cause further shear thinning: The optimum of perfect
orientation has already been reached. In the low and high shear rate ranges - called the first and second
Newtonian ranges - the viscosity even of non-Newtonian liquids is more or less independent of shear rate.
B) Dilatancy
There is one other type of material characterised by a shear rate dependent viscosity: “dilatant"
substances increase their viscosity whenever shear rates increase.
Dilatant flow behaviour is found for example in highly concentrated suspensions in which solid particles
are mixed with liquids (sand slurry). The particles are densely packed and the amount of liquid added is
just sufficient to fill the voids between the particles. At rest or at low coating speeds the liquid fully
lubricates the particles surfaces and thus allows an easy positional change of particles when forces are
applied: this suspension behaves as a liquid at low shear rates. At higher shear rates particles will wedge
others apart causing a general volume increase. At this stage the liquids share of the total volume
decreases. No longer being sufficient to fill all voids and to keep particle surfaces fully lubricated the slurry
becomes more viscous.
Dilatancy in liquids is rare.
C) Plasticity
It describes pseudoplastic liquids which additionally feature a yield point.
Plastic liquids can be classified with good reasoning to belong to both liquids and solids. They are mostly
dispersions which at rest can build up an intermolecular/interparticle network of binding forces (polar
forces, van der Waals forces, etc.). These forces restrict positional change of volume elements and give
the substance a solid character with an infinitely high viscosity. Forces acting from outside, if smaller than
those forming the network, will deform the shape of this solid substance elastically. Only when the outside
forces become so big that they can overcome the network forces - surpass the threshold shear stress
calls "yield point" - does the network collapse. Volume elements can now change positions irreversibly:
the solid turns into a flowing liquid. Plastic liquids have flow curves which intercept the ordinate not at the
origin, but the yield point level of to.
D) Thixotropy
This term describes a rheological phenomenon of great industrial importance in the cement industry. It
calls for some explanations in simplified terms of an otherwise often very complex molecular of particle
interaction:
In pseudoplastic liquids thinning under the influence of increasing shear depended mainly on the
particle/molecular orientation or alignment in the direction of flow. This orientation will again be lost just as
fast as orientation came about in the first place.
Plotting a flow curve with a uniformly increasing shear rate - the "up-curve" - one will find that the "down-
curve" plotted with uniformly decreasing shear rates will just be superimposed on the "up-curve".
In the flow curve the "up-curve" is no longer directly underneath the “down-curve.
Fig. 10 Thixotropy.

The hysteresis now encountered between these two curves surrounds an area “A" that defines the
magnitude of this property called thixotropy. This area has the dimension of "energy" related to the
volume of the sample sheared, which indicates that energy is required to break down the thixotropic
structure.

Mechanism
It is typical for many dispersions that they not only show this potential for orientation but additionally for a
particle/molecule-inter-action. This will lead to bonds creating a three-dimensional network structure
which is often called a "gel". In comparison to the forces within particles or molecules, these bonds - they
are often hydrogen or ionic bonds - are relatively weak: they rupture easily, when the dispersions are
subjected to shear over an extended period of time.
Fig. 11 Mechanism.

When the network is disrupted the viscosity drops until it asymptotically reaches the lowest possible level
for a given constant shear rate. This minimum viscosity level describes the "sol"-status of the dispersion.
A thixotropic liquid is defined by its potential to have its structure reformed, when the substance is allowed
to rest for an extended period of time. The change of a gel to a sol and of a sol to a gel is reproducible
any number of times.
E) Rheopexy
Rheopective liquids are characterised by a viscosity increase related to the duration of shear. When these
liquids are allowed to rest they will recover the original - i.e. the low - viscosity level. Rheopexy and
thixotropy are opposite flow properties.
Slurry Flow Curve
A typical cement raw slurry flow curve is shown below.
This curve clearly demonstrates the plastic thixotrope characteristics of a typical cement raw slurry.
Fig. 12 Slurry Flow Curve.

2.2 Slurry Thinners

Very small additions of thinning agents have a marked reducing effect on the water content of a slurry.
However, a minimum fluidity and thus a minimum pumpability of the slurry should be maintained, in order
to prevent difficulties with thickening of slurry in the chain system.
Normally, the yield values of pumpable raw slurry range between 30 and 60 Pa with a respective slurry
water-content of 32 to 38%.
For a better understanding of the mechanism of slurry thinning effect, one of the many interaction models
is explained:
Fig. 13 Slurry Thinners.

The slurry particles consists of small flat plates. The areas are occupied with negative electronic change,
the corners are positively charged. Stable electrostatic bridges between areas and corners reduces the
flowability of the slurry .
Negatively charged thinners (e.g. polyelectrolyts) forms a protective layer around the positively charged
particle corners and lowers the slurry viscosity. In case of overdossage or wrong evaluated thinner the
opposite effect can occur: the polyelectrolyte forms bridges between the particles and increase the
stickiness of the slurry (flocculation).
Single thinning agents

Sodium salts Phosphates

hydroxide sodium or potassium metaphosphate
carbonate mono-sodium phosphate
monovinyl-sulfonate all-sodium phosphate
carboxylmethyl-cellulose tri-sodium phosphate
chloride sodium hexametaphosphate
oxalate sodium pyrophosphate
fluoride polyphosphoric acids
silicate (water glass)

Vegetable decomposition products Sulfite lye, lignin-sulfonate

peat and "boggy components" sulfite lye
peat extract sulfite alcohol slop
sulfite spirit slop
protein
tanning substances (extracts)
calcium ligno-sulfonate
lignin-sulfonate
Surfactants with acidic groups Organic acid salts
Polyacid salts citrate
polysilicic acids tartrate
polymolybdenic acids
polyborophosphoric acids

¨ Carbon dioxide
¨ Tensides
· anion-active
· non-ionogenic
· cation-active
Combinations of thinning agents
¨ Phosphates + sodium or calcium salts
· phosphate + sodium carbonate
· phosphate + sodium hydroxide
· phosphate + calcium hydroxide
¨ Water glass + soluble salts of humic or lignic acid
¨ Citrate + tartrate
¨ Carbon dioxide + sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP)
¨ Triethanolamine + gallic acid
¨ Sulfite lye + soda
Experience with Slurry Thinning
From tests on thinning of both industrial and laboratory raw slurries, the following conclusion can be
drawn :
¨ A large number of thinning agents produce the desired effect.
¨ Not every thinning agent is suited for every type of slurry.
¨ Under certain conditions, a combination of thinning agents added as a mixture or successively
produce a better effect than one single thinning agent.
¨ The actual effect of a thinning agent for specific conditions cannot be predicted in advance so that
tests in laboratory and in plant have to be conducted (synergism-effect, non-linearity).
¨ The adding quantities vary from case to case.
¨ The water reduction usually varies in absolute terms between 2 and 7%.
¨ Slurries with an initial water content between 33 and 43% have been most frequently treated with
thinners.
¨ The mineralogical composition of a raw slurry plays an important role.
¨ The pH value may be a decisive factor determining the thinning effect.
¨ Due to local availability and for economical reasons, the most frequently used thinners are soda,
water glass, STPP, sulfite lye and lignin-sulfonate.
¨ The fineness of a raw slurry is of little or no importance as regards the action of the thinners.
¨ The existing kiln systems usually require no adaptations with regard to chains and filters provided
that the water content of the slurry remains above 33 - 35%. However, some plant adaptations are usually
necessary, if the water content of thinned industrial raw slurries is low (30 - 33%).
¨ Under certain conditions, piston pumps should be installed instead of centrifugal pumps and as
many bends as possible should be eliminated from the slurry piping, especially if the cement raw slurry
shows rheopexic behaviour.
¨ For each % of water saved. 60 - 100 kJ are economised during the burning process.
¨ A sequential addition is important for a combination of thinners. First of all, a thinner must be
added to adjust the pH and once this effect is reached, a second thinner can be added; afterwards, a third
thinning agent can be used if necessary. If all of the thinners are added at the same time and place,
generally the effect is not the same as with a sequential addition.

The use of a thinner should be economical, that is, the price of a thinner plays a decisive role (see also
chapter "Cost Analysis). It also has to be taken into consideration that specific thinners are, or should be
preferred depending on the country or location of the plant (molasses from the sugar industry, sulfite lye
from the paper mills).
2.3 Viscosimetry
Laboratory methods
Target of the laboratory investigation is the reduction of the water content and/or the reduction of the yield
value (f1 to f2) and the viscosity (71 to 22). A target could also be to decrease the slurry water content
and to keep yield value and viscosity constant.
Fig. 14 Laboratory methods.

As mentioned before, reduction of the water content leads to lower thermal and mechanical energy
demand, reduction of yield value and viscosity to better pumpability and dewatering property (half wet
process).
For the purpose of optimizing the slurry viscosity it is indicated to make trials with different thinner
admixtures, concentrations, retention time and temperature levels in the laboratory.
Recent developed method of statistical experimental planning helps to minimise laboratory work
drastically.

The main 6 influencing parameters to investigate are

- water content of slurry
- thinner quality
- thinner concentration
- quality of raw material (depending on clinker quality)
- retention time
- slurry temperature

The target is to find out a quantitative relationship between viscosity and above mentioned parameters.
The assumption of 3 experimental level of above 6 influencing parameters means
36 = 729 experiments
This number is, of course, unacceptably high. By application of statistic methods 45 relevant experiments
can be evaluated.
After the experiments are done, the quantitative relationship is generated by a regression function. This
regression function leads to the optimum parameter constellation and can also be implemented into a
PLC ("Model! based Process Control ") .
Rotational Viscosimeter
The instrument of the laboratory investigation is the so-called "Rotational Viscosimeter". State of the art is
the automated unit.
The principle of rotational viscometers with coaxial cylinder sensor systems and with cone-and-plate
sensor systems allows the design of excel-lent and versatile absolute viscometers. The range of rotational
viscometers on the world market varies widely in sophistication and in price. The rheological criteria
mentioned before are being used to grade types of instruments and explain design features and resulting
areas of application.
One might imagine that the coaxial cylinder sensor systems for rotational viscometers result from bending
both flat plates of the Newton's parallel-plate-model into an inner and outer cylinder. A liquid sample filling
the annular gap between the two cylinders can be exposed to shear. Conditions will lead to laminar flow
and allow a mathematical treatment of the problem.
Two alternatives are open to turn the above geometry into an absolute viscometer:
a) Preselect t: look for D

The inner or the outer cylinder is subjected to a defined shear stress or a defined torque while the other
cylinder is held at rest. One can now measure the rate of rotation or shear rate resulting.
b) Preselect D: look for t
c) The inner or the outer cylinder rotates at a defined rotational speed while the other cylinder is
held at rest. One can now measure the resulting shear stress or torque. This is the most common design
for rotational viscometers.
d) This type of viscometer can come in two versions:
* Searle system

The inner cylinder - often called the "rotor” - rotates at a defined speed. The outer cylinder - often called
the "cup" is held at rest. The rotating inner cylinder forces the slurry in the annular gap to flow. The
resistance of the slurry being sheared between the stationary and rotating boundaries results in a
viscosity related torque working on the inner cylinder which counteracts the torque provided by the drive
motor. A torque sensing element - normally a spring that twists as the result of the torque - is placed
between the drive motor and the shaft of the inner cylinder. The twist of the torque spring is a direct
measure of the viscosity of the slurry tested.

Most viscometer models made world-wide are Searle types. One reason for this tendency is that the good
temperature control required for viscosity measurements is more easily accomplished when the outer
cylinder does not rotate. Searle type viscometers are limited when low viscous samples have to be tested
at high rotor speeds. Centrifugal forces affecting the liquid can turn laminar flow to non-laminar flow and
eventually to a fully developed turbulence.
Fig. 15 Searle System.

* Couette system

The outer cylinder rotates at a defined speed. It forces the slurry sample in the annular gap to flow. The
resistance of the slurry being sheard, transmits a viscosity related torque onto the inner cylinder, which
would induce it also to rotate. This torque is measured by determining just what counteracting torque is
required to hold the inner cylinder at stand still. Couette type viscometers are more stable with respect to
centrifugal forces.
Fig. 16 Couette System.

3. PRODUCTION COST ANALYSIS

Basic is to describe the process in mathematical "Cost Analysis" is to find out the minimum of all specific
costs as a function of the raw slurry water content (viscosity).
Approach
1) In a first step a qualitative technical relationship has to be established. This relationship describes
the demand on thermal and mechanical energy in function of the water content (viscosity) of the raw
slurry.
2) The technical functions are to be evaluated with the specific factor prices, resulting in “Partial
Variable Cost Functions".
3) The addition of the "Partial Variable Cost Functions" gives the a Total Variable Cost Function".
4) The minimum of the "Total Variable Cost Function" shows the optimum water content (viscosity).
5) To evaluate new investments it is possible to combine the "Total Variable Cost Function" with a II
Fixed Cost Function" to a "Total Cost Function" .
3.1 Technical functions
Several important aspects of slurry preparation are seen in a wet/semi-wet plant. Some of them are:
¨ Pumping energy demand
¨ Waste gas ventilation demand
¨ Pump evaluation
¨ Filtration energy demand
¨ Thermal energy (enthalpy) demand
As examples short, simplified overviews are given. Basic consideration is to show the specific energy
demands as a function of the raw slurry water content.
3.1.1 Piping system
There are several parameters known with regard to flow resistivity of a piping system:
¨ length of piping
¨ diameter of piping (flow-velocity)
¨ inner surface quality of piping
¨ amount and design quality of bends, valves, fittings, ducts
In a simplified form the approach to achieve the flow resistivity function is shown on a simple pipe piece:
Fig. 17 Simple pipe.

First step is to outnumber the "Reynols Number" Re

Second step is to evaluate the friction number l as a function of Re a quality of the pipe surface (d/k). The
following diagram also shows the interface between laminar and turbulent flow.
Fig. 18 Laminar and Turbulent Flow.

In the laminar flow zone no relation between pipe surface quality and resistivity number exists, whereas
the influence in the turbulent flow zone increase drastically.
In the laminar flow zone the simplified approach to evaluate the flow resistivity number is possible by
applying the "Hagen Poiseulle's low":

With the flow resistivity number it is easily possible to compute the pressure drop of a simplified piping
system as follows:

Pressure drops results from flow resistivities, elevation differences (geodatical) and velocity difference
between input and output of the piping system.

Total pressure drop

With this relationship the function of "Pressure drop" depending on slurry viscosity (water content) can be
given quantitatively:
Fig. 19 Pressure Drop.

3.1.2 Pump evaluation

As shown before, the pressure drop of a piping system depends on viscosity (h) and on velocity (v):
Fig. 20 Viscosity against Velocity.

Viscosity and Velocity depends on water content of slurry, so the following relation can be formed:
Fig. 21 Water content.

Curve parameter is Water Content of Cement Raw Slurry

Pump power demand = D p x Q* (Production)
Optimisation
Qualitatively the correlation before show the influence of Water Content Viscosity to the Pump power
demand. To evaluate the optimum pump, the pump characteristic in relation to the efficiency must be
known:
Fig. 22 Optimisation.

Q* production, pump efficiency and pump characteristic dictates the pump evaluation and the power
demand. The area "A" represents the pumping power demand, the value has to be minimised.
This consideration leads to a complex, multivariable optimisation. It is worthwhile doing it in face of the
great saving potential of investment cost and mechanical energy.
3.1.3 Filtration
Filtration is defined as a "solid - liquid - separation - technique", i.e. separation of a cement raw slurry into
a liquid phase (the filtrate) and a solid phase (filter cake) with the aid of a filter which can only be
penetrated by liquids. This process is applied in the so called "semi-wet process".
Kozeny - Carman’s law

k System constant
A Filtration Area
S Specific surface of solids
E Porosity
The equation demonstrates that - in order to achieve a short filtration time - the working pressure (P)
should be high (up to 25 bar uncle' industrial conditions), the total filter area large (up to 100 plates per
filter press), porosity as high as possible, but the viscosity low.

3.1.4 Thermal Energy Demand

The main reason to decrease the raw slurry water content is to reduce the thermal energy demand of the
drying phase prior the clinker burning in the wet kiln. The simple function show the linear relationship
between water content and thermal evaporation enthalpy:

H Specific Evaporation Enthalpy

[H2O] Water Content of Slurry (%)
fcli Clinker Conversion Factor
3.1.5 Exhaust Fan Energy
The simplified relationship between demand on mechanical exhaust fan energy and water content of raw
slurry is shown below. Pressure drop through kiln varies between 100 - 150 mm WG, the kiln is coal fired
(25'000 kJ/kg). Fan efficiency = 0.8, no oxygen content of waste gas.
Fig. 23 Exhaust Fan Energy.

3.2 Optimisation
The given technical functions are now to be evaluated by the specific prices in order to get "Cost-
functions".
This means the multiplication of specific demands with the specific prices of
¨ Pumping energy
¨ Thermal energy
¨ Exhaust fan energy
¨ Filtration
¨ Thinners
¨ etc.
Qualitatively the “Cost-Function" is shown in relation to the water content of the slurry [H2O]%.
Fig. 24 Cost Function.

The addition of all specific cost functions leads to the "Total Cost Function". This function has the
minimum point (optimum operational point) of course on the lowest operation cost. On this point of the
function the economical best water content of the slurry is to find.

B02 - MT II

C01 - Clinker Burning: Material Technological Aspects

Clinker Burning - Material Technological Aspects

1. introduction
1.1 Important Features
1.2 Control of the burning process
1.3 Basic Aspects of the Material Changes Involved in Clinker Formation
2. Reaction pathways encountered during clinker formation
2.1 General Considerations
2.2 Basic Sequence of Reactions
2.3 Mineralogical and Chemical Characteristics of Raw Mixes
2.4 Intermediate Products
2.5 Liquid Phase
2.6 The Overall Reaction Sequence
3. Reaction mechanisms
3.1 Definitions
3.2 Examples
4. Kinetics of clinker burning
4.1 General Aspects
4.2 Practical Considerations
4.3 Assessment of Raw Meal Burnability
5. Thermochemistry of clinker formation

1. INTRODUCTION
In the production of Portland cement a mixture of natural minerals is transformed into an intimate mixture
of synthetic minerals having the required hydraulic properties.

This process is similar to that occurring during the transformation of sedimentary and igneous into
metamorphic rocks, but with the exception that the time (t) is much shorter and that the pressure (p) is
only 1 bar. Consequently, a high temperature is required.
During the transformation into clinker, two principal steps may be differentiated, namely the disintegration
of the original rock structures followed by the formation of new ones. Even these categories can be
subdivided as follows:
Disintegration of original structure
· mechanical crushing and grinding
· thermal decomposition
· structural rearrangement on heating(e.g. polymorphism)
· melting
Formation of new structures
· occurrence of intermediate products
· genesis and growth of final clinker minerals
· crystallization of liquid phase
1.1 Important Features
Several important features characterize the clinker formation process. These are:
· the clinker burning system is complex and occurs via a series of diverse mechanisms
· the transformation requires mechanical, thermal and electrical energy
· the reaction rate is slow in comparison with homogenous reactions (i.e. gas or liquid phase
reactions). This leads to the necessity of high temperatures, extended reaction times, and finely dispersed
materials
· the desired hydraulically active clinker minerals are not all stable at normal temperature, and so
the hot clinker must be rapidly cooled
· the quality of the product is determined by the
Þ clinker chemistry
Þ clinker microstructure
1.2 Control of the burning process
The transition into clinker is influenced by both material and process technological aspects, namely:
¨ Material technological aspects
· raw meal burning behavior including burnability, dust formation, coating behavior, granulation of
clinker, etc.
· The quantity and properties of the liquid phase
¨ Process technological aspects
· temperature profile
· kiln atmosphere
· fuel type
· flame characteristics
· etc.
1.3 Basic Aspects of the Material Changes Involved in Clinker Formation
To properly understand the material changes occurring, it is an advantage to have a good knowledge of
the most basic characteristic aspects associated with clinker formation. They are listed in the following
table:
Table 1 Important aspects of the understanding of chemical reactions

Aspect Characteristic Features

Reaction Pathway indicates the intermediate products occurring between reactants and products
Reaction Mechanism type(s) and reaction(s) taking place
Reaction Kinetics indicates rate at which the final products are produced
Reaction Thermodynamics dictates whether reaction will at all be possible, and what the heat and
temperature requirements will be

It is therefore logical, when considering the production of Portland cement clinker, that consideration
should be given to these and earlier mentioned points. In the following pages, a review will be given of the
principal material aspects associated with clinker formation.
2. REACTION PATHWAYS ENCOUNTERED DURING CLINKER FORMATION
2.1 General Considerations
Cement clinker is an intermediate product in the manufacture of the hydraulic binding agent known as
Portland cement. By means of a single thermal treatment, a mixture of the non-hydraulic, naturally
occurring minerals calcite, quartz, clays and feldspars, it is transformed into the intimate mixture of
hydraulically active minerals alite, belite, aluminate and ferrite, called Portland cement clinker. Like other
products such as ceramics, refractories, bricks, etc., cement clinker can be considered as being
synthetically produced rock. The thermal treatment of heating and cooling, responsible for this
“metamorphosis”, is termed “clinkering” and, with the exception of a small number of shaft kilns, is carried
out in one of the several types of rotary kilns. As has already been discussed, only a short specific range
of mixtures of calcareous and siliceous minerals can be transformed into Portland cement clinker.
To fully describe the pathway of clinkering, it is necessary to consider the following aspects:
¨ the chemical and mineralogical content of the raw mix
¨ the overall sequence of reactions
¨ the chemical and mineralogical nature of the intermediate products
2.2 Basic Sequence of Reactions
During the heating and cooling of the clinker formation process, a complex series of reactions takes place
within the rotary kiln, exhibiting a wide spectrum of reaction mechanisms. Concerning first the reactions
involved, the following summarizes the general sequence of events taking place during the formation
process.
Raw mixture
(20°C)
¾® Reactants + products
+
Intermediate products
(450 - 1300°C)
¾® Alite + Belite
+
Melt (1450°C)

¾®
Cooled
clinker

As can be seen, the raw mixture is not transformed into the final cement clinker by rapid subjection to the
required clinkering temperature. The process of clinker formation, as demanded by the construction of the
rotary kiln, takes place over a wide range of temperatures, during which a complex mixture of reactants,
intermediate and final products often coexist. Even after reaching the maximum temperature (approx.
1450 °C), a certain time must also elapse before a clinker of acceptable quality is produced.
In somewhat more detail, the principal sequence of events occurring and the temperature range over
which they take place, can be represented as shown in Table 2:
Table 2 Sequence of reactions occurring in a rotary kiln

Temperature range (°C) Type of reaction

Heating:
20 - 100 Evaporation of H2O
100 - 300 Loss of physically adsorbed water
400 - 900 Removal of structural H2O (H2O and OH
groups) from clay minerals
>500 Structural changes in silicate minerals
600 - 900 Dissociation of carbonates
>800 Formation of belite, intermediate products,
aluminate and ferrite
>12500 Formation of liquid phase (aluminate and
ferrite melt)
approx. 1450 Completion of reaction and recrystallization
of alite and belite
Cooling
1300 - 1240 Crystallization of liquid phase into mainly
aluminate and ferrite

From Table 2, several points can be observed, namely:

· that the dissociation of carbonate minerals does not take place at any single temperature but
occurs over a temperature range (600 - 900 °C)
· that, with respect to the formation of clinker minerals, three important stages can be
distinguished:
· formation of belite, aluminate and ferrite over a wide temperature range starting at approx. 800 °C
· start of appearance of liquid phase and commencement of formation of principal clinker phases
(alite) at approx. 1250 °C
· that the aluminate and ferrite found in the final clinker are formed by crystallization of the liquid
phase during the cooling cycle. The individual aluminate and ferrite crystals formed during the heating
cycle at >800 °C loose their identity by melting (> 1260 °C) to form the liquid phase
2.3 Mineralogical and Chemical Characteristics of Raw Mixes
During a detailed study performed by the Materials Division of the raw meals and slurries from all the
plants of the Holcim Group, a mineralogical and chemical analysis of a large number of mixes was
undertaken. The following Tables 3 and 4 list the large variety of observed minerals and the range of raw
mix chemistry.
Table 3 Minerals frequently found in cement raw mixes

Type Example
Carbonates calcite CaCO3, aragonite CaCO3, dolomite
CaCO3 × MgCO3, ankerite CaCO3 × (Mg, Fe) CO3,
magnesite MgCO3, siderite FeCO3
Simple Oxides quartz SiO2, cristobalite SiO2, hematite Fe2O3,
magnetite Fe3O4
Feldspars potassium feldspars (Na, K) Si3O8 and
plagioclase series
(Na, Ca) (Si, Al) Al2Si2O8
Sheet silicates* minerals of the mica and chlorite groups (e.g.
biotite, muscovite, chlorite), clay minerals (e.g.
kaolinite, montomorillonite, illite, palygorskite) and
other sheet silicates (e.g. pyrophyllite) *
Hydroxides* Al-hydroxides (e.g. boehmite), Fe-hydroxides
(e.g. goethite, limonite)
Sulfides and sulfates pyrites FeS2, anhydrite CaSO4, gypsum Ca SO4 × 2H2O
Fluorides fluorspar CaF2

*see chapter 4 for chemical formulae

Table 4 Range of chemical compositions (dry basis) from which OPC clinker is normally produced

From the preceding data it is evident that the various mixes are composed of very different minerals and
in addition vary within a certain range in their chemical composition. In spite of these differences, Portland
cement clinkers composed of the same hydraulically active minerals are produced from all these mixes.
The fact that such a diversity of mixes results in the same end product, underlines the complexity of the
transformation process.
2.4 Intermediate Products
The clinkering reaction does not take place in a single direct step from the natural to the final minerals,
but proceeds via intermediate products. These intermediate products can be observed by heating up raw
mixes in the laboratory or by withdrawing samples from various points along the kiln. This latter method,
although more difficult to carry out, has the advantage over the laboratory method in that those
intermediate minerals, whose presence is also dependent on the kiln gas atmosphere, are observed. The
following table lists the most commonly encountered intermediate minerals.
Table 5 Intermediate minerals encountered during clinker production

Type Mineral Name Chemical Composition

Simple Sulfates anhydrite
arcaniteCaSO4
K2SO4
Compound Sulfates “sulfate”-spurrite
“calcium”-langbeinite 2(C2S) × CaCO3
K2Ca2 (SO4)3
Compound Carbonates spurrite 2(C2S) × CaCO3
Simple Chlorides sylvite KCl
Calcium Aluminates mayenite 12 CaO × 7 Al2O3
CaO × Al2O3
Calcium Ferrites 2 CaO × Fe2O3
Calcium Alumino-Silicates gehlenite 2 CaO × Al2O3 × SiO2

That these materials are formed at all, when it is considered that the final equilibrium products are alite,
belite, aluminate, and ferrite, can be explained as follows:
Table 6 Reasons for the formation of the intermediate products
· the intermediate products are preferentially formed by kinetically faster reaction rates
· the intermediate products are the reaction products of localized zones in the meal charge, i.e.
local equilibrium but not overall equilibrium was reached (for example gehlenite formation)
· the intermediate products are really the equilibrium products at the given temperature and gas
atmosphere, but not at the final clinkering temperature (the formation of spurrite is a typical example)
The most important intermediate product, however, is not a crystalline product at all, but is the liquid
phase first formed above ca. 1250 °C, and which only forms crystalline products (mainly aluminate and
ferrite) after cooling.
2.5 Liquid Phase
The composition of the raw mix determines
· temperature at which liquid will first be formed
· amount of liquid formed at any given temperature
· the physical properties of the liquid at any particular temperature, especially its viscosity
2.5.1 Temperature of Liquid Formation
The following are the lowest melting temperatures of various mixtures pertinent to Portland cement
production:

Components Temperature °C of liquid formation

C-S
C-S-A
C-S-A-F
C-S-A-F-M
C-S-A-F-M-N 2065
1458
1338
1300
1280

Due to the inclusion of additional oxides (e.g. K2O, TiO2, Mn2O3, etc.) the lowest formation temperature
of the liquid phase in clinker is in reality around 1250°C.
2.5.2 Quantity of Liquid
Although most raw mixes show about the same minimum temperature of liquid formation, the quantity of
liquid formed at this and progressively higher temperatures varies according to the raw mix chemistry.
In the Portland cement relevant parts of the system C - S - A - F, in which melting begins at 1338 °C, the
composition of the liquid is:
CaO - 55 %
SiO2 - 6% Alumina ratio
Al2O3 - 22 % (AR) = 1.38
Fe2O3 - 16 %
The percentage liquid forming at various temperature (1338, 1400, and 1450 °C) is given in Table 7.
Table 7 Formulae used for estimating the quantity of the liquid phase according to Lea & Parker

Temperature °C Quantity of liquid phase

1338 AR > 1.38: 6.1 Fe2O3 + MgO + Na2O + K2O
AR < 1.38: 8.5 Al2O3 - 5.22 Fe2O3 + MgO + Na2O + K2 O
1400 2.95 Al2O3 + 2.2 Fe2O3 + MgO + Na2O + K2O
1450 3.0 Al2O3 + 2.25 Fe2O3 + MgO + Na2O + K2O

Because MgO has limited solubility in the liquid, there is a restriction of 2 % maximum MgO which can be
incorporated into these equations.
For the majority of clinkers, the quantity of liquid formed at 1450 °C varies according to the above formula
from approx. 20 to 30 %. Figure 1 shows the quantity of liquid formed at the given temperature for several
Group plant clinker, the influence of MgO and alkalis being included.
Figure 1 Quantitative change of liquid phase with temperature
(INFLUENCE OF MgO, Na2O AND K2O INCLUDED)

Figure 2 displays graphically the influence of Al2O3 and Fe2O3 alone on the quantity of liquid formed at
1338 °C, the solid contours representing the percentage of liquid formed. It can be seen that the effect of
adding Fe2O3 or Al2O3 on the proportion of liquid formed at 1338 °C is influenced strongly by the
alumina ratio. If in a clinker composition containing 4.5 % Al2O3 and 2 % Fe2O3, for example, the Fe2O3
content is held constant and the Al2O3 content is increased, the percentage of liquid remains
unchanged at 14 %, because the iso-Fe2O3 contour lies parallel to the iso-liquid contour in this region. If,
however, the iron content is increased and the Al2O3 content remains constant, the proportion of liquid at
first increases rapidly until at 3.3 % Fe2O3 it attains a maximum of 21 %. With further increase in Fe2O3
the quantity of liquid decreases. Therefore, the most effective use of Al2O3 and Fe2O3 - with respect to
liquid formation at 1338 °C - occurs when the two are used in the weight ratio of 1.38.
Figure 2 Quantity of liquid phase at 1338 °C

AR = Alumina ratio
OB, GM, UN, VN = Different Plants
At 1400 °C and above increasing Al2O3 and / or Fe2O3 always result in a larger quantity of liquid phase,
Al2O3 being the one with the larger influence.
2.5.3 Viscosity of Liquid Phase
The viscosity of the liquid phase diminishes exponentially with increasing temperature and at 1400 °C is
reduced by addition of fluxing components in the following order:
Na2O < CaO < MgO < Fe2O3 < MnO
With increasing SiO2 content of the melt and to a lesser extent with increasing Al2O3, appreciable
increases in viscosity occur.
2.6 The Overall Reaction Sequence
Several different approaches have been used in the past to display the sequence of events taking place
during the formation of cement clinker. These differ mainly in the aspect chosen, the following examples
giving emphasis to differing features.
2.6.1 Display Based on Qualitative Change of Minerals from Samples taken from an Operational Kiln
The minerals existing at various points during the production process in the kiln can be seen in Figure 3. It
is worth noting that the feed contains several minerals (e.g. KCl, spurrite, C12A7, CaO) that were not
present in the freshly milled raw mix. This is due to the return of dust to the slurry feed.
Figure 3 Minerals identified at different locations (long wet kiln)

2.6.2 Schematic Display according to Chemistry

A recent example of this approach to clinker formation is proposed in Figure 4.
Figure 4 Sequence of compound formation according to chemical composition

In order to allow an overall picture to be quickly gained, it must be mentioned that the SiO2 content of the
clay minerals and the pressure of feldspars have been omitted. Of interest in the above display is that the
presence of spurrite is considered as being a normal intermediate product and not only a component
found solely in kiln deposits.
2.6.3 Quasi-Quantitative Display of Minerals Present at Various Temperatures
An informative schematic display based mainly on laboratory studies depicts in a quasi-quantitative
manner changes of the various minerals with temperature. This is shown in Figure 5
Figure 5 Quasi-quantitative variation of minerals with temperature

3. REACTION MECHANISMS
3.1 Definitions
For the discussion of reaction mechanisms the following concepts with regard to states of matter and
types of reaction will be employed.
3.1.1 States of Matter
All matter can be assigned at any specific temperature to at least one of the three defined states of
matter, namely to the solid, liquid, or gaseous state. Each of these states has specific properties which
allow a simple distinction between them to be made as follows:

State of Matter Properties

solid definitive volume and definite shape
liquid definitive volume, assumes shape of container
gaseous neither definitive volume nor definite shape

Under specific conditions (of temperature and pressure) it is possible for more than one state to coexist
with another. An example demonstrating this effect is, of course, water which at various temperatures and
pressures can coexist in the liquid/gas, solid/liquid and solid/liquid/gas states.
3.1.2 Classification of Reactions
Chemical reactions may be classified according to their type, namely:

Type Example from clinker burning

structural change
decomposition
combination high quartz « low quartz
CaCO3 « CaO + CO2
2CaO + SiO2 « C2S

A further differentiation of these reaction types may be made:

¨ According to the state of matter

reaction type Example from clinker burning

solid - solid quartz and free CaO ® belite
solid - liquid liquid phase ® crystallization of aluminate + ferrite
solid - gas CaCO3 « CaO + CO2
liquid - liquid -
liquid - gas drying process, volatilization of alkalis, etc.
gas - gas CO + 1/2 O2 « CO2

¨ according to rate controlling step (kinetics of reaction)

Type Example from clinker burning

diffusion
phase boundary
nucleation formation of alite
quartz + free CaO ® belite (initial reaction)
liquid phase ® crystallization of aluminate + ferrite
alite formation

For many reactions the rate controlling pressure may not be known.
Since clinker burning is a most complex chemical process, it is not surprising that most of the mentioned
reaction types are operative during the process. In the following, examples of these reaction types taking
place in the kiln during production will be considered.
3.2 Examples
3.2.1 Structural Changes
This type of change occurring within single minerals in the solid state is also called a polymorphic
transition (see paper 4). In this process the chemical composition of the minerals remains constant, but
the spatial arrangement of the component atoms alters, usually upon reaching a specific temperature.
Relevant examples of such polymorphic transition in clinker burning include the following:
a) The low - high quartz inversion (both have composition SiO2)
Figure 6 Arrangement of the atoms in low and high quartz

In this transition the distorted low from, stable under 573 °C, changes into the more ordered high
modification, the stable species above the transition temperature.
b) aragonite è calcite inversion (both have composition CaCO3)
Aragonite present in the raw meal transforms on heating into calcite. Consequently, kiln dust always
contains calcite and not aragonite. The reason for this transition is, that under normal atmospheric
pressure calcite and not aragonite is the stable from of CaCO3. This can be easily seen in Figure 7,
showing the stability conditions of calcite and aragonite.
Figure 7 Stability conditions of the various forms of CaCO3

c) alite and belite transformations

Even more important than the polymorphic transitions in the raw materials are the structural changes
occurring in the principal clinker minerals alite and belite. These occur during both formation and cooling
of the clinker, and contribute to the complexity of the clinker system. These transitions will be discussed in
more detail in paper 13, pages 11 - 13.
3.2.2 Decomposition Reactions
The principal decomposition reactions encountered during clinker production include the following:
solid / gas type
¨ dehydroxylation of the clay minerals (kaolinite, etc.)
¨ decarbonation of the carbonate minerals (magnesite, dolomite, calcite, spurrite)
solid / solid type
¨ decomposition of alite
Characteristic of this reaction type is that the single reactant is transformed into two products.
a) Dehydroxylation of the clay minerals
The removal of structural water from the clay minerals is a complex decomposition, as it further involves
structural changes of the dehydrated product. This may be demonstrated for one of the simplest of the
clay minerals compounds kaolinite, 2SiO2, × Al2O3 × 2 H2O.
There are two alternative theories about the changes that kaolinite undergoes when it looses water at
about 500 - 600 °C. One theory is that the anhydrous alumino silicate 2SiO2 × Al2O3 is formed, the other
than an intimate mixture of amorphous silica and alumina results
b) Decarbonation of the simple carbonate minerals
These reactions are of the type

MCO3 « MO + CO2
(solid) (solid) (gas)

where M = Ca (Calcite)
= Ca/Mg (Dolomite)
= Mg (Magnesite)

in which, if the CO2 is not removed, there exists an equilibrium between the reactant and the reaction
products. At any single temperature, both the degree of decarbonisation of the carbonate and the partial
pressure of CO2 (i.e. pCO2) are fixed, providing equilibrium has been achieved. With increasing
temperature the pCO2 value increases until a certain given temperature the value equals atmosphere
pressure as shown in Figure 8, so that the carbonate will completely decompose.
Figure 8 Equilibrium dissociation pressure of calcite with temperature
Under conditions in which the CO2 is constantly removed (e.g. in a flowing gas atmosphere at reduced
pressure in which the pCO2 value is lower than the equilibrium level) decomposition of the carbonate will
take place at a reduced temperature.
In the simple carbonates found in cement raw mixes, the temperature at which the equilibrium pCO2 level
attains 1 bar is as follows:

Mineral Temp (°C) pCO2 = 1 bar

Calcite 890
Dolomite 745 and 890
Magnesite 650

c) Decomposition of compound carbonates (e.g. spurrite)

The decarbonisation of spurrite 2C2S × CaCO3 proceeds according to the equation
2C2S × CaCO3 « 2C2S + CaO + CO2
spurrite (solid) belite (solid) free lime (solid) carbon dioxide (gas)
Just like the simple carbonates, the above equilibrium is reversible, and its extent depends on the
temperature and pCO2 value. Unlike the simple carbonates, two solid reaction products are formed, belite
and free CaO, which at the temperature associated with spurrite decomposition under normal pressure,
cannot react with each other.
The equilibrium pCO2 value for spurrite is given in Figure 9 along with that pertaining to CaCO3.
Figure 9 Equilibrium dissociation pressure of calcite and spurrite with temperature

From the figure it is evident that spurrite is thermally more stable than calcite. As a consequence of the
greater stability of spurrite, it may form in cement kilns either by direct reaction of calcium carbonate and
silica, or by reaction of CaO, Ca2SiO4 and gaseous CO2.
The formation of spurrite with the latter mechanism may occur only in a small range of temperatures
above the CaCO3 decomposition temperature, for example, between 890 °C and 912 °C at 1 bar CO2
pressure.
d) Decomposition of alite
A reaction of the solid-solid decomposition type which can, under certain circumstances, occur during
clinker cooling, is the decomposition of alite. From the phase diagram for the system CaO - SiO2 it can be
deduced that C3S has a lower limit of stability at 1250 °C, below which it will decompose into two solids,
C2S and CaO. The maximum rate of decomposition occurs at 1175 °C, at which temperature the S-
shape decomposition curve (Figure 10) indicates that the initial decomposition is controller by nucleation
of the products on the C3S surface.
Figure 10 Decomposition of C3S at 1175 °C

As can be deduced from figure 10, the rate of decomposition is so slow that for the cooling rates
encountered during clinker cooling, the decomposition of C3S should not be observed.
In the case of impure C3S, i.e. clinker alite, the rate of decomposition is appreciably accelerated by:
· the presence of lime and C2S nuclei
· the presence of Fe2+ , H2O and K2SO4 / CaSO4 melts
This aspect will be further considered in paper 13.
3.2.3 Combination Reactions
The main combination reactions are the formation of the two major phases, the calcium silicates alite and
belite, the only principal phases remaining unmelted at the highest clinkering temperature. The other
major phases, aluminate and ferrite, although formed by combination reactions during heating, are melted
at the highest temperatures and are present in the final cooled clinker as crystallization products of the
melt.
a) Belite formation
The formation of belite starts at » 800 °C and is mainly formed by solid-state reaction. In many raw mixes
it is formed in quantities exceeding those found in the final clinker (see Figure 5) and then further reacts
with free lime (via the liquid phase) to yield alite, the quantity of belite thus falling back to that finally
observed.
Belite formation (see Figure 4) is the result of a combination between the calcite and silica components of
the raw mix.
» 800°C
2 C3S
belite
+
CO3
+
SiO3
e.g. quartz
2 CaCO3
calcite

Although the pCO2 value of calcite does not reach 1 bar until 890 °C, the initial formation of belite does
take place at lower temperatures, due to the stability of the C2S phase.
During the solid state reaction of silica and calcite (or CaO) the first reaction product is always C2S. This
can bee seen in Figure 11.
Figure 11 Sequence of appearance of phases in the solid state reaction of CaO and SiO2

CaO SiO2 ® CaO C2 S SiO2 ® CaO C2S CS SiO2

showing the order of appearance of phases at a CaO / SiO2 interface. Only later does the most silica rich
phase CS appear as a result of reaction s between C2S and SiO2. This demonstrates the remarkably
strong nature of the belite formation reaction. At temperatures at which solid state reactions occur, the
formation of C3S does not take place due to its thermal instability.
The rate limiting mechanism by which belite is formed (after an initial phase boundary controlled reaction)
depends on the diffusion of ions through the solid state. The rate of this reaction is thus dependent on:
· the path distance that the diffusing species have to travel
· defects in the reactant’s crystal lattices.
The former factor is dependent on both the size of the CaO and SiO2 particles, and the effective contact
area between them. It is this easy to understand why finely milled and/or densely intergrown powder
mixtures react faster than large-grained coarse ones, and thus, why cement raw meals must be finely
ground and intimately mixed.
From the results of many studies, the main diffusion species is known to be the Ca2+ ion which migrates
into the solid SiO2, although evidence does exist to indicate that the diffusion of Si4+ into CaO can occur
to a lesser extent.
That the Ca2+ ion is the major diffusing species is confirmed by the well known fact in clinker formation
that the quartz must be finer ground than the limestone if complete reaction is to take place.
b) Formation of alite
The formation of alite commences only when the temperature is above its lower stability limit of » 1250
°C. At that temperature, the liquid phase is also starting to form. Consequently the formation of alite is a
liquid - solid reaction, as reaction via a liquid medium is faster than by solid state processes. In the
laboratory, C3S can be formed by the solid state reaction of CaO and SiO2, but this requires many hours
at temperatures above those encountered during clinker formation. The resulting finely crystalline product
must be rapidly quenched, at much faster rate than can be achieved in a production kiln, to prevent its
decomposition at normal temperatures.
In the industrial production of clinker, the formation of alite and its stabilization is thus wholly dependent
on the presence of the liquid phase.
At the temperature at which alite formation begins (» 1250 °C), the material consists mainly of free lime,
belite and liquid phase. The formation reaction is, thus, of the type

C2S + CaO liquid phase

¾¾¾¾¾¾¾®
> 1250 °C
C3S

From the results of many laboratory experiments, the rate controlling step is considered to be the
movement (diffusion) of dissolved CaO through the melt. This is supported by the following observations:
¨ alite particles often contain belite inclusions (see paper 13)
¨ when free lime is added to an already formed clinker, and the mixture again heated, pores are to
be found where the lime particles had been, surrounded by a zone containing only alite.
Again, as in the case of belite formation, the rate of reaction is influenced by
¨ the distance the CaO has to travel (depending on raw mix fineness and homogeneity), and in
addition to the quantity and viscosity of the liquid phase (controls the gas with which the movement of
CaO can occur).
As the viscosity of the raw mix is reduced by
MnO > Fe2O3 > MgO > CaO> Na2O
it can thus be appreciated that the presence of Fe2O3 and MgO in the liquid phase assists in the alite
formation process.
4. KINETICS OF CLINKER BURNING
4.1 General Aspects
The burning of cement consists of a series of reactions taking place between finely divided solids, and it is
only at temperatures above 1250 °C that a liquid is formed and becomes the medium through which
reaction occurs. When liquids or solutions react together, the actions usually occur rapidly and the
products depend only on the composition of the reaction mixture and the temperature. With reactions
between solids the conditions are very different. Reaction takes place at the surface of grains, and
diffusion of fresh solid to the surface proceeds but slowly. If a particle of clay is imagined surrounded by
particles of lime, the reaction will commence at the surface of the clay particle. This in turn will react with
further clay inside. If complete combination is not attained, the stage to which the reaction has progressed
depends not only on the temperature, but also on the time, or rate of heating and the general physical and
chemical condition of the reacting materials.

This phenomenon of the rate of reaction can be schematically represented as follows:

raw mix
(1 - a) kT
¾¾¾¾¾¾¾®
clinker
a

where kT is the rate of reaction at temperature T and a the extent of clinker formation after a certain time.
The rate of reaction kT is dependent on temperature and material characteristics (mainly mineralogy and
fineness as expressed in the fundamental Arrhenius equation

kT = rate constant at temperature T

T = reaction temperature
R = gas constant
Ea = activation energy
A = frequency factor
From the above equation it can be seen that the rate of reaction
· increases with them T and contact surface between raw mix components
(frequency factor A)
· decreases with higher activation energy Ea for raw mix components.
This can be illustrated as follows. Experience demonstrates that a raw mix composed of non-reactive
minerals (high activation energy Ea) such as quartz, forms clinker more slowly than a raw mix
incorporating more reactive components such as clay minerals or amorphous silica. The lower activation
energy required for the reaction with lime results in a high rate of clinker formation. To compensate for the
slow reactivity of the less reactive minerals, a higher burning temperature and / or longer burning period
(longer clinkering zone) is required.
The quantitative characterization of the kinetics of clinker formation, however, is extremely complicated,
due to:
¨ Portland cement having a range of chemical compositions and being produced from a wide
spectrum of different minerals
¨ the transformation takes place via a series of sequential and simultaneous reaction steps of
various types
¨ the burning process is not isothermal but occurs in a heating process
¨ the non-availability of a simple, precise method for determining the extent of reaction (a)
Various attempts have, in spite of the complexity of the system, been undertaken to evaluate the kinetics
of clinker formation. An example is given in the following table.
Table 8 Various models for describing the kinetics of clinker formation

The main feature is that the process has been subdivided into four stages having different reaction
mechanisms and rates.
For further details Report No. MA 75/2408/E may be consulted.
4.2 Practical Considerations
When comparing the overall reaction velocity with the kinetics of the individual stages (Table 8) , it is
known that the calcite decomposition, i.e. decarbonation of the raw meal, is not critical. The combination
reaction stages (solid/solid and solid/liquid) are the rate determining steps in the process. The practical
consequence of this is that it has been possible to replace the long rotary kiln by a suspension preheater
kiln, in which the calcite decomposition may take place to a large extent within minutes. In the clinker
formation stages, however, a rotary part of adequate length so as to allow sufficient reaction time, is
indispensable. This is illustrated in Figure 12.
Figure 12 Temperature distribution in wet and dry process kilns

Consequently, to assess the progress of clinker formation, most consideration is given to events occurring
after decarbonation.
In practice, the most convenient method of following the reaction is by measuring the rate of decrease of
uncombined lime (i.e. free lime). This technique is illustrated in Figure 13 showing two raw mixes, I and II,
of identical chemistry (LS = 95, SR = 3.2 and AR = 2.2) and similar fineness (R200m @ 0.5 %, R90 @ 7
% and R60 @ 15 %). It is evident that the difference in mineralogy and actual particle size of the
individual crystals influence both the mechanism and rate of reaction, especially at start of the clinker
formation.
As can be seen in Phototable 1, mix I is composed of limestone and the fine-grained shale A which itself
consists of finely mixed calcite (40 %) and siliceous (60 %) components, whilst mix II is composed of the
same limestone but with the much coarser grained shale S containing a high proportion of coarse quartz
particles. While raw mix I is considered to have a good burnability , raw mix II is considerably more
difficult to burn.
Figure 13 Temperature change of DTA curves, phases identified and free lime

Figure 13 a Temperature change of DTA curves, phases identified and free lime

Phototable I Texture and Mineralogy of Mix Components

Designation Limestone Shale A Shale S

Calcite 97 % » 40 % » 10 %
Dolomite »2% - -
Quartz traces » 25 % » 55 %
Chlorite - » 20 % » 10 %
Illite and Micas - » 10 % » 20 %
Pyrite traces »2% traces
Feldspars - » 2 % traces

4.3 Assessment of Raw Meal Burnability

From the foregoing it will be realized that a true determination of reaction kinetics is at best feasible in
fundamental research. In practice, simple methods are mostly applied to asses the “burnability” of a mix,
i.e. the ease of formation of the clinker minerals. Three distinct methods are practiced at the Holcim
Technical Center:
¨ Holcim burnability test -
involves the heating of a raw mix under well defined laboratory conditions, and subsequent laboratory
determination of the non-combined lime.
¨ Statistical burning model -
in which ten material parameters, proven to be of significance, influence the rate of clinker formation. The
uncombined CaO value, of any raw mix, relative to that of a standard raw mix prepared from identical
components, is calculated.
¨ Physicochemical burning model -
requires no standard raw mix. Only 4 parameters need to be considered.
4.3.1 Holcim Burnability Test
The Holcim burnability test is based on the isothermal burning at 1400 °C of raw meal nodules, details of
which can be obtained in paper 5, page 5/18 ff.
By being carried out under standard laboratory conditions, this test allows the determination of the relative
influence of the various material parameters to be ascertained, free from the influence of process
technological disturbances.
Typical results obtained by this test for the raw mixes of all Group plants are listed in Figure 14, arranged
in order of decreasing free CaO, i.e. increasingly better burnability.
Figure 14 Range of CaO values determined by the Holcim burnability test on plant raw mixes

The free lime value of the laboratory clinker extended from a minimum value of 0.94 % to a maximum
value of 9.5 %. The values are distributed rather regularly around the mean value of 4.7 %. Based on this
distribution and the corresponding plant experience, the burnability of raw mixes is ranked as follows:

Evaluation Free Lime %

very good
good
moderate
poor
very poor 0-2
2-4
4-6
6-8
>8

This classification has been shown to be applicable over many years of practical experience.
With the same raw meals the free lime values of the industrial clinker vary within a much smaller range,
from a minimum value of 0.6 % CaOfree to a maximum value of 2.8 % CaOfree. The mean free lime
value of the clinker examined from the Holcim Group is about 1.3 % CaO with a standard deviation of s =
0.4 %.
The difference between the distribution of free lime for the laboratory produced clinks of the burnability
test and plant clinkers can be seen in Figure 15.
Figure 15 Distribution of free CaO values for plant clinkers and for clinkers produced by the Holcim
burnability test
This narrow range of free lime for plant clinkers can be explained by the quality requirements in the
standards and of the market. The free lime values of industrial clinker, therefore, do not offer an
explanation for the actual burning behavior of the raw mixes. The variability of raw mix laboratory
burnability, as shown in Figure 14, is compensated by technological measures in the plant.
4.3.2 Statistical Burnability Model
In a quantitative evaluation of the data obtained by the Holcim burnability test, a model has been
developed - Statistical Burnability Model. The initial data for development of the model were the free lime
values from burnability test at 1400 °C on 168 different raw mixes, the chemical and mineralogical
composition, and the overall fineness of these mixes.
With this model, the 1350, 1400 and 1450 free lime values of other raw mixes from the same raw material
components can be determined based on one single burnability test of one mix. In this way, the
burnability model can be used as an instrument for optimization of raw mixes by allowing for the effect
due to changes of the following factors:

Chemical Parameters lime saturation, silica ratio, alumina ratio, K2O + Na2O, MgO
Physical Parameters residue on 200 and 90 mm sieves, quantity of mica, quartz and iron minerals

An impression of the use of the statistical burnability model may be gained from the data listed in Table 9
and presented graphically in Figures 16 and 17. Using a standard raw mix (no. 2), of overall fineness
R90m= 11 %, and determined free lime value of 4.9 % that would be observed by varying the
temperature, overall fineness and chemical composition have been calculated. For a series of mixes from
any one set of components it is cheaper, quicker and equally accurate to use the model rather than
burning each mix in the laboratory.
Table 9 Influence of fineness and chemistry on laboratory burnability of a raw mix

Figure 16 Change of free lime with raw meal fineness

Figure 17 Change of free lime with raw meal composition

Influence of burning temperature

As can be seen in Table 9 and Figures 16 and 17, increasing the burning temperature results - as would
be expected - in lower free lime values. Thus, for example, mix 2 (4.9 % free lime at 1400 °C) would
contain 6.3 % at 1350 °C and 3.5 % at 1450 °C. The influence of reducing the temperature 50 °C to 1350
°C is thus roughly the same as that resulting by increasing the lime saturation from 93 to 96%, as in mix
4.
Influence of raw meal fineness
Increasing the mix 2 residue on 90 m from 11 to 17 %, results in the free lime at 1400 °C increasing to
5.6 %, while reducing the residue to 8 % decreases the free lime to 4.3 %. Increasing the residue to 17 %,
thus has the same influence as that caused by raising the silica ratio from 2.37 to 2.6. Most practical use
of being able to calculate the effects due to fineness is the assistance it gives when evaluating the
optimum of raw meal mills.
Influence of LS, SR, and AR
The influence of increasing the LS, SR, and AR of mix 2 (LS 93, SR 2.7, and AR 1.72) can be seen in
Figure 17. Increasing the AR to 1.9 has practically no effect, increasing the SR to 2.60 does, however,
increase the free lime values (mix 5), but to a lesser extent than that caused by increasing the LS to 96.
Increasing both the LS to 96 and the SR to 2.6, increases the free lime the most.
4.3.3 Physicochemical Burnability Model
Further investigations during recent years have contributed additional knowledge with regard to
burnability. It has long been known that the amount of uncombined lime depends on:
¨ Specific reaction area, i.e. the area of contact between the grains
¨ local oversaturation, i.e. grain size of individual minerals
¨ ambient conditions, i.e. pressure, temperature, and burning time
¨ diffusion coefficient of CaO through the liquid phase, i.e. composition of the liquid phase
¨ amount of liquid phase formed during burning
¨ supply and demand of CaO
It has recently been found that all these influencing factors may be incorporated in four parameters,
namely silica ratio, lime saturation, amount of oversized quartz grains and amount of oversized calcite
grains. Pressure, temperature and burning time are considered to be constant.
Silica ratio (SR) and lime saturation (LS)
The formation of C3S from C2S and CaO is governed by the diffusion of CaO through the melt. The silica
modules and lime saturation are sufficient to describe this chemical reaction quantitatively.
The amount of CaO which can be accommodated within the liquid phase and in which it can diffuse and
thus react, is inversely proportional to the silica ratio. A linear relationship exists between max. lime
saturation and silica ratio values at which no free lime can be observed.
Quartz and calcite grains
Whether a grain of material reacts fully under given burning conditions depends on its diameter, structure
and chemical composition. Monomineral particles above a certain critical size do not react fully, even after
a long burning period. They are equivalent to local oversaturation of one chemical component. The overall
raw mix residue is therefore not always a wholly reliable criterion for assessment of the burnability, unless
the character of the grains is known. Quartz grains which exceed certain dimensions react with adjoining
lime grains to from belite clusters. This prevents further reaction and gives rise to free lime.
Too large calcite grains result in CaO not being completely combined as also results from grains whose
lime saturation is over 100 %.
For the Holcim burnability test conditions the following grain diameters, quartz ³ 32 mm and calcite ³ 90
mm, were found to be critical limits.
Figure 18 Influence of chemistry and coarse grains on burnability of raw mixes

An impression of the advantages offered by the physiochemical model may be drawn from the data
presented in Figure 18 showing the influence of oversize quartz and calcite grains and of lime saturation
(LS) and silica ratio (SR) on the uncombined CaO content of various industrial raw mixes.
The total free lime values calculated from the four mentioned parameters correlate well with the values
determined experimentally by the Holcim burnability test (r = 0.97), thus confirming that the four chosen
parameters are capable of characterizing to a considerable extent raw meal burnability.
As can be easily observed (Figure 18), the quantity of free lime attributed to the individual parameters
varies considerably. Whereas in some mixes the free lime is primarily associated with the chemical
parameters (LS/SR), in others the influence of the quartz and calcite grains is predominant.
For example in raw meal no. 3, despite a high overall residue of 24 % on a 90 mm screen, no free lime
results from the oversize calcite grains. The reason for this lies in the cement stone composition of this
component, in which the individual calcite crystals are fine-grained and homogeneously distributed. The
benefit of distinguishing between the overall fineness and the actual dimensions of the individual crystals
can thus be appreciated.
In contrast to raw meal no. 3, about half the free lime in raw meal no. 10 is due to oversize calcite,
originating from a high-grade limestone component of a titration value of 95 %.
In raw meals no. 46 and 53 the uncombined CaO can be mainly attributed to chemical rather than
physical parameters. In the former it is mainly the high silica ratio (3.5), in the latter the very high lime
saturation (103 % ) which is responsible for the resulting content of free lime. Finer grinding of these raw
meals would thus not appreciably lower the uncombined lime values of clinker burnt in the burnability test.
Only a change in chemical composition would improve the burnability of these raw meals.
In raw meal no. 48, despite the large overall residue (43 % > 90 mm) and the given 6.5 % quartz content,
the influence of quartz is not unduly great. The reason for this is that the individual crystals are small and
well distributed, even within the individual grains.
It is now obvious that by individually examining the 4 parameters which principally influence the
burnability, it is easier to characterize, then was previously the case, the critical features of any raw
mixture.
It is thus, for instance, easier to decide whether components should be combined or separately ground, or
to decide the optimal chemical and physical properties of any raw mix.
5. THERMOCHEMISTRY OF CLINKER FORMATION
A detailed discussion of the heat balance of rotary kiln lies outside the scope of this paper and will, in any
case, be considered later under the heading of process technology. What will, however, be mainly
discussed are the basic thermochemical data relevant of the material aspects of clinker production.
During clinker production, heat is both absorbed (endothermic heat changes) and produced (exothermic
heat changes in certain characteristic temperature rings).
On the basis of the reaction sequence already presented in Table 2, the heat changes pertinent to the
individual reactions are known to be as follows:
Table 10 Nature of heat changes occurring during clinkering

Temperature range (°C) Type of Reaction Heat Change

20 - 100 Evaporation of free H2 O Endothermic
100 - 300 Loss of physically adsorbed H2O Endothermic
400 - 900 Removal of structural H2O (H2O, OH groups from clay minerals) Endothermic
600 - 900 Dissociation of CO2 from carbonate Endothermic
> 800 Formation of intermediate products, belite, aluminate and ferrite Exothermic
> 1250 Formation of liquid phase (aluminate and ferrite melt) Endothermic
Formation of alite Exothermic
1300 - 1240 (cooling cycle) Crystallization of liquid phase into mainly aluminate and ferrite
Exothermic

A most effective way of visualizing the temperature at which the heat changes occur, their nature and
magnitude, can be obtained from differential thermal analysis (DTA) curves of cement raw mixes, an
example of which is given in Figure 19.
Figure 19 DTA curves of typical cement raw meals

It is obvious from these curves that by far the greatest heat requirement occurs between 850 - 900 °C, i.e.
for the decomposition of the carbonate minerals. The total heat requirements for dehydration,
decarbonisation and melting exceed the heat liberated by the formation of belite and the intermediate and
final products.
Not included in the DTA representation, however is the heat involved in the actual heating of the raw meal
and the cooling of the clinker and of the CO2 and H2O gases obtained from the calcite and the clay
minerals.
The heat of absorption and liberation, however, varies according to the nature of the individual raw mix,
as is clearly demonstrated in Figure 13. The DTA curve, therefore, allows a differentiation of the
reactivities of different raw mixes to be made.
When the quantitative values for the various reactions are considered, the heat requirements for the
material only with respect to clinker formation may be expressed as follows in approximate terms.
Table 11 Thermal balance of heat changes occurring during clinker formation

Endothermic processes:dehydration, decreasing, heating

kJ/kg clinker (kcals/kg)
dehydration of clays » 170 » 40
decarbonisation of calcite » 1990 » 475
heat of melting » 105 » 25
heating of raw materials 0 - 1450 °C » 2050 » 490
» 4315 » 1030
Exothermic processes: heat of formation, cooling of clinker, CO2, H2O
kJ/kg clinker (kcals/kg)
crystallization of dehydrated clay » 40 » 10
heat of formation of clinker minerals » 420 » 100
crystallization of melt » 105 » 25
cooling of clinker » 1400 » 335
cooling of CO2 (ex calcite) » 500 » 120
cooling of H2O (ex clays) » 85 » 20
 » 2550 » 610
Net theoretical heat of clinker formation (endothermic - exothermic) » + 1765 » + 420

Depending on the carbonate content, lime saturation and mineralogical composition, the net heat
requirement varies between approx. 1630 - 1800 kJ/kg clinker (i.e. 390 - 430 kcals /kg).
These values, of course, only apply to a dry raw meal. For a slurry, the heat requirements will certainly be
higher by that necessary of the removal of water. This value will be dependent on the actual slurry water
content, and for the average slurry of 35 % H2O is » 2100 kJ/kg clinker. The net theoretical heat of
formation of 1 kg clinker from slurry is, therefore »1765 + 2100, i.e. 3865 kJ/kg (920 kcals/kg).
When considering the heat required for actual clinker production, involving heat losses, the values of
approx. 1700 and 3865 kJ/kg clinker are too low. A more realistic heat balance taking process inefficiency
into consideration, is approximately as follows:
Table 12 Heat balance of wet and dry kiln

Dry kiln Wet kiln

kJ/kg clinker
Evaporation of H2O (0.4 % dry kin and 35 % wet kiln) » 20 (» 0.6 %) 2100 (38 %)
Heat of reaction » 1765 (» 54 %) » 1765 (» 32%)
Heat losses through gas, clinker, dust, etc. » 840 (» 26 %) » 1250 (» 23 %)
Heat losses by radiation and convection » 650 (» 20 %) » 360 (» 7 %)
» 3275 kJ/kg » 5475 kJ/kg

The heat losses due to radiation, exhaust gas, etc. will be explained in more detail under the heading of
process technology.
Literature

F. Becker and W.  Schrämli: Build-up of Rings caused by Spurrite Formation. Cement and Lime
Manufacture 42 (1969), pp. 91 - 94.
H. Braun, H. Guntlin and H. Kock: Burnability tests on cement raw mixes of the Holcim Group.
Report MA 77/2510/E
J. Gebauer and E. Fitzer: Reaktionen zwischen Kalk und Kieselsäure bei hohen Temperaturen.
ZKG 22 (1969), pp. 402 - 406.
J.A. Imlach: Non-Isothermal Investigation of the Kinetics of Reactions Occurring during Clinker
Formation. Cement and Concrete Research 6 (1976), pp 747 - 755.
H. Kock, G. Rey, F. Becker: A statistical Model for Determining the Burnability of Cement Raw Mixes.
VI. Int. Congr. Chem. Cem. Moscow (1974). Report MA 74/ 3274/E.
Frankenberger: Wärmeübergang in Zementdrehöfen. Schriftenreihe der Zementindustrie (1969), H. 36,
Beton-Bauverlag GmbH, Düsseldorf.
F.P. Glasser and R.M. Herath Banda: Role of Iron and Aluminum Oxides as Fluxes during the Burning
of Portland Cement. Cement and Concrete Research 8 (1978), No 319 - 324.
F.M. Lea: The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete. 3rd Edition, Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.,
London 1970.
A.E. Moore: The Sequence of Compound Formation in Portland Cement Rotary Kilns. Cement
Technology 1976, pp. 85 - 91 and pp. 134 - 138.
P. Weber: Heat Transfer in Rotary Kilns. Bauverlag GmbH, Wiesbaden - Berlin (1963)
H. Guntlin and M. Kristmann: Physikalisch-Chemisches Modell zur Charakterisierung der Brennbarkeit
von Rohmischungen.

C02 - Portland Cement Clinker

Portland Cement Clinker

1. clinker mineralogy
1.1 Theoretical Clinker Phases
1.2 The Real Clinker Minerals
1.3 Polymorphic Modifications of the Clinker Minerals
1.4 Quantitative Clinker Mineralogy - Potential and Reality
2. Clinker Microstructure
2.1 Microscopical Appearance of the clinker minerals
2.2 Formation of Clinker Microstructure During Burning
2.3 Influence of Production Conditions on Clinker Microstructure
3. Methods of clinker investigation
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Microscopy and Microprobe Analysis
3.3 X-ray Powder Diffraction
3.4 Clinker Analysis by Wet Chemical Extraction Method

1. CLINKER MINERALOGY
1.1 Theoretical Clinker Phases
The chemical composition (wt.%) of ordinary Portland cement clinker in the Holcim Group is on the
average as follows:

Loss on ignition 0.48

SiO2 22.2
Al2O3 5.0
Fe2O3 2.8
CaO 65.4
MgO 1.8
SO3 0.54
K2O 0.63
Na2O 0.25
TiO2 0.27
Mn2O3 0.09
P2O5 0.14
Cl- 0.01
F- 0.08
99.70

CaOfree 1.3

With this knowledge it is possible to predict both:

· the phases which should theoretically be present in a cooled clinker of this composition
· the quantity of each phase which should be present.
For the given average chemical composition the potential mineralogy is calculated to be as follows:
C3S = 54.3 % C3A = 8.5 %
C2S = 22.8 % C4AF = 8.7 %
How was this calculation performed?
To predict the minerals which should potentially be present, the phase equilibrium diagram for the
appropriate oxide system was consulted. Such diagrams are most easily located in the standard
reference series ‘Phase Diagrams for Ceramists’ (Ref. 1).
To a first approximation the average clinker may be considered as consisting of only the three major
oxides CaO, SiO2 and Al2O3 and hence its composition may be plotted using the well-known ternary
phase diagram, CaO - Al2O3 - SiO2. The given composition, i.e. 65.4 % CaO, 22.2 % SiO2, and 5.0 %
Al2O3, when recalculated in terms of these three oxides alone, yields 70.6 % CaO, 24.0 % SiO2, and 5.4
% Al2O3, totaling altogether 100 %.
Consulting the CaO - Al2O3 - SiO2 phase equilibrium diagram reproduced in a simplified formation in
Figure 1, exhibiting only the sub-solidous equilibrium relationships, it can be demonstrated that the
average composition ¬ lies within the C3S - C2S - C3A compatibility triangle.
Because the chosen clinker composition lies within this triangle, these three phases will be formed on
heating, provided that equilibrium is attained.
Small changes in the chemical composition of the mix are accompanied by changes in the quantity of the
clinker phase C3S - C2S - C3A. As soon as the changes exceed a certain limit, different minerals are then
formed.
Thus, if the SiO2  composition is held constant at 24 % and the Al2O3 reduced to 2 % (i.e. point 1 in
Figure 1), the phases formed would be C3S - C3A- CaO, whereas increasing the Al2O3 to 12.5 % (point 2
in Figure 1) would result in the formation of C2S - C3A - C12A7.
It can thus be realized why maintaining the correct composition is important in the production of Portland
cement, and why it cannot be varied over too wide a range. Because only the three phases C3S - C2S -
C3A possess the desired hydraulic properties, cement clinker composition should lie within the C3S - C2S
- C3A triangle.
Fig. 1: Sub-solidous phase equilibrium relationships in the system CaO - Al2O3 - SiO2

Clinker containing CaO - C3S - C3A would contain undesired free lime (responsible for expansion on
hydration) while clinker containing C2S - C3A - C12A7, would contain no C3S, and would therefore
exhibit unfavorable hydration and hardening characteristics.
A more accurate prediction concerning the theoretical phases present is obtained when the presence of
Fe2O3 is taken into consideration. On recalculation in terms of the 4 principal oxides, the composition of
the so far considered average clinker becomes 68.5 % CaO, 23.2. % SiO2, 5.3 % Al2O3 and 3.0 %
Fe2O3, again totaling 100 %.
As in the case for CaO - Al2O3 - SiO2, the above composition when plotted in the CaO - Al2O3 - Fe2O3 -
SiO2 phase equilibrium diagram (Figure 2), shows the potential composition as lying within the C3S - C2S
- C3A - C4AF compatibility volume and hence consists of these phases.
Fig. 2: Sub-solidus compatibility relations in the system CaO - Al2O3 - Fe2O3- SiO2

A point of special interest here is that three of the phases C3S - C2S - C3A are binary compounds, i.e.
composed of only two oxides. The other phase C4AF is a ternary oxide, composed of CaO, Al2O3 and
Fe2O3. Although C4AF is often considered as being an individual compound of fixed composition, it is in
reality a member of the solid solution series 2 CaO. Fe2O3 - ‘CaO . Al2O3 ‘ in which 50 % of the Fe3+
atoms are replaced by Al3+ atoms, hence giving the composition 2 CaO × 1/2 Al2O3 × 1/2 Fe2O3, i.e. 4
CaO × Al2O3 × Fe2O3.
This solid solution series can be clearly seen in Figure 3, running from composition 2 CaO × 1/2 Al2O3 ×
1/2 Fe2O3 to the end member of approximate composition 6 CaO × 2 Al2O3 × Fe2O3, i.e. C6A2F, in
which 2 out of 3 Fe3+ atoms have been replaced by Al3+. The theoretical end member with 100 %
replacement of Fe3+ by Al3+, i.e. ‘C2A’, is not stable at normal atmospheric pressure, but only at
pressures in the order of 15000 bars.
Figure 3 Phase equilibrium diagram of the portion CaO - 2CaO . Fe2O3 - CaO × Al2O3 of the CaO
× Al2O3 × Fe2O3 system

In the already mentioned average clinker the oxides CaO, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and SiO2, total 95.6 %, the
remaining 4.4 % being principally composed of MgO (1.8 %), the alkalis K2O and Na2O (0.9 %) and SO3
(0.5 %). These minor oxides not only are located within the lattices of the C3S, C2S, C3A and C4AF, (as
will be demonstrated later) but also exist in the clinker as free MgO (periclase) and as alkali and
alkali/calcium sulfates.
1.2 The Real Clinker Minerals
We are now acquainted with the clinker phase from the theoretical point of view, but what are the real
chemical compositions of the clinker minerals?
Except for periclase (MgO) and free lime (CaO), all clinker minerals are solid solutions, i.e. they occur as
single crystalline phases which vary in composition within finite limits without the appearance of an
additional phase. The ‘pure’ compounds C3S, C2S, C3A, thus, do not occur in this simple form, but
contain a whole series of oxides such as MgO, Na2O, K2O, Fe2O3, and Al2O3.
Whereas for the pure phases we use the abbreviations C3S, C2S, etc., for the real minerals only the
names alite, belite, aluminate and ferrite should be used.
Until the development of extremely sophisticated analytical techniques (electron microprobe analyzer and
energy disperse analyzer), the determination of the maximum quantities of these minor oxides that could
be incorporated into the 4 principal clinker minerals was based on laboratory experiments using the pure
theoretical phases C3S, C2S, C3A and C4AF. The quantities actually present, i.e. the true distribution of
the oxides, remained unknown. By using the microprobe technique, however, it is now possible to
determine the rage of composition of even the individual alite, belite, aluminate and ferrite crystals in any
factory produced clinker.
In a recent study (2), based on 28 clinkers from Holcim Group plants, it was found by electron microprobe
analysis that the range of MgO, Fe2O3, Al2O3, K2O and Na2O present in the alite and belite crystals
varies from plant to plant (see Table 1 and Figure 4). Moreover, even within one particular clinker grain,
the individual alite and belite crystals show varying minor element incorporation.
Figure 4 Wt % chemical variation ( ± s) of MgO, Fe2O3, Al2O3, K2O, and Na2O in alites and
belites in various cement plants

Plant Plant
Table 1 Real clinker minerals: chemical variation between different plant clinkers

Alite Pure Belite Pure Aluminate Pure Ferrite Pure

min. max. C3S min. max. C2S min. max. C3A
min. max. C4AF
SiO2 24.4 25.9 24.5 26.31 29.8 32.9 31.3 34.88 3.1 4.3 3.9
1.8 3.1 2.5 20.98
Al2O3 1.0 1.8 1.3 - 1.5 2.8 2.2 - 28.7 31.8 30.8 37.74
20.2 24.4 22.5 32.86
Fe2O3 0.4 1.7 0.8 - 0.7 2.3 1.2 - 5.2 8.3 6.9 -
20.8 26.7 23.7 46.16
CaO 69.3 72.4 70.6 73.69 62.2 66.4 63.8 65.12 51.5 58.3 54.6 62.26
47.4 49.9 49.1
MgO 0.5 2.1 1.1 - 0.2 0.8 0.5 - 0.8 1.5 1.1 -
1.9 3.2 2.6
K2O <0.1 0.3 0.1 - 0.3 1.9 0. - 0.3 4.6 2.0 -
0.1 0.3 0.2
Na2O <0.1 0.3 0.1 - 0.1 0.8 0.3 - 0.2 0.8 0.8 -
0.1 0.2 0.1

1.3 Polymorphic Modifications of the Clinker Minerals

If the clinker minerals are studied in detail, we find out that not only does the chemical composition vary,
but the same clinker phase also exists in different polymorphic forms, which can exhibit different physical
properties. Determining the various polymorphic forms present in clinker has not been an easy task so
that it was first necessary to study the polymorphism of the pure phases C3S, C2S, C3A and C4AF in
order to obtain sufficient information and experience to be able to advance to alite, belite, aluminate and
ferrite.
1.3.1 C3S and Alite
Between room temperature and 1100 °C pure C3S displays 6 polymorphic modifications, namely:

¨ 3 triclinic TI, TII, TIII

¨ 2 monoclinic MI and MII
¨ 1 rhombohedral RI

From DTA analysis it is known that the transitions take place as follows:

600° 920° 980° 990° 1050°

TI « TII « TIII « MI « MII « R
and because the changes involve only a light displacement within the lattice structure (i.e. no breakage of
the strong chemical bonds), they are therefore easily reversible. These transformations consequently
cannot be prevented, so that in pure C3S, the high temperature modifications can only be stabilized by
quenching.
When passing to alite, the real mineral in industrial clinker, incorporating Al2O3,, Fe2O3, MgO, K2O,
Na2O, and TiO2 within the crystal lattice, it has been found to exist in the following modifications:
¨ trigonal R
¨ monoclinic MI
¨ triclinic TII
The incorporation of foreign atoms thus ensures the stabilization of the high temperature monoclinic and
trigonal forms, and in some clinker even both of these modifications can be simultaneously present.
Because the various modifications are crystallographically all very similar, the various polymorphic forms
of alite in cement clinker are considered as having essentially the same hydraulic activity. Observed
differences in activity seem to be related to structural faults in the crystal as a result of incorporation of
elements such as Al, Fe, Mg, etc.
A differentiation between the various polymorphic forms is partially possible by both microscopy and by x-
ray diffraction as shown in Figure 5 using sophisticated apparatus and analyzing equipment.
Figure 5 X-ray diffraction patterns of the various C3S polymorphs

1.3.2 C2S and Belite

Pure C2S exhibits 5 crystalline modifications between room temperature and 1500°C, namely the form a,
b, a‘L, a‘H and a. The stability range of these is displayed in a simplified form in Figure 6.
Figure 6 Stability ranges and polymorphic sequences of C2S

The changes b ® a and a ® a‘L are irreversible and slow as they involve breaking all the primary chemical
bonds. These structural changes are accompanied by a considerable volume change (13 %). The b-belite
is considered to have good hydraulicity, while the a-form is hydraulically only little active. Alkalis play an
important role: in the presence of K2O and Na2O and a‘ and an a-form develop, which have a higher
activity than the b-form.
1.3.3 C3A and Aluminate
Pure C3A is a definite compound with a cubic lattice, showing no polymorphic transformations. When
increasing quantities of Na2O, they are incorporated within the lattice, forming a solid solution series
incorporating up to 5.7 % Na2O, orthorhombic (O), monoclinic (M) and tetragonal (Tg) modifications
occur; their stability relations are summarized in Figure 7.
Figure 7 Phase equilibrium diagram for Na2O - C3A solid solutions

The aluminate phase in clinker exists in the cubic (C), orthorhombic (O) and tetragonal (Tg) forms. Two
forms, e.g. O + C or O + Tg, can coexist. Up to date, the monoclinic (M) formation has not been observed.
There is some evidence to suggest that the various forms differ in their reactivities.
1.3.4 C4AF and Ferrite
Pure C4AF is not a definite compound but a member of the continuous solid solution series extending
between 2 CaO × Fe2O3 and 2 CaO × Al2O3 , the latter end-member being stable only at high pressure,
up to approx. 66 % Fe2O3 in 2CaO × Fe2O3 can be replaced by Al2O3. The member of 4 CaO × Al2O3
× Fe2O3 (C4AF) corresponds to the 50 % replacement.
The ferrite phase in Portland cement varies chemically between C6A2F and C6AF2 (solid solution series)
and is orthorhombic like the pure C2F. As yet no other modification has been reported. The ferrite phase
is considered to be only slightly hydraulically active.
For a detailed x-ray diffraction investigation of aluminate and ferrite in clinker, the phases can be
concentrated dissolution of alite and belite using salicylic acid.
1.4 Quantitative Clinker Mineralogy - Potential and Reality
1.4.1 Calculation of Potential Clinker Composition
For almost 50 years the potential clinker mineralogy has been calculated by the procedure first proposed
by Bogue. This method assumes that:
· chemical equilibrium has been attained
· Fe2O3 reacts with Al2O3 and CaO to form C4AF
· Al2O3 remaining from combination as C4AF reacts with CaO to form C3A
· SO3 combines with CaO to formation CaSO4
· CaO remaining from the above combinations reacts with the silica. C3S is the first formed
· with the SiO2, and any CaO left over reacts with the C2S to form C3S. If CaO remains after
converting all of the C2S to C3S it remains as uncombined CaO.
· MgO remains essentially uncombined.
Figure 7A Mineralogical composition derived from chemical analysis (Graphical representation of
the steps in calculation)

For the purposes of calculation, the ‘CaO’ and ‘SiO2’ values used are given.as
‘CaO’ = CaOtotal - CaOfree
‘SiO2’ = SiO2 total - insoluble residue
The calculation does not take into account the influence of the minor elements: alkalis, Mg, Ti, Mn, Cr, P,
etc., and the solid solution of the principal oxides: CaO, SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 within the alite, belite,
aluminate and ferrite phases. As we have already seen, the composition of the 4 principal phases is not
C3S, C2S, C3A and C4AF. It is therefore not surprising that the potential and real clinker compositions
never agree. This situation is further aggravated by the non-attainment of equilibrium during clinker
production. In addition it is now known that SO3 in clinker is mainly combined with the alkalis and only to
a slight extent with CaO. The currently used Bogue formula for clinker does, therefore, not consider the
influence of SO3.
1.4.2 Differences between Potential and Real Phase Composition
The most practiced method at present to determine the real mineralogical composition is by means of
microscopic point counting, complemented by the use of crystallized aluminate and ferrite. The results
obtained by these methods, as is to be expected, differ from those obtained during the Bogue calculation
procedure.
How large are the differences between the potential and real mineralogical composition of the clinker?
This can best be seen in Figure 8 based on the results of measurements on over 50 different plant
clinkers (3).
It can be seen that:
· Alites as calculated are always too low, ranging from 3 - 24 %, on average 13 %
· Belites are mostly calculated too high, on average 6 %
· Aluminate and ferrite as calculated can either be too high or too low, but in general both phases
are calculated approx. 2 % too high.
Figure 8 Difference between Actual and Potential Phase Composition (experimental minus Bogue)

1.4.3 Modifications of Bogue’s Formula

A useful improvement in the correlation between potential and real mineralogical composition can be
obtained if slight corrections are made to the Bogue calculated values. On the basis of data obtained
(Figure 8), the following formulae have been proposed:
C3Scorr. = C3SBogue + 4.0 MgOclinker+ 5.5 K2Oclinker

C2Scorr. = C2 SBogue- 1.5 MgOclinker- 2.2 K2Oclinker

C3Acorr. = C3ABogue+ 7.8 Na2O + 1.5 AR - 2.1 SO3 - 5

C4AFcorr. = C4AFBog - 6.5 Na2O - 1-7 AR + 5.0 Mn2O3 + 3

These corrected formulae are valid under the following conditions:
MgO < 4 % Na2O < 0.5 % Mn2O3 < 0.3 %
K2O <1% SO3 < 1.0 % AR > 1.0
In the case of AR < 1.0 uncorrected Bogue’s formulae are more precise to calculate C3A and C4AF.
The improvement achieved by using these modified formulae can be seen in Figures 9 and 10. These
corrections improve Bogue’s original concept in that the clinker phases can be more accurately
calculated, taking into consideration the incorporation of minor elements without having to undertake time
consuming mineralogical analyses.
For pure routine quality control purposes in any individual plant, the use of the original Bogue equations is
still acceptable as long as no significant change in raw materials occurs. For comparison of calculated
values between different plants or with directly measured clinker mineralogy (microscopy, x-ray diffraction)
the use of the modified formulae is recommended.
Figure 9 Alite and Belite

Figure 10 Aluminate and Ferrite

2. CLINKER MICROSTRUCTURE
2.1 Microscopical Appearance of the clinker minerals
2.1.1 Introduction
In the foregoing chapter we have discussed the principles of clinker formation, its chemistry and
mineralogy. These parameters can only account for part of the clinker and of the resulting cement
properties. The microstructure or fabric of a clinker is also decisive when considering phenomena such as
clinker grinding, cement hydration and hardening characteristics.
In this chapter only an introduction to the microscopical appearance of industrial clinker will be given. As
this is a complex topic, only the basic principles will be discussed. For further information reference
should be made to any of the reference works on this subject (4, 5).
2.1.2 General
The appearance of a crystalline aggregate is generally referred to as fabric, which is defined as the whole
of all geometric features or properties of an aggregate. Three groups of geometric features can be
discerned: phase association, texture and structure.
Phase association is the information group which defines what phases constitute the fabric and in what
quantities they exist. Texture includes the information concerning size, shape and arrangement of the
crystals and also the intergrowth relationship of the individual phases. Finally, structure indicates to what
extent a fabric is anisotropic, whether some crystal phases are oriented in a certain direction and what
type of space-filling, i.e. porosity, occurs.
With these geometric features, we can describe the fabric of a material. This description explains how and
out of what a piece of clinker is build up. When completely differently manufactured clinkers are
investigated and compared, one realizes to what degree the ‘what’ and ‘how’ differ, thereby resulting in
the most varied clinker fabrics.
The fact that clinker does not always have the same appearance leads to the important question of why
one particular fabric and not another is formed. It is overall accepted that the genesis of a crystalline
material influences to a great extent its appearance or fabric. The genetic factors of the clinker formation
process are identical to those conditions on which the industrial manufacture of clinker is based, this
being the interaction of parameters beginning with the raw material, passing through the sintering process
and ending with clinker storage.
2.1.3 Microscopical Appearance of Clinker Phases
2.1.3.1 Alite
External Form
Alite, the principal constituent of cement clinker, occurs most frequently as idiomorphic crystals, i.e. as
well-defined, sharp-edged crystals. The characteristic form, as can be seen in Plate 1, are compact
tabular crystals, often exhibiting a hexagonal section. Alite crystals can also, however, be found in a form
whose outlines are dissected by indentations and protrusions, and whose hexagonal shape is barely
discernible. Such crystals are termed xenomorphic alite and can be seen in Plate 2. Lath-shaped alite
crystals have also been reported.
Plate 1 Idiomorphic alite (brown). 250 x

Plate 2 Xenomorphic alite. 250 x

Internal Features
A feature commonly observed within alite crystals is the inclusion of small rounded belite crystals, these
having been formed before the alite, as has previously been indicated in Paper 10. An example of this
phenomenon can be seen in Plate 3.
Plate 3 Alite exhibiting belite (blue) inclusions. 250 x
Other features can also be observed within alite crystals and include the presence of single and
polysynthetic twinning, as can be seen in the excellent plates in Ref. 4 (p. 11, Fig. 4).
At the highest sintering temperature, alite always exhibits its highest symmetry, i.e. trigonal (R) form, but
on cooling to normal temperature, passes through several polymorphic stages, and so in industrial clinker
appears mostly in the monoclinic (M) an triclinic (T) forms.The presence of simple twinning is indicative of
crystals having passed through the trigonal (R) ® monoclinic (M) polymorphic transition. The presence of
polysynthetic twinning is associated with the change from the monoclinic to the lowest symmetry, i.e.
triclinic (T) form. Differentiation between the individual monoclinic or triclinic forms is not possible by
microscopy but requires the use of x-ray diffraction (see Figure 5) or DTA techniques. The optical
distinction of the various polymorphic changes is made possible by the different etching behavior of the
various crystal modifications.
Another internal feature of alite crystals is the presence of zones having different etching properties, i.e. a
zonar structure. These zones are associated with the selective inclusion of different ions during the
formation process. Examples of the various forms of twinning and zonar structure are to be found in (4).
Alite decomposition
As has already been mentioned, pure C3S is unstable below 1250 °C and tends do decompose into belite
and sub-microscopic free lime. Although this decomposition is strongly suppressed in alite due to the
incorporation of foreign ions, the presence of bivalent iron i.e. Fe2+ and CaF2 opposes this stabilization
effect. An example of partially decomposed alite crystals can be seen in Plate 4.
Plate 4 Alite decomposition into belite and free lime. 250x

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) photographs of alite, (see Plates 21 - 23) also indicate the
idiomorphic formation shown in Plate 1.
2.1.3.2 Belite
External Form
The round crystal form (Plate 5) is the most characteristic shape of belite, although in rare cases crystals
showing a tendency to a hexagonal form are also observed (Plate 6).
Plate 5 Typical rounded belite 250x

Plate 6 Belite with complex lamellar structure due to a ® a‘ transition. 640x

Internal Features
Just like in the case of alite, the passing through the a ® a‘, a‘ ® b and b ® a polymorphic transformations
can also be microscopically observed. The first mentioned transition realties in belite crystals exhibiting a
cross lamella structure as shown in Plate 6, while after undergoing the a ® b transition, polysynthetic
twinning occurs.
Cross lamella and polysynthetic twinning can sometimes be observed in the same crystal.
The transition from b ® a belt, accompanied by an appreciable change of volume can be observed
microscopically.
a - belite is undesirable in clinker because the strong volume expansion breaks up the clinker granules,
producing much dust, and also because it is not hydraulically active.
Excellent plates showing polymorphic transformation phenomena are to be found in (4).
Secondary Belite
The liquid in contact with alite and belite at clinking temperature contains approximately 6 % SiO2 as well
as CaO, Al2O3 and Fe2O3. During cooling, immediately after the maximum temperature, this SiO2
comes out of solution in the form of small secondary belite crystals as sown in Plate 7. Such belite can
exhibit a drop-like or dendritic structure.
Plate 7 Secondary crystallization of belite 250 x

Scanning electron microscope photographs of belite seen in Plate 22 also confirm the rounded shape of
belite observed in polished sections.
2.1.3.3 Uncombined Lime
This is more commonly known as free lime, and always appears as rounded spherical crystals (Plate 8),
even when it is not constricted by other crystalline phases. When viewed at higher magnifications, e.g.
10,000 through scanning electron microscopy as shown in Plate 24, it can be seen that the rounded free
lime grains do have planar surfaces. It is invariably found along with alite, but not in contact with belite, as
in the latter case the two would react to form alite.
Plate 8 Spherical free lime (off-white) 250 x

Uncombined lime should not be confused with the micro-crystalline secondary free lime, resulting form
the decomposition of alite.
2.1.3.4 Matrix
The principal clinker minerals alite and belite are surrounded at clinking temperature by a liquid phase
(matrix). Upon cooling the latter crystallizes to yield principally aluminate and ferrite but, depending upon
its composition, can also yield periclase and sulfate containing minerals.
2.1.3.5 Aluminate
The form of the aluminate phase depends both upon the cooling rate and the alkali content of the liquid
phase. When the cooling rate is slow, well-separated idiomorphic aluminate crystals can be observed
(and consequently also ferrite crystals), as can be seen in Plate 9. This type of aluminate is the normal or
cubic form, containing insufficient incorporated foreign ions (alkalis) to change its symmetry to one of the
lower symmetry types.
Plate 9 Differentiated aluminate (gray) and ferrite (white) caused by slow cooling. 640 x

When the liquid phase is rich on alkalis, an aluminate solid solution containing both K2O and Na2O
crystallizes in the elongated lath from shown in Plate 10, often termed ‘alkali aluminate’.
Plate 10 Alkali aluminate with lamellar habit. 570 x

This form, as has been reported earlier, may have orthorhombic (O) or tetragonal (Tg) crystal symmetry,
requiring x-ray diffraction to differentiate between the two modifications.
However, when the clinker has been rapidly cooled, the aluminate and ferrite are finely grained and
closely intergrown as shown in Plate 11.
Plate 11Finely grained aluminate and ferrite due to rapid cooling. 250 x

Although the individual crystals are often so fine that they cannot be optically distinguished, x-ray
diffraction confirms that they are present in a crystalline and not amorphous form.
2.1.3.6 Ferrite
Just like the aluminate, the external form of the ferrite, as can be seen in Plate 9 and 11, depends upon
the cooling rate. The composition of this phase varies, due to solid solution, around the ratio C4AF. The
actual value cannot be determined by microscopy but x-ray diffraction gives an indication of their
composition.
2.1.3.7 Periclase
Periclase occurs only in clinker rich in MgO as an independent phase. In general two types can be
distinguished, one idiomorphic with polygonal sections, and one dentritic. Periclase is very easily
identified under the microscope due to its resistance to grinding and etching.
Plate 12 Idiomorphic periclase (gray). 640 x

2.1.3.8 Sulfate containing phases

The last phases to crystallize, long after the aluminate and ferrite have solidified, are the alkali sulfates.
These have been identified as being of two separate types, namely a simple alkali sulfate of composition
K2SO4, and a calcium potassium sulfate of composition 2 CaSO4, both being able to incorporate small
amounts of sodium. They are often found around the edges of pores. Micrographs showing these two
types of sulfates can be seen in Plates 13 and 14.
Plate 13 Alkali sulfate (black, angular) 250 x

Plate 14 Calcium potassium sulfate (needle shaped). 250 x

2.2 Formation of Clinker Microstructure During Burning

As clinker formation takes place over a range of temperature, it is not surprising that a gradual change of
fabric occurs between the initial raw meal and the finally cooled clinker.
The most common way of ascertaining such changes is to microscopically examine polished sections
prepared from raw materials which have been heated to selected temperatures and then immediately
quenched, to retain their high-temperature microstructure. Suitable samples may be either obtained via
sampling parts located at various positions along a kiln shell, or by heating raw mixes in the laboratory.
Now following, the change of microstructure of samples obtained at various temperatures during
clinkering in a laboratory DTA investigation are summarized.
As can be deduced from Figure 11 and from other sources (6), the clinker on attaining the various
indicated temperatures, shows the following changes in microstructure:
Figure 11 Changes in Microstructure at various temperatures

Upheating cycle:
1160°C
Individual particles of decarbonized limestone (i.e. free lime) and unreacted hematite can be seen against
the sub-microscopic, non-differentiated mass. Quartz particles are surrounded by reaction rims, several
microns thick. The presence of free lime and belite can be demonstrated by x-ray diffraction. No large
pores can be observed.
1280°C
The reaction rim around quartz particles has now become thicker and developed into rounded belite
crystals, large enough to be optically identified. The outline of large decarbonized limestone grains can
still be recognized. The presence of large pores is now observed.
1295°C
Quartz grains have mostly disappeared and in their place are now grains of belite. While new belite
crystals are formed, the already existing ones at the same time increase in size. Small pockets of liquid
phase can already be observed. The structure is now decidedly porous.
1330°C
The presence of liquid phase is very evident at this temperature, as is the presence of optically
identifiable alite and free lime crystals.
1410°C
Alite and belite crystals are still growing and showing their typical morphological forms in liquid rich zones.
Large pores can still be observed.
1450°C
Alite and belite have further increased in size but have still not reached their final dimensions. Free lime
can still be observed in many areas of the clinker in its typical rounded form.
Cooling Cycle:
1290°C
Alite and belite have reached their final size while porosity has generally decreased. The liquid phase is
still undifferentiated.
1260°C
Crystallization of the ferrite phase from the melt is detectable (see DTA curve).
1200°C
The clinker has its final microstructure. Alite and belite can now be observed in a matrix consisting of
crystallized aluminate and ferrite of sufficient size so as to allow their identification. Alite often appears to
have been resorbed (xenomorphic crystals), while on account of slow cooling belite often shows finger-
like growths. Small areas of exsolved material can sometimes be seen within aluminate areas, i.e.
secondary crystallization of belite has occurred.
2.3 Influence of Production Conditions on Clinker Microstructure
2.3.1 General
The microstructure of industrially produced clinker is influenced by several process parameters, the most
important of which are given in Table 2.
Table 2 Industrial parameters influencing clinker texture

Influence Parameter Specific factors

Raw mix properties chemical composition
fineness and Mineralogy
homogeneity
Fuel type coal ash
Burning conditions burning time / temperature
kiln atmosphere
Cooling conditions rate of cooling

2.3.2 Chemical Composition

If burning is properly performed, the quantitative mineralogical composition of a clinker depends only on
the chemical characteristics of the raw feed. From theoretical considerations (phase diagrams and Bogue
calculation) and microscopical observations, the change of clinker mineralogy with varying clinker
compositions can be predicted.
Although it may seem trivial, it is considered useful to give the clinker mineralogy associated with clinker
chemical composition (Table 3).
Table 3 Effect of chemical composition on clinker mineralogy

Chemical composition Clinker mineralogy

lime saturation too low alite
belite
free lime little
abundant
traces
lime saturation too high alite
belite
free lime abundant
little
excessive
alumina ratio high aluminate > ferrite
alumina ratio low ferrite > aluminate
silica ratio high little liquid phase
silica ratio low liquid phase abundant
alkalis alkali - aluminate present
alkalis together with SO3 alkali - sulfates present
more Mg than can be incorporated in the lattice of principal phases periclase present

2.3.3 Fineness and Mineralogy

During the clinkering of a raw mix, a migration and exchange of material takes place. The smaller the
grain size, the shorter the transport distance required to achieve complete reaction.
Once a certain grain size is exceeded, the lime and quartz components can no longer react completely
within the allowed time. Critical particle size for minerals such as calcite and quartz lie in the range of
approx. 50 - 100 mm. The maximum grain size is, therefore, that at which the raw material particles are
still just able to react. When this limit is exceeded, ‘undigested’ relicts remain. If the clusters of free lime
and belite are examined, particularly those with sharp boundaries (Plates 15 and 16), it is evident that
they owe their formation to the presence of oversize raw material grains. They still show the original
appearance of a raw meal grain, the siliceous particles being present as belite clusters and the carbonate
particles as free lime clusters as a result of incomplete reaction.
Plate 15 Belite cluster due to large, SiO2 - rich grain. 220 x

Plate 16 Free lime cluster due to large, lime-rich grain. 64 x

2.3.4 Homogeneity
If the raw mix is insufficiently homogenous, volume units of varying size will exist which do not have the
overall bulk chemical composition. It is easy to deduce form the phase diagram for the system CaO -
Al2O3 - Fe2O3 - SiO2 the phase compositions which can coexist assuming different volumes to have
difference chemical composition. In Figure 12 the different phase assemblages in the system CaO -
Al2O3 - SiO2 can be seen.
Figure 12 Possible mineral assemblages in the system CaO - Al2O3 - SiO2

With insufficiently homogenous raw feeds we should therefore expect a clinker microstructure of varying
mineralogy.
In reality this model exists also in the clinker. Plate 17 shows a clinker with a very inhomogenous
distribution of alite, belite and free lime, reflecting directly raw meal inhomogeneity.
Plate 17 Inhomogeneous distribution of clinker minerals. 64x

In comparison with the inhomogenous microstructure produced from an inhomogenous raw mix, Plate 18
sows the clinker fabric when the raw mix is correctly homogenized.
Plate 18 Homogenous distribution of minerals. 250 x

In comparison with the effects caused by oversize particles, the concentrations areas due to
inhomogeneity contain normally more than one clinker component and usually extend over lager areas.
Experience shows, however, that a certain clustering, particularly of belite, is almost always observed in
plate clinker. The even distribution (Plate 18) is rather an exception.
2.3.5 Coal Ash
Rotary kilns are in ever increasing numbers again being fired using coal.
Unlike gas and oil, this type of fuel imposes traces of its presence on clinker textures. During the burning
of coal, siliceous ash is produced as molten ash drops and these fall as a sediment of the clinker being
formed. There is thus a SiO2 concentration on the surface of the kiln charge. Depending on how far the
ash drops are carried into the kiln, they will be more or less assimilated with the clinker granules. Due to
the deposition of ash drops rich in SiO2 on the kiln charge, there is a local lack of CaO. At these places
only belite can be formed and thus the deposition leads to typical belite streaks in the clinker as can be
seen in Plate 19. Generally, these streaks are found in the peripheral areas of the pieces of clinker.
Plate 19 Belite layer due to coal ash. 64 x

2.3.6 Burning Time / Temperature

Large-scale industrial process conditions do not allow thermodynamic equilibrium to be reached. If the
kiln charge passes through the kiln too quickly (flushing) or the sintering temperature is too low
(underburning), the same characteristic fabric results as shown in Plate 20.
Plate 20 Underburnt clinker. 64 x

Whether the temperature, the heating time of both parameters were too low cannot be distinguished. As
can be seen in Plate 20, the alite an belite crystals are unusually small. Alite is surrounded by large
amounts of liquid phase, while belite is concentrated in clusters. In the areas where alite and liquid phase
coexist, accompanying free lime appears as a result of uncompleted reaction between lime and silica.
High porosity with vesicular cavities in places is also typical.
If all these characteristics are considered, it may be concluded that here the formation of the clinker
phases stopped at an early stage. The time and / or temperature was not sufficient to form normal clinker
from the raw materials.
Another time - temperature anomaly occurs if the clinker remains in the highest temperature range for too
long or if the sintering temperature is too high. Coarsening of the alite and belite grains takes place. It can
be shown that the crystallization of calcium silicate also continues during cooling as long as the cooling
rate is sufficiently slow. Alite and belite can continue to grow under such conditions - provided that the
quantity of the reacting material is large enough - until the liquid phase crystallizes. Therefore, with an
extreme crystal growth of calcium silicate, it is not clearly distinguishable if the clinker was over burnt or
whether the cooling rate was too slow. In all these events, hard burning results in clinker of reduced
hydraulic activity.
2.3.7 Cooling Rate
Clinker cooling takes place in two stages, the first cooling stage occurring within the kiln, the second in
the clinker cooler.
The rate of cooling within the kiln depends upon the flame length, on its position in the kiln and on the
throughput and speed of the kiln charge. The clinker temperature at the kiln outlet is probably between
1350 and 1200 °C. If the flame is long, this part of the cooling process is very slow and alite and belite
can grow to an excessive crystal size. In some cases (when the cooler efficiency is low), alite partially
decomposes into belite and free lime (see Plate 4).
The texture of the solidified liquid phase is also very dependent on the cooling rate. During slow cooling,
the crystals have time to grow. Ferrite and aluminate form a coarsely grained matrix (Plate 9).
Alternatively, if the cooling process proceeds quickly, the opposite takes place, i.e. the crystals are finely
grained (Plate 11).
Cooling can also proceed so quickly that the crystals can only form in the sub-microscopic range.
Distinction between aluminate and ferrite is no longer possible by microscopy but can be effected by x-ray
methods.
3. METHODS OF CLINKER INVESTIGATION
3.1 Introduction
Investigations on clinker are usually restricted to determining the following properties:
· identification of the minerals
· estimation of the quantity of each species present
· determination of the composition of individual crystals of any single species and hence the
composition range of that species
· determination of the habit and spatial distribution (texture) of the minerals.
Several groups of methods are available for the determination of these properties:
· light microscopy, scanning electron and electron microprobe method
· x-ray diffraction
· thermo-analytical methods
· wet-chemical extraction techniques
Often it is necessary to use the combination of these methods if the maximum amount of information or if
the highest degree of accuracy is required. No single technique is capable of determining all the desired
properties. In Table 4 the normal range of application of each method is listed.
As can be seen, wet chemical methods are certainly capable of being performed at all plants, whereas
only a limited number of plants are equipped to perform x-ray diffraction and reflected light microscopy.
These latter methods are, however, certainly available in the central laboratory of a group of plants.
Investigations using scanning electron microscopy, and an electron microprobe analyzer can only be
undertaken by specialized laboratories possessing such advanced and expensive instruments.
Table 4 Normal application range of the various methods of clinker investigations

Investigation Method Clinker properties Equipment

Mineral identification Mineral composi- tion Habit / texture Found in cement plant
laboratories Cost of equipment Available in TS
Qualitative Quantitative
Microscopy
Reflected light
Scanning electron
Electron microprobe +
o
+ +
o
o o
(+)
+ +
+
o sometimes
definitely not
definitely not moderate
very high
very high yes
no external equipment used
Diffraction
X-ray + aluminate / ferrite free CaO periclase ferrite solid solution o in a few cases
high* yes
Wet chemical extraction
Salicylic acid extraction alite + belite o o
No special very low yes
Glycol extraction free CaO o o equipment very low yes
Controlled water extraction soluble alkali sulfates o o required very
low yes

* except when purchased as an addition for an existing x-ray fluorescence spectrometer

3.2 Microscopy and Microprobe Analysis
Cement clinker is, almost without exception, investigated by reflected light microscopy on etched,
polished sections. The use of transmitted light microscopy either on thin sections or on powders is rarely
practiced.
Great care must be exercised when selecting representative samples, the quantity required depending on
the topic under investigation. When information on minerals content, porosity, etc. , is required, the
chosen material should be sampled from not only one but from several clinker lumps.
The selected sample is first embedded into a suitable resin (e.g. epoxy resin) to facilitate handling and
then treated as follows:
· ground to produce a flat, matt surface (e.g. using carborundum powder)
· polished to obtain a flat, shining surface (e.g. using 0.3 mm diamond paste)
· etched to differentiate between the individual clinker minerals (e.g. using hydrofluoric or acetic
acid vapors, or using nitric acid solution).
By using non aqueous grinding and polishing media, the loss of the water soluble alkali sulfates and free
lime during sample preparation can be prevented.
3.2.0.1 Qualitative mineral analysis
Using the thus prepared polished section it is possible by using magnifications of up to 500 x to determine
qualitatively in clinker:
· the minerals present and their habit
· their polymorphic modifications (sometimes)
· clinker fabric (porosity, homogeneity, etc.)
and from this information deduce the influence of such process conditions as:
· fineness of raw mix grinding
· homogeneity of raw feed
· time / temperature of burning
· rate of cooling
· type of fuel used
The use of this method has already been demonstrated in Chapters 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 (see also (4), (5).
3.2.0.2 Quantitative mineral analysis
Clinker properties are quantitatively determined by the use of one or two methods, namely:
¨ Linear point counting i.e. the sample is moved in regular steps and the mineral under the cross-
wire is identified and counted.
¨ Area point counting i.e. a point grind containing 100 points, placed in the microscope ocular, lies
apparently over the clinker, and the mineral at each point is counted without moving the clinker. Only after
all the points have been counted is the clinker moved to another field of view.
Linear point counting Area point counting

Both methods determine the area percent of the minerals in the polished section, and to convert the
results into weight percent, the following mineral densities (g/cm3) must be taken into account:

alite 3.20 belite 3.28 aluminate 3.04

ferrite 3.77 periclase 3.58 free lime 3.30

To obtain a high accuracy, the TS/MA counts 4000 points (N), giving an absolute statistical counting error
(d) at the 95 % confidence level of

P = % points for the counted minerals

The most usual features to be quantitatively determined include:
· clinker mineralogy
· size distribution of minerals (is related to hydration reactivity)
· homogeneity
· porosity
Whereas the Bogue formula calculates the potential quantities of minerals present, microscopical analysis
determines the quantities actually present. The difference between both methods has already been
demonstrated in Chapter 1.4.2 for alite and belite.
3.2.1 Scanning Electron Microscope Analysis
By using a fine electron beam in place of light in such a way that the beam scans the sample surface in a
raster pattern, it is possible to obtain an optical image of the surface on a TV screen. This image can have
a magnification of up to 10,000 x, combined with a good depth of focus. By further increasing the
magnification (up to 100,000 x) the quality of the image is reduced.
Using the energy disperse x-ray spectrometry technique (EDAX), it is now also possible to determine
semi-quantitatively the chemical composition of the observed minerals.
Examples of clinker investigated by scanning electron microscopy are displayed in Plates 21 - 24.
Plate 21 Idiomorphic alite (A) embedded in sulfate-rich matrix (S). 2000 x

Plate 22 Alite (A) and belite (B) in sulfate-rich matrix (S). 2000 x

Plate 23 Alite (A) in aluminate / ferrite matrix (M). 2000 x

Plate 24 Free lime (L) in contact with alite (A). 9500 x

3.3 X-ray Powder Diffraction

3.3.1 Methodical
The examination of clinker by x-ray powder diffraction can with much experience be used to determine:
· the minerals present - quantitative and qualitative
· their polymorphic modification (s)
· the approximate composition of certain minerals
The full potential use of the method as a basic routine technique, however, is made difficult by the
following:
· variations in the chemical composition of almost all minerals
· more than one modification of the same mineral almost always present
· the x-ray intensities of the various modifications are not equal
· overlapping of various reflections and small concentrations require pre-preparation of the sample
by wet chemical extraction
· the relatively high cost of the equipment. This can be somewhat reduced when x-ray diffraction
facilities are combined with existing x-ray fluorescence equipment.
3.3.2 Experimental Technique
Samples to be investigated must be finer than 20 mm when determinations are desired. The prepared
sample is then irradiated in a focused x-ray beam (e.g. Cu or Cr radiation) and the characteristic peaks of
each mineral recorded.
For qualitative analysis the 2 q values of the peaks are compared with the characteristic peaks of the
known clinker minerals and in this way the following can be determined:
· the presence and polymorphic modifications of alite, belite
· the presence and solid solutions of aluminate and ferrite
· the presence of MgO, CaOfree
For quantitative analysis, suitable strong reflections of the required minerals, free of interference from
other mineral peaks, are required. As measurement criterion either the effective peak height or integrated
peak area may be applied, this being obtained by subtracting the background radiation level form the
overall peak height or peak area.
Peak area method

Peak height method

Two types of calibration can be applied in which the measured effective peak area of height is compared
to that of either an internal or external standard (e.g. SiO2, CaF2, TiO2).
The external standard method, i.e. standard and sample not mixed together, eliminates errors due to
fluctuations in the equipment itself. (e.g. instability of x-ray generator, x-ray counter, etc.), but makes no
allowance for changes in material parameters (e.g. absorption by matrix). This latter effect can be
compensated for by employing an internal standard, i.e. by mixing the standard powder into the powder
being investigated.
3.3.3 Applications of x-ray diffraction
Determination of ferrite solid solution
As mentioned previously, the ferrite composition is only approximately C4AF. The true solid solution
present in clinker can, however, be determined using x-ray diffraction, employing the change in the 2 q
value of characteristic peaks as evaluation criterion. The latter are shown in Figure 13.
Figure 13 Change of peak reflections (002, 200, 141) for ferrites in the C2F, C6A2F series.

A useful application of knowing the actual ferrite composition is, that it can be used to obtain a better
Bogue formula estimation of aluminate and ferrite than the one obtained by assuming the composition to
be C4AF.
Determination of free lime
By extending x-ray fluorescence facilities to include x-ray diffraction (at a fraction of the cost for x-ray
diffraction alone), it is possible to quickly and accurately measure free lime as a process control method,
avoiding the use of glycol extraction. The main advantage of the x-ray method is the reduced time
required (10 minutes) using the same sample prepared for x-ray fluorescence. Free lime values in the
range 0.5 - 5 % can be determined at an accuracy of ± 0.3 % CaOfree at the 95 % confidence level.
For the determination of other, more complicated clinker analyses (e.g. quantitative determination of the
clinker minerals), it is highly recommended that contact be first established with the TS/MA or other
suitable qualified laboratories.
3.4 Clinker Analysis by Wet Chemical Extraction Method
When neither microscope nor x-ray facilities are available, certain minerals or groups of minerals can still
be quantitatively determined by selective extraction using wet chemical methods.
Minerals which can be quantitatively determined to an acceptable degree of accuracy by such
inexpensive but rather limited techniques include:
Alite + belite + free CaO: using ethanolic salicylic acid

Free lime and Ca(OH)2: using ethylene glycol extraction. The proportion of free lime alone can be
ascertained by subtracting the Ca(OH)2 value determined via its H2O loss on thermal decomposition

Alkali and alkali/calcium sulfates: by controlled extraction with H2O and determination of Na2O, K2O and
SO3 levels in the extracted solution
Literature
(1) American Ceramic Society: Phase Diagrams for Ceramists. The American Ceramic Society,
Columbus, Ohio, USA. 1975.
(2) M. Kristmann: Portlandzementklinker. Mineralogische und chemische Untersuchungen.’Holderbank’
Management und Consulting Ltd., 1977 (in German).
Part I: Cement and Concrete Research 7, 649, 1977.
Part II: Cement and Concrete Research 8, 93, 1978.
(3) M. Kristmann: Clinker Mineralogy - Actual and Potential Phase Composition. MA Report 77/2511/II/E.
(4) F. Hofmänner: Microstructure of Portland cement clinker. ‘Holderbank’ Management und Consulting
Ltd., 1975 ( in English and German).
(5) F. Gille et al.: Mikroskopie des Zementklinkers. Bilderatlas. Beton-Verlag GmbH, Düsseldorf, 1965 (in
German).
(6) J.A. Imlach and F. Hofmänner: Investigation of Clinker Formation by DTA and Optical Microscopy. MA
Report 74/2373/E.
Additional Literature:
J.D. Dorn: Mictroscopic Methods for Burnability Improvement. Cement and Concrete Research 8, pp 635
- 646, 1978.
D.H. Campell, Micrascafic Examination and Interpretation of Portland Cement and Clinker, Construction,
Technology Laboratories, Skokie, Illinois, USA.

C03 - Refractory Materials and Coating Formation

Refractory Materials and Coating Formation

1. REFRACTORY MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

1.1 General Introduction
1.2 Classification of Refractory Products
1.3 Manufacture of Refractory Products
1.4 Testing of Unused Refractories
1.5 ZONING of Cement Kilns
1.6 Wear of Kiln Refractories
1.7 Chemical Reactions Producing Refractory Damage
2. COATING: PROPERTIES AND BEHAVIOR
2.1 General
2.2 Coating
2.3 Influencing Parameters
3. REFERENCES

1. REFRACTORY MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

1.1 General Introduction
The refractory lining of a modern, high performance Portland cement kiln is a complex system performing
different specific functions at various locations. These include:
¨ protection of the kiln shell and tyres from reaching excessive temperatures
¨ protection of the kiln shell against chemical attack by aggressive gases and liquids
¨ protection of the kiln shell from mechanical abrasion by kiln charge
¨ reduction of heat losses to acceptably low values
¨ increase of heat exchange between gases and kiln charge
¨ control of material flow
Whereas in the rotary kilns in service until the late 1930's these duties were performed by fireclay
products of approximately 40% Al2O3 content, the high performance kilns of today necessitate the use of
a wide spectrum of specially developed high MgO, Al2O3 and SiO2 refractory types. Within each of these
main categories, each manufacturer has designed his product differently to incorporate the required
degree of resistance to the combined chemical, thermal and mechanical attack that will be encountered in
service.
From the viewpoint of clinker production, the financial outlay of relining a kiln (including removal and
installation of the worn and new refractories) represents approximately 2-4 % of total cement
manufacturing costs. The effective loss of cement sales resulting from reduced kiln availability constitutes,
however, a much higher loss should the kiln be shut down for more than 10-15 days.
Within the plants of Holcim Group, an estimated 30'000 tons of refractories are consumed each year
which, when the following sales costs are assumed

magnesite : 1'400 DM/ton

dolomite : 1'100 DM/ton
others : 1'050 DM/ton

results in an annual expenditure for refractory materials alone of $20'000'000. To this already substantial
sum must further be added the man-hours associated with relining, and lost cement sales resulting from
44'000 hr. of kiln down time.
It is therefore obvious that the life expectancy of the kiln refractory lining is a topic of basic financial
importance. Depending on kiln zone, refractory types and production conditions, service lives in the
critical sintering and transition zones may range from only several weeks to well in excess of 1 year.
The principal factors determining a linings service life are schematically displayed in Fig. 1, indicating
those topics which lie within the responsibility of the refractory supplier and those over which the cement
producer has most influence.
Fig.1 Factors Influencing Refractory Lining Lifetime

The recent reintroduction of coal-firing, together with the use of dry process kilns has resulted in
refractories being subjected to appreciably increased attack by fused coal ash, by local reducing
atmospheres and by alkali sulfates. To combat these trends, refractory manufacturers have recently
increased their range of cement kiln refractories to include iron and chrome free periclase-spinel and
magnesium silicate (forsterite) types.
The technological complexity of the kiln linings has been developed to such a stage and is of such
financial importance that each plant should have a refractories specialist possessing a good basic
technical/theoretical knowledge and having additionally sound practical experience. To help achieve this
aim, the Holcim Refractories Handbook for the Cement Industry is intended as a compact source of
cement industry specific information and is intended for both newcomer and refractories specialist alike.
1.2 Classification of Refractory Products
1.2.1 General
Refractory materials are mainly composed of Al2O3, SiO2, MgO, CaO and Cr2O3 existing as the free
oxide or combined together. They are defined according to ISO Standard R 836 as "non metallic materials
or products having a minimum pyrometric cone equivalent of 1500°C. Internationally they are classified,
according to PRE recommendations, as compromising of the following technological categories:
¨ dense, shaped refractory products .
¨ shaped insulating refractory products .
¨ prepared unshaped dense and insulating refractory materials
1.2.2 Chemical Classifications
The different groups of refractory materials, based on their chemical composition, is listed in Table 1.
Table 1 Chemical classification of dense shaped refractory products according to ISO 1109 1975 (E)
As can be observed according to ISO Recommendations, there are
¨ acidic refractory products
¨ basic refractory products
¨ special products
each with a defined percentage of the component oxides in the finished products. In a further subdivision
of the fireclay products (i.e. 30% Al2O3 < 45 %), the following categories are recognized according to
PRE/R 29:
Table 2 Groups of Fireclay Products

Group Al2O3 content (%)

30 30-33
33 33-37
37 37-40
40 40-42
42 42-45

The properties of several ranges of refractories are provided in Table 3.

Table 3 Composition and Properties of Refractory materials

Appendix 1 Structures of “Spinel” Bricks

1.2.3 Nomenclature of Manufacturing Process

To provide further information on the various chemically based classes of shaped refractories, the
manufacturer may supply additional characterizing information such as:
¨ process of shaping
¨ method of bonding the material
With regard to the shaping process, various methods are employed by the refractory industry in the
manufacture of bricks.
Besides the casting of melts of specific compositions (fusion cast products), the methods of fine ceramics,
such as slip casting, continuous extrusion or pressing of finely crushed materials, have been used
increasingly during recent years.
However, the so-called coarse ceramic method is preferred for the manufacture of refractory bricks.
Production by this technique includes the following steps:
¨ crushing
¨ classification (grading)
¨ mixing
¨ shaping (pressing)
¨ drying
¨ firing
1.2.4 Types of Bonding
From the viewpoint of bonding, various methods are recognized which can be classified according to the
temperature at which strength properties are developed, e.g.
¨ unfired products (<150°C)
¨ fired at moderate temperatures (150-800°C)
¨ fired at high temperatures (>800°C)
and also according to the material nature of the bond, e.g.
¨ fireclay bond
¨ inorganic bond
¨ organic bond
¨ hydraulic bond
¨ ceramic bond
Since the bonding in many refractory materials tends towards ceramic bonding at operating temperatures,
it is necessary to state that the previous classification of refractory material bonds is based on products
coming from the supplier ready to be put into the kiln.
Examples of the bonding types encountered in refractories commonly supplied to the cement industry are
given in Table 4.
Table 4 Examples of the Various Material Bonds

Nature of bond Refractory Type Characteristics

CERAMIC
(Eutectic) Fireclay bricks
High-alumina bricks
Silicate bonded
magnesite bricks The brick is first heated up above the eutectic temperature of the naturally
present bonding oxides, and the structure formed by the liquid on cooling bonds the principal components
together

CERAMIC
(High fired) High fired mangesia spinel bricks The principal components are "dry" bonded by
the use of very high temperatures (1700 - 1850°C),which causes the principal solid components to react
directly with one another

INORGANIC Phosphate-bonded
alumina bricks The bricks are bonded by chemical reaction between the added bonding agents(e.g.
phosphates, sulfates, chlorides, chromates) and the bricks components at temperatures up to 150°C

HYDRAULIC Refractory castables

Gunning mixes The refractory materials are bonded by a hydraulic calcium aluminate cement, just like
normal concrete

1.2.5 Shaped Insulating Refractory Products

These are shaped products having the same chemical classification as dense shaped refractories (see
Table 1) but having a total porosity of at least 45 %. They are further characterized (ISO 22451972 E) by
the temperature at which they do not display a permanent linear change of above 2 %, and by their bulk
density. Such products are also known as lightweight insulating refractories and are mainly used as
insulating backing in the heat exchangers of dry process kilns.
1.2.6 Prepared Unshaped Dense and Insulating Refractories
These are prepared mixtures which contain an aggregate and a binder ready for use either
¨ as supplied e.g. ramming mixes
¨ after addition of suitable liquids
e.g. refractory castables
These may be either dense or insulating, the latter requiring a porosity of ³ 45 %.
Such materials be used for the following purposes, with further subdivisions being recognized within each
group.
Table 5:Categories of Unshaped Refractories

MONOLITHIC
CONSTRUCTION/
REPAIRS Ramming mixes
delivered in a pliable non-coherent state and first harden upon heating
Moldable mixes
delivered in a plastic form and harden upon heating
Refractory castables
delivered dry Setting and hardening occurs without heating after mixing H2O or other liquids
Gunning mixes
delivered in a non-coherent state, suitable for placing by pneumatic projection

MORTARS/
JOINTING MATERIALS Refractory cements
these are placed wet, and harden at high temperature by ceramic bonding
Refractory cements (hydraulic binder)
as above but harden without heating
Refractory cements (chemical binder)
harden by chemical reaction at lower temperatures than required for cement bonding

1.3 Manufacture of Refractory Products

1.3.1 Manufacturing Process
A typical flowsheet for the production of shaped and unshaped magnesite based refractories is shown in
Fig. 2. As can be seen, the process can be split into four principal stages including
¨ preparation of sintered magnesia and dried chromite in defined particle size ranges
¨ preparation of mix having specific proportions of the various magnesite and chromite fractions
¨ pressing of required format (shaped refractories)
¨ bonding process (direct, eutectic, chemical)
Fig. 2 Flow Diagram for the Production of Shaped and Unshaped Magnesite Based Refractory Products

As can be seen, the magnesite sinter may originate from either natural magnesite or from Mg(OH)2
extracted from sea water. To produce the latter, sea water containing about 200 g MgO/100 liters is
reacted with slaked lime slurry to precipitate Mg(OH) 2. The resulting slurry is filtered to produce a paste
which is calcined at 900-950°C to form "caustic calcined magnesia". This is then fed through briquetting
rollers to press dry, dense tablets, which are then dead burnt at 1800°C in rotary kilns. During the burning
process, the undesired B2O3 content of the MgO is appreciably reduced. In the production from natural
magnesite, impurities such as dolomite are removed by floatation after crushing. From the dead burnt
sinter the coarser fractions are then prepared by crushing and sieving, with the finest being prepared by
subsequent milling.
By using different sizes of sinter and chromite in various proportions, and controlling the total porosity and
pore size distribution, a variation of refractory properties may be achieved.
1.3.2 Source of Materials
The production of refractory materials was originally located in areas near to iron works where clay
deposits were available with a sufficiently high Al2O3 content to allow the production of fireclay bricks.
With the development of refractories to include high alumina, magnesite, magnesite chrome, and most
recently periclase spinel types, the raw materials are not available in the traditional production areas and
have to be purchased on the international market. The refractory manufacturer therefore cannot always
produce his product with materials from the same source.
Of the various materials of a grade suitable for refractory production, the most well known sources are
indicated in Table 6.
TABLE 6 Sources of Raw Materials for Refractory Production

Raw Material Source

For Basic Refractory Products
Country Location
Magnesite
· coarse crystalline(natural) Austria

Canada Radenthein
Veitsch
Radium Hot Spring

· crypto crystalline(natural) Greece

Turkey
Yugoslavia
India
Australia
South Africa
Euboea
· sea water (synthetic) Italy
England
Ireland
Japan
USA
Sardinia
Hartlepool
Drogheda
chrome ore (natural) Philippines
Turkey
South Africa
Greece
Iran

Transvaal
magnesia spinel(synthetic)
Japan
England
Germany

The key factor deciding whether a raw material can be used for refractory production is the content of the
minor oxides, i.e. CaO, SiO2, Fe2O3 and Al2O3 which, when they are present in excessive quantities,
lead to a reduced refractoriness. Synthetic raw materials (e.g. sea water magnesite) are often too pure
and have to have their composition modified by the use of additives to control their CaO/SiO2 ratio and
hence improve their sintering behavior.
Although the critical composition limits at which a manufacturer accepts or rejects a specific raw material
are not made available and remain a trade secret, typical compositions of acceptable materials are as
indicated in Table 7.
Table 7 Typical Compositions of Raw Materials

MaterialChemical Composition (wt %)

SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO Cr2O3 TiO2
BAUXITE
(sintered)
6.2 86.9 1.8 0.04 0.08 -- 2.7
CHROME ORE
5.4 20.4 18.4 0.6 18.1 37.0 --
DOLOMITE
(sintered)
2.3 1.0 0.8 58.8 36.2 -- 0.2
MAGNESITE
(sea water-sintered)
0.4 0.2 0.6 0.9 98.1 -- --
MAGNESITE (raw)
2.1 0.6 1.5 2.1 93.6 -- --

1.3.3 Production Details

Production details for the manufacture of refractories are seldomly made available. The following points,
however, give an indication of typical layout and performance of a refractories plant, which receives
already sintered raw materials (see Table 8).
Table 8 Production Details

No of silos per component: up to 4 for various size fractions

Weighing and mixing process: usually automatically controlled by computer. Proportions change with
brick types and material source

Brick presses: 1500 T total pressure, fully automatic operation. Often up to 5 presses/plant

Tunnel oven (for firing): capacity 30'000 t/y

Firing data: time up to 3 days temperature 1550 - 1850°C heat consumption 1500-2000 kcal/kg

1.4 Testing of Unused Refractories

1.4.1 General
Refractory products are routinely tested at several stages during their manufacture and in some industries
(e.g. steel production) are even tested by the user prior to delivery before actually being put into service.
Testing may be considered as falling into the following categories and fulfilling the indicated functions.
Table 9 Testing of Unused Refractories

Type of testing Purpose

Manufacturers Process
and Quality Control Check on Production Process/Equipment/Operations

Standard Refractory Tests (e.g. DIN, ASTM, etc.)To ensure that product meets manufacturers description

Non-Standard Tests
(e.g. at HMC) To assess whether product is suitable for operations in the specific user industry

Users Acceptance Quality Control Check whether delivered refractories meet manufacturers
specifications or are suitable for users specific requirements

Whereas in the cement industry the used standard ASTM, DIN, BS tests are considered as giving a not
unreliable indication of the performance of the mortar or concrete in service, the prescribed standard tests
for refractories are not specific for clinker production conditions. It has even been suggested that it would
be more useful to test refractories that had already been in service, and not new unused refractories, and
so obtain a practice related indication of the suitability of refractories under clinker production conditions.
1.4.2 Manufacturers Process Control
Upon delivery, the refractory manufacturer checks the chemical composition of the supplied chrome ore,
sintered magnesite, dolomite, bauxite etc. to ensure that the levels of the minor oxides, e.g. CaO, SiO2,
Fe2O3, Al2O3, do not exceed the requirements for the refractory type concerned (e.g. direct or indirect
bonded basic bricks). In the case of sea water magnesite the boron content is checked, as is the loss on
ignition in the case of sintered dolomite, which must be used within approximately 48 hours of delivery.
During the mixing process, the granulometry of the various fractions of each component (e.g. chrome ore,
magnesite) is routinely checked as is the mixing ratio of the raw components. These checks are
especially necessary when more than one type of for example magnesite-chrome brick are being
simultaneously produced. In larger production plants, quality control samples are taken on a statistical
basis and are sent to the quality control laboratory. In several companies, all the quality control and
production data are stored in a computer databank, thus allowing the production history of any specific
delivery to be easily recalled.
In the most modern production lines, the whole process is fully automated from component mixing to
packing. After pressing, each unfired brick is automatically checked for its dimensional accuracy, whilst
the weights are checked only on chosen samples. After firing, the bricks are all individually tested
automatically for dimensions, and by a controller who checks for various subjective factors. The following
table lists typical factors evaluated in the subjective tests:
Table 10 Criteria for “Optical” inspection of Refractory Bricks

1.4.3 Standard Refractory Tests

The product description of refractories is defined in terms of various standard test methods (ASTM, BS,
DIN, ISO) which measure their chemical composition and physical properties. Testing is performed both
at room and elevated temperatures and for shaped refractories includes the following:
Table 11 Standard Tests for Refractory Materials

Temperature Property Standard

ASTM BS DIN
Ambient Dimensions
C-134 1902
Density
C-134 1902 51'065
Porosity
C-20 1902 51 ‘056
51'058
Cold crushing
strength C-113 1902 51’048
51'067
Chemical
composition C-572,
573,574 1902 51'070

Elevated Pyrometric cone

equivalent C- 24 1902 51'063
Hot rupture
modulus C-583 1902 51'048
Refractoriness
under load C-16 1902 51'053
Creep in compression
1902 51'053
. Thermal expansion
C-832 1902 51'045
Permanent linear change
C-113 1902 51'066
Shock resistance
C38,
107,122 1902 51'068
Thermal conductivity C-201, 202 1902 51'046

Testing procedures have also been established by ASTM for unshaped refractories and include the
following in addition to those applicable for shaped products:
¨ workability index (C-181)
¨ dry firing shrinkage (C-179)
¨ cold bond strength
It should be appreciated, however, that various test methods supply data which cannot be numerically
come pared with that obtained by another standard test method, e.g. thermal conductivity. This must be
kept in mind when selecting refractories from international suppliers, who often define the quality of their
product according to their national standards. A higher catalogue value does therefore not always
necessarily imply a higher quality product, and makes a rational selection even more difficult. To avoid
such difficulties, international standard specifications are in the process of being established, but progress
in this direction has been slow. So far only test procedures for Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (ISO R 528)
and refractoriness under load (ISO R 1893) are internationally defined. Test procedures for high
temperature modulus of rupture, bulk and true density, and permanent linear change have reached a
"draft international standard" status. For the majority most important properties no international standard
yet exists.
The previously listed standard tests, although they do to a moderate extent indicate the general
performance of a refractory, are not wholly specific for conditions representative of those encountered in
cement rotary kilns. It is therefore not surprising that in the cement industry no detailed generally known
and accepted guidelines have been established for the exact properties of the refractory types required in
the various kiln zones.
Although qualitative rather than quantitative, a hypothetical relationship can be proposed (Table 12),
indicating which physical and chemical properties exert an influence on the rate of wear by the common
mechanical, thermal and chemical wear factors. From this it can therefore be deduced that the standard
tests are more suited for determining the resistance to mechanical attack, less for thermal attack, and
almost no indication against resistance to attack by chemical influences.
Table 12 Significance of Characteristic Refractory Properties for In-service Life Expectancy

1.4.4 Non-Standard Tests

As a means of assessing the performance of refractories under more practice related conditions, almost
all manufacturers have developed their own non-standard test procedures. These include methods for the
determination of
¨ coating adhesion thermal
¨ shock resistance
¨ resistance to alkali attack
all of which can be tested by not too complicated test procedures.
1.4.5 Sinterzone Coating Adhesion
The tendency towards coating adhesion can be determined at HMC/MA by means of its own recently
developed Fig. 3, and fully described in various publications. In developing this method, all the previously
developed procedures were evaluated, their deficiencies eliminated and their advantages combined in a
single large scale laboratory method.
Fig. 3: Coating Test Furnace - Longitudinal section

Examples representative of the type and degree of various observed contact surfaces obtained by this
method are given in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4: Typical Contact Zones in Coating Zones

1.4.6 Thermal Shock Resistance

A simple, but extremely aggressive thermal shock resistance test, employed internally in the German
steel industry, requires a heated prism of the refractory material under test to be placed on its end on top
of a water cooled copper plate (see Fig. 5).
Fig. 5 Arrangement of VDEhL Thermal Shock Test

This test is considered to be more practice relevant than the temperature shock caused by spraying the
complete refractory test piece with water or air, conditions never encountered in practice. The test,
because only one end of the refractory material is cooled, is said to be much more demanding than either
of the two DIN methods and at the same time more practice-like.
1.4.7 Alkali Attack
To determine the resistance of high alumina refractories to alkali attack, many manufacturers use a
modified form of the DIN 51'069 test procedure originally developed for testing the resistance of
refractories to blast furnace slags. In this method 50 mm diameter x 35 mm deep holes in the test pieces
are filled with K2CO3 and the material heated for 5 hr. at 1100°C. After cooling, the test samples are cut
with a diamond saw and attack judged according to depth of penetration and to whether the bricks show
cracking or not. Examples showing a weak and a strong resistance to attack by this simple test method
are shown in Figs. 6a and 6b.
Fig 6a Strong Alkali Attack

Fig 6b No Alkali Attack

1.4.8 Acceptance Testing Criteria

Although acceptance testing of refractories is not practiced in the cement industry, this is not the case in
steel. Refractories are not, however, tested just for testings sake, but are viewed from the aspect of their
costs and from the demands placed upon them, and quality control testing carried out accordingly. A
principal objective of quality control is to prevent cases of failure in sensitive aggregates which in addition
to immense financial consequences may in the steel industry also endanger human lives.
For the cheaper refractory grades, for less critical applications, the manufacturers data sheet
specifications and quality control are accepted, with no essential input on the part of the user. Simple
optical inspection of the state of the delivered materials is considered as being sufficient. Even for
moderate cost refractory grades in service under moderately critical applications, testing is confined to
carrying out spot checks, after delivery, on random samples, determining such conveniently measurable
properties as dimensional accuracy, cold compressive strength. The results are collected to detect trends
over long periods and are also if anomalous communicated to the supplier, for the lather’s “information".
Only for applications for which the refractory properties are critical are quality control examinations carried
out systematically on a statistical basis. In such cases, the refractories are controlled prior to dispatch
from the suppliers plant and checked according to specifications and tolerance limits previously agreed
upon between supplier and client. The chosen test samples are normally divided into 2 sub-samples, one
portion being tested in the supplier's laboratory, the other in the user's. This class of refractory is ordered
well in advance of the specified delivery date e.g. 6 months, and this long range planning assures that the
material to be supplied lies within the acceptance limits. The costs for statistically significant quality
control are borne equally by supplier and user and often involve 3 - 4 man days working time for a
quantity of 150 - 200 tons, the costs corresponding to 1.5 % of the delivery value.
1.5 ZONING of Cement Kilns
Because the refractories in the cement kiln have to perform several duties, as already listed in 1.1, no
single refractory type can now fulfill all the requirements. As factors such as
¨ the changing temperature profile in the kiln
¨ the changing physical and chemical nature of the kiln feed ranging from raw meal to clinker
must be taken into consideration, the zoning of the kiln, with respect to the refractory lining, is a necessity.
Indeed in some kiln zones it is normal to have two refractory types at any one position, namely a "working
lining" and a backup insulating lining.
In a commonly established practice, the kiln zones are defined according to the changes occurring in the
kiln charge as indicated in Table 13.
Table 13 Characterization of the Various Kiln Zones

Kiln Zone Process Material Change Temp.Range

Drying Wet and semi-wet Expulsion of slurry or
nodule moisture£100°C
Preheating Wet and dry Expulsion of chemically
bonded OH groups 100-700°C
Calcining “ Expulsion of CO2 from
carbonates 600-900°C
Transition “ Formation of
intermediate and
clinker minerals 900-1350°C
Sintering “ Granulation of clinker
and formation of
permanent coating ³1350°C
Discharge “ Cooling of clinker
within kiln 1400-1250°C

Variations to the previous scheme include the definition of a chain zone (i.e. a combined drying and
preheating zone) and the division of the transition zone into the safety zone and the transition zone, often
described as the upper and lower transition zones.
In Figs. 7 and 8 a typical zone plan can be seen for wet and dry process operations with indications of the
kiln temperature and various types of attack to be expected.
Fig. 7 Typical Rotary Kiln Data - Dry Process

Fig. 8 Typical Rotary Kiln Data - Wet Process

1.6 Wear of Kiln Refractories

1.6.1 General
Even under the most favorable operating conditions, refractory linings are subject to a definite
measurable rate of wear. Based on plant experience (Fig. 9), the minimum consumption rate achievable
in practice, for basic and acidic types may be considered as follows:
¨ basic refractories » 6 cm2/t clinker
¨ acidic refractories » 4 cm2/t clinker
It should be considered that these values are average values for the total basic and acidic linings and that
at various positions inside the kiln both higher and lower specific consumption rates are observed.
Whereas some plants can consistently approximate to these desired low consumption rates, in most
cases refractory consumption is higher with average consumption rates of 30 cm2/t clinker and above
being not uncommon.
Fig. 9 Consumption of Kiln Linings

1.6.2 Causes of Wear

The principal causes of wear may be attributed to thermal, mechanical or chemical factors, acting either
alone or more frequently in combination. Details concerning these various wear types are given in Fig. 10.
Fig. 10 Influence of chemical, thermal and mechanical factors on kiln refractory linings

Depending on the period for which observations are based it can be observed that the frequency of wear,
due to any particular mechanism, is not constant but varies. This can be seen in Fig. 11 showing the
frequency of the wear mechanisms from 1964 - 1968 and from 1968 - 1974, i.e. since the introduction of
large diameter process kilns. As can be deduced, the identified causes of wear before 1968 were
principally chemical (silicate and alkali infiltration) in nature with mechanical and thermal factors being of
equal but secondary importance. Between 1968 and 1974 mechanical stresses became by far the
principal failure cause, with chemical and thermal being of equal importance. Whereas before 1968 the
causes could clearly be identified in only 50 % of the investigated cases, the percentage of those not
identified dropped to 25 % between 1968 and 1974.
Although no statistics are presently available, the principal causes of wear may again be chemical in
nature, originating from silicate attack and reducing conditions stemming from the widespread
reintroduction of coal firing.
Fig. 11 Main Causes of Wear In Sintering Zones

1.6.3 Mechanisms by which Damage Occurs

The chemical, thermal and mechanical factors responsible for wear cause changes to occur in the
refractory materials by means of material transport stress and erosion. This results in either a
modification or a destruction of the refractories texture leading to discontinuous wear by spalling, or to a
continuous wear by abrasion. The relationship between these factors are indicated in Fig.12.
Fig. 12 Characterization of Wear Magnesite-Type Linings
1.6.4 Recognition of the Various Wear Causes
To help identify the cause or causes of refractory wear, a range of characteristics can be proposed
summarizing the changes resulting from the various attack mechanisms. A list of these is presented in
Tables 14a and 14b. As can be seen, many of the changes can be observed macro or microscopically or
by chemical analysis, and so a preliminary conclusion as to why refractories have failed can often be
drawn by plant personnel.
Table 14a CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS DAMAGE MECHANISMS FOR ACIDIC AND
BASIC BRICKS
¨ Chemical Damage
· Liquid infiltration (clinker / coal ash
* lower porosity due to penetration
* change of colour
* change of mineralogy
* increase in CaO, SiO2, (Al2O3, Fe2O3)
· Alkali condensation
* increaes in Na2O, K2O, Cl, SO3 levels
* porosity decrease
* presence of light coloured layers
* alkali bursting (Al2O3 refractories)
* change of mineralogy
· CO2/SO3 attack (on CaO containing compounds)
* decrease of porosity
* presence with whie coloured layers
* increase in CO2, SO3
* change of mineralogy
Table 14b CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS DAMAGE
MECHANISMS FOR ACIDIC AND BASIC BRICKS
¨ Thermal damage
· Overheating
* melting of hot face
* change (increase / decrease) in type of porosity
* elongation of periclase crystals
* reduction of chrome content
* diffusion of low melting silicates, aluminates
* change of colour
· Shock
* spalling of hot face
¨ Mechanical damage
· Kiln deformation / thermal expansion
* porosity unchanged
* chemistry / mineralogy unchanged
* spalling over wide areas
* crack formation on micro to macro scale

Appendix 2: A graphical representation of the damage zones

1.7 Chemical Reactions Producing Refractory Damage

The chemical reactions occurring when refractories are attacked by siliceous or alkali sulfate infiltration’s
or by reducing atmospheres have been thoroughly investigated. Examples will now be given of those
reactions occurring at various positions in the kiln.
1.7.1 SO3 Attack on Castables in Heat Exchangers
The bonding agent of many refractory castables is monocalcium aluminate (CA) which exhibits both
hydraulic properties (e.g. high alumina cement) and a high melting point (> 1600°C). At service
temperatures in the range of 800 1000°C, CA reacts with SO3 from the kiln gases and on cooling (during
shutdowns) a further reaction with moisture can occur.
The foil owing reactions have been demonstrated to take place:
¨ In Service
2 CaO.Al2O3 + SO3 ® CaO.2Al2O3 + CaSO4 (fast)
(monocalcium aluminate) ® (calcium dialuminate) + (anhydrite)
CaO.2 Al2O3 + SO3 ® 2 Al2O3 + CaSO4 (slow)
(calcium dialuminate) ® (alumina) + (anhydrite)
¨ During Shutdowns
CaSO4 + 2 H2O ® CaSO4 . 2 H2O
(anhydrite) ® (gypsum)
As a consequence of all these reactions their occurs
¨ a destruction of the bonding and a change of structure
¨ a loss of strength
which are claimed as promoting conditions beneficial for the enhanced adhesions of build-ups.
1.7.2 Alkali Bursting of Alumina Refractories
The most well known method by which high alumina bricks are damaged is the so-called alkali-"spalling"
or "bursting". By the pick up of alkalis, the formation of feldspathoids takes place which, because of an
increase in volume, causes a disruption of the brick at a given depth below the hot face. The ensuing
cracking over a large area causes the heads of the brick to spall off. For the various components of high
alumina bricks different volume changes occur.
¨ Mullite Based Refractories
3Al2O3 2SiO2 + 3 K2O + 4 SiO2 ® 3 K2O.Al2O3 . 2 SiO2
(Mullite) ® (Kalsilite)
DVolume = + 29 %
¨ Bauxite Based Refractories
Al2O3 + K2O + 2 SiO2 ® K2O.Al2O3 . 2 SiO2
(Bauxite) ® (Kalsilite)
DVolume = + 2.5 %
As a consequence, should it be necessary to install high alumina refractories in zones in which the
danger of alkali spelling occurs (e.g. transition zone in the vicinity of the kiln type), preference should be
given to a bauxite rather than mullite based product.
1.7.3 Reducing Atmosphere Attack in Magnesite Refractories
The occurrence of local reducing conditions in the burning and transition zones can, when no protective
coating is available, bring about a dramatic loss of brick strength. Damage by this mechanism has been
more frequent since the reintroduction of coal firing and has been one of the factors decisive in the
necessity to develop new Fe2O3 and Cr2O3 free magnesia refractories i.e. magnesia-spinel products.
Typically, this type of chemical attack takes place on the Fe-containing magnesia ferrite (MgO . Fe2O3)
component, present as a precipitate within the periclase crystals, when the refractories have been in
service at approx. 1100°C over an extended period in an oxidizing atmosphere.
Chemically, the following reaction can be considered to occur:
MgO.FeIII2O3 ® (Mg/FeII)O ss
(Magnesia Ferrite) ® (Magnesia Wüstite)
D Volume = -20 %
The reduction in volume leads to an increase in porosity with a resulting decrease in strength due to the
fo rmation of voids.
1.7.4 Gaseous Attack on Dolomite Bricks
Although they give excellent service when protected by a permanent coating, without this protection, the
reactive free CaO component of dolomite refractories is very susceptible to reaction by various reagents,
all of which result in an increase in volume. Examples of these include:

Reaction Volume Increase

CaO ® CaS + 155 %
CaO ® Ca(OH)2 + 200 %
CaO ® CaCO3 + 221 %
CaO ® CaSO4 + 275 %
CaO ® CaCl2 + 313 %

The MgO component remains in comparison much less reactive to gaseous attack.
Depending on the temperature conditions and the kiln atmosphere, the following reactions occur in the
various sections of a dolomite lining:
¨ Middle Brick Zone
CaO + SO3 ® CaSO4
CaO + S-2 ® CaS
2 CaO + 3 SO3 + K2O ® 2CaSO4.K2SO4
¨ Lower Brick Zone
CaO + C02 ® CaCO3
Because of the increase in volume at a specific temperature and hence depth the increase in volume
results first in the formation of cracking and then in the spelling of the hot brick face.
Dolomite bricks are also subject to hydration in air when their temperature is under 450°C. Because used
bricks have different concentrations of newly formed minerals, their hydration rate is not the same over
the whole structure. It has been shown that the middle CaS containing zones hydrate faster than the hot
face, which in turn hydrates faster than the hot face, which in turn hydrates faster than the cold one. This
is shown in Fig. 13 showing the rate of destruction of a single used dolomite brick exposed to laboratory
air at 22°C and 65% r.h.
Fig. 13 Destruction rates of Dolomite Brick Zones

2. COATING: PROPERTIES AND BEHAVIOR

2.1 General
The formation of durable, protective coating on the refractory lining of a cement kiln is desirable, in a
technical as well as in an economical respect, to guarantee steady kiln operations.
Basically, it is known that the properties and behavior of coating have to be regarded as the result of a
combination of constructional, process technological and material inherent parameters. The three partial-
problems:
¨ Formation of coating
¨ Adhesion and strength of coating
¨ Prevention of ring formation
are closely related to the material parameters as
¨ Refractory type
¨ Clinker dust and ash characteristics
¨ Gas phase and volatile elements
and to the constructional/operational aspects as:
¨ Kiln system
¨ Kiln operation
¨ Operating personnel
2.2 Coating
2.2.1 Definition
The term "coating" is applied in the cement industry for different phenomena. It is therefore necessary to
distinguish between the following:
¨ Coating in the cement kiln is the desired protective layer on the refractory lining, which is formed
during kiln operation under the influence of high temperature from the traveling material on the refractory
lining in the transition and sinter zones.
¨ Ring formation is an undesired degree of growth of coating.
¨ Incrustations, referred to as build-ups, are "coatings" which are formed below 1100°C by alkali
salts and which occur particularly in pre-heater systems.
¨ Refractory lining encompasses all construction materials which are intended to eliminate or
reduce the effects of thermal strain.
2.2.2 Significance of Coating
Coating has the following functions to fulfill:
¨ Protection of the refractory brick against overheating and abrupt temperature changes
(improvement of heat distribution).
¨ Protection of the refractory lining against the abrasive effect of the moving clinker bed and the
dust.
¨ Protection of the refractory lining against chemical attack of clinker constituents, fuel ash and gas
atmosphere.
¨ Augmenting the mixing effect, i.e. improvement of the blending effect of the clinker mass due to
unevenness of the coating surface.
¨ Reduction of heat radiation and protection of the kiln shell against thermal overloading.
According to experience with large kilns, coating characteristics and behavior were found to be the most
significant parameters associated with steady kiln operations. The operating life of refractory linings is
substantially longer, when stable coating is achieved over the whole length of the kiln.
Protective coating begins normally in the transition zone which is also the zone, where ring formation may
frequently occur.
2.2.3 Formation of Coating
Two basic hypothesis are plausible as to the mechanism of coating formation:
¨ Formation of clinker melts (above cat 1280°C) and their sticking together with the refractory lining
with simultaneous cementing of solid particles.
¨ Adhesion of solid crystalline phases on the refractory lining.
In both cases, chemical and/or physical reactions (impregnation/infiltration) with the upper zone of brick
strengthen the adhesion of the coating.
The temperature gradient of coating refractory lining kiln shell effects a further stabilization of the coating
as a result of cooling and crystallization. The formation of coating increases to that point at which its
inherent insulation characteristics prevent further growth.
2.2.4 Thickness of Coating
Usually, the following classification is applied as to the thickness of coating:

30 - 50 cm thick coating
~ 20 cm normal coating
0 - 10 cm thin coating

Coating thicker than 50 cm is classified as ring formation.

2.3 Influencing Parameters
Coating is preponderantly formed from the components of raw material and clinker, whose characteristics
and composition primarily determine the quality and quantity of the coating. In addition, the type of fuel
and diffusion products of the refractory lining also exert a certain influence.
2.3.1 Chemical Composition
Industrial experience demonstrates that a correlation exists between the characterizing moduli (silica
ratio, alumina ratio, lime saturation) and the rate and ability of coating formation. Within the system SiO2
Al2O3 Fe2O3, i.e. S A F, the dependence of coating formation and chemical composition has been
demonstrated as occurring in Fig. 14.
Fig. 14 Correlation of coating formation and chemical parameters

Coating formation is facilitated by decreasing the ratios A/F and S/A.

In a second triangle (right) indicating two series of lines, viz. equal percentage of liquid phase at 1450°C
and equal fluidity of the liquid phase it is demonstrated that, disregarding the lime saturation, the
tendency to coating formation increases with increasing proportion and fluidity of the liquid phase.
The liquid phase of a clinker is defined as that material present in liquid form, after beginning of the
formation of clinker minerals. This usually first forms at temperatures of approximately 1250°C. This liquid
phase content at 1450°C may be up to 35 %, but on average lies around 25 %.
The quantity of liquid phase and its physical properties (viscosity, surface tension, etc.) are dependent on
chemical composition and temperature.
From experience, a correlation is known to exist between the quantity of liquid phase (C3A + C4AF +
MgO + K2O + Na2O + SO3) and the thickness of the coating. If a raw mix with less than 20 % potential
liquid phase is employed, the formation of coating in the burning zone is expected to be weak, whereas
liquid phase contents of more than 25 % lead to thick coating and frequent ring formation.
Another display divides the field of potential coating formation into five areas (Fig. 15).
Fig. 15 Clinker composition and coating formation as influenced by the ratios of SiO2 Al2O3 (Fe, Mn)2O3

Coating formation is subdivided as follows:

field 1 strong
field 2 medium strong
field 3 medium
field 4 low
field 5 very low

Generally, the following can be deduced from Fig. 14:

¨ Increasing alumina ratio and SiO2/Al2O3 ratio impair coating formation and vice-versa.
¨ Favorable coating conditions are achieved with a SiO2/Al2O3 ratio of 2.5 to 3.3 and an alumina
ratio of 1.8 to 2.3.
¨ Favorable coating conditions are achieved at constant medium or high SiO2/Al2O3 ratios, by
lowering the alumina ratio.
¨ Extremely SiO2/Al2O3 high ratios necessitate extremely low alumina ratios.
¨ Main influencing parameter is the alumina ratio.
In addition, a number of other measures to improve the tendency to coating formation have been
proposed:
¨ Lowering of the CaCO3 content in the raw mix
¨ Addition of CaF2 (fluorspar)
¨ Addition of pyrites ash

etc.
However, the chemical characteristics of the raw material should not be over-emphasized, since the
characteristics of the refractory lining represent additional, determining parameters as to coating
formation.
2.3.2 Mineralogical Composition
Experience shows that raw mixes containing elevated clay mineral contents and low quartz contents lead
to better coating ability than raw mixes of reversed mineralogical composition. Since the mineralogical
composition influences the ratios and liquid phase contents, the chemical composition is already a
conclusive criterion.
2.3.3 Homogeneity of Raw Mix
Inhomogeneity of the raw mix composition is normally responsible for fluctuations in coating formation.
This applies not only to chemical inhomogeneity, but also to the variations of the raw mix fineness and to
the characteristics of the fuel.
The effects of changes of raw mix properties on the already formed coating layer may be deduced with
the aid of Fig. 16.
Fig. 16 Schematic Temperature profile of kiln clinker as a function of material properties

Clinker A of good burnability upon up-heating along a - b enters the burning zone at temperature T (point
b). It remains during clinker formation at this temperature and then cools down, along the temperature
profile c - d. During the contact of clinker A with the refractory lining, a layer of coating is assumed to have
been formed.
Any change of the raw mix composition, which impairs its burnability, often leads to a change of clinker
melting properties. For the more difficult to burn clinker b let us assume that an increased amount of
energy will be necessary resulting in a new temperature profile a' - b' - c' - d'. With this changed profile,
the already formed coating layer becomes softer, more fluid, and is easily scraped off by clinker B. If the
refractory linings are already worn out, the kiln shell will become hotter and perhaps even red spots may
occur. In any case, the refractory lining in the burning zone will be weakened as a result of the new
temperature at the brick surface. Frequent changes and loss of coating (due to fluctuation of composition
of raw mix) particularly in big kilns often results in a considerable decrease in refractory life caused by
spelling.
2.3.4 Circulating Elements
Circulating elements are the alkalis (K2O, Na2O), chlorine (Cl-) and sulfur (SO2, SO3, eventually S2-).
They evaporate from the raw materials (raw mix and fuel) and condense on the colder raw mix and
penetrate into the refractory lining. They play a significant role with regard to the stability of coating and
refractory lining life, but influence coating formation to a lesser extent.
Alumina-rich refractory bricks are easily infiltrated by alkalis which react with the brick constituents
forming minerals in this zone, such as leucite and kalsilite. These minerals crystallize upon cooling and
lead to spelling of the brick surface. Such reactions don't occur between the alkalis and the basic bricks.
Corrosion of bricks is also observed, if sulfates are present in notable amounts. The destructiveness of
alkali sulfates (and chlorides) on coating is caused by the following mechanism:
¨ The sulfate-melt penetrates and becomes enriched in the pores and cracks of the brick, the
position of enrichment depending upon the thermal gradient.
¨ Periodic changes of the temperature gradient produce both melting and recrystallization, which
results in crack formation vertical to the temperature gradient, due to pressure of crystallization.
Such an infiltrated zone is the cause for the spelling of 4 - 6 cm thick layers of brick and adhering coating.
As a rule of thumb it can be said that large quantities of alkali and sulfate are always especially harmful, if
a molar excess of sulfate exists.
2.3.5 Crystal phases
As already discussed, coating formation is mainly considered as being controlled by the properties of the
clinker liquid phase.
However, there is also another possibility to be considered: the compaction of powdery materials at high
temperatures by sintering or recrystallization. This effect may be explained by the preferential grow of
bigger crystals at the expense of smaller ones, a diffusion process which takes place at temperatures
below the melting points of the substances.
In nearly all cases in laboratory tests as well as under plant conditions a small layer of C2S, less than 1/2
mm in thickness can be found in the contact zone between brick surface and coating, whereby the
crystals of C2S in this zone seem to be glued together without interstitial phases. The C2S zone extends
into coating as well as into the upper parts of the (porous) brick to about 1 mm in depth, thus connecting
both, brick and coating.
3. REFERENCES

H. Kock: Probleme der Bildung und Erhaltung eines schützenden Ansatzes in der Brennzone von
Zementdrehöfen Literaturstudie, HMCReport MA 75/2414/D.
(This report compiles all the meaningful literature references on refractory material coating and related
phenomena.)

D. Opitz: Steinverschleiss in grosser Zementdrehöfen. Vortrag XVII.Intern. Feuerfest. Kolloquim,

24/25.10.1974, Aachen (BRD).

D. Opitz: Die Ansatzringe in Zementdrehöfen. Schriftenreihe der Zementind. Heft 41 (19~/4 VDZ.

J. Forest: Etude des croûtages de zone dans les fours rotatifs et des bélites. Silicates Ind. XXXII
(1967), No. 11, 373 384.

W. Polesnig, W. Zednicek: Beitrag zur Bewertung des Ansataverhaltens und der Ansatzbildung in
Zementrotieröfen. RadexRdsch. (1973), H. 5, 695 712.

M. Majdi (, H.E. Schwiete: Ueber die Ansatzbildung im Drehofen. ZKG 12 (1959), H. 3, 89 101.
L.G. Huggett: Rotary cement kiln linings, refractory problems in the burning zone. Trans Brit. Ceram.
Soc. 56 (1957), 87 109.

H. Gygi: Wärmetechnische Untersuchungen des Drehofens zur Herstellung von Portlandzement

klinker. Dissertation ETH, Zürich (1937).

G. Routschka, A. Majdic: Feuerfeste Baustoffe für die Zementindustrie im Spiegel der Literatur.
ZKG 27 (1974), H. 10,469 485

F. Harders, S. Kienow: Feuerfestkunde. Herstellung, Eigenschaften und Verwendung feuerfester

Baustoffe. Berlin/Göttingen/Heidelberg (1960).

D.S. Buist, J.R. Gelsthorpe: Solid Liquid Reactions and Brick/Clinker Adhesion in Rotary Cement
Kilns. Science of Ceramics 4 (1968), 255 273

C04 - Rings, Balls and Build-Ups

Rings, Balls and Build-Ups

1. INTRODUCTION
2. LOCATION OF RINGS
2.1 Classification
3. THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF RING AND DEPOSIT FORMATION
4. CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS RING AND DEPOSIT TYPES
4.1 Exhaust Fan Deposits
4.2 Slurry Rings (including mud balls)
4.3 Cyclone and Grate Preheater Deposits
4.4 Meal Ring (Calcining Ring) in Long Kilns
4.5 Middle Rings in Large Pre-heater Kilns
4.6 Sinter Rings (excluding coal-ash rings)
4.7 Coal Ash Sinter Rings
4.8 Clinker Rings / Cooler Inlet Deposit (snowman)
4.9 Kiln Charge Balls
5. METHODS OF REMOVAL/ELIMINATION

1. INTRODUCTION
Rings and deposits are accumulations of solid materials (from the powdery kiln charge) in the rotary or
static sections of clinker production lines. They have been encountered since the earliest days of rotary
kiln production, with each development in process technology, e.g. grate and cyclone pre-heaters, grate
cooler, bringing with them their own specific type of deposit.
Rather than being of academic interest, ring and deposit formation has an appreciable influence on plant
operations, frustrating operations personnel by their impairing or even impeding production, and annoying
the company management by lowering production (and sales) and increasing production costs.
As a direct consequence of rings and deposits, the gas and material flow through the kiln is restricted,
resulting in a reduced kiln output. Especially in the sinter zone, the presence of rings can interfere with
combustion of the fuel and can result in improper combustion. From time to time unstable rings and
deposits can break away leading to blockage or mechanical damage in the cooler, or in cyclone
blockages. The partial shedding of coating from the exhaust fan blades results in severe vibration which
mostly requires a short shutdown for complete removal. The breaking of a ring almost always causes a
flush of material into the burning zone and a temporary loss of stable kiln operations.
The formation of deposits in cyclones results in extra costs for the labour needed to remove the deposits
by poking. The introduction of air canons (big blasters) provides a method for their regular automatic
removal and has been installed in Group plants with persistent pre-heater blockages. High pressure water
jets may also be employed.
In the worst cases, a complete shutdown is necessary to allow entrance to the affected area and
mechanical removal of the blockage with compressed air drills. This shutdown invariably weakens the
sinter zone refractories, and accelerates the next shutdown for rebricking.
2. LOCATION OF RINGS
2.1 Classification
Unwanted build-ups may be classified with regard to the type of material from which they are formed,
either sintered or unsintered. Within these two groups the various types can be classified as follows:
unsintered:
¨ exhaust fan deposits
¨ cyclone and grate preheater deposits
¨ slurry or mud rings
¨ meal rings
sintered:
¨ middle ring
¨ sinter ring
¨ clinker ring
¨ "snowman" in grate cooler
¨ kiln charge ball
Process technological characteristics of such build-ups e.g. kiln type, location, temperature of gas and kiln
charge can be seen in Table 1. Material technological characteristics e.g. state of kiln charge, enrichment
in various elements, and type of texture are summarised in Table 2.
The location of the various types of the above rings and deposits can be seen in Fig. 1.
Fig.1 Rings and Build-ups in Different Kiln Systems

3. THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF RING AND DEPOSIT FORMATION

Although of much practical significance, little quantitatively based, fundamental knowledge is available on
the formation of deposits from solids suspended in gas streams. In a qualitative way, however, the more
important features of such processes are known.
The formation of a deposit is always a dynamic process in which the factors responsible for formation
outweigh the forces of degradation. In general, the stronger the forces of destruction, the more unlikely
the chance of deposit formation, but when this does occur, a strong, hard to remove agglomeration is the
result.
After the transport of material to the area of deposition, a definite force is required to make it adhere to the
wall. This can range in magnitude from that caused by turbulence within the gas stream, increasing to
centrifugal forces when the stream changes direction, to that due to mechanical pressure. Whereas pre-
heater deposits involve the first two, mechanical pressure certainly plays a part in ring formation within the
rotating kiln.
The forces according to Rumpf considered to cause deposit formation can be grouped as follows:
a) melting or softening of surface due to friction or collision
b) melting or freezing due to addition or removal of heat
c) interlocking of aggregates built up of finer particles held together by surface forces
d) interlocking of long fibrous particles
e) electrostatic attraction
The mechanisms b, c and d are the ones encountered in kiln operations. In general, the finer the powder,
the greater the tendency towards agglomeration, and in many cases the absence of particles under a
critical size (e.g. 5 um) ensures freedom from deposition.
4. CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS RING AND DEPOSIT TYPES
Tables 3 and 4 contain a list of typical properties of rings and build-ups encountered within the Holcim
Group plants (with full chemical analysis being provided in Appendices I, II and III). Included are such
factors as volatile element concentrations and moduli of the deposited materials. As an indication of the
texture, the size of the pores and the particles or aggregates of particles, from which the materials were
built up, is given. In many cases the mineralogical composition is also given.
4.1 Exhaust Fan Deposits
In the case of kilns with pressure filter systems, in which unfiltered dust-laden gas passes through the
exhaust gas fan, deposit formation causes problems. These arise when the deposit falls off one blade,
and brings the rotating fan out of balance. Deposits of up to 3.5 kg/blade are known to occur.
4.1.1 Characteristic properties:
Exhaust fan deposits, composed of the finest raw meal particles are usually red-brown, hard and quite
brittle. They exhibit a compact layered structure and have a very low porosity of 8%.
Their chemical and mineralogical composition is basically that of the raw meal but often the plate-shaped
clay particles are preferentially deposited parallel to the blade surfaces. Due to their long stay in the
system, fan deposits are enriched in the volatile components K2O, Na2O, SO3. Typical values include the
following:

LSF 20 - 100
SR 1.0 - 1.5
K2O + Na2O 2.1 -3.0 %
SO3 4.7 - 6.0 %

The SO3 is usually present as anhydrite (CaSO4).

Binding mechanism:
In this case, the temperature is such that liquid phase involvement - aqueous or molten salts - can be
ruled out.
The dust particles, because of the fan rotation, strike the blade surfaces with a high velocity and are so
compacted. As the texture of the surface, after even a short time in operation, possesses undulations in
the order 0.5 - 20 um, the smaller dust particles can be mechanically "locked-on". Subsequent
development of the deposit follows by an identical mechanism.
4.2 Slurry Rings (including mud balls)
Characteristic properties:
These occur in long wet kilns and are composed of the partially dried kiln charge somewhat enriched in
alkalis and SO3. They are soft and can usually be broken - and hence prevented by - heavier chains. The
H2O content lies between 20 and 30%, a range in which clay materials exhibit a sticky, plastic
consistency. The content of the alkalis which greatly increases the tendency to adhesion (influence on
rheological properties) can be up to 10% K2O + Na2O, and about the same level of SO3. In many cases,
balls form (in addition) on the chain links by the same mechanism. A typical example of a mud ball is plant
I in Table 4.
Binding mechanism:
The binding mechanism is the well known ability of clays to form a sticky, plastic mass when containing
the correct quantity of H2O, and to harden on the further water loss. To this mechanism must also be
added the crystallization of K2SO4 solution and the further strengthening of the structure by formation of
CaSO4. Photo 1a gives an example of such a ring.
4.3 Cyclone and Grate Preheater Deposits
Characteristics:
These deposits form on the roofs, walls, outlet and riser pipes of cyclone preheaters, in the hot chamber
of grate preheaters, and vary considerably in appearance and homogeneity. In general, they have a light
colour varying from cream to brown to pink, indicating that the component particles had not been heated
higher than 1200°C. In some cases, darker zones of harder burnt material can be observed. Depending
on their place of deposition, they range from a dense, compact, definitely layered structure, hard to break
to a porous (30%) material with only moderate strength with less obvious layering. The former type is
typical of cyclone cones and discharge pipes while the latter is to be found in the transition and swirl
chambers. Soft deposits can, however, also be found in the cyclones.
From a chemical viewpoint, this deposit type usually is characterized by a concentration of the volatile
elements in the following range:
K2O = 1 - 30%
SO3 = 1 - 35%
Cl = 1 - 25%
Na2O = 0 - 2%
In some cases, therefore, deposits can occur with no appreciable increase in concentration. Typical
analyses found for deposits are given in Table 3 and Appendix I.
The mineralogical composition of preheater deposits differs as would be expected from that of the raw
meal in that the clays are essentially decomposed, and a reaction to form intermediate minerals has taken
place. Minerals containing only the volatile elements can also be found.
Amongst the minerals found in preheater deposits are the following:
raw meal:
calcite CaCO3
quartz SiO2
normal intermediate phases:
free lime CaOf
periclase MgO
mayenite C12A7
belite C2S
typical deposit phases with low melting point:
sylvite KCl
halite NaCl
langheinite 2CaSO4 . K2SO4
arcaniteK2SO4
typical deposit phases without melt involvement:
carbonate spurrite 2C2S . CaCO3
sulfate spurrite 2C2S . CaSO4
anhydrite CaS04

Formation mechanism:
The binding substance in this deposit type is the low melting point Na2O, K2O, SO3, Cl based
compounds. These are molten in the kiln gas and are deposited on the cyclone walls and pipes, or first on
dust particles which then themselves are deposited out of the gas stream in these areas. Cooling on
contact or with increasing thickness results in an appreciable strengthening of the originally sticky deposit.
Because of the extensive duration of stay in the kiln system, a reaction takes place with gaseous CO2
and SO3, resulting in the formation of lath shaped spurrite and sulfate spurrite which additionally
strengthen the texture. Typical textures for unsintered, pre-heater and kiln inlet deposits can be seen in
photos lb - ld.
4.4 Meal Ring (Calcining Ring) in Long Kilns
Characteristics and formation:
The meal rings, often called "calcining rings" in long kilns, are in their properties and mechanism of
formation very similar to those of pre-heater deposits in heat exchanger kilns. This is perhaps not
surprising in that both build-ups occur in the same temperature zone. Meal rings are mostly less
troublesome than pre-heater deposits because often, due to their relatively poor strength, thermal
fluctuations, kiln deformation and the action of the material stream, they fall off periodically under their
own weight. A typical example of a calcining ring is plant J in Table 4.
4.5 Middle Rings in Large Pre-heater Kilns
Characteristics:
Unlike meal rings, middle "rings" are dense (fine grained) of low porosity, very hard and seldom fall off
during operations. Although termed as a ring they are rather more elongated, like a band, being often
some 15 - 20 m long extending from 7 to 11 diameters from the outlet, e.g. 35 - 55 m for a 5 m Æ kiln.
Unlike previous types, this deposit is clinker like in colour indicating it being composed of well burnt kiln
charge. Perpendicular to the direction of deposition, the fine layered structure can be seen showing the
curvature of the kiln shell.
The chemical composition of middle rings is very similar to that of clinker. This is surprising because
considering the long duration of the stay in the kiln, no increase in concentration of the alkalis or SO3
takes place, and often the ring shows lower volatile element values than for clinker. Typical analyses of a
middle ring are given in Table 5.
The minerals found in middle rings are the clinker minerals elite, belite, aluminate, ferrite and free CaO,
the elite having often decomposed into microscopically mixed belite and free CaO, resulting from the
temperature at the site of the ring being under the lower stability temperature of elite (i.e. 1260°C).
Formation Mechanism:
The mechanism of bonding is the freezing of the clinker alumino-ferrite melt. Due to a long cool flame, the
clinker has a tendency to be fine, and the smallest clinker particles of 150 - 450 um are carried back by
the flame and deposited onto the kiln wall in a zone where temperatures of below 1250°C exist. The
particles immediately freeze in place, and because the kiln charge is still fine, it does not possess
sufficient abrasive action to remove the growing ring. The typical compact structure of a middle ring can
be seen in photo 1e.
4.6 Sinter Rings (excluding coal-ash rings)
Characteristics:
These occur at the beginning of the sinter zone some 4 - 5 D from the kiln outlet. They are greyish-black
in colour, strong and are (usually) agglomerations of small clinker pellets and clinker dust. No layer
structure is obvious because of the presence of large pores and voids.
In general, the chemical composition is that of the clinker with no appreciable concentration of volatile
elements.
From a mineralogical viewpoint, the normal clinker minerals elite, belite, aluminate, ferrite and free CaO
are observed, with reactions to form belite and CaOfree, spurrite and belite being found with increasing
depth in the ring, i.e. decreasing temperature, similar to the case of middle rings.
Bonding mechanism:
The bonding is created by the freezing of the alumino ferrite clinker liquid in the case of pure sinter rings.
This phenomenon occurs especially at the beginning of the sinter zone, where the liquid phase is just
starting to form (approx. 1280°C). Due to the rotation of the kiln, the charge in this zone freezes with each
kiln revolution: a new wet layer sticks on, and with time a thick deposit builds up consisting of particles of
less than 1mm.
4.7 Coal Ash Sinter Rings
Characteristics:
In kilns fired with a high ash content coal, sinter/coal ash rings can form at 7 - 8.5 D from the kiln outlet.
They are dense, often layered and sometimes glassy in appearance and built up from particles some 150
250 um in size. They are rather less dense and have larger pores and voids than middle rings. Photo 1f
gives an example of the microstructure of such material, showing the coal ash layers.
From the viewpoint of their chemical and mineralogical composition they are essentially similar to clinker,
exhibiting the minerals elite, belite, aluminate, ferrite and free CaO. With decreasing temperature
(increasing ring depth) reactions to form spurrite and calcite take place, and also the transformation of
alite Þ belite + CaOf and b belite Þ a belite. Details of the chemistry and mineralogy are given in Table 6 .
No enrichment of the volatile phases can be observed. Because of the enrichment in coal ash, the belite
content is higher than that of the clinker, and tends to be found in layers.
Formation mechanism:
The bonding medium here is the sticky molten coal ash particles and perhaps to a slight extent, the
alumino ferrite clinker liquid phase occurring by a mechanism such as in Fig. 2 showing the typical build
up during kiln rotation.
Fig. 2: Mechanism for ring formation

The molten coal ash droplets adhere to the exposed kiln lining at a point and temperature at which they
are still partially fluid and sticky. When this sticky layer passes under the kiln charge on each rotation, it is
assumed that a single layer of the still very fine kiln charge adheres to it. Because of the presence of fine
crystalline elite and the overall occurrence of liquid phase, it must be assumed that the material
temperature at the position of the ring lies above 1260°C.
The elite crystals are very small and certainly much smaller than those of the clinker. Because of this, it
can definitely be said that the ring is not formed from clinker dust blown back down the kiln.
4.8 Clinker Rings / Cooler Inlet Deposit (snowman)
Such rings and deposits are formed from normal size clinker granules and have a high porosity containing
many voids. They are usually not troublesome to kiln operations as they can easily be removed. Their
composition and mineralogy is identical to clinker, but in some cases, rings of up to 3.5% K2O and 3.0%
SO3 have been observed.
The mechanism of bonding is the freezing of the clinker liquid phase as the clinker passes through the
cooling zone (ring) or on falling down the chute into a grate cooler, grate kilns being usually operated so
as to have no cooling zone within the kiln itself.
4.9 Kiln Charge Balls
Kiln balls occur in cases where a tendency to meal or sinter ring already exists and can be up to 1m in
diameter. The chemical composition is, thus, an important factor. They are usually found upstream of
meal or sinter rings. They are usually made up of already calcined material and can have a porosity of up
to 55%, consisting of many fine pores. Often they consist of a hard dense porous core, surrounded by the
majority of porous material. The core usually is a piece of coating from say the lower heat exchangers or
the transition chamber, and often has a come position different from the kiln charge in the area of
formation. Differences in composition can be seen in Table 7.
The mechanism of meal ball formation can be due to either, or a combination of the following factors:
¨ stripping and subsequent "balling" of old, excess coating
¨ agglomeration enhanced by available clinker and/or salt melt
¨ ring section acts as a dam, retaining "pieces" of material for long periods. Radial growth of the
pieces occurs by compaction and adherence of fresh surface due to continual rolling action of the
pieces/balls over the charge.
In most cases, no liquid phase participation in sufficient quantities is possible so that the balls behave like
a snowball and by their own pressure material sticks to the surface. This mechanism is similar to that of
deposition on the exhaust fan blades.
5. METHODS OF REMOVAL/ELIMINATION
An important prerequisite for minimizing the tendency to form objectionable coatings and rings, is stable
kiln operation. This applies to the composition, fineness and feed rate of the raw material and fuel, and
burning zone heat control.
The tendency to form coatings in the kiln is reduced by lowering the dust load of the kiln gas.
Objectionable coatings and rings which are formed as a consequence of high concentrations of various
circulating elements can be obviated by appropriate reduction of the cycles in question.
This can be achieved by:
¨ Employing different raw materials and/or fuel with lower concentration of the offending element.
This is generally not practicable.
¨ Control of the raw meal milling so as to reduce the concentration of the very fine particles of sizes
under 20 mm.
¨ Intervention into cyclic process by either discarding dust in which the circulating elements have
become concentrated, or by means of a bypass installation which extracts a portion of the kiln gas.
The penetration of false air into the preheater and kiln inlet chambers should be avoided, as such cold
areas will act as sites for preferential build-up.
In order to reduce the tendency to form sinter rings, it is in the first place necessary to reduce the
proportion of fusible matter in the clinker, i.e. the lime standard and silica modulus should be increased.
"Coating-inactive" bricks have also proved successful in certain cases, in reducing the tendency toward
sinter ring formation.
In coal-fired kilns a coal with a normal ash content should be employed as coals having ash contents of
40% are characterized by a very high tendency to ring formation. No general approach can be given to
the effectiveness of other measures, e.g. alteration to firing conditions, as these represent variables which
are peculiar to the particular installation.
Clinker rings can be avoided by shifting the flame further back, thus increasing the clinker temperature at
the kiln outlet. As a result of this, however, the "stickiness" range of the clinker is shifted towards the
cooler inlet. Coatings can then be formed on the cooler inlet chute. This is particularly problematic with
satellite coolers. In instances where this occurs with grate coolers, these coatings can be eliminated by
the use of water cooled plates on the inlet chute.
Table 1 Time and Location of Rings and Coating
(according to Opitz, 1974)

Table 2 General Characteristics of Various Ring Types

Table 3 Properties of Build-ups Examined

Table 4 Properties of Rings Examined

Table 5 : Typical analyses of a middle ring at various depths

sample ring
internal ring
middle ring
externalclinker
Loss on ign. 0.47 1.82 0.94 0.37
SiO2 23.0 17.8 21.9 21.9
Al2O3 4.9 5.1 5.5 5.6
Fe2O3 3.0 2.9 3.1 3.2
CaO 66.4 70.7 66.8 66.1
MgO 1.1 1.0 0.95 0.95
SO3 0.13 0.07 0.27 0.48
K2O 0.16 0.09 0.30 0.35
Na2O 0.06 0.06 0.12 0.14
TiO2 0.25 0.23 0.25 0.25
Mn2O3 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
P2O5 0.24 0.21 0.20 0.20
Cl- 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Total 99.74 100.36 100.01 99.57
LS 92 122 96 93
SR 2.91 2.23 2.55 2.49
AR 1.63 1.76 1.77 1.75

Table 6: Chemistry and Mineralogy of a (coal ash) ring

kiln point 29.5 32.5 33.5

depth in ring under hot surface middle near shell
chemical analysis:
SiO2 24.65 24.61 21.77
Al2O3 5.68 5.70 5.48
Fe2O3 4.23 4.29 3.53
Cao 61.27 61.92 65.31
MgO 0.49 0.79 0.64
K2O 0.58 0.34 0.17
Na2O 0.36 0.03 0.20
SO3 0.15 0.27 0.34
Loss on ign. 2.61 1.63 2.48
Total 100.0 99.68 100.0
LS 78.1 79.0 93.7
SR 2.49 2.46 2.42
AR 1.34 1.33 1.55
free lime 1.0 4.0 2.7
minerals det.:
(wt. %)
alite ~ 30 ~ 15 ~ 40
a and b belite ~ 35 - 40 ~ 55 - 60 ~ 30
liquid phase
(aluminate + ferrite) ~ 15 ~ 15 ~ 15
carbonate spurrite+CaOf ~ 15 10 ~ 15
l belite < 5 <5
texture:
average pore size (estimated) mm 400 - 800 400 - 800 100 - 300

Table 7.Chemical comopsition of core and rim of meal ball and the kiln charge composition at the
corresponding zone
 kiln ball kiln charge
rim core calcining zone
Loss on ign. 3.9 4.3 1.9
SiO2 20.9 17.2 21.2
Al203 5.6 8.0 5.7
Fe203 2.8 4.4 2.7
Cao 63.0 62.5 62.1
SO3 1.9 1.7 2.2
K2O 2.1 1.5 2.3
Cl- 0.1 0.1 0.1
LSF 94 104 91
SR 2.4 1.4 2.5

Appendix I: Chemical analysis of preheater cyclone deposits

Appendix II: Chemical analysis of riser pipe kiln inlet deposits

Appendix III Chemical analysis of rings from rotary section of Kiln

Phototable 1 S.E.M Micrographs of Deposits

C05 - Fuels for Cement Kilns

Fuels for Cement Kilns

1. INTRODUCTION
2. GENERALITIES
2.1 CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS
2.2 HEAT OF COMBUSTION
3. COAL
3.1 FORMATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF COALS
3.2 ANALYSIS
3.3 VOLATILE MATTER
3.4 GRINDING AND DRYING
3.5 ASH CONTENT
4. FUEL OIL
4.1 COMPOSITIONS AND CLASSIFICATION
4.2 DENSITY
4.3 VISCOSITY
4.4 POUR POINT
4.5 WATER CONTENT
4.6 OTHER PROPERTIES
5. NATURAL GAS
6. OTHER FUELS

1. INTRODUCTION
By common definition a fuel is any material that liberates heat when it reacts with oxygen. In practice,
however, only those materials which ignite at moderate temperatures burn with comparative rapidity are
obtainable in quantity at reasonable prices are regarded as fuels.
According to their physical state fuels are divided into 3 main groups, i.e. solid, liquid and gaseous. All 3
are employed in the cement industry. Originally coal was used almost exclusively. Around 1960 the
conversion to oil and gas firing began and proceeded quickly because these two fuels had become
sensibly cheaper than coal, and furthermore they were much easier to handle. However, after 1973 oil
(and gas) prices rose again steeply and soon surpassed coal by far. Plants in countries without own
deposits of oil or gas began to return to coal, and by now most of them are back again to nearly 100 % of
coal firing. Fig. 1 shows the consumption of different fuels in the cement industry of Switzerland, a country
which has neither coal nor oil of her own. For countries which dispose of oil (or gas) deposits the return to
coal is not so urgent, of course, but on the whole coal is gaining ground world-wide as can be seen e.g.
from figures 2 and 3 which show the development in the Holcim Group since 1974.
Fig. 1 Consumption of Coal and Fuel Oil in the Swiss Cement Industry from 1959-1985

Fig. 2 Percentage of Clinker Produced with Different Types of Fuel

Fig. 3 Quantity of Clinker Produced with Different Types of Fuel

2. GENERALITIES
2.1 CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS
All ordinary fuels consist mainly of carbon and hydrogen accompanied by minor amounts of nitrogen,
oxygen, sulfur and sometimes inorganic minerals. For example, table 1 shows the analyses of the mostly
used fuels on a dry, mineral-free basis and without inert components of natural gas like N2 and CO2.
Table 1:Ultimate analyses of fuels (weight percent)

bituminous coal fuel oil natural gas

C 88 - 90 83 - 87 75 - 77
H 4-5 11 - 13 23 - 25
O 3-4 0.1-0.4 traces
S 1-2 1-3 traces

Appreciable amounts of minerals which form ashes after combustion occur only in solid fuels and shall be
discussed in chapter 3.5.
Sulfur, although a minor component of fuels is of particular importance because of its effects on clinker
quality and, above all, the environment. Furthermore, owing to its volatility, it can accumulate in certain
parts of the kiln system and form build-ups and rings. Therefore it is absolutely necessary to supervise
closely the sulfur contents of both raw mix and fuel. Depending on the raw mix composition and on kiln
conditions (temperature, atmosphere) the clinker can absorb considerable quantities of sulfur in the form
of sulfates. When its capacity is exceeded the excess sulfur is emitted by the stack as SO2 which can
have detrimental effects on organisms and buildings. Therefore in most industrialised countries the
authorities have restricted the emission of SO2 and in some cases even demand monitoring of emissions.
2.2 HEAT OF COMBUSTION
The carbon and hydrogen contents of the fuels determine their most important property, namely their heat
of combustion or calorific value. Chemically speaking combustion is nothing else but oxidation. The
elements of the fuel, mainly carbon and hydrogen, combine with oxygen from the air and a certain amount
of energy is set free as heat. The heat is measured in
¨ Joule (J) (International Standard Unit)
¨ calorie (car) (no longer valid but still widely used)
¨ British Thermal Unit (BTU) (United Kingdom, USA etc.)
The conversion factors are
¨ 1 cal = 4.187 J
¨ 1 BTU = 1055 J
For the requirements of the cement industry a larger unit is more suitable i.e. the Mega-Joule (MJ)
¨ 1 MJ = 106 J
The heat generated per unit weight of fuel is called specific "heat of combustion" or "calorific value". For
example, 1 kg of carbon will combine with 2.67 kg of oxygen to form 3.67 kg of CO2, releasing 33.9 MJ of
heat:
1kg C + 2.67kg O2 ® 3.67kg CO2 + 33.9 MJ
Accordingly the calorific value of carbon is 33.9 MJ/kg.
The calorific value is normally calculated for complete combustion to the highest possible state of
oxidation. If not sufficient oxygen is present toxic CO will be formed with much less heat development:
1kg C + 1.33 kg O2 ® 2.33kg CO + 10.0 MJ
This means that the emission of carbon monoxide is not only a pollution of the atmosphere but also a
waste of energy.
For hydrogen one obtains for the formation of water vapour
1kg H2 + 8kg O2 ® 9kg H2O + 119.9 MJ
This is called the 'net calorific value'. By condensation of the vapour another 20.3 MJ would be released
bringing the total heat development of the reaction to 140.2 MJ. This is the 'gross calorific value'. Of
course, for cement kilns only the net values are important because the flue gases leave far above 100°C
and therefore the heat of condensation of the water vapour cannot be utilised. Nevertheless in some
countries, including the US, the gross calorific value is generally used.
For conversion from gross (G) to net (N) heats of combustion (MJ/Kg) the following formula is valid:
N = G - (WB + WM) . HC
where WM stands for the moisture content of the fuel, WB for the water generated by combustion (all in
kg), and HC for the heat of condensation of water vapour which is 2.26 MJ/Kg.
The contribution of sulfur to the calorific value of fuels is very small:
1kg S + 1 kg O2 ® 2 kg SO2 + 9.3 MJ
Besides MJ/kg other units for calorific values are still in use such as
¨ J/g (or kJ/kg)
¨ cal/g (or kcal/kg)
¨ BTU/lb (British Thermal Units per pound)
For gaseous fuels the calorific values usually refer to units of volume under standard conditions (0°C, 760
mm Hg) instead of mass (Nm3 = cubic meter or cf = cubic foot. 1 Nm3 = 35.31 cf). The conversion factors
of these units are listed in table 2.
Table 2: Conversion factors for calorific values

a) Units for solid and liquid fuels

J/g cal/g BTU/lb
J/g 1 0.2388 0.4299
cal/g 4.187 1 1.800
BTU/lb 2.326 0.5555 1
b) Units for gaseous fuels
kJ/Nm3 kcal/Nm3 BTU/cf
kJ/Nm3 1 0.2388 0.0268
kcal/Nm3 4.187 1 0.1122
BTU/cf 37.25 8.896 1

Typical calorific values of the main fuels employed in the cement industry are shown in table 3.
Table 3: Net calorific values of various fuels

a) solids + liquids MJ/kg cal/g BTU/lb

bituminous coal (dry, mineral-free) 33 - 35 7800 - 8400 14100 - 15200
heavy fuel oil
40 - 41 9600 - 9900 17300 - 17800
b) gaseous MJ/Nm kcal/Nm3 BTU/cf
natural gas 34 - 38 8000 - 9000 900 - 1000

From the foregoing it can be inferred that the calorific value of a fuel may be calculated from its
elementary composition. However, the energy to break up the chemical compounds of the fuel has to be
deducted. In general, this is not known with sufficient accuracy. Therefore the direct determination of the
heat of combustion by calorimetric methods is to be preferred. It is simple and quick and requires no
special skill if a modern calorimeter is available. Fuel prices depending directly on calorific values frequent
checks are to be strongly recommended. Owing to the tremendous heat requirements of a cement kiln
even small variations of the calorific values may become very costly.
3. COAL
3.1 FORMATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF COALS
Collier's Encyclopedia defines coal as a "combustible, sedimentary rock formed of vegetable matter by
physical and chemical alteration through geologic processes". The first intermediate product of these
processes is peat which is not yet considered as coal. Then follows lignite (or brown coal) several types of
bituminous coal, and finally anthracite. During this transformation the carbon content and with it the
calorific value increase continuously while the volatile matter (mainly hydrocarbons), decreases. Thus
coals are classified according to their contents of volatile matter and/or their calorific value. For example,
table 4 shows the ASTM classification (Standard Specification D 388 - 66).
Table 4 Classification of Coals by Rank

3.2 ANALYSIS
Proximate Analysis
Proximate Analysis covers the determination of moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, and ash by
determining the weight losses at certain temperatures. For example ASTM-Standard D 3172 prescribes
¨ for moisture 107°C in air
¨ for volatile matter 950°C with exclusion of air(covered crucibles)
¨ for fixed carbon 750°C in air The residue in ash.
Proximate analysis is simple and fairly quick. Together with the calorific value and sulfur content it is
sufficient for all practical purposes.
Ultimate Analysis
Ultimate Analysis determines the elementary composition. It requires special equipment and can only be
carried out in laboratories with appropriately trained personnel.
Sulfur
Sulfur is analysed by ignition and subsequent determination of SO2 in the combustion gases by infrared
absorption or colorimetry.
Chlorine
Chlorine can be determined in the liquid from the calorimetric bomb by titration with silver nitrate.
Ash composition
Ash composition which is important for correct calculation of the raw mix (see chapter 3.5) is analysed by
the same methods as other raw materials.
3.3 VOLATILE MATTER
Not all types of coal are equally suitable for cement kilos. If the volatile contents are too low ignition of the
coal particles is delayed and the flame becomes too long. On the other hand, high volatile contents
increase the risk of self-ignition and explosions. For a long time about 20 % of volatile matter was
considered an acceptable compromise, and preferably bituminous coal of that composition was used, or,
if that was not available, a corresponding mixture of coals with higher and lower volatile contents. In the
meantime engineers have learned to master the risk of self-ignition and explosions and brown coal
containing 50 % of volatiles or even more can be employed.
3.4 GRINDING AND DRYING
Besides a certain content of volatile matter the fineness of the coal dust is of prime importance for the
generation of a good flame in the kiln. In fact, a lack of volatiles can to a certain extent be compensated
for by finer grinding of the coal as can be seen on fig. 4:
Fig. 4 Required fineness of coal as a function of volatile content (Sieve numbers indicate mesh
openings in mm)

Grinding is generally combined with drying of the coal. This drying should not go too far because
completely dry coal could be difficult to ignite. In the absence of water the reaction of carbon with oxygen
is very sluggish. 1 - 1.5 % of residual moisture in the coal will accelerate the reaction sufficiently. The
exact drying temperature for a certain coal can be determined in the laboratory by establishing the
desiccation curve, i.e. residual water as a function of the temperature.
3.5 ASH CONTENT
It has already been mentioned that coal contains mineral components which leave solid remainders after
combustion, the ash. Bituminous coal which is generally used for clinker burning gives a siliceaous ash in
the form of molten drops. These are carried away by the flame gases and finally settle on the clinker
being formed. There is thus a higher SiO2 - concentration on the surface of the kiln charge. Depending on
how far the ash drops are carried into the kiln they will be more or less assimilated with the clinker
granules. Due to the deposition of ash drops rich in silica on the kiln charge there is a local lack of CaO.
Here only belite can be formed and thus the deposition of ash leads to typical belite streaks in the clinker
as shown in chapter 13.2.3.5, plate 19.
Because the coal ash is incorporated into the clinker it is absolutely necessary to take it into account
when calculating the raw mix. The following example may serve to demonstrate this. Suppose raw
materials and ash have the compositions listed in table 5 a) and the coal required for clinker burning
leaves 2 % of the raw mix weight as ash. To produce a clinker with 55 % C3S the raw mix shown in the
first column of table 5 b) would be required.
If the coal ash is not taken into account the calculation for 55 % C3S will give the raw mix of the second
column. After incorporation of the coal ash the C3S - content of the clinker would come down to only 39
%.
Table 5: Consequences of neglect of coal ash at raw mix calculations

a) Analyses of raw materials and ash (%)

Limestone Clay Sand Coal ash
L.o.i. 42.2 12.5 16.7 ---
SiO2 3.1 52.2 59.4 42.9
Al2O3 0-9 15.6 1.5 20.6
Fe2O3 0.6 13.2 3.0 22.4
CaO 52.6 2.4 17.2 8.2

b) Raw mix calculated for 55 % C3S (%) with ash without ash
Limestone 79.2 77.9
Clay 15.0 17.8
Sand 5.8 4.3
Coal ash 2.0

c) Clinker analyses (%) after absorption of coal ash

SiO2 22.2 22.8
Al2O3 5 4 6.0
Fe2O3 4 7 5.1
CaO 65.6 63.9
Tricalciumsilicate C3S (%) 55.0 39.0

4. FUEL OIL
4.1 COMPOSITIONS AND CLASSIFICATION
Fuel is one of the products of the refining of petroleum. Petroleum or crude oil is a liquid found in
subterranean deposits. Chemically it is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons which range from molecules
containing one carbon atom to more than ninety. In addition sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen and traces of some
metallic elements appear in varying amounts in the molecules.
By distillation and other processes ("refining") the crude oil is split up into a large number of different
products, among them several types of fuel oil. These are classified according to their density, viscosity,
and other properties. For cement kiln firing only the heavy quality is used, designated as Bunker C or No.
6 Fuel Oil in the USA. In Germany and Switzerland it is called Heavy Fuel Oil (Schweres Heizöl = Heizöl
S).
Heavy fuel oil consists primarily of the residue from distillation and other refinery processes, such a
thermal cracking, visbreaking, etc., with the addition of various diluents to meet various specification limits
for the viscosity, density and sulphur content of the finished product.
The chemical and physical properties of heavy residual fuels are dependent both on the origin of the
crude oil and on the processing conditions in the refinery. The main properties of fuel oil derived from
petroleum are subject to certain standards. For example, table 6 shows the German Standard DIN 51603.
Table 6: Requirements for heavy fuel oil as per German Standard DIN 51603

Flashpoint in closed cup : min °C 65;100

Kinematic viscosity : max mm2/s(cSt) at 50°C: 450
at 100°C: 40
Pour point : °C no specifications
Conradson carbon residue: max % mass15
Sulphur content: max % by mass 2.8
Water content, not removable: max % mass0.5
Sediment content: max % mass0.5
Calorific value: min MJ/kg 39.8
Ash (oxide ash): max % mass0.15

4.2 DENSITY
The density of fuel oil is strongly dependent on temperature. For 1°C increase in the temperature of heavy
oil the density decreases, on average, by 0.63 %. Therefore the density must always be given with a
reference temperature, usually 15°C (d15). There are statistical relationships between density and other
properties of fuel oil, specially the calorific value. Being relatively easy to measure density is suitable for
regular and frequent quality control.
4.3 VISCOSITY
Apart from the calorific value viscosity is the most important property of fuel oils. Both pumping and
atomisation require certain viscosities. These can be obtained by heating the oil because the viscosity
depends strongly on temperature. Fig. 5 shows this together with the atomisation range and pumping
limits. It can be seen that for optimal atomisation the heavy fuel oil must be heated to about 120°C. The
oil temperature has to be strictly controlled because even small variations would cause marked changes
of viscosity and thereby also atomisation.
Fig. 5 Kinematic Viscosity of Fuel Oil as a Function of Temperature

The International Standard Unit of viscosity is the Poise (P):

It is called "dynamic viscosity". The ratio of dynamic viscosity to density is designated as "kinematic
viscosity", usually measured in centistokes (cSt). In practice empirical units are often employed such as
Redwood-seconds in Great Britain, or Saybolt seconds ("Universal" and "Furol") in the USA. Table 7
contains a comparison of the different viscosity scales.
Table 7: Comparison of viscosity units

Saybolt seconds Redwood cSt

Universal Furol seconds
100 15 89 20.6
160 20 145 34.2
300 32 292 65.0
500 52 438 108
800 81 800 173
1500 150 1400 324
3000 300 2800 648

4.4 POUR POINT

Some fuel oils show an anomaly in their temperature/viscosity behaviour: already more or less above the
upper pumping limit viscosities rise abruptly and the oil suddenly becomes a stiff gel. This temperature is
called the "pour point". Obviously it is most important for storage and transport and depending on the
climate upper limits should be fixed between buyer and supplier.
4.5 WATER CONTENT
Heavy fuel oil as delivered to consumers can contain slight traces of water. In general, the water content
is well below 0.5 % mass. The relatively small quantity of water found in heavy fuel oil is normally present
in a finely dispersed form which does not cause corrosion or problems in storage, transport or
combustion.
A water content higher than 0.5 % mass can be caused by water condensation in storage tanks which are
not completely full or by leaks from pipes, steam or hot water heating coils. Excess water gradually
collects on the floor of the tank together with other constituents of the oil or contaminants (e.g. sediments,
dirt) and forms a sludge. Regular checks and proper care of the tanks are, therefore, necessary in order
to prevent build up of sludge on the bottom of the tank.
Care must be taken to ensure that when oil is removed from the tank none of the sludge is allowed to get
into the burner circuit as it may cause blocking of filters and other problems. In normal circumstances,
heavy fuel oil tanks should be cleaned every two to three years.
Even if some water in the oil is not likely to cause any trouble in kiln operation etc. it still means less
calorific value and must not be neglected when comparing fuel prices.
4.6 OTHER PROPERTIES
¨ calorific values 40 - 41 MJ/kg (see chapter 2.2)
¨ sulfur contents 1 - 3 % (see chapter 2.1)
¨ ash contents < 0.05 % (negligible for raw mix calculations)
¨ flash point:, >100°C (no danger of inadvertent or spontaneous ignition)
¨ carbon residue *) ~12 %
*) as measured by the Conradson test, i.e. heating of an oil sample with the exclusion of air until a solid
residue of oil coke remains which is expressed in per cent mass of the oil sample. The procedure in this
test, however, does not correspond to the conditions in a normal burner, where heavy fuel oil is first
atomised into very fine droplets and is then burnt in suspension in an excess of air.
5. NATURAL GAS
The term "natural gas" is used to designate gases from below the surface of the earth. They consist of
methane and higher paraffin’s, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and sometimes helium. In a
narrower sense only combustible mixtures consisting predominantly of methane are called "natural gas".
Many natural gases, especially those from oil deposits, contain some natural gasoline, mainly paraffin’s
with 5 - 8 carbon atoms which are liquid at room temperature under atmospheric pressure. Depending on
their gasoline content three types of natural gas are distinguished
¨ dry gas with < 10 9 gasoline per m3
¨ lean gas with 10 - 50 9 gasoline per m3
¨ wet gas with ; > 50 9 gasoline per m3
Before feeding the gas into the supply system it is purified. Especially the evil-smelling and poisonous
hydrogen suphide which may amount to 15 % of the crude gas has to be eliminated. The valuable
gasoline is also taken out and recovered.
Besides sulfur many other things which can cause trouble when employing liquid or solid fuels such as
grinding, preheating, atomisation etc. do not exist with natural gas. Supervision of the fuel quality is
scarcely necessary. Only the calorific value may vary somewhat mainly because of varying
concentrations of inert compounds like CO2. Abrupt changes of ±300 kJ/Nm3 have been reported.
Therefore the installation of an on-line calorimeter is to be recommended which measures and records
continuously the heating value of the gas.
Another disadvantage of gas is the low emissivity of the flame but owing to the dusty kiln atmosphere the
heat transfer to the kiln charge is not as bad as might be apprehended.
6. OTHER FUELS
Cement kilns offer the means and capacity to burn many kinds of combustibles. A large number of
unusual "fuels" have already been tried in cement kilns, many of them successfully. Well known examples
are oil shale, petrol coke, and used car tires. A lot more are listed in table 8 which can be considered as
fairly comprehensive at the moment.
Table 8: By-product and waste fuels
SOLID
Synthetic Vegetable matter or natural Other
waste tires (whole, Chips) oil shale domestic refuse
coal wastes refuse derived fuel (RDf)
rubber wastes Low grade lignites car shredding wastes
used battery casings colliery benefaction rejects oil Contaminated earth
plastic wastes peat
paper/Cardboard wastes wood wastes
fullers earth (from industrial oil preparation) bark, wood chips
saw dust
activated bentonite (from oil preparation)rice husks
oil palm shells
petrol coke (from refineries) coconut shells
graphite dust
charcoal (wastes from steel industry)

LIQUID
Easy decomposable, low toxic Stable. toxic compounds (hazardous)
tar (industrial by product) poly-aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
acid tar
sludge asphalt polychlorinated byphenyls (PCB)
waste oils (from various sources) chlorinated aromatics and alicyclics
oil sludge’s
solvents from paint industry
petrochemical wastes
chemical wastes (ketones, alcohol’s, acetates, benzene. paint slurries)

The motive behind these activities was not in the first place to save high grade fuel but the disposal of
waste materials and industrial or agricultural by-products for which no other use could be found.
Conventional disposal of such materials in open deposits or burning in refuse incineration plants is
becoming increasingly difficult. It is costly and may lead to environmental hazards. This does not, or at
least only partly, apply to the combustion in cement kilns for the following reasons:
¨ with flame temperatures around 2000°C all organic compounds, even the most resistant
chlorinated hydrocarbons, are completely destroyed.
¨ most of the acid combustion products and the toxic trace elements are absorbed by the counter-
current of raw meal. This natural cleaning process is very effective.
¨ the flue gases are very efficiently deducted. In modern cement plants the residual dust content is
not rarely below 50 mg/Nm3.
¨ Thus toxic trace elements which tend to accumulate in this dust are effectively retained and can
be eliminated for controlled disposal.
¨ most of the toxic elements will be incorporated into the cement clinker where they can do no harm
because their concentrations are very small and are further reduced in mortar or concrete (cement
content only 10 - 15 % of concrete weight) where they remain fixed practically insoluble.
From the macro-economic point of view, too, the burning of waste and by-product fuels in cement kilns is
by far preferable to deposition or combustion in special refuse incineration plants. However, not all fuels
are suitable for cement kilns, or only to a limited extent. Some of the restrictions which have to be
considered are :
¨ the concentrations of volatile elements like Cl and S must not exceed certain limits in order to
avoid circulation or emission problems. In many cases the chlorine content of a fuel limits its possible
input into the kiln to avoid circulation troubles. Excessive sulfur input can lead to harmful SO2-emissions.
¨ the overall composition of the fuel ash should be such that it can easily be incorporated into the
clinker without deteriorating its quality.
¨ some wastes may cause handling difficulties with regard to transport, storage, safety etc.
¨ the burning of waste fuels is usually subject to permission by local authorities. The plant has to
prove that stack emissions do not exceed existing limitations which may turn out to be rather expensive.
All these points have to be taken into account when calculating the financial aspects. In many cases the
expenses saved on high grade fuel will barely be sufficient to cover the extra costs. Even so a cement
plant should consider that it can create goodwill and a favourable image in public by helping other people
to get rid of their by-products and waste without impairing the environment.
It is clear from the foregoing that no general rules for the combustion of waste or by-product fuels can be
given, each case being different from the next and having its own particular aspects. However, to illustrate
the subject an example for the successful use of a waste the burning of old tires in cement kilns as
practised in a German Cement plant shall be described.
The calorific value of tires is about 27 MJ/kg which is virtually the same as that of coal with an average
mineral content and moisture. The tires are fed whole directly into a SP-kiln. The system begins with a
forklift truck movement of tires from a storage pile onto a conveyor. This carries the tires up to an
automatic balance. The tires having very different sizes weighing is indispensable to maintain a constant
mass flow of the fuel. The number of tires fed per unit of time is automatically adjusted according to their
weight. The tires enter the kiln via a chute and through an air lock to minimise heat loss into the transition
chamber where temperatures are high enough to ensure complete combustion without any risk of
environmentally negative aspects. The iron wires of the tires are oxidised to FeO which is incorporated
into the clinker along with the coal ash. Of course, the raw mix has to be adjusted accordingly. Provided
this is done the clinker quality will not be affected. Up to 20 % of the fuel has been replaced by old tires.

C06 - Clinker Burning Behaviour of Heavy Metals

Clinker Burning Behaviour of Heavy Metals

1. INTRODUCTION
2. ESSENTIAL AND TOXIC ELEMENTS
2.1 Essential Elements
2.2 Toxic Elements
2.2.1 Toxicity
3. ANALYSIS OF TOXIC METALS
3.1 Qualitative Analysis of Toxic Elements
3.2 Quantitative Analysis of Toxic Metals
3.3 Evaporation of Mercury during Handling in Laboratory
4. SOURCES OF TOXIC METALLIC SUBSTANCES
4.1 Common Sources of Toxic Metallic Substances
4.2 Natural Cement Raw Materials Components
4.3 Secondary Raw Meal Components
4.4 Toxic Elements in Raw Meal
4.5 Natural Fuels
4.6 Secondary Fuels
5. BEHAVIOUR OF TOXIC METALS IN CEMENT KILNS
5.1 Volatility of Toxic Element Compounds
5.2 Distribution of Toxic Heavy Elements
5.3 Distribution of Cadmium
5.4 Distribution of Mercury
5.5 Distribution of Thallium
5.6 Typical Balance of Toxic Elements In Kilns
5.6.1 Wet Kiln
5.6.2 Lepol Kiln
5.7 Class 1 Elements (Cd and Tl)
5.8 Class 2 Elements (As, Co and Ni)
5.9 Class 3 Elements (Cr, Cu, Pb, V)
5.10 Non-Classified Elements
5.11 Maximum Allowed Levels in Stack Gas Dust
6. TOXIC ELEMENTS IN CLINKER
6.1 Levels of Toxic Elements
6.2 Influence of Toxic Metals on Cement Properties
6.3 Ability of Clinker Compounds to Immobilize Toxic Metals
7. INFLUENCE OF KILN TYPE ON HEAVY METALS EMISSIONS
7.1 Experience from Literature and Plants
7.1.1 Non-Volatile Metals
7.1.2 Volatile Metals
7.1.3 Long Wet and Long Dry Kilns
7.2 Specification of Missing or Inaccurate Data
8. STANDARD TECHNOLOGY FOR REDUCTION OF HEAVY METAL EMISSION
8.1 Reduction of Heavy Metals Input into Kiln System
8.2 Modification of Process
8.3 Secondary Reduction Measures
9. BAT (BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY) FOR REDUCTION OF HEAVY METAL EMISSION
9.1 Non-volatile metals
9.2 Volatile metals
10. LITERATURE
11. Appendix
11.1 Thalium Documentation Dyckerhoff-Zementwerke AG, Lengerich

1. INTRODUCTION
For hundreds of millions of years the heavy toxic metals remained buried in the ground in non-soluble
forms, mainly as oxides and sulphides, and as such were not a pollutant of the biosphere. The use of
metals by man started about 6000 B.C. when natural metallic gold, silver and copper supplemented the
use of stone, bone and wood. Between 4500 and 3500 B.C. the discovery that metals such as copper
could be extracted from native ores, made malleable by heat and mixed with other metals to form alloys,
formed the basis of the vast metal industries of today. Accompanying this came potential hazards to
health.
The early ores were mined from pits without adequate ventilation and resulted in an exposure to dusts
and fumes whose composition was unknown and whose toxicity was on the whole not even suspected.
Strabo, in describing the arsenic mines in Pontus, however reported:
"the air in the mines is both deadly and hard to endure on account of the grievous odour of the ore, so the
workmen are doomed to a quick death".
From the early beginnings modern technology has made available metals whose toxic properties were
first realised after incidents of ill-health or death caused by inhalation of dust and fume or by contact with
the skin. Such metals include beryllium, selenium, cadmium, gallium, indium, etc. That cadmium and
selenium have toxic properties was first realised after these metals had already achieved commercial
success.
What significance do heavy toxic metals have today in the cement industry? Since the mid 1980's strict
regulations for gaseous emissions and immissions have started to be implemented in highly developed
countries. In Europe, especially in Switzerland and Germany, very low limits have been set for the
emission of various elements such as defined in the Swiss (LRV) and German (TA-Luft) Clean Air Acts.
These regulations, given in Table 1, classify the toxic elements, mainly heavy metals, into various classes
depending on their toxicity.
Table 1:The Limits for the Emission of Heavy Toxic Metals as Defined in the German (TA-Luft) and Swiss
(LRV) Clean Air Acts

Element Class Class Emission Limits (mg/Nm3)

Cd 1
Hg 1 0.2
Tl 1
As 2
Co 2
Ni 2 1
 Se 2
Te 2
Cr 3
Cu 3
Pb 3
Pd 3
Pt 3 5
Rh 3
Sb 3
Sn 3
V 3
Zn n.c. n. defined

Due to the very low emission limit of 0.2 mg/Nm3 for the sum of the Class 1 elements (cadmium, mercury
and thallium) and the high volatility of the elements mercury and thallium, Class 1 is of utmost importance
to the cement industry. That thallium can be emitted from a cement plant is well documented (Figure 3)
following the "incident" in 1979 at Dyckerhof'f's Lengerich plant in which flora and fauna around the plant
were shown to have suffered as a result of its emission. The source of this thallium was mainly the iron
corrective used (4.8 ppm) and also the coal (1.2 - 1.8 ppm), both natural mate- rials.
With the now common and ever increasing use of secondary materials, combustible and non-
combustible, increased quantities of the heavy, toxic elements just defined are now being introduced into
cement kilns. Which of these elements are the most common ones encountered, where do they come
from and how do they behave inside the kiln? What happens to them after the cement is hydrated?
2. ESSENTIAL AND TOXIC ELEMENTS
Whereas some elements are essential, others are decidedly toxic. Which elements fit into each category?
2.1 Essential Elements
Those elements considered to be essential are given in Table 2.
Table 2: Essential and Toxic Elements (Iyengar and Sansoni, 1976)
Structural Elements: C, Ca, H, N, O, P, S

Electrolyte Elements: Ca, Cl, K, Mg, Na

Trace Elements:
¨ Essential
· biologically important: Co, Cr, Cu, F, Fe, I, Mg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Se, Si. Sn, V, Zn
· Clinically significant: Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Se, Zn
¨ Suspected to be Essential: As, Ge, Rb
¨ Regularly Found in Tissue: Al, B, Br, Ga, Li, Sc, Sr, Ti
¨ Toxic
· potentially toxic: As, Cd, Hg, Pb, Sb, Se
· environmental contaminants: Cd, Hg, Pb
· industrial hazards: Be, Bi, Cr, Mn, Ni, Sb, Th, Te,U, V, W

Others: Ag, Au, Ba, Ce, Cs, Nb, Pt, rare earths, Te, W, Zr

Radioactive Contaminants: Po, Ra, Rn, Th, U, Am, Cm, Np

Not all elements are toxic, indeed many are even essential to life. As can be seen in Table 2, the elements
H, C, N, O, Na, Mg, P, S, Cl, Ca are the major elements necessary, the additional elements B, F, Si, V, Cr,
Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Se, Mo, Sn and I being necessary in only trace quantities. The main body of the
essential trace elements is grouped between V and Zn in the first transition series of the periodic table.
With the exception of Mo, Sn and I, all the essential elements lie within the first four layers of the table.
The form in which these elements is present is also important as some compounds, eg. HCN (prussic
acid) contain essential elements but must definitely be classed as being highly toxic.
Regarding the quantity of the trace elements required this varies from element to element. As given in
Table 3, showing the situation for a 70 kg adult, the daily requirements range from 0.03 mg for Co up to
15 mg for Fe. These elements are not accumulated within the body and are excreted and so must be
continually replaced. The total burden of the essential elements is also shown in Table 3 with Fe at 4.1 g
(4100 mg) and Zn at 2.3 g (2300 mg) being the most abundant.

Table 3: Estimated Daily Intake and Human Body Burden of Essential Trace Elements

Element Class* Daily Intake (mg) Burden (mg/70 kg)

Co 2 0.03 1
Ni 2 0.45 10
Se 2 0.06 15
Cr 3 0.06 6
Cu 3 3.2 100
V 3 2.5 30
Fe n.c. 15 4,100
Mn n.c. 5 20
Mo n.c. 0.35 9
Zn n.c. 12 3,200

* Class in German and Swiss Clean Air Acts

2.2 Toxic Elements
2.2.1 Toxicity
Some of the substances which are emitted to the atmosphere during the burning of cement clinker are
annoying and some can be even harmful to the environment. Annoying substances are those which only
affect well-being, whereas harmful substances impair the biological activity (metabolism, growth) of an
organism. In medical terminology the latter are referred to as "atoxic". While it is usual to speak globally of
toxic elements, toxicity itself is by no means a fixed, well-defined property. Firstly it depends to a decisive
extent on the chemical compound in which the particular element is found. For instance sulphur is very
toxic as dioxide, hydrogen sulphide etc., but many other sulphur compounds are perfectly harmless e.g.
sulphates like gypsum. It is also very important whether a compound is easily resorbed by the organism
or not. Examples of compounds containing well-known "toxic" elements which on account of their being
insoluble cannot be resorbed and are therefore practically harmless are:
¨ arsenic sulphide
¨ barium sulphate
¨ mercury sulphide
The tolerance limits for toxic elements to be found in official regulations are of course determined on the
basis of the most dangerous compounds of the element concerned.
The toxic efficacy of a substance also depends to a large degree on whether it is absorbed by inhalation,
ingestion or skin exposure. For example, metallic mercury can pass through the stomach and intestines
without serious effects whereas inhaling the vapour can be very harmful. The toxicity of mercury
compounds also depends on their solubility which in turn determines their absorption and distribution in
the organism involved. Thus whilst metallic mercury and almost all mercury compounds are toxic ,
mercury sulphide is non-toxic because of its practical insolubility in the body.
Furthermore, a substance which harms one particular kind of organism can leave others entirely
unaffected or even promote their biological activity. Moreover, the biological effect depends largely on the
dose, as already recognized by the Swiss born physician and alchemist Paracelsus (1493 - 1541) who
established the role of chemistry in medicine:
"the dose alone decides whether a substance is poisonous or not"
"if given in small doses what makes a man ill also cures him"
"miners disease results from inhaling metal vapours and is not a punishment for sin administered by
mountain spirits"
No substance is absolutely harmless as there is always an upper limit to the concentration which may not
be exceeded without serious consequences for the organism. For example, common salt is a dangerous
poison when consumed in too large quantities. On the other hand, there is no absolutely toxic substance
because below a certain minimum concentration even the strongest poison becomes ineffective.
Figure 1 shows schematically the basic relationship between dose and effect. In order to assess the
toxicity of a substance, all the above factors have to be taken into account.
Figure 1: Troxicity is a Question of the Dose
Toxic Elements

In many cases it has been found that elements which are essential to life can also be toxic depending on
the dose and the form in which the element is present. In general it can be said that the toxicity of
elements roughly parallels their abundance in the Earth's crust and in sea water. Elements that are
present in low levels are more likely to be toxic as shown in Table 4 in which those metals for which toxic
properties have been reported are given. In this table mainly the toxic metals are included, the toxic non-
metals having being omitted.
Table 4: Composition of the Lithosphere indicating Essential and Toxic Elements

Concentration (%) Element

46.6 O
27.7 Si
8.1 Al
5.0 Fe
3.6 Ca
2.8 Na
2.6 K
2.1 Mg
10-1 Ti H, Mn, P
10-2 F, S, C, Cl, Rb, Sr, Ba, Zr, Cr, V, Zn
10-3 Ni, Cu, Li, N, Sn, Co, Pb, Th
10-4 (ppm) As, B, Mo, Br, W, U
10-5 Sb, Bi, Ag
10-6 Hg, Se
10-7 (ppb) Au, Pt, He
10-8 I

essential elements in bold text, toxic elements in italics

Also presented in Table 4 are those elements previously shown in Table 3 which are essential for life. As
can be seen many of the elements reported are considered as being both essential and toxic. Included in
this category are the elements B, Mg, V, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Se, Mo and Sn. When, for example, a
manganese deficiency occurs in humans this can be accompanied by anaemia, and bone changes in
children. Considering the toxic effects of manganese these are listed as including metal fume fever,
psychological and neurological disorders, the two latter being contracted after long term exposure to air
containing freshly drilled dust particles rich in manganese ore. When a deficiency of copper occurs this is
accompanied by a severe anaemia. Metallic copper is much less toxic than its salts and for humans only
1 g of CuSO4 is highly toxic, causing vomiting, diarrhoea, convulsions and is often fatal.
3. ANALYSIS OF TOXIC METALS
In order for a cement plant to be able to safely use secondary materials containing toxic metals without
the risk of excessive emissions, it is essential that the materials received conform to the reference
samples initially submitted. To do this it is necessary to carry out control analyses for those elements
listed in the applicable Clean Air Act. This is especially the case, because of their volatility, for the Class 1
elements Hg, Tl and Cd but also for the elements of Classes 2 and 3 should these be present in
appreciable concentrations. To avoid the necessity of carrying out a full quantitative analysis, which would
be costly and time consuming and would attempt to determine elements even when they were not
present, it is advisable to first carry out a qualitative analysis. This is the method used at HMC/TC.
3.1 Qualitative Analysis of Toxic Elements
A qualitative analysis (spectrum) of all the toxic elements with the exception of Be can be carried out
using such methods as X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and inductively coupled plasma emission (I.C.P.)
spectroscopy, provided that the instrument is of the sequential and not of the multi-channel type. Whereas
the I.C.P. method requires the sample being measured to be in liquid form, both solid and liquid samples
can be measured by the XRF, the latter being possible when the spectrometer is flushed with helium
instead of operating under vacuum. Because of the comfort of the operating software and the general
ease of operations the XRF technique is preferred at HMC/TC.
An example of an XRF spectrum is given in Fig. 2. This was taken using a sample of slightly
contaminated excavated material being considered for disposal by incineration in a Swiss cement kiln. In
this diagramme the wave length of the characteristic radiation (expressed as two theta in degrees for the
measuring crystal) is presented on the x-axis and the intensity of the radiation (expressed as counts/sec)
on the y-axis. As can be seen the presence of Pb (410 ppm) and Zn (7700 ppm) can easily be determined
in this figure. The peak heights observed are not the same for equal concentrations of different elements.
The peak height for different elements is not proportional to the quantity present. The values for these
elements were found in subsequent quantitative determinations. Attempts to ascertain the qualitative
presence of Cd, Hg and Tl, which were later shown to be present in quantities of 4.4, 0.14 and < 1 ppm,
were not successful by this technique and should in any case always be quantitatively determined.
Figure 2: XRF Specturm of excataed material

3.2 Quantitative Analysis of Toxic Metals

Several methods can be used for the quantitative analysis of toxic metals and include those shown in
Table 5. Of these the most sensitive of the methods that can generally be used is certainly the AAS
technique with a graphite furnace which allows a lower limit of detection than the flame AAS, XRF and
ICP methods. The limits of detection of the cold vapour and hydride AAS techniques lie within those of the
two groups of methods previously mentioned. With regard to the limits of measurement these are some 4
to 5 times higher than the limits of detection.
Table 5:Detection Limits (ppm) of Environmentally Sensitive Elements by Various Measurement
Techniques

Element Class AAS

Flame AAS
Furnace AAS
Cold Vapour AAS Hybride ICP XRF
Be 1 Car. 1 0.003 0.003
Cd 1 1 0.0002 1.5 1 - 10
Hg 1 200 0.1 0.05 12
Tl 1 30 0.01 27
As 2 100 0.08 1 30
Co 2 5 0.008 3
Ni 2 8 0.05 4 1 - 10
Se 2 100 0.05 1 30
Te 2 70 0.03 0.50 20
Cr 3 3 0.04 3
Cu 3 2 0.005 1
Pb 3 20 0.007 25
Pd 3 20 0.05 13 1 - 10
Pt 3 50 0.20
Rh 3 2 0.01 8
Sb 3 60 0.08 5 40
Sn 3 80 0.03 5 30
V 3 20 0.10 3
Zn n.c. 0.6 0.003 2 1 - 10

In HMC/TC laboratories, where all the above methods are available Hg is measured by the hydride
process and all the others with a few exceptions using the graphite furnace AAS technique. These
methods were chosen because, being wet chemical techniques, there is no matrix correction and
standard calibration samples are easily made by the addition method.
3.3 Evaporation of Mercury during Handling in Laboratory
It should be pointed out that sampling and sample preparation are most important aspects of a trace
element analysis. Contamination or the loss of a portion an element are an omnipresent danger. This is
actually the reason why there are often doubts about the validity of values given in literature, particularly
at low concentration levels. An evaporation test demonstrated that varying amounts of mercury can
escape during the preparation and drying of a sample (see Table 6).
Table 6:Hg-Concentrations in Precipitator Dust and Sewage Sludge Samples after Treatment at Different
Temperatures

Temperature (°C) ESP Dust (ppb) Sewage Sludge (ppb)

20 430 6,400
100 90 6,400
200 60 6,300
300 40 700

4. SOURCES OF TOXIC METALLIC SUBSTANCES

4.1 Common Sources of Toxic Metallic Substances
To provide an overview with regard to the normal uses to which the elements of Classes 1, 2 and 3 of the
previously mentioned Clean Air Acts are put, Appendix II gathers together some relevant information. As
can be seen all of the elements are extracted from ores in which they are present as either oxides or
sulphides and are thus found in nature in water insoluble forms. In nature they are often only present in
low concentrations but after extraction are then present in much higher concentrations and may be in a
soluble form. The information given in Appendix II is intended to inform the reader which industries are
likely to have by-products that could contain the listed elements. Although it is very unlikely that any of the
primary products listed in the "uses" table would ever be considered as secondary materials the same
cannot be said for the by-products of these manufacturing industries, which because of restrictions on
dumping materials, are now looking for other means of disposal. Today some Group plants are in fact
disposing of preservatives, pigments, dyes etc. which enter the kiln via secondary materials such as
waste oils or woods.
4.2 Natural Cement Raw Materials Components
As shown earlier in Table 4 the heavy toxic metallic elements make up a small but definite proportion of
the materials in the Earth's crust. As such their introduction into a cement kiln via the natural raw
materials cannot be prevented. This question of interest is therefore how much of the classified and non-
classified elements (at the ppm and ppb levels) can be present in the various rock types used for raw mix
components?
The answer to the above question is given in Table 7 for the main rock types limestone, limey marl and
clays and in Table 8 for the commonly used corrective, iron ore. As can be seen in Table 7 the limestone
and limey marl components tend to have lower contents of heavy metals than clay components. This
does not mean, however, that all limestones can be assumed to be low in heavy metals. In fact Zn levels
of 1900 ppm and V levels of 3000 ppm have been encountered in extreme cases.
For the limey marls reported the values were all low and in the same magnitude or lower than the average
levels in the Earth's crust. The highest level was 55 ppm reported for Zn.
When considering the heavy metals present in iron ore, an often used corrective, as shown in Table 8
such materials can often contain concentrations of heavy metals appreciably higher than the average for
the crust. Such elements include Tl (400 ppm), As (680 ppm), Cr (1500 ppm), Pb (8700 ppm) and Zn
(9400 ppm). It is fortunate that only small quantities of iron corrective have to be used in cement kiln raw
mixes.
In the case of the clays values very much higher than in the Earth's crust were reported for Cd (500 ppm),
Cr (1500 ppm), V (3600 ppm) and Zn (1300 ppm).
Table 7:Range (ppm) of Heavy Metals Reported for Rock Types Used as Raw Mix Components

Element Class Limestone Limey Marl Clay Earth's Crust

Cd 1 0.02 - 0.50 0.04 - 0.35 0.02 - 500 0.2
Hg 1 0.005 - 0.10 0.009 - 0.13 0.02 - 0.15 0.08
Tl 1 0.05 - 1.8 0.07 - 0.68 0.20 - 1.6 0.5
As 2 0.1 - 12 3 - 25 1.8
Co 2 25
Ni 2 1.4 - 13 5.9 - 21 11 - 71 75
Se 2 0.05
Te 2 0.01
Cr 3 0.70 - 16 4.6 - 35 20 - 1500 100
Cu 3 55
Pb 3 0.27 - 21 1.3 - 8.5 1.0 - 219 13
Sb 3 0.2
Sn 3 2
V 3 5 - 3000 30 - 3600 135
Zn n.c. 0.10 - 1900 24 - 55 2 - 1300 70

Table 8:Range (ppm) of Heavy Metals Reported for Correctives used in Cement raw Mixes

Element Class Iron Ore Earth's Crust

Cd 1 0.2 - 15 0.2
Hg 1 0.08
Tl 1 0.07 - 400 0.5
As 2 4 - 680 1.8
Co 2 25
Ni 2 10 - 340 75
Se 2 0.05
Te 2 0.01
Cr 3 9 - 1400 100
Cu 3 55
Pb 3 9 - 8700 13
Sb 3 0.2
Sn 3 2
V 3 135
Zn n.c. 6900 - 9400 70

4.3 Secondary Raw Meal Components

To improve the economics of clinker production or improve cement quality many plants are today using so
called secondary components in their raw mixes. These materials are mainly waste products from other
processes and are often available in large quantities. Examples of such materials are given in Table 9
with fly ash and foundry sand in a few cases being the main alumino-siliceous raw mix component. Of
these the purest material is probably the man made FCC catalyst but, depending on the source of the oil
being processed in the refinery, this material can contain up to 1860 ppm of Ni, 1265 ppm of Sb and over
5000 ppm of V. As can be seen a natural material such as fly ash can contain up to 530 ppm of As, 600
ppm of Ni, 650 ppm of Cu, 800 ppm of Pb, 500 ppm of V and 910 ppm of Zn. In cases in which coal is
used as the main fuel and fly ash as a major mix component, appreciably levels of heavy metals may be
introduced into the kiln. Foundry sand is a component that is just starting to be used but as seen in Table
9 may contain appreciable maximum levels of Ni (1520 ppm), Cu (1500 ppm) and Pb (2300 ppm).
Table 9:Range of Heavy Metals (ppm) in Secondary Components used in Cement Raw Mixes

Element Class Foundry Sand FCC Catalyst Fly Ash Earth's Crust
Cd 1 300 < 0.6 0.2 - 8 0.2
Hg 1 2 0.04 - 2 0.2 - 0.8 0.08
Tl 1 < 1.5 - 145 2 - 15 0.5
As 2 2 2-6 40 - 530 1.8
Co 2 13 - 93 90 - 250 25
Ni 2 1,520 265 - 1860 150 - 600 75
Se 2 1 < 11 - 128 1 - 35 0.05
Te 2 0.01
Cr 3 10 58 - 142 60 - 330 100
Cu 3 1,500 6 - 93 140 - 650 55
Pb 3 2,300 12 - 174 125 - 800 13
Sb 3 <25 - 1265 0.5 - 90 0.2
Sn 3 100 7 - 23 (38) 2
V 3 5 1050 - 5515 230 - 500 135
Zn n.c. 130 32 - 115350 - 910 70

4.4 Toxic Elements in Raw Meal

The levels of the heavy toxic elements previously given for the mix components, major, minor and
secondary give the maximum range encountered on a world-wide basis. Of more importance is the levels
of the classified elements that are actually encountered in practice and these are presented in Table 10.
As can be seen the concentrations of many elements are less than the average for the crust. The only
elements which are present in concentrations above the average for the Earth's crust are limited to Tl (6
ppm) and As (28 ppm). These levels can in no way be considered as high.
Table 10: Heavy Toxic Metal Levels (ppm) in Raw Meal

Element Class Raw Meal Earth's Crust

Cd 1 0.04 - 1 0.2
Hg 1 < 0.02 - 0.6 0.08
Tl 1 0.1 - 6 0.5
As 2 3 - 28 1.8
Co 2 11 25
Ni 2 18 - 30 75
Se 2 < 0.2 0.05
Te 2 0.01
Cr 3 23 - 39 100
Cu 3 17 55
Pb 3 4 - 15 13
Sb 3 0.2
Sn 3 2
V 3 32 - 102 135
Zn n.c. 15 -90 70

4.5 Natural Fuels

Because the normally used fuels coal and oil have been formed over millions of years by naturally
occuring processes in the Earth's crust, it will not now be surprising that these also contain heavy, toxic
elements in trace quantities. The quantities reported by various authors are given in Table 11.
As can be seen brown coal contains the smallest quantities of classified heavy metals with only Zn at up
to 70 ppm being above the 10 ppm level. For hard coal the maximum quantities of the major heavy metals
present are Pb (270 ppm), Zn (220 ppm), V (180 ppm), Ni (96 ppm) and Cr (80 ppm). For bunker oil the
heavy metals present in the maximum concentrations are V (117 ppm), Zn (85 ppm) and Ni (43 ppm). For
petcoke, a residue of oil distillation, the levels of the heavy metals are more concentrated with the
maximum levls reported being Ni (355 ppm) and Cr and Pb at both just over 100 ppm.
Table 11: Range of Heavy Metals (ppm ) in Natural Fuels Used in Clinker Production

Element Class Hard Coal Brown Coal Petroleum CokeBunker Oil Hard Coal Fly
Ash Earth's Crust
Cd 1 0.1 - 10 0.1 - 2.4 0.1 - 4.0 0.02 - 0.4 0.2 - 8 0.2
Hg 1 0.1 - 1.0 0.01 - 0.09 0.2 - 0.8 0.08
Tl 1 0.1 - 1.2 0.07 - 0.3 0.04 - 3.1 < 0.02 - 0.12 2 - 15 0.5
As 2 2 - 50 0.3 - 9 < 0.01 - 0.1 40 - 530 1.8
Co 2 5 - 34 90 - 250 25
Ni 2 15 - 96 0.6 - 1.9 24 - 355 5 - 43 150 - 600 75
Se 2 0.6 - 3.4 1 - 35 0.05
Te 2 0.2 - 0.6 0.01
Cr 3 5 - 80 0.9 - 8 3.6 - 104 2-4 60 - 330 100
Cu 3 10 - 60 140 - 650 55
Pb 3 10 - 270 0.8 - 6 6 - 102 1 - 34 125 - 800 13
Sb 3 0.4 - 2.0 0.5 - 90 0.2
Sn 3 (38) 2
V 3 30 - 180 2-7 2 - 117 230 - 500 135
Zn n.c. 6 - 220 1 - 70 (7.6) 5 - 85 350 - 910 70

4.6 Secondary Fuels

Table 12 lists the range of heavy metals used in the most commonly used secondary fuels. As can be
seen, the levels of many elements are below the average for the Earth's crust but, when these latter
values are exceeded, this is by a considerable margin and in elements specific for the individual fuel
concerned.
For example waste automobile oil is enriched in those elements which are introduced by the wear of
bearing materials. Thus elevated values of Pb (21'000 ppm) and Zn (3000 ppm) are to be found in waste
oil. Automobile tyres are especially enriched in Zn for which levels between 0.93 % and 2.05 % are
reported. The impurities in used ion exchange resins will depend on the material stream which they have
been used to clean up, with especially high levels being reported for Pb (6400 ppm) and Zn (3900 ppm).
In contrast the levels of the heavy metals in used wood are considerably lower but with maximum values
of Cd (16 ppm), Se (5ppm), Cu (77 ppm), Pb (70 ppm), Sb (10 ppm) and Zn (560 ppm) which are
definitely above the average level in the crust.
Table 12: Range of Heavy Metals (ppm ) in Secondary Fuels Used in Clinker Production

Element Class Waste Oil Fullers Earth Ion Exchange Resins Automobile Tyres
Used Wood Earth's Crust
Cd 1 4 0.01 - 2 9 - 50 5 - 10 1.5 - 16 0.2
Hg 1 < 0.05 0.08
Tl 1 0.02 0.2 0.03 - 0.07 0.2 - 0.3 0.5
As 2 1.8
Co 2 25
Ni 2 3 - 30 0.001 - 30 8 - 87 77 11 - 50 75
Se 2 5 0.05
Te 2 0.01
Cr 3 5 - 50 2 - 11 20 - 330 97 16 - 25 100
Cu 3 40 - 77 55
Pb 3 10 - 21000 2 - 2500 150 - 6400 60 - 760 38 - 70 13
Sb 3 10 0.2
Sn 3 2
V 3 135
Zn n.c. 240 - 3000 10 - 480 56 - 3900 9300 - 20500 130 - 560 70

5. BEHAVIOUR OF TOXIC METALS IN CEMENT KILNS

Now that we know the concentrations of the heavy toxic metals in the raw material components and fuels
let us now turn our attention to the behaviour of these metals in the cement kiln.
5.1 Volatility of Toxic Element Compounds
To gain an impression of the volatility behaviour of the toxic metals listed in the German and Swiss Clean
Air Acts, the vapour pressures of the most likely compounds to be present in a cement kiln, i.e. when the
elements are not incorporated into the lattice of the clinker minerals, have been reviewed by
Haegermann. Those having a partial pressure of at least 1 mm Hg at 300°C are listed in Table 13. As can
be seen in addition to the high volatility of Hg compounds, which are essentially completely emitted from
cement kilns, other elements listed in the German clean air act (Be, As, Se and V) can all form
compounds with vapour pressures of 1 mm Hg at temperatures of lower than 300°C and are hence
capable of being emitted from cement kilns.
Table 13: Heavy Metal Compounds of Class 1, 2 and 3 Elements which have a Partial Pressure of
over 1 mm Hg at or below 300 °C

Element Class Fluoride Chloride Bromide Iodide Oxide Sulphate

Hydride Metal
Be 1 carcin * * *
Cd 1
Hg 1 * * * *
Tl 1
As 2 * * * * * *
Co 2
Ni 2
Se 2 * * *
Te 2
Cr 3
Cu 3
Pb 3
Sb 3
Sn 3
V 3

5.2 Distribution of Toxic Heavy Elements

For a comprehensive assessment of the distribution volatilization and emission of an element, the exact
balance of its intake and output must be known. To this end it is necessary to analyse all material and gas
streams, such as raw mix and fuel, in order to determine the intake and the amount present in clinker and
discarded dust.
Normally these calculations of the balances indicate that the total intake of an element from raw material
(Ir) and from fuel (If) minus discharges via clinker (Dc) and discarded dust (Dd) equals the emission (Ex)
plus that portion (Rk) retained inside the kiln system:
Ir + If - Dc - Dd = Ex + Rk (1)
According to the behaviour of the elements in cement kilns, three separate cases can be distinguished,
one for non-volatile and two for volatile compounds:
¨ Case 1: For non-volatile compounds: Ir + If = Dc, i.e. there is no emission and no accumulation in
the kiln system: Ex, Rk = 0
¨ Case 2: For volatile compounds: Ir + If > Dc
· (a): surplus intake remains totally in the "kiln" system with no emission, i.e. Ex = 0
· (b): surplus intake is wholly emitted with no retention in the kiln: Rk = 0
The transposition of equation (1) results in:
Dd + Rk = Ir + If - Ac - Ex (2)
To a first approximation the terms on the right side of the equation (2) can be considered as constant:
Dd + Rk = constant (3)
By means of equation (2) it is possible to calculate that a certain portion of a compound will remain in the
kiln system if no dust is rejected and also the amount of dust required to be rejected in order to keep the
retained portion Rk below a certain limit. For this purpose it is necessary to know the emission Ex. Only
limited data are available for the latter as this is sensitive information which cement plants do not make
readily available.
The quantity emitted Ex can, however, be estimated if it is known which of the three cases best describes
the compound in question.
According to HMC/TC's own investigations and the findings of the Research Institute of the German
Cement Industry (VDZ), the Class 2 and 3 elements are not likely to exceed the emission limits of 1 resp.
5 mg/Nm3, respectively, in normal operation and with normal raw materials. Even if sewage sludge is
used as combustible, as partial substitute for coal, the emission of all Class 2 and 3 elements is well
below the limits. The elements of Class 1, especially Hg and Tl show quite a different behaviour. This
Class, characterized by its very low emission limit of 0.2 mg/Nm3, represents a permanent danger, a fact
which also becomes evident from the concentration of the elements in the Earth's crust shown in Tables 7
to 12. Therefore, it is worthwhile to give a more detailed description of the findings of these investigations.
5.3 Distribution of Cadmium
According to HMC/TC's measurements, the degree of binding of cadmium in clinker shows very large
variations from 41 to 100 %. This corresponds to the findings of Sprung (VDZ). The reasons for the
variations are not clear. Relatively small temperature fluctuations and also the burning conditions will have
an effect. Due to the fact that the clinker absorbs only part of the cadmium and the emission is
insignificant, the rest will remain in the kiln system causing recirculations with cadmium enrichment in
different materials. The cadmium concentration increases from raw meal to electrostatic precipitator dust
to the hot meal. The dust shows large differences in concentration between direct and compound
operation. These findings show that cadmium as a partly volatile element belongs to case 2(a) with no
emission (Ex = 0) but with accumulation in the kiln system.
5.4 Distribution of Mercury
The investigation of different materials has shown that the mercury contents vary widely and are relatively
low in raw materials and coal compared to the average concentration in the lithosphere.
Mercury was not detected in clinker, however, in some cases an accumulation was observed in kiln dust,
although these concentrations (max. 190 mg/t) are insignificant compared to the other elements, e.g.
thallium. Furthermore, it should be mentioned that the mercury emission in compound operation is
appreciably lower than that in the direct mode. In compound operation the emitted quantities are even
lower than the intake. Obviously, much of the mercury vapour is retained in the raw mill perhaps by
adsorption on the surface of the meal particles. In direct operation, the retained mercury will be released
again and is emitted.
Summarising, it can be generally stated that the mercury introduced by raw materials and fuels is
completely emitted in gaseous form (in the dry process mainly in direct operation) so that its behaviour is
that of a volatile compound without retention in the kiln (Rk = 0, i.e. case 2b). These findings were also
confirmed by the stack gas analyses available.
5.5 Distribution of Thallium
According to German investigations (Sprung, VDZ) and HMC/TC findings, cement raw mixes contain
about 100 to 800 mg thallium per ton corresponding to 150 to 1200 mg thallium per t clinker. The
concentration can be much higher in kiln feed and coal dust because large quantities of thallium are
accumulated from the kiln gases during drying and grinding. Furthermore, the kiln feed shows significant
differences between direct and compound operation: The thallium concentration increases considerably
during direct operation and may ultimately be up to 8 times as high as in the compound mode. The
measurements reveal that neither the clinker nor the stack gas discharge the kiln system of thallium. Only
very high exhaust gas temperatures above 200°C (long dry and wet kilns) may allow some thallium
vapour to escape. Nearly the entire intake remains in the system. Therefore, thallium is to be considered
as a volatile compound with no emission (Ex = O) and no output by the clinker (Ac = O), i.e. all Tl is
accumulated in the kiln system. Hence, as will be appreciated in light of the "Lengerich incident" it is
particularly important to relieve the kiln/grinding system e.g. by creating a "valve" in order to avoid
excessive accumulations of thallium which ultimately lead to kiln dust with extremely high Tl
concentrations. Especially in cases of disturbed operations e.g. insufficient or lacking precipitator function
could the emission of Tl become considerable.
5.6 Typical Balance of Toxic Elements In Kilns
5.6.1 Wet Kiln
A simple balance of the toxic elements in a large wet kiln fired with coal is displayed in Table 14 in which
the percentage input as coal and slurry as well as the output via the clinker, dust and stack gas are given.
Here a simplified case is presented in that the totals for the inputs and outputs are all 100 %. As can be
seen the major input always comes from the slurry but for As and Be almost 25 % is delivered from the
coal. At the other end of the scale less than 10 % of the elements Pb, Tl and Zn comes from the fuel.
Table 14: Balance (% total) of Toxic Elements in a Large Wet Kiln

Element class Input Input Output Output Output

slurry coal clinker E.S.P.dust Stack
Be 1 carcin 76 24 96 4 0
Cd 1 82 18 18 81 1
Tl 1 95 5 22 14 42
Ni 2 82 18 97 3 0
As 3 77 23 92 8 0
Pb 3 93 7 22 77 1
Zn n.c. 93 7 88 12 0

Regarding the output of Hg, although not mentioned, this essentially leaves the kiln system completely via
the stack gas. The next most volatile element was found to be Tl of which 42 % of the total input left the
kiln in the stack gas whilst for Cd and Pb only 1 % left by this way.
Of the elements which did not leave the kiln system, with the exception of Tl these were mainly found in
either the filter dust or in the clinker. Those less volatile elements found predominantly in the clinker were
As (92 %), Be (96 %), Ni (97 %) and Zn (88 %). In contrast, for the more volatile species, 81 % of the Cd
and 77 % of the Pb were found in the kiln dust.
5.6.2 Lepol Kiln
An example from Krcmar et.al. of a heavy metal balance for a Lepol kiln fired with petroleum coke as fuel
is presented in Table 15. This presentation is more comprehensive than that previously given in that the
actual concentrations of the individual elements are given for the various types of inputs and outputs.
Those elements leaving the kiln in the form of a vapour were not measured and the fact that the output
can be either higher or lower than the input is acknoweledged, these indicating a gain resp. loss within the
kiln system. A missing output therefore does not automatically mean the emission of the element
concerned as a vapour. This is certainly the case for Tl where additional measurements showed that the
missing Tl was not being emitted.
On the basis of the present balance the volatility of the classified heavy elements can be classified by the
volatility factor f, defined as:
f = concentration in clinker / concentration in raw meal
The following classes have been defined
¨ volatile (f = 0 to 0.35): Cd, Tl, Se, Pb
¨ semi-volatile (f = 0.7 to 1.1):
¨ on-volatile (f = 1.2 to 2.7): As, Co, Ni, Cr, Cu, Sb, Zn
Table 15: Heavy Metal Balance for a Lepol Kiln Fired with Petroleum Coke (Concentrations marked
* given in ppb)
TOXIC ELEMENTS IN KILN DUST

The concentrations of toxic elements in cement kiln dusts have been measured for the wet, semi
wet/semi dry and dry types of cement kiln and also for rotary lime kilns. The results obtained are listed in
Table 16 in which it can be seen that no values are given for mercury (Hg) due to the fact that it is
essentially wholly emitted and not retained in the dust or in the clinker. The values given refer to a period
prior to the introduction of the German (TA Luft) and Swiss (LRV) Clean Air Acts. In some cases the plants
were using secondary materials (combustible and non combustible) and also iron pyrites as a corrective.
In those cases where the filter dust was sampled the values given in Table 16 are indicative of the range
of these toxic elements and, as far as is known, are in no way associated with the burning conditions. It is
not possible to adjust conditions to ensure that the toxic elements are steered into the clinker minerals
and not into the dust. The values given for the stack gas dust are again indicative of the raw materials
used but now for their interpretation the efficiency of the filter system must also be taken into
consideration.
Table 16: Concentration (in ppm) of Toxic Elements in Kiln Dusts

Class Kiln Wet Semi Dry Lime

1 Cd 1-21 3-120 1-15 1-2
1 Tl 1-237 43-586 1-617 1-56-69
2 As 63-225 1-103 37-222 12-33
2 Co 1-2 1-11 1-169 41-765
2 Ni 11-75 20-87 22-4145 61-90
3 Cr 37-65 61-282 31-4107
3 Cu 45-1180128 44-69 27-77
3 Pb 31-2830 522-7000 12-321
3 V 77-79 12-321 1-33
n.c. Zn 80-4500 27-77 107-147

5.7 Class 1 Elements (Cd and Tl)

As seen in Table 16 the values for these elements can be as low as 1 ppm to as high as 120 ppm in the
case of Cd and 617 ppm (0.06 %) for Tl. It is interesting that both the wet and dry kiln dusts had all Cd
values essentially under 20 ppm whereas for the semi processes the lowest value was 31 ppm and the
highest 120 ppm. When Tl is considered, which is mainly to be found in the dust and not in the clinker, no
obvious trend could be seen but again the lowest value for semi processes was higher than for the wet
and dry types. For the two lime kiln dusts studied, for which limestone was the only component of the kiln
charge, the levels of Cd and Tl were both under 2 ppm, an indication that the limestone is usually low in
toxic metals.
5.8 Class 2 Elements (As, Co and Ni)
Of the five Class 2 elements only As, Co and Ni were determined as the elements Se and Te are not often
encountered. The absence of these elements should not be taken for granted as they are in the same
column of the periodic table as S, and their absence should be first be confirmed by taking an XRF-
spectrum. In one secondary fuel tested at HMC/TC the level of Se was found to be 12'000 ppm i.e. 1.2 %.
For As the values found in the dusts ranged essentially from 37 to 225 ppm, for Co from 1 to 169 ppm,
with all values except one being under 37 ppm, and for Ni from 11 up to 4145 ppm (0.41 %) in an extreme
case. For Ni the values were either under 200 ppm or well above with the extreme values all being for dry
process kilns. With regard to the lime kiln dusts the maximum values were 69 ppm for As, 33 ppm for Co
and 765 ppm for Ni.
5.9 Class 3 Elements (Cr, Cu, Pb, V)
The very exotic elements in this class (Pd, Pt and Rh) as well as Mn, which is always present in cement
raw materials in small percentages, were not analysed. Up to date none of the very expensive elements
have ever been found in XRF-spectra performed at HMC/CS.
Regarding the toxic metal Cr, whose presence is associated with chrome eczema, this has been found in
quantities between 31 and 4107 ppm (0.41 %) in kiln dusts. Most values lie under 300 ppm and the
appreciably higher values were found in only three cases. With regard to Cu most values lie between 40
to 70 ppm and only in two cases (128 ppm and 1180 ppm) were higher values determined.
The toxic element present in the highest levels in kiln dust was found to be Pb which ranged in value
between 12 and 7000 ppm (0.7 %). For this element the level in the dusts of the semi process plants
were definitely the highest and with only two exceptions the values lie between 1274 and 7000 ppm. For
the dry process plants no values were higher than 321 ppm and for wet process kiln dusts most were
lower than 150 ppm but with two extreme values of over 2220 ppm. The levels determined for V lie
between 1 and 79 ppm and so are under the average level of this element (110 ppm) present in the
Earth's crust.
5.10 Non-Classified Elements
Although Zn is not specified in the German and Swiss Clean Air Acts it can be found in kiln dusts. The
levels found ranged mainly between 80 and 230 ppm with one extreme value of 4500 ppm (0.45 %) also
being found. This highest value was determined on a stack gas dust.
5.11 Maximum Allowed Levels in Stack Gas Dust
Although the levels of the toxic elements present in the emitted stack gas dusts are high, their
significance should be considered by taking not their concentrations but the quantities actually emitted
into consideration. If it is considered that the maximum allowed emissions or Classes 1, 2 and 3 are 0.2,
1.0 and 5.0 mg/Nm3 respectively, then for a stack gas stream with 50 mg/Nm3dust load the maximum
allowed concentrations in the dust are 0.4 %, 2.0 % and 10.0 %. In none of the cases investigated did the
emissions come near to these values and even with filters of poorer efficiency is it unlikely that the limits
would be exceeded.
6. TOXIC ELEMENTS IN CLINKER
6.1 Levels of Toxic Elements
The levels of toxic elements in clinkers, reported in the literature are given in Table 17. As can be seen for
the elements of Class 1 i.e. Cd, Hg and Tl, the levels found were at the highest 1.5 ppm in the case of Cd.
For the elements of Classes 2 and 3 the values reported, with the exception of Se, varied over a larger
range. The lowest values could be low for As (2ppm), Pb (1 ppm) but could be much higher such as in the
case of Zn (530 ppm), Ni (400 ppm) and Cr (320 ppm)
Table 17: Range of Heavy Metals (ppm) in Clinker

Element Class Clinker Earth's Crust

Cd 1 0.01 -1.5 0.2
Hg 1 < 0.01 -0.12 0.08
Tl 1 <0.01 -1.2 5
As 2 2 -87 1.8
Co 2 10 -21 25
Ni 2 10 -397 75
Se 2 <0.2 -<1.0 0.05
Te 2 0.01
Cr 3 10 -319 100
Cu 3 5 -136 55
Pb 3 1 -105 13
Sb 3 0.1 -1.5 0.2
Sn 3 (2.9) 2
V 3 10 -135 135
Zn n.c. 29 -531 70

6.2 Influence of Toxic Metals on Cement Properties

As just seen in Table 17 the highest concentration of a toxic element found in clinker was 531 ppm (0.05
%) in the case of Zn and 397 ppm (0.04 %) for Ni. What effect will these have on cement properties?
From the studies of C. Tashiro the influence of additions of Cr, Cu, Zn, Cd, Hg and Pb, in both soluble and
poorly soluble forms has been well documented. At an addition level of 0.5 % on a clinker basis no
appreciable changes in hardening properties were detected and thus with the much lower levels of these
metals,and then already incorporated within the clinker, definitely no change in cement properties is
expected. The results of studies in which toxic metal dosages to cement of appreciably more than 0.5 %
and which showed retarding and accelerating properties are not relevant to the properties of clinker.
Statistical studies by Blaine on normally produced cements also showed that at the levels of the toxic
metals present in clinker no changes are to be expected.
6.3 Ability of Clinker Compounds to Immobilize Toxic Metals
At the present time much research is being carried out into the use of cements to immobilize the toxic
metals present in ashes, slags and other industrial waste materials so that they are not removed by
leaching after dumping in an approved site. From the studies of Bhatty it is known that the toxic elements
can be incorporated into the structure of the CSH-gel during its formation but can also enter the structure
after its formation with the displacement of Ca ions. In certain cases new unknown compounds containing
a toxic metal may also be formed.
From the studies of the VDZ (Sprung) it is known that even the water soluble toxic elements will be
completely immobilized on hydrating. This has been shown to be the case from studies in which larger
quantities of toxic metals than are possible in clinker as found in wastes have been completely bonded by
the use of cement pastes. The bonding is chemical and adsorbtive together with the formation of a dense
structure.
From the data shown in Table 18 it can be seen that the solubility of the toxic metals in a cement
suspension is between 10-1 and 10-6 % of the quantities present.
Table 19: (1) Solubilities of Heavy metal Compounds at pH Values of 12.6 to 13.0:
(2) Leaching Rates of Compacted Mortars (11 % Cement) after 28 Days Hardening

Element Solubility in Ca(OH)2 / KOH

Solution Solubility in Cement Suspen-sion (%) Degree of Solubility (%) from Mortar
As 8 x 10-3 4 x 10-5
Pb 93 7 x 10-3
Zn 1 x 10-4 2 x 10-6
Cd 1 x 10-4 < 1 x 10-6 2 x 10-4
Tl 90 1 x 10-1 1 x 10-4

With regard to the leaching out of the elements from 28-day mortars prepared with 11 % by weight of
cement, the quantity of the elements removed by the eluate was maximum 2 x 10-4 % of the quantity
added. With regard to the small quantities normally present in clinker these will be certainly immobilized
when the cement is present in hydrated form in concrete.
7. INFLUENCE OF KILN TYPE ON HEAVY METALS EMISSIONS
7.1 Experience from Literature and Plants
7.1.1 Non-Volatile Metals
Emission of low or non-volatile heavy metals are not critical with regard to actual emission limits. They
can be kept under control by an efficient dedusting.
According to comparatively secured information [1, [18 the emissions of As, Be, Co, Cr, Cu, Mu, Mo, Ni, P,
Pb, Sb, Se, Te, V, Zn are extremely low on suspension preheater kilns with efficient dedusting. As a
general rule the emission of non- or low-volatile elements is always much below 0.1% of the
corresponding metal input into the suspension preheater kiln.
Thallium has a different behavior. It is known to form an outer cycle (not inside kiln) which can create a
high accumulation in the filter dust (a few thousand times) if no countermeasures are taken. This can also
increase the normal solid emission or become a potential danger as at Lengerich.
On grate preheater kilns not only Tl but also additional elements as Cd, Pb and Zn can become highly
enriched in the filter dust. The emissions of all these elements are still mainly in solid form and therefore
related to the efficiency of the filter. Due to the enrichment effects the emission may reach the order of 1%
(instead of 0.1% as before).
All elements mentioned so far and under the conditions of suspension or grate preheater kilns are known
to have a very low or insignificant vaporous proportion (equilibrium concentration). This is certainly
applicable for exhaust gas temperatures <150°C. It should be kept in mind that the volatility depends not
only on the temperature but also on the other accompanying components occurring on cement kilns (e.g.
Cl).
7.1.2 Volatile Metals
Volatile elements cannot be controlled by efficient dust filters and are also classified as most toxic (class
1). Therefore, they need special attention.
The most prominent example is the mercury. Hg is suspected to be almost totally emitted [18, 24, 25]. At
the same time the emission limit is only 0.2 mg/m3, therefore, it may soon become critical if the Hg input
is significant. Hg emissions on cement kilns are almost completely in form of vaporous Hg. Therefore,
many older emission measurements (based on pure solid sampling) either omitted Hg or did show
unrealistically low figures.
Although Hg is very volatile, a certain retention effect in the cement kiln system is also possible. This may
e.g. be the case under the influence of some sulphur compounds or in a raw mill during compound
operation [7]. However, the retention during mill operation creates a Hg accumulation which can
evaporate when switching to direct operation thus creating a high peak emission and a less favorable
long term retention effect. This was e.g. observed in [18] when some 0.2 mg/m3 were found during direct
operation. However, this high emission value seems to be very exceptional in general because normal
raw materials and fuels do not create critical Hg inputs. The problem of the highly volatile Hg is therefore
limited to very special cases and is not a general problem under the present emission limits.
It is not quite clear whether also other elements could become as volatile as Hg under certain conditions.
According to [14] Selenium on grate preheater kilns would be highly volatile but this is not confirmed.
7.1.3 Long Wet and Long Dry Kilns
Unlike suspension and grate preheater kilns long wet and long dry kilns are less explored in their heavy
metal emission behavior. From the basic principle and from the higher stack gas temperatures (high
vaporous equilibrium concentrations) one could expect a less favorable situation but the practical
evidence is incomplete.
The most complete and extensive information basis so far are heavy metal balances from the wet kiln at
Obourg [16]. The results are partly surprisingly favorable. The emissions for all heavy metals investigated
such as Be, Cd, Hg, Tl, As, Co, Ni, Se, Cr, Cu, Mn, Pb, Sn, V, Zn are very low and the calculated relative
emissions are below 0.5% even for Cd, Tl, Hg. In other words: none of the heavy metals seems to be
volatile. The elements of class 1 and 2 are typically < 0.01 mg/m3 and class 3 elements are < 0.1 mg/m3.
7.2 Specification of Missing or Inaccurate Data
When reviewing the corresponding literature one is often impressed by the very low heavy metal emission
or the excellent metal retention effect found for certain elements. When going more into details it
becomes evident that such impressive results are usually based on pure solid sampling on the clean gas.
The vaporous proportions are also verified in some cases but the measuring methods on cement kiln
exhaust gases do not allow for extremely low detection limits (< 1 mg/m3) under practical conditions
(method in [20] is not accepted for practical emission measurements).
Measuring methods for vaporous proportions of metals also appear as possible weak point in some
cases. Measurements do often consider only solid sampling and the assumption is made that vaporous
proportions are negligible. The analytical confirmation is often missing due to the lack of sufficiently
sensitive measuring methods. And if the dedusting performs very well, very low emissions and impressive
retention effects for heavy metals of 99.999% or even better can be calculated. Although there seems to
be no problem with respecting emission limits there could be a problem with the impressive number of
nines in the retention effect. In view of vision towards a future "zero emission" sampling methods and
analytical procedures need to be improved.
8. STANDARD TECHNOLOGY FOR REDUCTION OF HEAVY METAL EMISSION
8.1 Reduction of Heavy Metals Input into Kiln System
The input of heavy metals into the kiln system from raw materials and fuels can be controlled and limited
in order to avoid undesired effects. The justification can be:
¨ Limits set for heavy metals in clinker (usually "political" limits, concentrations are often too low to
produce clear negative effects in clinker, except Cr)
¨ Cycles of semi-volatile heavy metals and their influence on (CKD) kiln dust or bypass dust
¨ Emission of volatile heavy metals (e.g. Hg)
With regard to emissions, it is most important that the heavy metal input is limited, especially if conditions
are present which promote emissions such as:
¨ high stack gas temperature
¨ low metal retention capacity of kiln system
¨ presence of compounds which can volatilize the metal, such as chlorine
For example, if sewage sludge is burnt in a cement kiln the measuring input has to be limited [18, 19].
The emission of a metal only becomes important if the metal cycle can actually reach the filter and if there
is a problem with the function of the filter (EP shut down or poor performance), e.g.Thallium cycle on SP
kiln
Besides these special cases most of the known heavy metals behave as low volatile and are virtually not
emitted. The question is rather which metal concentrations in clinker and kiln dusts are acceptable from a
political and environmental point of view. Therefore, input reduction will always maintain its importance,
even if metal emission values are very low.
8.2 Modification of Process
Break the Cycle of Enrichments
If semi-volatile metals as e.g. Tl cannot be avoided in the raw mix there is a possibility to break the cycle
of Tl enrichment. This will then limit the maximum concentration in the filter dust and thus reduce the
potential risk during any malfunction of the filter.
The principle is often used on systems which originally worked with complete reintroduction of the kiln
dust (closed systems), as e.g. suspension preheater kilns or grate preheater kilns without any bypass.
Enriched filter dust is extracted from the system and usually introduced into the cement grinding process,
e.g. on suspension preheater kilns in combination with a raw mill the kiln dust during direct operation can
be extracted. The costs are very moderate (< 0.2 Mio CHF). The effects in terms of normal emission is
not the main argument, it is rather a reduction of a potential risk.
8.3 Secondary Reduction Measures
Improve Dedusting
In case of non or semi-volatile heavy metals the emission can be reduced by improving or replacing the
dedusting. The effect of an improved emission is an almost linear decrease of the heavy metal emission
according to the reduction of the dust emission. However, the heavy metals are usually not the main
justification for such modifications.
9. BAT (BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY) FOR REDUCTION OF HEAVY METAL EMISSION
9.1 Non-volatile metals
For most of the heavy metals which are non-volatile or semi-volatile the emission reduction can be
achieved by reducing the dust emission (see paper PT 95/4391/E, dust).
9.2 Volatile metals
Special technology in form of secondary reduction measures is only justified for volatile metals as e.g. Hg.
The following technologies are possible:
1) Dry scrubbing by circulating fluidized bed is also effective for Hg reduction [26. The use of other
absorbers (activated coke) is also possible and would improve the effect.
2) Activated coke filter The Polvitec at "HCB Siggenthal removes Hg at an efficiency of some 99%.
As a pure Hg removal system it would be extremely expensive for this particular purpose (Investment of
approx. 30 Mio CHF). Since the activated coke is re-used as kiln fuel the mercury would form a cycle. The
cycle is broken up by extracting filter dust during direct operation and using it in cement grinding.
Treatment of the dust (thermal Hg-expulsion) has been tested but not realized on a large scale due to low
Hg concentrations.
3) Wet scrubbing This is not yet known on cement kilns but rather on waste incinerators. Wet
scrubbing of mercury is inefficient if Hg is present in metallic form (insoluble) and may not be
automatically the appropriate method [29. Oxidyzing the Hg would be necessary. Again, this method
would be extremely expensive only for the purpose to remove volatile heavy metals.
4) Removal of critical heavy metal from specific fuels or material components

Example: Hg can be thermally expelled from sewage sludge before feeding it into a cement kiln [27].

10. LITERATURE

1 Sprung S., Technologische Probleme beim Brennen des Zementklinkers, Ursacheund Lösung,
Kap. 7
Schriftenreihe der Zementindustrie, Heft 43/1982, Beton-Verlag, Düsseldorf
2 Sprung S., Emissionsprognosen beim Einsatz von Abfallbrennstoffen Zement-Kalk-Gips Nr
10/1984
3 Kirchner G., Verhalten der Schwermetalle beim Brennen von Zementklinker Zement-Kalk-Gips
10/1986
4 Welzel K., Winkler H.D., Thalliumemissionen, Ursachen und interner Kreislauf Zement-Kalk-Gips
10/1981
5 Kamm K., Schwermetallanreicherung bei der Elektrofilterung
Staub Reinhaltung der Luft Bd 45 1985 Nr 1
6 Weisweiler W., Krcmar W., Arsen- und Antimon-Bilanzen einer Zementofenanlage mit
Rostvorwärmung
Zement-Kalk-Gips 3/1989
7 Schütte R., Kupper D., Die Bedeutung von Kreislaufbetrachtungen für Produktqualität und
Umweltverträglichkeit der Zementherstellung
Zement-Kalk-Gips 12/1990
8 Weisweiler W. Krcmar W., Schwermetall-Bilanzen einer Zementofenanlage mit Rostvorwärmung
Zement-Kalk-Gips 3/1990
9 Sprung S., Kirchner G., Rechenberg W., Rektionen schwer verdampfbarer Spurenelemente beim
Brennen von Zementklinker
Zement-Kalk-Gips 10/1984
10 Weisweiler W., Blome K., Kaeding L., Thallium- und Blei-Kreisläufe in Zementofenanlagen
Staub Reinhaltung der Luft 45/1985 Nr. 10
11 Weisweiler W., Mallon E., Schwarz B., Anreicherung von Thallium- und Bleihalogeniden
Staub Reinhaltung der Luft 46/1986 Nr.3
12 Seebach M., Tompkins B., The behavior of heavy metals in cement kilns Rock Products 26th Int.
Cement Seminar, New Orleans Dec. 5, 1990
13 Seebach M., Tompkins B., Metal emissions are predictable Rock Products April 1991
14 Krcmar W., Linner B., Weisweiler W.
Untersuchungen über das Verhalten von Spurenelementen beim Klinkerbrand in einer Drehofenanlage
mit Rostvorwärmung
Zement-Kalk-Gips 10/1994
15 Märki M., Schwermetalluntersuchungen an Roh-, Korrektur-, Brenn- und Zusatzstoffen sowie an
Kreisläufen bei der BCU
BCU Bericht 1.3.1994
16 Degré J.P., Comportement des métaux lourds dans les fours d'Obourg Obourg - Bericht
JPD/ID/94.471 vom 23.8.94

17 Imlach J., Sources and Reduction of HM-Emissions

MA 95/3389/E
18 Obrist A., Klärschlammstudie Teil 5: Bestimmung von Emissionswerten und Produktqualität bei
Klärschlammverbrennung...
VA 95/5170/D
19 Obrist A., Klärschlammstudie Teil 3: Die Möglichkeiten der CH-Zementindustrie...
VA 86/5300/D S. 136 ff "Rückhaltevermögen des Zementofensystems"
20 Hagermann B., Dampfförmige Schwermetallverbindungen im Zementofenabgas Diplomarbeit
Techn Univers. Clausthal 1982
Vgl. dazu DB 987: Emission Schwermetalldämpfe
21 Kirchner G., Reaktionen des Cadmiums beim Klinkerbrennprozess
Zement-Kalk-Gips 9/1985
22 Wickert H., Schwermetalle der Giftklasse 1 LRV im Abgas RK
MA 86/518/D
23 Wickert H., Elemente der Giftklasse 1 LRV im Abgas UV
MA 86/520/E
24 Obrist A., Iskraut A., Quecksilberemissionen in der Zementindustrie
Ergebnisse bisheriger Untersuchungen / Literaturstudien
VA 85/09/85/D
25 Weisweiler W., Keller A., Zur Problematik gasförmiger Quecksilber-Emissionen aus
Zementwerken
Zement-Kalk-Gips Nr 10/1992
26 Obrist A., Orientierende Untersuchung an ZWS-Absorber über Hg-Rückhaltevermögen
VA 90/27/D
27 Stadtentwässerung Zürich, Klärschlamm-Entquickung, Technikumsversuche im kontinuierlichen
Verfahren bei der FA List
MA 88/3542/D
28 De Quervain B., Umweltfreundliche Klärschlammverbrennung am Beispiel PCW GWA des
Schweiz. Vereins des Gas- und Wasserfachs 3/92
29 Muster U., Abtrennung von Quecksilber mittels Keramikreaktoren
Müll und Abfall 7/95

11. APPENDIX
11.1 Thalium Documentation Dyckerhoff-Zementwerke AG, Lengerich

Characteristics of Toxic Elements quoted in TA Luft and LRV

Element Class Critical Dose

Uses Source Natural concentrations
WHO max. dose Lethal dose
Cd I 0.5 mg / week Coating for metals (hot dip)
Alloying material (wires, bearings, batteries)
Pigment (CaS in glass, paints, etc.)
Insecticide (CdO, Cd(OH)2) Zn / Pb Ores 1 ppm in plant and animal tissues
Hg I Scientific instruments
Mercury vapour lamps
Solders
Mercury arc rectifiers
Anti-fouling paints
Pharmaceuticals
Seed dressing HgS (Cinnabar) Soils, dust, water, 0.005 - 0.25 ppm in nearly all foods
Tl I 100 ppm
poss. toxic
to soils

12 mg/kg body weight Rodenticide / insecticide (Thallous sulphate)

Lenses, IR instruments
Alloying material
Fireworks
Dyes, pigments
Low temperature thermometer (with Hg)
Catalyst
Hair remover Pyrites Not naturally found in plants or soils
Be I
(cancer.) Cu / Be alloys
X-Rax tubes
Fluorescence light tubes
Nuclear reactor parts Beryl ore
As II MAC of
0.5 mg/m3 Insecticides, Weed killers, fungicide (as K-arsenate), Wood preservative
Glass
Alloying material
Therapeutic (organic As compounds) By-product Cu, Pb, Zn, Sn, Au-ores In all soils from <10 to
500 ppm
Co II 10-20 mg per 100 g body weightAlloying material
Magnet alloys
Cutting tools
Binder for tungsten carbide
Blue pigment in china glass In Cu / Co ores in Zaire
Ni II Ni and soluble Ni-salts are not considered as being toxic to humans. The most important
industrial aspect is their trend to cause dermatitis. Alloying material
Special steels
Electroplating
Catalyst for hydrogenation of oils
Coinage
Paints and enamels
Ni-Cd batteries S-ores in Ontario 0,0016% of the Earth’s crust and is widely found in soils and
plants
Se II Se rectifiers
Anti-corrosive coating on copper, steel etc.
Decolouriser in glasses
Paints and dyes
Photoelectric cells
Insecticides
Catalyst Anode slime of Cu-refineries Il soils from trace to 30 ppm, at which level animals
suffer from alkali disease

Te II In cast iron to improve properties

In various Pb, Cu and Fe alloys
In rubber industry
As catalyst
Glass colouring agent
In bacteriological tests
In thermocouples for low temperature Bi-ore residues Traces in seleniferous soils but not in crops

Element Class Critical Dose

Uses Source Natural concentrations
WHO max. dose Lethal dose
Sb II Alloying material
Battery grids
Pewter
Printers type
Lead electrodes
Bearing metals
Rubber compounding
Flameproof clothing
Paint pigment
In ceramic / glass Sb2S3 (Stibnite)
Pb III Pipes, Roof coverings
Tanks for acids
Lead shot, Bullets, Linotype metal
Battery plates
Alloying material
In paints and pigments
In glasses and enamels
Litharge rubber
Insecticides
Noise barriers PbS (Galena) In soils and plants in very low levels. Clay soils make Pb insoluble but
acid soils increase solubility and toxicity.
Cr III Alloying material in steels
Chromium plating
Cutting tools (as carbide)
Paint primer (zinc chromate)
Leather tanning agent
Wood preservative (zinc, chloride, chromate)
Pigment (paint, inks, dyes, etc.)
In photo industry as sensitiser FeO.Cr2O3 (Chromite) In small quantities in all plants and soils. Plants
grown on soils with 0.2-0.4% are infertile
CN III
F III
Cu III 780 mg as CuSO4 Alloying material
As electrical conductor
Gas / water pipes, Roof sheeting
Bronze paint
Anti-fouling paint
Insecticide As S-ores in several areas
Mn III Alloying material
Potassium permanganate
Colour in glasses / ceramics
Paints, inks
Matches, Fireworks
Enrich manganese deficient soils As oxide sulphide and carbonate up to 20 ppm in some
nuts
Pd III Alloying material
Caralyst
Dental alloys
Jewellery In certain coals as aresenide or selenide
Pt III Contact material in electrical circuits
Electrode material
Catalysts
High temperature electric furnaces
Dies for glass fibre production As native metal in Cu / Ni ores
SiO2 III
Rh III Pt / Rh alloys
Electroplating
Electrical contacts surfaces
Reflector in high power lamps In wastes from Cu, Ni and Pt extraction

Element Class Critical Dose

 Uses Source Natural concentrations
WHO max. dose Lethal dose
V III In special steels and alloys
Industrial catalyst
Pigment in paints, dyes, inks
In insecticides
In photography Oil refinery residues (Carnotite) To 470 ppm in soil; to 10 ppm in plants
Sn III

C07 - Kiln Dust

Disposal of Wastes from Cement Production

1. INTRODUCTION
2. REGULATORY ASPECTS OF DUMPING SOLID WASTE MATERIALS
2.1 Swiss TVA 95
2.2 E.P.A.'s TCLP Leaching Test
2.3 European DIN 38 405 D24 Leaching Test
3. DISPOSAL OF General CEMENT PLANT WASTES
4. DISPOSAL OF KILN DUSTs
4.1 Discarded Dust, its Potential and Drawbacks
4.2 Methods of In-Plant Disposal of Untreated Kiln Dust
4.2.1 Addition of Dust to Cement
4.2.2 Returning to Kiln after Granulation or Compaction
4.3 Methods for In-Plant Use of Kiln Dust after Removal of Alkalis
4.3.1 Removal by Simple Leaching
4.3.2 Removal by Passamaquoddy Technology Recovery Scrubber
4.3.3 Removal by Auxiliary Kiln or by Fuller Fluidised Bed Reactor
4.4 Reported Plant External Uses of Kiln Dust
4.4.1 As Fertilizer
4.4.2 As Raw Material for Artificial (N-Viro) Soil
4.4.3 As Asphalt Filler
5. Disposal of Bypass Dust
5.1 In Plant Use
6. DISPOSAL OF REFRACTORIES
6.1 Background
6.2 Materials Involved and their Chemical Compositions
6.2.1 Materials Involved
6.2.2 Chemical Composition
6.3 Regulatory Aspects / Manufacturers Safety Data Sheets
6.4 In-plant refractories disposal
6.4.1 Plant "A"
6.4.2 Plant "B"
7. Recycling of spent cement kiln refractories
8. APPENDIXES
8.1 Appendix Ia
8.2 Appendix Ib
8.3 Appendix Ic
8.4 Appendix Ib

1. INTRODUCTION
Whereas natural processes generally occur in cycles, in which the waste products created do not harm
the biosphere, the same cannot be said for human activities at today's high population densities. The
cement industry is no exception in that it generates wastes whose properties range from being an
unsightly nuisance to being definitely toxic. Table 1 lists these principal solid, liquid and gaseous wastes.
Whereas the gaseous wastes go into the atmosphere and rapidly lose their identity by dilution, the same
is not true for solid types. The latter remain in possession of the plant, which has the responsibility for
their safe disposal
Table 1:Wastes generated in Cement Plants

Solid Wastes ¨ overburden, earth

¨ kiln dust, bypass dust
¨ mill dust
¨ sulphur absorbent
¨ reject production
¨ used refractories
¨ cleaning dust
¨ scrap iron
¨ rubber wastes (tyres, belts)
¨ test prisms / cubes

Liquid Wastes ¨ rainwater / wash water

¨ sewage water
¨ oils / greases / emulsions
¨ laboratory chemicals
¨ solvents

Gaseous Wastes ¨ CO2, NOx, SO2, Hydrocarbons, etc.

In the present article the main emphasis will be placed on the management of the large tonnage wastes
namely refractory tear out and the various types of kiln dusts. No mention will be given to that waste
generated in the largest quantities, namely CO2 emissions, of which the cement industry is a significant
but not the major contributor.
2. REGULATORY ASPECTS OF DUMPING SOLID WASTE MATERIALS
In the past most manufacturing and processing industries simply dumped their waste materials,
euphemistically calling them "landfill". They did this because it made economic sense and an awareness
of the accompanying burden to the environment existed in only rare cases, if at all.
Today the situation has changed. Environmental awareness is only all too present and those harmlessly
dumped wastes of yester year are now becoming the potential environmental time-bombs of today and
tomorrow. Many a cement plant is going to be confronted with a bill for cleaning up its dumped materials,
costs which will certainly be a multiple of the sum originally "saved". No cement company in a developed
country is today going to be allowed to wind up its operations until it has made certain that all the
materials it dumped during its operational lifetime are in a form which poses no threat to the environment.
Some examples of the regulations applicable to the dumping of materials will now be given.
2.1 Swiss TVA 95
The Swiss TVA regulation of December 1990 is a typical example applicable to the dumping of all types of
material. It defines three categories of dumping operations, namely of the 'inert material", "residual
material" and of the "reactor" types. Details of the requirements for end storage in inert and residual
dumps are given in Tables 2, 3 and 4. The use of reactor dumps is presently reserved for slag from
rubbish incinerating plants and for sewage sludge (< 65 % H2O), inert/building waste materials, etc. when
no capacity is available in inert or residual material dumps. Dumps for highly toxic materials do not exist
and such materials have to be eliminated by other means.
Table 2:Swiss Dumping Regulations (TVA-1990)
Compositional Requirements

MT-Mat. No TVA Requirements

Materialfor End Storage
Condition Inert Residual
Composition known (%)
Stone like Material (%)
H2O-soluble substances (%)
Organic material (% C)
> 95
0,5 > 95

5
5
Pb (ppm)
Cd (ppm)
Cu (ppm)
Ni (ppm)
Hg (ppm)
Zn (ppm) 500
10
500
500
2
1000
Lipo. org. Cl compods. (ppm)
Gas formation with H2O
Reaction with self, H2O,air
Neutral, Capacity (Mol/kg) 10
none
none
1
The following building material can be included in an inert substance deposit:
concrete, tiles, asbestos cement, class masonry and road construction wastes.

Table 3:Elutriation Test (No. 1)

Requirements in Swiss Dumping Regulations (TVA 1990)
(Elutriation in CO2 Saturated Solution)

MT-Mat. No TVA Requirements (mg/l)

Materialfor End Storage
Condition Inert Residual
Al
As
Ba
Pb
Cd 1.000
0.001
0.50
0.10
0.01 10.00
0.10
5.00
1.00
0.10
Cr-III
Cr-VI
Co
Cu
Ni 0.05
0.01
0.05
0.20
0.20 2.00
0.10
0.05
0.05
2.00
Hg
Zn
Sn 0.005
0.50
0.20 0.01
5.00
2.00

Materials which may be deposited in inert substance dumps can either be unreactive substances as
defined in the mentioned tables or "building wastes" such as concrete, tiles, asbestos cement products,
glass and masonry/road construction wastes. Materials such as metal, paper, wood, and textiles must be
removed from "building wastes" as much as is economically practical.
As can be seen in the Tables 4 to 6 there are limits set down on the chemical composition (toxic metals,
organic substances) of the materials themselves and on their leaching behaviour in two elutriation tests.
In the first test CO2 is bubbled through the solution to keep the pH value low and thus ensure that the
toxic cations are brought into solution and not precipitated. In the second elutriation test, in which the
anions and organic substances present are determined, distilled water without CO2 is employed.
Table 4:Elutriation Test (No. 2)
Requirements in Swiss Dumping Regulations (TVA 1990)
(Elutriation in Distilled Water)

MT-Mat. No TVA Requirements (mg/l)

Materialfor End Storage
Condition Inert Residual
NH4+ / NH3
Tl 0.50
not specified 5.00
not specified
Cyanide
Fluoride
Nitrite
Sulphite
Sulphide
Phosphate 0.01
1.00
0.10
0.10
0.01
1.00 0.10
10.00
1.00
1.00
0.10
10.00
DOC *
HC’s
LOC *
Cl Sol *
pH Value 20.00
0.50
0.01
0.01
6 - 12 50.00
5.00
0.05
0.10
6 - 12
DOC: dissolved organic carbon
HC: hydrocarbons
LOC: Iypophilic organic chlorine compounds
Cl Sol: chlorinated solvents

As a result of these regulations the following restrictions prevent (in Switzerland) the dumping of waste
materials such as kiln dust and refractories:
¨ H2O soluble substances < 0.5 %, resp < 5.0 % exceeded due to presence of soluble alkali
chlorides and sulphates
¨ total Pb and Zn levels over 500 ppm due to use of alternative fuels and raw material components
¨ soluble Pb and Zn limits exceeded due to use of alternative fuels and raw material components.
¨ soluble Cr6+ limit exceeded in the case of spent magnesia-chrome refractories
2.2 E.P.A.'s TCLP Leaching Test
In the USA the disposal of kiln dust and of spent kiln refractories is mainly by dumping the refractories,
often in plant external sites. This disposal is regulated by the Resources Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA) and hence the class of dump to which they can be sent, is decided by their behaviour according
to the Toxicity Concentration Leaching Procedure (TCLP) test. Details of the latter and the limits defined
for the various elements in the leachate are given in Table 5.
Table 5:Details of USEPA’s TCLP Leaching Test

Leaching Medium Demineralised H2O Element Extract Limit (mg/l)

+ acetic acid (pH=5) Ag 5
Liquid / Solid ratio 20 : 1 As 5
Max. Particle Size (mm) 9.5 B
Nr. of Extractions 1 (agitation) Ba 100
Extraction Time (hr) 18 ± 2 Be 0.007
Cd 1
Cr 5
Cu
CrHg 0.2
Ni 70
Pb 5
Se 1
Sb 1
Tl 7
Zn

As can be seen the elements defined are (with one exception) trace toxic elements and as such only
present in natural raw materials and in new, unused refractories in trace quantities, if at all. Trace
quantities can, however, be picked up during their presence in the kiln. The main oxides from which kiln
refractories are produced i.e. SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, MgO and the trace oxides Fe2O3, K2O, Na2O etc. are
not stipulated and are anyway the same oxides as found in PC clinker.
The one exception is Cr which, as Cr2O3, is a major oxide component of magnesia chrome refractories,
with some refractories containing up to almost 18 %. Although it is wholly present as insoluble Cr2O3 in
the new, unused bricks this is partially converted to a soluble alkali sulphate chromate during kiln
operations and therefore contains soluble Cr6+. On the basis of tests carried out at HMC Corporate
Services up to 0.4 % of soluble Cr6+ has been determined in spent magnesia chrome bricks which
originally contained 17 % Cr2O3.
Spent magnesia-chrome bricks are therefore not likely to pass the TCLP test for disposal in a municipal
garbage dump and hence will have to be treated before such a disposal with ensuing costs. A change to
refractories of the chrome-ore free magnesia-spinel or doloma types avoids this disposal problem
completely.
2.3 European DIN 38 405 D24 Leaching Test
According to this regulation the following concentrations of Cr6+ dictate the disposal of all wastes, but
especially those containing chromite ore (magnesia chrome bricks) as follows:
¨ < 0.1mg/l: in household garbage dump
¨ > 0.1 mg/l < 0.5 mg/l: in toxic material dump
¨ >0.5 mg/l: special treatment or must be dumped underground
3. DISPOSAL OF GENERAL CEMENT PLANT WASTES
Of the general wastes generated in cement plants examples of their management at the Rekingen and
Ciminas plants are listed in Tables 6 and 7. Whereas the procedures for dealing with wastes are already
established in developed countries, plants in developing countries invariably have to set up their own
infrastructure. It is important that clearly marked collection centres are located near to the places the
wastes are generated and that their use is promoted.
Table 6:Waste Concept at Rekingen

MaterialQuantity per Month Internal Disposal External Disposal

Office, stores
Paper carton Kiln
Workshop
Ferrous 4t Scap metal
Non-ferrous 2t Scap metal
Rags Garbage incinerator
Waste Wood Plant
Ferrous 40t Scrap metal
Non-ferrous 3t Scrap metal
Masonry 60t Mix bed
Paper, styropor 0.5t Garbage incinerator
Water Mix bed
Refractories
Cuttings 10 Mix bed
Tear out 500 t/a Mid bed
Garage
Tyres 0.5t Siggenthal
Oil / Air filters 50 kg Siggenthal
Waste Oil 1000l Waste oil dealer
Laboratory
Liquid waste 10l Special collection
Solid waste 10l Special collection
Radioactive source Supplier
Various
Glass Local collection
Light tubes 100 Special Collectio

Table 7:Waste to be Disposed at Ciminas Plant

MaterialMeans of Disposal
Internal & External use
Absorbed Diesel Spillage Used as combustable
Filter bags Reused, sold for reuse
Internal use
Asbestos components Crushed, added to raw mill
Cement ex spillage’s Returned ro process
Clinical wastes Incinerated in containers
Glass Crushed, added to raw mill
Lamps Added to raw mill
Rags / cloths Incinerated in containers
Refractories (Cr containing) Crushed, added to raw mill
Wastes from charcoal Added to raw mill via clay
Sax ex sand blasting Added to raw mill
External use
Askarel oil Incinerated externally
Clothes / shoes / helmets Sold for recycling
Concrete cubes Given to personnel
Fibre glass Sold for recycling
Filter elements Pressed and sold
Iron ex slag Sold to foundries
Metal / electrical scrap Sold for recycling
Oils / greases Sold for recycling
Paper ex office Sold for recycling
Plastics Sold for recycling
Refractories Sold for reuse
Rubber / car batteries Sold for recycling

It is the disposal of the larger quantities of cement plant specific wastes kiln dust (up to 300’000 tpa at one
Group plant) and spent refractories (up 800 tons at some Group plants) that must receive the greatest
attention. Whereas refractories are consumable items and it is understandable that there will be remnants
to be disposed of, this is not the case with kiln dusts. In fact most Group plants do not have to discard
dust and those actually doing so are forced to do so for several reasons:
¨ production in wet kilns of low(er) alkali cements from raw materials which do not have sufficiently
low alkali levels to produce such cements without the discarding of dust
¨ use of a bypass in dry process kilns when the raw materials have a too high Cl content
¨ to prevent the formation of rings in wet process kilns caused by a molar excess of SO3 over
alkalis.
Most of the dust discarded in the Group is generated at wet plants in the USA and Canada for the
production of low alkali cements and thus in countries whose standard specifications still do not allow the
incorporation of kiln dust into cement.
4. DISPOSAL OF KILN DUSTS
4.1 Discarded Dust, its Potential and Drawbacks
The total quantity of dust discarded annually in the Holcim Group amounts to some 1.8 mio. tpa, with the
quantity per plant ranging from zero (most cases) to over 200'000 tpa at a few N. American plants. In
these latter cases the kiln feed / clinker factor can be as high as 1.91 which means having to process
excessive quantities of kiln feed and a faster depletion of the reserves.
The chemical composition of the discarded kiln and bypass dust varies with kiln type as well as from from
plant to plant. Details main oxide composition of kiln dust discarded at Group Plants is given in Table 8,
with details of the heavy metal levels in American kiln dusts being listed in Table 9.
Table 8:Analyses of Dusts from Various Kiln Types

Kiln type Suspension preheater Grate preheater Wet long Dry long
Filter By-pass (Lepol)
Abbreviation DS-F DS-BP DG WL DL
Number of samples 19 6 13 36 2
from-to average from-to average from-to average from-to average
from-to average
L.o.l 31.3-37.9 34.5 4.3-13.3 8.9 5.2-28.6 15.6 3.8-33.8 22.6
21.8-27.0 24.4
SiO2 9.0-16.8 13.1 13.1-16.4 14.4 4.9-21.0 14.0 3.5-18.3 13.3
 7.6-11.39.5
Al2O3 2.2-6.6 4.1 3.0-4.5 3.7 1.1-9.0 3.7 1.4-6.9 3.9 1.6-3.1 2.9
Fe2O3 1.2-3.3 2.2 1.2-2.5 1.7 0.4-3.7 1.5 0.6-4.3 1.9 1.1-1.7 1.4
CaO 38.6-45.7 42.2 44.4-60.8 52.3 14.9-52.7 36.1 10.6-53.8 41.7
31.7-49.6 40.2
MgO 0.70-2.4 1.4 0.80-2.7 1.7 0.4-2.6 1.0 0.3-4.5 1.3 1.3-1.3 1.3
SO3 0.04-2.4 0.75 2.6-4.8 3.6 1.3-32.2 121.1 0.68-36.7 6.3 6.0-
14.8 10.4
K2O 0.35-2.7 1.07 4.1-12.6 8.8 3.4-35.2 13.2 0.79-38.1 6.0
0.88-15.8 8.3
Na2O 0.07-0.30 0.17 0.17-1.6 0.62 0.18-2.6 1.1 0.12-14.1 1.3
0.07-1.3 0.69
Cl 0.04-0.68 0.25 2.3-7.1 4.2 0.10-2.0 0.81 0.07-10.8 1.3 0.88-
1.3 0.69
Free lime 0.00-0.54 0.12 2.6-31.1 4.2 0.71-7.7 6.32 0-17.9 6.33
1.3-8.8 5.1

Table 9:Total (acid soluble) metals in cement and cement kiln dust

Total in Cement, mg/kg Total in CKD, mg/kg Ratio of Avg.

Volatile Min. Avg. Max. No. Min. Avg. Max. No. Cement /CKD
Mercury <0.001 0.014 0.039 21 0.004 0.660 25.500 68 2%
Selenium 0.62 NM 2.23 6 2.68 28.14 307.00 54 NM
Thallium 0.01 1.08 2.68 32 1.40 43.24 776.00 89 2%
Cadmium 0.03 0.34 1.12 42 0.1 10.3 59.6 81 3%
Lead 1 12 75 82 34 434 7390 95 3%
Antimony 0.7 NM 4.0 2 0.3 NM 3.4 9 NM
Silver 6.75 9.20 19.90 93 4.8 10.53 40.70 92 87%
Arsenic 5 19 71 54 2 18 159 50 106%
Nickel 10 31 129 85 1 22 60 65 141%
Barium 91 280 1402 94 35 172 767 95 163%
Berrylium 0.32 1.13 305 93 0.13 0.65 3.54 94 174%
Chromium 25 76 422 94 8 41 293 95 185%
Refractory
Notes:
1) Exclude non-detectable values
2) NM indicates average not meaningful because of large number of non-detectable values
3) No. indicates number of detected values

Kiln dusts, although discarded by a few plants can, in specific cases, possess characteristics that make
them of interest to other uses. The most important properties are:
¨ low price
¨ the very fine particle size / high absorptive capacity
¨ neutralising properties due to the presence of CaCO3 and free CaO
¨ enhanced levels of K2O and SO3
¨ content of hydraulically active components
These properties have lead to proposals being made for using cement kiln dust in the following
applications:
¨ absorber material
¨ filler component in cement and asphalt
¨ neutralizating agent
¨ fertilizer/agricultural lime
¨ stabilisation of mud from oil drilling
¨ substitute for lime in
· sewage sludge dewatering
· waste stabilization
· exhaust gas scrubbing
¨ glass manufacture
¨ rearing cattle
¨ production of soil replacement
¨ production of low grade binder
¨ as cat litter
Here it must be emphatically stated, that only in exceptional cases has cement kiln dust actually been
used for any of the above applications in large quanties and over many years. No universally acceptable
uses have yet been located for kiln dusts outside of the cement plant and their disposal problem has yet
to be solved.
4.2 Methods of In-Plant Disposal of Untreated Kiln Dust
4.2.1 Addition of Dust to Cement
The most cost-effective method of using kiln dust is by incorporating it into cement. This practice was
allowed early on in a few national standard specifications in European countries, which in 1989 resulted in
7 Group plants employing kiln dust in this manner. The quantity involved at single plants varied from a
minimum of 0.4 wt.% to a maximum value of 8.5 wt.% of the OPC produced, with a total of 170'000 t
being used in this way. In Germany kiln dust could also be added to blast furnace slag cements, where
the addition resulted in improved early strength characteristics.
This use of kiln dust has since been incorporated into the European cement standard (ENV 197-1) which,
as seen in Table 10,allows the addition of to 5 % of “minor additional constituents” which may include kiln
dust. As can be seen this addition is allowed in all cement classes.
Table 10: ENV 197-1 Cement Types and their Compositions (wt.%)

Cement Type Clinker (K) B.F. Slag (S) Pozzolana Natural (Zn) Possolana Indust. (Zi) Fly Ash
Siliceous (Cs) Fly Ash Calcareous (Cc)Burnt Shale (B) Limestone (L) Silica Fume (D) Minor Additions
(F)
I 95-100 - - - - - - 0-5
II/A 80-100 S+Z+C+B+L+D+F = 6 - 20 -
II/B 65-79 S+Z+C+B+L+D+F =21 - 35 -
III/A 35-64 35-65 - - - - - 0-5
III/B 20-34 60-80 - - - - - 0-5
III/C 5-19 81-95 - - - - - 0-5
IV 60-90 - 0-40 - - - 0-10 0-5
V/A 40-64 18-30 18-30 - - - - 0-5
V/B 20-39 30-50 30-50 - - - - 0-5
1) Values in the table refer to cement nucleus, excluding calcium sulphate and additives
2) Minor additional constituents may be filler or may be one or more of the main constituents unless
inclueded as main constituents
3) Portion of silica dust is limited to 10% in types III/A and III/B
4) Portio of filler is limited to 10% in types III/A and III/B

For those countries in which the local standard specifications do not allow the addition of modest
additions of kiln dust as in ENV 197-1, cement companies should, by active participation in standards
committees, attempt to bring about the necessary changes in the national standard.
4.2.2 Returning to Kiln after Granulation or Compaction
Essentially this method prepares kiln dust for re-entry into the kiln by simply increasing the particle size,
either by granulation (1-2 mm) or by briquetting it into long thin rods.
As far as is known the granulation method only found one practical application, on kiln 8 at Obourg, but
was not needed for the larger kilns 9 and 10 as the introduction of standard specifications, which allowed
the addition of dust to cement, made its use irrevelant. The layout of the kiln 8 granulator (Schugi) is
shown in Figures 1 and 2.
Figure 1: Granulater for production of fine granulated powder (1 - 2 mm)
Figure 2: Dust circuit, Slurry circuit, Mixture and compressed air circuit

As can be seen, the granulator consists of a vertical cylinder in which a concentric shaft is placed, rotating
at a speed between 1'000 and 3'000 rpm. Attached to the shaft are several groups of knives whose angle
to the shaft is continuously variable. To prevent the granules sticking permanently to the cylinder wall the
latter is lined with a deformable neoprene liner which can be deformed from the outside by using
pneumatically powered rollers, so causing any deposits to fall off. Kiln dust and a binding liquid are
introduced into the granulator, which by the action of the rotating knives are formed into small granules, a
residence time of 0.5 to 1 sec. being sufficient for granules of 0.5 mm to 1.5mm, max. 2 mm in diameter.
Typically for a granulator of 10 t/h capacity only several kg of dust are present in the granulator at any one
time, thus requiring an accurate and reliable dosage of both kiln dust and binder. Normally the kiln dust is
itself sticky enough so that water alone can be used as granulating fluid.
At the Obourg plant the use of equal quantities of dust and slurry allowed the whole of the dust produced
in kiln 8 to be granulated and fed back to the kiln. The return of the dust in this way allowed the water
content of the slurry fed to the kiln to be reduced by some 2 to 3 % and increased the quantity of the dust
generated about 2 to 4 %. To prevent the granules from sticking when being fed into the kiln via the 12 m
tube, they were held in suspension in a carrier gas stream. The velocity of the gas suspension was about
9 to 10 m/s and the extra quantity of air introduced some 2 %. The tube was held about 40 cm above the
level of the slurry on which floated a compact bed of granules, of which about 97 % were captured by the
slurry. The granulator was shut down when kiln 8 went out of production.
4.3 Methods for In-Plant Use of Kiln Dust after Removal of Alkalis
4.3.1 Removal by Simple Leaching
An early method (1963) for the treatment of wet kiln dust, so as to allow its return to kiln, is the leaching
system developed and used at Holnam’s Dundee plant in the USA. As far as is known this is the only
leaching plant of this type in operation. Here some 350 tpd dust are collected daily from both of the plant's
1'500 tpd wet kilns. Before the installation of the bag filter in the 1990’s, the coarser dust taken from the
smoke chamber and the first two compartments of the electrofilter was returned to the kiln by insufflation
at a rate of about 10 tph through the burner pipe. The remaining fine dust with higher levels of volatiles
(from chambers 3 and 4) was processed in the leaching plant, (see Fig. 3) in which over 70 % of the
alkalis were removed using quarry water. This leaching plant is still operating today but the electro filter
has since been replaced by a bag type.
Figure 3: Dust Leaching System

The kiln dust is slurried batch-wise in a mixing basin using a water to dust ratio of 9:1 and then fed to the
leaching tank from which the thickened slurry containing some 50 % water is then returned to the feed
end of the kiln. The use of the leaching plant drops the K2O value of the clinker from 1.1 to 0.5 % and the
S03 from 1.0 to 0.4 %.
An important factor for the continuing operation of the leaching plant is ensuring that the effluent complies
with the water pollution regulations. In the situation at Dundee the waste water disposal problem was two-
fold, namely the high pH value of the leaching plant effluent and the high H2S levels of the quarry
seepage water. The two problems were reduced to one by using the quarry water for the leaching
operations.
The effluent from the leaching plant has initially a pH value of 12.5 and contains S, SO4, K, Na and Ca
ions. It is neutralized by using steel mill waste pickling acid and ferrous sulphate producing CaSO4 and
Fe(OH)2, with the H2S being converted into insoluble sulfides. This treated effluent is then discharged
into a system of three lagoons in the mined-out quarry where the solids settle out and the water is then
aerated and clarified. Part of this treated water is used for clay slip preparation, the rest being discharged
into the river under state regulations. As can be seen in Table 11 the operating permit of 1963 does not
mention limits for the heavy toxic metals. Because of their low solubility at high pH values the
concentration of the heavy toxic metals in the effluent will be anyway low.
Table 11: National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
(Permit No. MI. 0002020)

Effluent Characteristics Discharge Limitations Monitoring Requirements

1. Outfall 001
Flow
Total suspended solids
Total dissolved solids
Oil and grease
Fecal coliform bacteria
Total Iron-Potassium
Hydrogen sulfide
pH
17’500 m3/d
20 - 30 ppm
5’000 - 6’000 ppm
No visible film
200 / 100 m/l
--
0.1 ppm
6.5 - 9.5
Daily
Daily - 24 hr. comp.
Daily - 24 hr. comp.
Daily visual obs.
Weekly grab
Monthly 24 hr. comp.
Weekly grab.
Bihourly grab
2. Outfall 001
Flow
Total suspended solids
Total dissolved solids
Oil and grease
Temperature
pH
4’500 m3/d
--
--
No visible film
--
6.5 - 9.5
Daily
Monthly grab
Monthly grab
Weekly visual obs.
Weekly regarding
Monthly grab

4.3.2 Removal by Passamaquoddy Technology Recovery Scrubber

This is essentially a modern development of the previously described leaching system and first went into
operation in 1990 at the Thomaston plant in the USA. In spite of world-wide sales efforts this technology
has only been installed at the above mentioned plant.
The layout of the equipment is shown in Fig. 4. An improvement over the Dundee leaching plant is that
there is no discharge of alkali salt effluent into the waterways, these being converted into solid alkali
sulphate/chloride to be sold as fertilizer, plus distilled water. The system also includes a scrubbing system
which removes 90 % of the SO2 from the kiln exhaust gases as well as reducing particulate emissions. It
further allows the reprocessing of already dumped kiln dust.
Figure 4: Layout of the Passamaquoddy Scrubber
In the Passamaquoddy system kiln dust is mixed with water to form slurry just like at the Dundee leaching
plant. Cooled kiln exhaust gas is bubbled through a slurry bedwhich reacts with lime and gypsum to form
limestone and so avoids setting problems. At the same time the SO2 anc Cl in the kiln exhaust gas
converts the alkalis in the slurry into soluble sulphates and chlorides. The alkaline leachate is then fed to
the crystallizer, which, using waste heat from the recuperator and reduced pressure, turns it into the
desired products, namely alkali salts (mainly K2SO4) for sale as fertiliser and distilled water. It was also
said that the scrubber would be able to remove dioxins and furans and convert the heavy toxic metals into
insoluble carbonates.
The reasons for the non-preliferation of this system are believed to be that the costs were very high, in the
order of 30 mio USD for a 3000 tpd kiln, and that a revenue from the sale of alkali sulphate fertilizer and
of distilled water was never demonstrated.
4.3.3 Removal by Auxiliary Kiln or by Fuller Fluidised Bed Reactor
In very recent times Holnam Inc.,working with Fuller have carried out initial small, pilot scale trials to
evaluate the possibility of producing low alkali clinker (Na2O eqvt < 0.60%) from kiln dust using the
Fuller’s Fluid Bed CKD Recovery Process. Discarded dust from Holnam’s Clarksville plant, both fresh and
landfilled, was used for the test which demonstrated an alkali volatilisation rate < 65 % utilising a
maximum permissible fluid bed operating temperature of 1310'C and oxidising conditions. The use,
however, of a mildly reducing reactor atmosphere (0.8 % to 1 % CO) increased the alkali volatilisation
rates to > 90 % utilising a slightly lower fluid bed temperature of 1300-1305 °C. Details of the Fuller
reactor are presented in Fig. 5.
Figure 5: 18’’ Fluid Bed CKD Recovery System

From the results of the trials it can be said that:

¨ a clinker with 0.33 % free CaO was obtained after a 3 hr retention time
¨ the fluid bed system has a low rate of fines generation
¨ this fine dust, with typical composition 51.5% K2O, 1.33% Na2O, 33.29% SO3 and 11.32% Cl,
might be suitable as fertiliser
¨ the TCLP heavy metals in the dust appears to meet the limits of the RCRA leaching test.
At one plant now being built in Egypt, Polysius have foreseen the use of an auxiliary rotary kiln to
concentrate the bypass dust prior to its disposal or further use.
4.4 Reported Plant External Uses of Kiln Dust
4.4.1 As Fertilizer
The features of kiln dust which make it potentially useful as a fertilizer are its potassium content, its lime
content and its acid neutralizing capacity.
When compared to potassium-lime fertilizers produced by the fertilizer industry, the disadvantages of kiln
dust include its variable chemical composition, its lower K2O content, its high fineness and associated
nodulizing problems.
In general a potassium fertilizer should fulfill the following requirements which may differ somewhat from
country to country:
¨ should be in nodule form
¨ only slight variations in chemical composition
¨ should have a minimum content of soluble K2O and CaO (In Germany the K2O content of
potassium fertilizers should be between 40 to 60 % for the chloride types and between 25 to 50 % for
sulphate formulations)
¨ for some crops a low Cl content is required
Lime fertilizers should have a CaO content of between 40 to 90 % depending on whether they consist of
calcium carbonate, burnt lime or hydrated lime.
Only two plants were known in the past to successfully market their kiln dust. These were the ENCI plant
at Maastricht and Alsen-Breitenburg's Itzehoe plant, which sold their dusts as fertilizers under the
"KENCICA" and "Alsen" brand names. None of these plants today sells kiln dust as fertilizer; the Itzehoe
plant was closed in the early 1980’s and at ENCI the kiln dust is being legally added to the cement.
With regard to their chemical compositions the dusts from these plants had quite different characteristics
as shown in Table 12. The fertilizer from Alsen was of the potassium type, that from ENCI of the lime-
potassium type, and as can be seen these compositions are typical of the dusts from many wet and semi-
wet plants.
Table 12: Chemical Composition (wt%) of the ENCI and Itzehoe Dusts

ENCI ITZEHOE
L.O.I. (500°C)
CO2
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
SO3
K2O
Na2O
Cl 1.5
18
18
3
3
46
-
5
5
-
- 1-2
2-6
2-6
0.5 - 1.5
0.2 - 0.9
5 - 15
0.1 - 0.3
32 - 39
32 - 42
2-3
1

For the successful marketing of kiln dust a very large input may not be required. ENCI for instance did not
market directly under their own name but did so through a separate company having a long experience in
the business of providing farmers with fertilizers. They were able to claim on the basis of crop tests that
barley, turnips, potatoes and sugar beet produced the same yields as when conventional lime or
potassium sulphate fertilizers were employed. It was even claimed that sugar beet contained up to 30 %
more sugar when "KENCICA" was used. ENCI claimed that the CaO to K2O ratio of 9:1 and the presence
of calcium silicates made their product especially valuable as a fertilizer.
In the case of "Alsen" the company did its own marketing, an example of the promotional literature being
shown (in German) in Figures 6 and 7.
Figure 6: Promotional Literature for “Alsen” Fertilizer

4.4.2 As Raw Material for Artificial (N-Viro) Soil

An interesting use of kiln dust, presently practised in the USA is in the production of artificial soil. The kiln
dust and bypass dust from a few US plants is being sold to a specialist company - N-VIRO - which mixes
the dust with partially dried sewage sludge to produce an artificial soil, marketed as N-VIRO SOIL. The
kiln dust, especially bypass dust, behaves as lime and when mixed with the dried sludge, causes an
increase in temperature which kills most pathogens and greatly reduces the sludge odour, all this
happening within only 7 days. The production of this artificial soil is approved by the EPA as a PFRP
(Process to Further Reduce Pathogens) treatment. Uses to which N-VIRO soil is put include:
¨ daily landfill cover material
¨ land and mining reclamation
¨ land remineralization
¨ highway embankment construction
¨ landscaping and turf material
¨ agricultural lime/soil conditioner
Details from N-VIRO's promotional literature are shown in Fig. 8 and the composition of the dust in Table
13.
Table 13: Chemical Composition of B

ANALYSIS EPA-LIMIT BYPASS DUST (%)

SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
SO3
Na2O
K2O
TiO2

LOI 17.55
4.87
1.84
61.41
0.72
4.23
0.51
1.53
0.39

6.97
Total 100.02
E.P. TOXICITY PROCEDURE
Max. Limit ppm ppm
As
Ba
Cd
Cr
Pb
Hg
Se
Ag 5.0
100.0
1.0
5.0
5.0
0.2
1.0
5.0 0.003
2.44
0.05
0.21
0.55
< 0.001
0.006
0.07
TOXICITY CHARACTERISTIC LEACHING PROCEDURE
Max. Limit ppm ppm

Ba
Cd
Cr
Pb
Hg
Se
Ag 5.0
100.0
1.0
5.0
5.0
0.2
1.0
5.0 0.004
1.7
0.05
0.25
0.6
0.003
0.002
0.04

Figure 8: Promotional Literature for “N-Viro Soil”

4.4.3 As Asphalt Filler

Only one plant in the Holcim Group has, as far as is known, been able to sell some of its kiln dust
(approx. 200 t/a) for use as a filler in asphalt, this amounting to only 10 % of the approx. 2'000 t of dust
sold each year.
On the basis of laboratory trials it was ascertained that only the dust from the first chamber of the
electrofilter was promising as a filler. the other dusts having the following drawbacks:
¨ smoke chamber: too coarse
¨ chambers 2, 4 and 4: too low density
too high solubility
Chamber 1 dust could be mixed with a normal filler (Vaulx) and used in the preparation of asphalt
according to the Dutch "Zwacke" class. The production of "Zeer Zwacke" and "Middlesoort" classes was
not possible. The proportion of natural filler that could be replaced with chamber 1 dust in the "Zwacke"
grade is about 50 %. The performance of the various proportions of filler and chamber 1 dust are given in
Table 14.
Table 14: Comparison of Performance of Different Proportions of Filler and Kiln Dust as Filler
Component in Asphalt

Dutch Standard Proportion Filler: Cust (Filed 1)

Characteristics Belgian Standards Z.Zwakke Zwakke Middlesoort Filler (Vaulx) 20:80
30:70 40:60 50:50 60:40
Residue on:
1 mm
0.09 mm
0.63 mm
0
0 - 15
5 - 25
0
0 - 15
5 - 25
0
0 - 15
5 - 25
0
5 - 10
13 - 19
0
5 - 10
14.5 - 20.0
0
5 - 10
14.5 - 20.0
0
5 - 10
14.5 - 20.0
0
5 - 10
14.5 - 20.0
0
5 - 10
14.5 - 20.0
Apparent density in toluene 0.5 - 0.8 0.5 - 0.6 0.43 0.45
0.43 0.46 0.48
Porosity 30 - 50 > 29 > 36 > 44 30 - 34 46.5 46.0 43.7 43.9 39.5
Sensitive to water < 10 < 10 < 10 < 10 < 10 0 0 0 0 0
Swelling <3 <3 <3 <3 0.35 - 1.0 3.0 2.8 2.7 2.7 2.5
L.O.I (150°C) < 1.5 < 1.5 < 1.5 0.1 - 0.21 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5
Solubility in water < 10 < 10 < 10 0.38 - 1.90 12.5 11.6 9.6 8.5
7.1
Bitumen (Getal) 28 - 30 40 - 50 54 - 60 32 - 37 58 56 55 50 44

5. DISPOSAL OF BYPASS DUST

5.1 In Plant Use
Because the original purpose of a bypass is to reduce the levels of Cl or alkalis in the kiln system, it is just
not possible to return the dust so extracted to the kiln. At one Group plant (Höver) some 16 tpd of bypass
dust (at times up to 30 tpd) is generated, equivalent to some 4'400 t/a. The composition of the dust is
given in Tables 15 and 16. As can be seen the enrichment in Pb, Cd and Hg is high, the value for Pb
being higher when tyres are being added as secondary fuel at the kiln inlet. Although it was possible in
the past to dump bypass dust in the quarry, this is no longer the case and so uses have had to be found
for this material.
Table 15: Bypass dust chemical composition

main components % raw meal clinker bypass dust enrichment factor

raw meal
bypass dust
ignition loss 35.8 0.3 6.5
SiO2 13.5 21.7 12.5
Al2O3 3.6 6.1 2.2
Fe2O3 1.3 2.0 2.5
CaO 43.2 66.5 31.0
MgO 0.6 1.1 0.4
SO3 0.6 1.0 11.0 18.3
Na2O 0.3 0.3 2.6 8.6
K2O 0.6 0.9 18.4 30.1
Cl 0.06 0.007 11.5 191.6

Table 16: Bypass dust chemical composition

trace elements
mg/kg/10-4% raw meal clinker
(not analyzed) bypass enrichment factor
raw meal
bypass dust
Sb 2.1 -- 10.0 5.0
As 10.4 -- 64.0 6.1
Be 1.0 -- 1.6 1.6
Pb 21.0 -- 947.0 (450)* 45.0 (21)*
Cd 1.0 -- 46.0 46.0
Cr 16.0 -- 90.0 5.6
Co 2.0 -- 11.0 5.5
Cu 5.0 -- 28.0 5.6
Mo 2.0 -- 6.0 3.0
Ni 12.0 -- 38.0 3.2
Hg 0.05 -- 2.0 40.0
Se 2.0 -- 56.0 28.0
Tl 4.0 -- 27.0 7.0
V 41.0 -- 80.0 2.0
*without burning tyres

Several plant internal uses have been found for the bypass dust including:
¨ addition at raw material preparation
¨ feeding to the raw meal
¨ addition to OPC and slag cements as allowed by ENV 197-1
The bypass dust is added to the raw meal only when the Cl content in the kiln feed falls to 0.04% to 0.05
% and sufficient dust is added to give a constant level of 0.08 % Cl. This ensures a smooth bypass
operation. When added to cement the quantities are limited by the requirement that the maximum Cl
content should be less than 0.1 %, and is in fact held constant at 0.05 %. The quantity of dust added on a
cement basis varies between 0.8 and 2.25.%. The maximum quantity of bypass dust that can be used
within the plant by this method amounts to some 2'400 t/a. As an instantaneous recycling is not always
possible, some dust must be temporary stored until it can be used as previously described. Other plant
internal potential uses which have been evaluated but did not lead to success were in the production of:
¨ low quality hydraulic binders
¨ special binding agents for salt mining
6. DISPOSAL OF REFRACTORIES
6.1 Background
Prior to the 1980's the disposal of spent refractories invariably involved dumping the broken out material
in the quarry. Thus only monetary aspects were taken into consideration and any potential burden on the
environment was ignored. The introduction of strict dumping regulations has also altered this practice but
in some countries an equally undesirable situation now exists. There, the same refractory materials which
are continuously being worn down inside the kiln during normal operations cannot be disposed of by slow
addition to the raw materials after their removal.
What quantities of spent refractories have to be disposed of? For say an average wet kiln, with a total
consumption of 750 g/t basic refractories and 450 g/t of acidic materials this will mean that about 190 g/t
of basic and 110 g/t of acidic refractories, i.e. 300 g/t in total actually have to be disposed of. This
represents only some 0.03 % of the annual clinker production (0.019 % on a raw material basis).
Assuming the spent refractories are disposed of over a period of 1 month this would mean the
incorporation of 0.23 % spent refractories into the raw materials. This quantity is very small and is less
than the quantity of most waste materials from other industries being disposed of in cement industry kilns.
HMC / CS is of the opinion that the plants of the Holcim Group should aim at being able to dispose of all
their spent refractories by incorporation into the raw materials.
6.2 Materials Involved and their Chemical Compositions
6.2.1 Materials Involved
In the widest sense the waste materials associated with cement kiln refractories must also be include the
packing materials in which they are delivered. This includes wooden pallets, paper and plastic packing,
steel and plastic drums etc. Such materials are disposed of within the framework of a plant's general
refuse concept (see Chapt. 2) and will not be further considered.
The spent refractory materials fall mainly into the following categories:
¨ basic bricks of the magnesia and doloma types
¨ high alumina bricks
¨ fireclay and lightweight insulating bricks
¨ dense refractory concrete
¨ insulating boards
¨ steel plates, steel anchors
Most is in the form of bricks.
6.2.2 Chemical Composition
The chemical compositions of typical cement kiln refractories as supplied are given in Table 17. Here it
can be seen that, apart from the elevated MgO and Cr2O3 contents of some types, their compositions are
similar to the oxide components used in clinker manufacture. During their operational lifetime the original
chemical composition changes due to various reactions which include:
¨ reaction with non volatile CaO and SiO2 from kiln charge
¨ reaction with CO2 and SO2 kiln atmosphere (doloma types)
¨ reaction with with alkalis and sulphates to form Cr6+ compounds (magnesia chrome types)
¨ pick up of alkalis, sulphates and chlorides into open pores
Table 17: Typical Cemical Cmposition of Various Classes of Refractories (Unused)

Element MagnesiaSpinelMagnesia Chrome High Alumina Dolomite Fireclay

Refractory Concrete
L.o.l. 0.15 0.22 (2.7) 0.29 0.12 0.98
SiO2 63 2.3 11.5 0.61 55 49.8
Al2O3 10.5 8.5 77.5 0.27 39.1 24.2
Fe2O3 0.57 4.9 1.6 0.88 1.8 2.6
CaO 0.91 1.2 0.13 58 0.32 13.9
MgO 87 71.5 0.23 37.6 0.11 1.5
SO3 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.14
K2O 0.02 0.02 0.32 0.02 1.1 0.94
Na2O < 0.01 < 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.12 3.7
TiO2 0.04 0.11 3.1 0.02 1.5 1.3
Cr2O3 0.15 12.3
Mn2O3 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.08 0.02 0.05
P2O5 0.07 0.04 2.8 0.02 0.15 0.05
Cl < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01

6.3 Regulatory Aspects / Manufacturers Safety Data Sheets

Within the European Union and the USA various regulations are now in operation which regulate the
disposal of spent kiln refractories. Details have already been given in Chapt. 2.
Of importance to cement plant refractories specialists is the safety data sheets that most European
refractory manufacturers are now beginning to draw up. An example of such a safety sheet, issued to
comply with EU Guideline 91/155/EG, is given in Appendix I. As can be seen in page 3 of this guideline,
comments are made regarding the disposal of the refractory materials (cut pieces and breakout) and also
of the packing materials.
These guidelines are for consumers in general and do not take into account the cement kilns capability of
disposing of its worn refractories. Normally mention is made to the presence of Cr6+.
6.4 In-plant refractories disposal
In many Group plants, especially in Europe, spent refractories are cost effectively and safely disposed of
via the kiln, into which they are introduced at a controlled dosage rate by:
¨ milling in the raw mill or by
¨ milling in the coal mill
In both cases the spent refractories first require to be crushed and any steel plates, shims or anchors
removed by a magnet (or in some cases by hand) before grinding
The crushing process can be either carried out in:
¨ existing plant crushers (raw materials or clinker) or using
¨ a mobile crusher from an external company (disposal via coal mill)
The route via the coal mill is of special importance for the case of spent doloma refractories in wet
process plants as their inclusion into the raw materials would have an adverse effect on slurry viscosity
and pumpability.
In the following examples are given of several methods of in plant disposal.
6.4.1 Plant "A"
In this semi-wet process plant fitted with a filter press, the spent bricks leave the kiln via the grate cooler
and are crushed via the clinker crusher . They are then transported on a band, where a magnet removes
any metal, to a small silo from which the crushed refractories are weighed into the raw feed at a slow
controlled rate. The waste refractories are thus kept within the plant, require no additional handling and
are effectively out of sight.
6.4.2 Plant "B"
In this large wet process plant the spent refractories are removed from the kiln via a man hole and are
taken by truck to a covered storage. At regular intervals an external contractor crushes the spent material
with a mobile crusher and removes the steel present. The crushed refractories are fed slowly into the coal
mill and introduced into the kiln as an additional "fuel ash". It is thus homogeneously distributed.
Figure 9: In-Plant disposal of Worn Refractories

7. RECYCLING OF SPENT CEMENT KILN REFRACTORIES

The philosophy of:
¨ avoiding / reducing waste,
¨ recycling or down cycling it,
¨ generating energy by its disposal and
¨ finally disposing of the "ultimate waste"
is now becoming established in many developed countries. When applied to cement kiln refractories all
these possibilities, with the exception of energy generation, are in principle thinkable.
Under the motto, "nothing will be recycled until it is economic", the recycling of spent cement kiln
refractories does not appear to offer much potential. The only materials that could in theory be completely
recycled are the small volumes of cuttings from unused bricks bricks and rest bricks which were never
installed. Once used refractories from cement kilns are normally not suitable for recycling.
When viewed from a purely financial viewpoint low cost firebricks will never be worth recycling and only
high cost qualities such as magnesia spinel might have some potential. From a technical viewpoint used
cement kiln refractories are always contaminated with a host of substances which substantially lower their
melting temperature and so prevent their re-use in cement kilns. At best recycling means use in a lower or
non refractory context and certainly not in the cement industry.
From a practical point of view compound materials such as monolithics will probably never be able to be
recycled. The recycling of dolomite qualities would necessitate the resintering of the material because of
deterioration of the sinter due to hydration.
In Japan used magnesia chrome bricks from the cement and glass industries are classified as hazardous
wastes and are returned to the supplier. This magnesia chrome waste is recycled as gunning mixes for
application in BOF steel works.
However, even if landfilling costs were to become astronomical the fact that the possibility remains (or
should remain) for a cost effective disposal via the clinkering process, means that it is very unlikely that
cement industry refractories will ever need to be recycled on a regular basis.
As far as the production of cement is concerned the remnants of kiln refractories cannot be returned and
recycled by the refractory manufacturer. The techniques required for this are not available and the
quantities involved are small. Kiln refractories are and will stay consumable items. Only in a few
developing countries are worn kiln refractories used outside of the plant as aggregate for the production
of low quality refractory concrete. This form of "disposal" could not be practised in developed countries.
8. APPENDIXES
8.1 Appendix Ia

8.2 Appendix Ib

8.3 Appendix Ic

8.4 Appendix Id

C08 - Quality Assurance

Quality Assurance

1. INTRODUCTION
2. DEFINITION OF QUALITY AND ITS CEMENT RELATED INTERPRETATION
3. OBJECTIVES OF QUALITY ASSURANCE
4. ACTIVITIES IN QUALITY ASSURANCE
4.1 Quality Planning
4.2 Quality Control
4.3 Quality Audit
5. QUALITY ASSURANCE SYSTEM
5.1 The Elements of a Quality Assurance System
5.2 Organisation of Quality Assurance
5.3 Quality Assurance Handbook
6. QUALITY COSTS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Elements of Quality Costs
6.3 Relationship of Quality Costs to Sales

1. INTRODUCTION
Every industry producing goods or services is confronted with the subject of quality. Their products are in
the true sense of the word qualified by the customer with respect to the extent they meet his expectations.
Included in his expectations is a conception of the price; thus, quality cannot be dealt with apart from cost
aspects: on one hand, a product able to fulfill high and special requirements usually fetches a higher price
than a "middle of the road" product; on the other hand, its production costs are as a rule also higher.
Furthermore and that is not of less importance for the producer the market for a highly specialized product
might be limited and the profitability questionable in spite of the high specific selling price.
It is the fundamental task of the quality assurance of a company to deal with the product quality and its
relation to production costs, selling price and market potential, with the objective to manufacture a
profitable product.
The establishment of an efficient quality assurance and its integration within all levels of company
organisation, has for many companies been the basis for their success the brilliant advance of various
sectors of the Japanese industry is an impressioning example.
In view of this experience, a generally applicable concept of quality assurance has been systematically
developed, and has reached now the stage where quality assurance systems are specified in national or
international standards.
Also in the cement industry, the needs for a well conceived quality assurance have significantly increased
over the last twenty years, mainly due to the following developments:
¨ more stringent requirements on concrete and cement
¨ growing competition due to over-capacities
¨ escalating energy costs
¨ more efficient - though also more delicate - production facilities
¨ increasingly tighter environmental regulations
¨ involvement in active environmental protection
2. DEFINITION OF QUALITY AND ITS CEMENT RELATED INTERPRETATION
Quality is defined as follows:
Quality is the totality of features and characteristics of a product that bear on its ability to satisfy a given
need or fulfill certain requirements 1.
It is obvious that cement producers and consumers have a different attitude towards cement quality.
¨ The cement manufacturer is above all interested in low investment and production costs. Quality,
therefore, is primarily associated with costs for materials, energy, equipment and labour. His major
concern usually was - and often still is - concentrated on the suitability and uniformity of raw materials and
intermediate products to allow optimum operation of the expensive installations with respect to quantity
and costs.
¨ On the other hand, the consumer expects a product with favourable characteristics for its many
applications. The changed market conditions - these days most countries envisage a very pronounced
buyer's market - put him in a very strong position with regard to quality requirements. He need not be
satisfied by the mere fulfilment of the standard specifications of the purchased cement, but may well
demand more stringent requirements. Often, these additive requirements mean higher strengths and
excellent uniformity - permitting to minimize this, according to the user, expensive ingredient in concrete -
but they can also refer to other properties such as rheology (concrete workability) or colour. Furthermore,
the consumer may urge the producer for detailed information not only about the final product, but even on
all stages of cement manufacture. This may ultimately result in periodic inspection visits to the plant by
external officials to so-called protect the consumers interests. Quality assurance by the cement
manufacturer, therefore, is interpreted by the consumer as quality insurance in the sense of product
liability.
Hence, the quality requirements of producers and consumers are by far not congruent; while a certain
limitation of the product variability is generally in line with the manufacturer's attitude towards quality, his
product costs can be seriously affected by the user's request for pushed quality levels, excessive
uniformity and special requirements (Fig. 1). Depending on the suitability of the available raw materials,
correctives, additives etc., it will be more or less costly for the manufacturer, if he has to comply with all
the specific requirements. Moreover, the requirements of the two parties change significantly with time,
and this change does usually not follow along the same lines.
Fig 1 Cost/Quality Relation

3. OBJECTIVES OF QUALITY ASSURANCE

It is the task of quality assurance to find an appropriate compromise between the divergent interests of
producer and consumer.
More specifically, quality assurance has to ensure (Fig. 2):
¨ the manufacturing of market-conform products
¨ a smooth process by an appropriate design of the raw mix and other intermediates
¨ an economic utilisation of raw materials
¨ the compliance with environmental regulations
Fig 2 Objectives of Quality Assurance

The prevailing trends within these four subjects can be summarised as follows:
1) cement application:
Product oriented aspects gained in importance over the past years. For many plants it is no longer
sufficient to produce cement meeting the standard specifications or any nationally accepted quality level,
but they are obliged to adapt their products and product ranges to specific customer requirements, be it
for the inland or export market.
The implementation of technical consulting services for cement application provides an important
marketing support for many plants in competitive markets.
2) process:
Induced by world-wide cement over-capacities and rising energy costs, plants are under considerable
pressure to produce more cost-efficiently. A detailed optimisation of the raw mix and other intermediates
with respect to process requirements can significantly contribute to this aim. Rationalisation by means of
automatisation of process and quality control are also potential measures. However, they require a careful
return-on-investment analysis.
3) raw materials:
Optimal utilisation of raw material deposits, both long - and short-term, has become an economic
necessity and is nowadays facilitated by powerful computer programs.
Waste materials - both combustibles and non-combustibles - are successfully utilised in cement
manufacturing. Special measures and investigations are necessary prior to and during their application.
4) environmental aspects:
Just as any other industry, the cement industry has to comply with increasingly stringent regulations on
emission and immission. Different to most other industries, it offers, however, the possibility to actively
contribute to a safe disposal of waste materials by means of their utilisation for cement manufacturing.
4. ACTIVITIES IN QUALITY ASSURANCE
By definition (ISO 8402), quality assurance comprises all those planned and systematic actions
necessary to provide adequate confidence that a product or service will satisfy given requirements for
quality.
Within the concept of quality assurance, three principle functions are distinguished:

Quality Assurance
Quality
Planning Quality
Control Quality
Audit

4.1 Quality Planning

The basic objective of quality planning is to determine the company's strategy and tactics in quality
assurance. This begins with defining the relative significance of quality assurance and its main areas of
emphasis, taking the particular situation of a company, e.g. with respect to market or to raw materials
resources, into account.
The individual subjects that have to be dealt with are compiled Fig. 3, and can be summarised as follows:
Outwards activities have to include the decision making in co-operation with marketing on number and
types of products to be manufactured on the basis of criteria such as: demand of domestic and export
market, raw materials situation, plant characteristics, etc.; evaluation of the demand for an extended
support of the marketing department, e.g. in form of a technical customer service, and, if required, the
realisation of such a service; furthermore, to represent the company's or cement industry's interest in the
design of cement and concrete standard specifications or in the environmental legislation, by participation
in the respective committees or bodies.
Plant internal planning activities comprise the design of the raw mix(es) as a direct follow-up to product
planning and, in the same context, the establishment of a concept for short-and long-term raw material
exploitation and securing. Of a very practical relevance is the set-up of a concept for quality control;
questions regarding the personnel structure, the equipment, the degree of automation as well as data-
processing and communication are of primary importance. Last but not least it is also incumbent on
quality planning to increase the knowledge on the quality criteria and to develop a quality consciousness
of the personnel by adequate training. Addressants are on the one hand the management of both the
production and marketing sectors, and, on the other hand, the subordinate staff and unskilled labour
members, since it will ultimately depend on them whether quality assurance is properly observed in all
sectors of the plant activities.
Fig 3 Quality Planning
4.2 Quality Control
The task of the quality control (Fig. 4) is the routine monitoring of material properties throughout the
process and the initiation of necessary adjustments in the process controls. The pre-requisite are an
elaborate control plan and well - established methods and procedures for sampling and testing. It needs
no particular mention that the infrastructure of quality control can also be used for non-routine purposes.
Fig 4 Quality Control

In view of new technologies, special attention has to be paid nowadays to data storage, processing,
presentation as well as to data communication to the plant management and to process and sales
departments. Data processing and communication not only serve to initiate process control measures -
which can, in certain cases, be done directly by computer control - but also as a "quality certificate" for
produced or dispatched products and as basic information for quality planning.
4.3 Quality Audit
Quality audit - as an integral part of the QA system - has the objective to critically scrutinise from time to
time the procedures and efficiency of quality planning and quality control and to suggest adjustments if
deemed necessary. Particular reasons for performing a quality audit are certainly significant changes, e.g.
in the market situation, in the raw material situation or in the plant itself (extension, shut-down of
production lines). It might be sensible to have a quality audit carried out by a third party in order to ensure
an unbiased approach.
5. QUALITY ASSURANCE SYSTEM
5.1 The Elements of a Quality Assurance System
In slight deviation from the official definitions, quality assurance system may be defined as the
organisational structure, responsibilities, procedures, processes and resources for implementing quality
assurance.1
In very general terms, the elements of a quality assurance system comprise:
¨ Organisation of personnel, dedication of tasks and responsibilities
¨ Lines of communication of information and decisions in routine and non-routine situations
¨ Quality control proper, i.e. sampling, testing, initiation or direct performance of reactions
(automatic and manual)
¨ Training scheme
¨ Technical customer service
¨ Co-operation with external official bodies
¨ Quality cost control
It is evident that a quality assurance system has to be individually tailored to the specific needs of a
company, taking regard of the complexity of the plant situation, of the prevailing market situation, and of
the relationship with official institutions.
Detailed lists and descriptions of the required elements of a quality assurance system are contained in
national or international standards, particularly in the ISO 9000 standard series. Companies meeting the
standard requirements can have their quality assurance systems certified by recognised certification
organisations. The ISO 9000 standard series or quality assurance systems find increasing application in
the cement industry, in respond to corresponding demands from the market or from product conformity
certification schemes (see report MA 91/3866/E).
5.2 Organisation of Quality Assurance
It is the responsibility of the plant managers to supervise, on the basis of operating reports and statistics,
the suitability and reserves of the raw materials, the quality of intermediate and final products as well as
the conformance of the latter with valid and relevant standards. For these tasks, the plant manager
requires an organisation for quality assurance to establish the required information and data, and thus to
prepare proposals in the context of quality assurance on which the plant manager can base his decisions.
There are several ways of organising quality assurance: again, the right choice is strongly dependent on
the significance of quality assurance for the company.
The personnel from the chemical and physical laboratory may be placed in an advisory position (staff
function) to the plant manager and is merely responsible for the technical execution of quality control (Fig.
5). Where the aspect of quality control is mainly connected with the process of cement manufacture, a
form of organisation is often established in which the production superintendent is directly responsible for
the laboratory. These kinds of organisation have, however, the consequence that practically no direct
decisions can be taken by the organisation which carried out the actual quality control. All decisions and
instructions have to come from the plant manager and this bears the danger of an overburdened and
inflated plant management. Moreover, it hinders communication and direct co-operation of the quality
control department with other departments which have a strong relation with quality assurance.
Consequently, this kind of organisation may serve the needs in a situation where material problems in
production are not too complicated and when only a limited product range is supplied to a relatively
uncritical market.
Fig 5 “Low Profile” Quality Assurance

Otherwise, the situation implies usually that the scope of the company's quality assurance is split so that
various parts of the organisation are actively involved (Fig. 6). The plant laboratory is only concerned with
the aspects of quality control in production; in addition to this, a separate group is established to cope with
the quality problems directly associated in the application of cement. Such a group for technical customer
services is often helpful when a company runs several plants - it is usually part of a company's technical
planning and marketing divisions respectively. This form of organisation certainly offers the advantage
that in the individual fields of clinker/cement production and of technical consultation of customers, a high
level of expertise may be achieved with a limited number of specialists. On the other hand, the following
problematic aspects have to be considered:
Fig 6 Quality Assurance Organisation in Multi-Plant Company

¨ An optimum reflection of the entire system of quality assurance from raw materials through the
process to cement application is lost. As a consequence of such a partial consideration and the exclusive
activity as a service organisation, the interest and comprehension and thus motivation and initiative of the
people responsible for actual quality control may be strongly reduced; it thus remains questionable if a
continuous optimisation of production and product will still take place.
¨ Without an organisation which is in a position to consider all relevant aspects of cement
manufacture and cement application, there is an inherent danger that the producer's interests are not
sufficiently protected against the users' requests on product specifications (e.g. when testing and product
specifications are established).
The aim of delegating responsibilities and competence to those who are fully dedicated to quality
assurance leads to the assignment of a superintendent of quality assurance within the line organisation of
the plant (Fig. 7). Today, this type of organisation is widely applied, most functions of quality assurance
are assigned to the quality superintendent who is also responsible for the laboratories.
Fig 7 Typical Quality Assurance Organisation

He reports directly to the plant manager and assists the latter in all matters concerning quality and
quantity of raw materials. His further tasks can comprise:
¨ to advise the production superintendent
¨ to examine the final products
¨ to handle technical problems
¨ to advise plant management and production superintendent on environmental aspects
¨ to participate in standardisation committees
Before deciding on the one or the other form of organisation for quality assurance, the situation should
always be thoroughly analysed. A selection of the organisational form purely on the basis of tradition
("because it always had been this way") is definitely not adequate. Also preferences and dislikes of
available personnel should not become decisive factors when organising a company's quality assurance.
To achieve an organisation with an optimum efficiency not only in the short but also in the long run, it is
essential
¨ to define clearly the company's tasks of quality assurance, considering prevailing and possible
future conditions of raw materials, process and market,
¨ to formulate duties and responsibilities as well as authority for the personnel in charge of quality
assurance (job description, performance standards).
From this, clearly defined requirements as to the qualification of the personnel for quality assurance and
hence to the training scheme according to their tasks, can be derived.
Depending on the level of responsibility for quality assurance, this training scheme should not only be
limited to techniques of quality control (sampling, testing, data processing), but should also include sound
experience in the entire field of cement manufacture and application. Moreover, in addition to the
professional skill, basic knowledge and understanding of economic principles and relations is required for
the superintendent of quality assurance to achieve the primary goal, namely to make a profit on quality.
Being a leader of an organisational entity, he also requires training in the field of leading personnel.
5.3 Quality Assurance Handbook
It is strongly recommended that for every company the quality assurance system and generally all
features related to quality assurance are compiled and documented in a "Quality Assurance Handbook".
This handbook should be of a binding nature and serves to ensure transparency and efficiency in quality
assurance. Although primarily intended for plant internal purposes, the awareness of its existence by
customers or official bodies can only be beneficial to the company's quality image.
In order to meet the requirements of national or international standards on quality assurance systems, a
comprehensive quality documentation needs to be established. It usually comprises two or three
document levels, i.e. a top level quality manual, mid-level quality procedures and lower level work
instructions (see Report MA 91/3866/E).
6. QUALITY COSTS
6.1 Introduction
“Quality assurance: from outlay to profit”
It is increasingly recognised that quality assurance is no longer primarily - though inevitably - a cost
generating nuisance but represents a valuable instrument to increase profit.
Quality assurance no doubt creates costs - as does any other activity within an enterprise - but, on the
other hand, it also allows to reduce unnecessary costs which may arise in case of inadequate quality of
services or goods produced.
To ensure the economic benefits of quality assurance, the costs referred to above should be assessed
and presented in a transparent way. This is ultimately the most effective way to convince the top
management of the benefits of quality assurance, and to obtain their support in establishing and
maintaining an integral company policy for quality assurance.
The purpose of assessing the quality costs of a company can be summarised as follows:
a) the quality cost assessment allows to recognise and to rank weak points. It makes evident what
kind of deficiencies generate the highest (additional) costs at what stage of production. Measures to
improve quality and quality control can be implemented accordingly. Also, sectors apparently causing very
high control costs can be re-assessed as to whether the risks justify the costs.
b) quality costs serve as basis for a cost/benefit calculation in connection with planned investments
for production installations and for the instruments of quality control. Also the consequences of changes in
personnel structure can be estimated on this basis.
c) quality costs can represent a motivation at all levels to increase the efficiency of quality
assurance
d) quality costs may permit a comparison with similar enterprises. This, however, requires due
precaution because either the assessment of quality costs or the means of production or both may be
different.
6.2 Elements of Quality Costs
Quality costs are in general terms defined as the difference between the real expenditures and revenues
and those which would arise, if no quality related failures during product development, manufacture and
marketing would and could occur.
It is generally accepted that quality costs should be subdivided into three elements:
QUALITY COSTS

Prevention Costs + Appraisal Costs + Failure Costs

Applied to the cement industry, these cost categories can be characterised in the following way:
6.2.1 Prevention Costs
These basically comprise the costs arising in connection with quality planning as outlined in chapter 4.1.
Cost compilation may be unproblematic as far as it concerns the QA-internal personnel costs. For the
investigations involving other departments - which is often the case - the fraction of "quality costs" is
difficult to determine and would have to be estimated.
6.2.2 Appraisal Costs
These comprise all expenditures of quality control:
¨ personnel costs
¨ costs of accommodation and infrastructure
¨ purchase and amortisation of equipment
¨ consumables
These costs can easily be ascertained.
6.2.3 Failure Costs
Failure costs are additional costs or non-realised revenues arising as a result of inadequate quality (“non-
quality") of intermediate or final products. They can have most different origins as documented by the
following list which is by no means exhaustive:
¨ undue consumption of expensive corrective material on account of non-optimal mix design
¨ elevated heat consumption, reduced production rate, or excessive refractory wear due to
inappropriate raw mix quality
¨ increased cement grinding energy (higher fineness) due to inadequate clinker quality
¨ separate storage and blending of under-burnt clinker - . addition of costly "quality improvers" upon
cement grinding when using inferior (e.g. outdoor stored) clinker
¨ use of off-specification special clinker as ordinary clinker
¨ treatment of customer complaints; payments for damage in cases of failure in cement application
¨ sales losses owing to manufacture of not market-conform products or due to loss of confidence
after a case of damage.
It is evident that a comprehensive quantitative assessment of these failure costs is very difficult.
The relation between these three cost elements is shown in figure 8.
Fig 8 Relationship between Quality Cost Elements

6.3 Relationship of Quality Costs to Sales

Reliable figures for quality costs in the cement industry are not available, mainly due to the lack of a
quantitative assessment of failure costs. Reasonable estimates of the expenditure for personnel,
equipment and infrastructure associated with quality assurance, which may be taken as a rough
approximation of the prevention and appraisal costs, reveal figures in the order of 1 to 2% of the cement
net sales price. Sound estimates of the failure costs (“non-quality” costs) are not available; ad-hoc
estimates range between 5 and 20 % of net sales price
For comparison, some figures related to other industries for quality costs and improvements achieved
after optimisation are given in figure 9.
Fig. 9 Quality costs in different industries before and after optimization, expressed as a percentage of
turnover.

Industrybefore after
motor cars 6- 9 4-6
chemicals
- raw materials 5- 8 3-5
food 7-12 3-6
chemicals
- complex products 7-12 4-7
ceramics 15 10

overall average 11 6

The different types of quality costs before, during an after successful optimisation, expressed as a
percentage of turnover.

Before during after

prevention 0.5 1.5 1.0
appraisal 3.5 3.0 2.5
consequential 7.0 4.0 2.5
total 11.0 8.5 6.0

Quality Systems in the Cement Industry according to ISO Standards

1. INTRODUCTION
2. REASONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF DOCUMENTED QUALITY SYSTEMS
2.1 Internal reason
2.2 External reasons
3. IMPLEMENTATION OF DOCUMENTED QUALITY SYSTEMS IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY
3.1 General
3.2 Specific European Situation
4. PRINCIPLES OF THE ISO 9000 QUALITY SYSTEM
5. ASPECTS OF QUALITY SYSTEM DOCUMENTATION ACCORDING TO ISO 9002
5.1 General
6. EXAMPLES OF ISO 9000 QUALITY SYSTEMS IN HOLCIM GROUP COMPANIES
6.1 Queensland Cement Ltd. (QCL) Australia
6.2 Cementos Boyaca (Columbia)
6.3 HISALBA
6.4 Groupe Origny (France}
6.5 Conclusions

P. Bürki, HMC/TC/Materials Division

Formalized and documented quality systems are increasingly applied in the cement industry, often
applying the models given in the ISO 9000 standard series. The article addresses the internal and
external reasons for this trend and outlines the basic features of ISO 9000 and the criteria for an
appropriate documentation. Examples of application and documentation’s from Holcim. Group plants are
discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
The cement industry has been traditionally subjected to an extensive product standardization. The
compliance with these standards formed the only generally valid quality liability towards the consumer.
The way in which the products are produced and in which the quality is controlled has been entirely up to
the producer.
In many other industries, another method of quality commitment in the supplier/customer relationship has
been adopted: in place of product standardisation - which is practically impossible for products
undergoing rapid developments - the manufacturer has to provide evidence that he disposes of o quality
system that enables him to plan and realize a state-of-the-art quality level throughout the production cycle
of the product. Efforts to find an internationally agreed upon concept of quality systems and a generally
accepted terminology eventually resulted in the ISO 9000 standard series which were approved in 1987,
and which were adopted in many national standards as well as in the European standards (EN 29 000). It
is a fad that today many of the supplier/ customer relationship in Europe are based on these standards.
2. REASONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF DOCUMENTED QUALITY SYSTEMS
Various reasons taken individually or in combination, can lead a company to implement a quality system
along with a corresponding documentation.
2.1 Internal reason
2.1.1 Confidence, transparency efficiency.
A well documented quality system provides transparency and confidence with regard to all quality related
activities, both to those directly involved in production, marketing, and quality assurance, and to the
company management
2.2 External reasons
2.2.1 Market.
Customers can require the existence of a (certified) quality system as a prerequisite for a delivery
contract. This particularly applies for large customers or for customers in the public sector.
2.2.2 Product liability
For the protection of the individual private consumer, fault independent regulations for damages caused
by defective products are increasingly being introduced. While such consumer oriented product liability
legislation has been established in the USA for quite some time, similar laws have been, or are being
introduced in Europe following the guidelines issued by the EC - Commission - as well as in other parts of
the world.
A documented quality system and the availability of quality data records can be considered as effective
preventive measures for avoiding the release of defective products and are moreover valuable evidence
for the defence of a producer in case he is involved in a product liability litigation.
2.2.3 Certification of products conforming to standards.
There is a trend largely promoted by consumer-oriented organisations - that the conformance to
standards of a given product should be certified by official authorities (certification body, approved body).
The scheme for certification may not only involve external product control, but also the requirement of a
documented quality system. This aspect may become the <<driving force>> for implementation of
standard quality systems based on national or international standards (e.g. ISO 9000) in the European
cement industry, as further outlined in the subsequent chapter.
3. IMPLEMENTATION OF DOCUMENTED QUALITY SYSTEMS IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY
3.1 General
Until recently, there was little external pressure for establishing documented quality systems in the
cement industry. Nevertheless, a number of plants have established a company-wide quality system and
documentation on a volunteer basis, with a view to improve internal transparency and efficiency and/or to
use it for promotional purposes to gain a competitive advantage.
Increasingly, however, external factors are pushing the cement industry, at least in certain regions, to
adopt documented quality systems, practically exclusively according to ISO 9002:
The British Cement Industry has subjected itself to a certification scheme by the British Standard Institute
(BST). Labels for <<quality assured cement>> are granted to the products of cement manufacturers
certified on the basis of a ISO 9002 quality system.
In Australia, the cement and construction industries are subject to the generally valid state regulation that
<<all firms supplying manufactured goods to (governmental) agencies, must have adequate quality
assurance systems...>>. In practice, again, the ISO 9002 system is adopted.
Very recently (1991), API—the American Petroleum Institute—has introduced the demand for a
documented quality system (Q1) similar—though not identical—to ISO 9002 for granting their monogram
on well cement.
3.2 Specific European Situation
In the context of the European cement standardization, (EN 196; ENV 197) a scheme for the certification
of conformity of cement complying with the requirements of ENV 197 has been proposed (document
entitled <<European Cement Certification>>). The proposed scheme takes account of, and refers to two
EC regulations, namely the Construction Products Directive'' and the <<Global Approach to Certification
and Testing>>, which attempt to harmonize within Europe the regulations, the standards and the means
for verifying compliance with standards.
The European Cement Certification scheme defines the tasks of the manufacturer and of approved
bodies, in order to obtain product certification. Among the tasks of the manufacturer belongs the
implementation of a quality system based on EN 29002 (ISO 9002), to be documented in form of a quality
manual. It is foreseen in the scheme, that approved inspection bodies regularly inspect the production
facilities, quality control procedures and testing equipment with a view to approve and verify the
procedures defined in the quality manual. This implies a considerable intensification of external control for
assuring conformity to standards, which has so far been largely based on auto-control and external
control of finished products. It has to be pointed out that this certification scheme is still much debated
and an approval in the majority of the member countries not yet in sight.
It is noteworthy that Spain has adopted in form of national standards, not only the draft EN cement
specifications (ENV 197), but also a certification scheme largely identical to the proposed <<European
Certification Scheme>>.
4. PRINCIPLES OF THE ISO 9000 QUALITY SYSTEM
The ISO standard series 9000 on quality systems has become effective in 1987. It describes models and
elements for quality systems in different contractual situations and for the internal quality management.

ISO 9000: Quality management and quality assurance standards—Guidelines for selection and use.
ISO 9001: Quality systems—Model for quality assurance in design, development, production,
installation and servicing
ISO 9002: Quality systems—Model for quality assurance in production and installation
ISO 9003: Quality systems—Model for quality assurance in final inspection and test.
ISO 9004 Quality management and quality system elements—guidelines

For the purposes of the cement industry, the ISO 9002 is usually applicable. The main points of emphasis
of these standards can be summarized as follows:
¨ Company commitment to quality; quality responsibility on top management level.
¨ Clear definition of quality relevant procedures, including organisation and responsibilities,
throughout the production process and the various departments involved
¨ Clear definitions of measures in case of non-conformity to quality targets
¨ Training of personnel
¨ Requirement for quality audits
¨ Implementation of a continuously updated quality documentation.
The ISO 9001-9003 Standards for quality systems explicitly describe models for quality assurance. Their
application has to be made company (or industry) specific.
5. ASPECTS OF QUALITY SYSTEM DOCUMENTATION
ACCORDING TO ISO 9002
5.1 General
A quality system has to be documented in order to make it visible, applicable, and auditable. The ISO
9000 explicitly demand the establishment of a quality system documentation.
It is recommended to apply the <<pyramid structure>> for the organisation of the quality system
documentation (Fig. 1 ). Usually, three document levels are distinguished:
¨ Quality Manual
¨ Quality Procedures (for Quality Guidelines)
¨ Work instruction and test descriptions
Fig 1 Structure of Quality System Documentation

The <<pyramid-structure>> offers the following advantages:

¨ The quality manual may be kept relatively short. It provides a transparent guideline to the
concepts of the quality system, its organisation and procedures. It provides the connections to the other
document levels by referencing.
¨ The quality manual largely covers the organisational aspects of the quality system and may thus
be made accessible to externals (customers) without disclosing technical know-how.
¨ The quality manual is not subject to frequent modifications.
¨ On the workshop level, only parts of the quality procedures and works instructions are required,
which can be selectively distributed.
When applying the ISO 9000 standards, the structure of the quality manual should, but need not, follow
that of the standards, i.e. the list of contents should correspond to that of the corresponding standard. If a
different structure is applied, which may be better adapted to the company's requirements, a correlation
has to be made with the clauses of the standards.
For the administration of the quality manual and all other quality system documents, it is advisable to
¨ use loose sheets to facilitate exchange of pages or chapters
¨ indicate date and stage of revision on each page or chapter number the pages only within a
chapter
¨ to have a control on the internal and external document distribution.
6. EXAMPLES OF ISO 9000 QUALITY SYSTEMS IN HOLCIM GROUP COMPANIES
6.1 Queensland Cement Ltd. (QCL) Australia
(see article on page 38, this issue)
6.2 Cementos Boyaca (Columbia)
The implementation of a company-wide quality system at Cementos Boyacà started some four years ago,
on an entirely voluntary basis. The reasons were, on one hand, a recognised lack of efficiency and of
personnel motivation in most sections of the plant, and on the other hand, the objectives of the Company
in the frame of PMI (Project Marketing Innovation) and TOC (Total Offer Concept), necessitating a market
and quality orientation of the company. As a definite target and motivating factor to improve the company-
wide quality assurance, the attainment of the national quality award <<Premio Nacional de Calidad>> was
aimed at. This goal was reached in 1991, when the quality award was granted to Cementos Boyacà. (see
‘Holderbank’ NEWS 4/91, p.5).
6.3 HISALBA
As already mentioned in chapter 3.2, the Spanish national standard is very close to the proposed
<<European Certification Scheme>>. The cement plants of the HISALBA group, therefore, have certified
quality systems according to ISO 9002. A comprehensive information on his topic was recently published
by HISALBA (Calidad y Automatization HISALBA).
6.4 Groupe Origny (France}
In the context of the French scheme for approving cement trade marks (AFNOR), all plants of the Origny
group have had to dispose of quality manuals (<<plans qualité>>) for many years to give evidence of
existing quality systems. The requirements on the manuals have not been very high; the document could
be kept very short and had admittedly little significance for the practical day-to-day quality assurance in
the plant
Recently, the Groupe Origny took the decision to reelaborate these <<plans qualité>> in such a way that
they would become practice relevant, binding working tools. Among others, the following objectives were
put forward:
¨ Quality improvements of final and intermediate products should be achieved by increased
efficiency, at minimum investment costs. Quality deficiencies should, without exceptions, be detected (and
eliminated) internally and not by customers.
¨ Preparation for the anticipated higher requirements on quality systems and documentation within
the future European Certification scheme (ISO 9002).
¨ Maintenance of company image and market position in view of similar efforts to implement
documented quality systems being made by competitors
With these objectives in mind, Origny made the interesting approach to describe in detail all quality
relevant procedures from quarrying to cement dispatch, by applying just two types of formalized sheets.
These sheets contain instructions on routine procedures, frequencies of sampling and testing, targets,
acceptance and alarm limits, instruction in case of exceeding the limits, etc. and are distributed to all
concerned and continually updated in order to strictly conform with actual practice at all times. About 90
sheets were required to cover the entire process of the Origny plant.
Origny intends to incorporate the entity of these sheets in the future quality documentation as required by
ISO 9002.
6.5 Conclusions
From the yet limited experience within the Holcim Group - and the cement industry in general - it is an
undisputed fact that the implementation and documentation of a quality system according to ISO 9002 is
an immense task. It has also become evident that an implementation can only be successful (and
durable) with the uncompromising support of the company management.
The opinions regarding the benefit of such a system are still divided. The main criticism expressed by the
sceptics is that the written procedures are, in the best case, declared intentions, over-emphasising in their
very nature the quality aspects of cement manufacturing. In practice, it is claimed, pragmatic
considerations of other production or cost related aspects at a given situation and point in time, may result
in decisions not congruent to the instructions contained in the quality documentation. Furthermore, it is
pointed out that it is questionable whether the considerable effort will always be made to update the
system and the documentation in the course of changes arising in the process, in the materials used, and
in the organisation of the company.
On the other hand, the astonishingly good acceptance in companies where such systems have been
introduced, is quite remarkable. The benefits often put forward better organisation, clarified
responsibilities, well defined decision criteria etc. resulting in better plant operation, improvements of
intermediate and final product quality and hence in strengthened market position—indicate that significant
weak-points in these respects exist in many companies. It thus appears that the detailed scrutinizing of all
activities and procedures which is mandatory for establishing a documented quality system, is by itself
already very valuable, as many deficiencies can already be detected and rectified at this stage. Attention
is also drawn to todays more rapid fluctuations in personnel in the context of which well-documented
procedures and instructions serve as most valuable training tools.
The experience is not yet sufficient to permit definite conclusions on the above argument The present
trend, however, is in the direction of increased application of ISO 9002 standards as a consequence of
market or standard requirements. It is therefore advisable that the companies closely follow the
developments and start their preparation in time. In a situation where the implementation of a complete
ISO 9002 quality systems is not yet very urgent, a stepwise elaboration starting on the work instruction
level is a recommendable practical approach, as it was carried out by Origny. The ultimate application of a
complete ISO 9002 quality system will, in many cases, not be a question of choice but of survival.

C09 - Quality Control: Concept, Control Plan, Procedures

Quality Control: Concept, Control Plan, Procedures

1. INTRODUCTION
2. QUALITY CONTROL CONCEPT
3. CONTROL PLAN
4. GENERAL PROCEDURES AND CONTROL PARAMETERS
4.1 Supplied Materials
4.2 Quarry
4.3 Pre-blending
4.4 Raw Meal
4.5 Kiln Feed
4.6 Hot meal
4.7 Clinker
4.8 Ground Cement
4.9 Dispatched Cement
4.10 Ground Coal
5. UNIFORMITY
6. EXTENDED QUALITY CONTROL

1. INTRODUCTION
The principle aim of this paper is to highlight aspects concerning quality concept, plans and procedures
that meet with today's process and market requirements. It is certainly not possible to make a generally
valid statement as to the most suitable way of carrying out quality control and to define the most adequate
degree of sophistication and automation for every plant. This must be part of the quality planning in each
individual company and plant.
2. QUALITY CONTROL CONCEPT
Quality control normally complements the process control, with the aim being to monitor the product
quality at the different production stages, so that the required quality level is finally achieved.
Fig. 1 Quality Control.

Tested properties may include chemical composition, moisture, granulometry as well as other properties
relevant to the specific material.
Special procedures are being applied for the delivery control of combustible or non combustible waste
materials.
3. CONTROL PLAN
The control plan shows how the general control concept for each raw material, intermediate and final
products is to be realised.
A detailed control plan for quality control is set up by a thorough analysis of the following questionnaire:
¨ What should be examined?
¨ What information is required for the control?
¨ How often must the test be performed?
¨ How accurate must the result of the testing be?
In every particular plant, the concept of quality control, with its objectives and targets, its detailed
programme of testing , its technical features of the control system and its decision criteria should be
carefully formulated in written and graphical form.
Thereby, the quality control procedure is clear, and adaptation to changed situations, whenever
necessary, is facilitated. The enclosed figures 2, 3 and 4 are examples of such documentation.
Fig. 2 Inspection and Testing Plan.

Fig. 3 Quality Control Plan (extract).

Fig. 4 Plan Qualite.

4. GENERAL PROCEDURES AND CONTROL PARAMETERS

The following sections give a general survey of the most important control positions for raw materials,
intermediate and final products in a cement plant (emphasis on dry process). Reference is being made to
the schematic plant layout in figure 5.
Fig. 5 Cement Plant - Material Flow.

Fig.6 Sampling Tower

Fig.7 Automatic on-line Control of Raw Mix Composition

In a concise form, the purpose of control, typical control parameter and typical techniques for sampling
and testing are given, as well as additional comments where appropriate. In view of the large variety of
materials involved, of plant layouts, processes, sampling and testing methods, the survey does not apply
to all cases and does not attempt to be complete.
4.1 Supplied Materials
Purpose
The testing of supplied materials such as raw mix correctives, gypsum, mineral additives (slag, fly ash,
etc.), combustibles, serves to verify their compliance with delivery contracts and hence their suitability for
the anticipated utilisation.
Procedure
The extent of sampling and testing varies strongly, depending on type of material, its source and delivery
contracts. Whenever possible, sampling should be done from conveyed material rather than from trucks
or stockpiles.
4.2 Quarry
Purpose
Control of the materials composition prior to excavation enables selective quarrying to achieve
¨ correct composition of (integrated) stockpiles
¨ medium to long-term uniformity of stockpile composition
¨ optimum utilisation of materials and equipment.
Control parameter
Chemical composition, often with emphasis on specific elements such as SiO2, MgO, SO3, alkalis, C1.
Sampling
Usually blast drill hole dust.
Process interaction
Based on manual or computerised data evaluation:
¨ selection of area to be blasted
¨ selection of (blasted) material to be fed to the crusher.
Alternatives
Information on the chemical structure of the quarry can also be obtained from analysis of crushed stone
by online bulk material analysis (neutron activation technology) or mechanical sampling followed by
conventional analysis.
4.3 Pre-blending
Purpose
Blending of raw components on (integrated) pre-blending stock piles to a given target composition.
Control parameter
Chemical composition, moisture.
Process interaction
Selection and dosage of material fed to the crusher.
Procedure
Today, two different concepts are applied to monitor and integrate the composition of the material fed to a
pre-blending bed.
¨ Sampling tower
Mechanical sampling of 1-2% of the materials feed and subsequent steps of sample comminution, drying
where required, and splitting in a sample tower (Fig. 6), to receive typically 1 kg of fine, sample per hour
for analysis.
¨ Bulk material analysis
Continuous chemical analysis of the entire or partial materials stream by means of a bulk material
analyser applying the technology of prompt gamma neutron activation analysis PGNAA (see reports MA
89/3702/E and VA 92/5975).
4.4 Raw Meal
Purpose
The raw meal control serves the following objectives:
¨ Blending of components to obtain the target composition of raw meal and clinker.
¨ Achievement of target meal fineness to obtain an appropriate clinker burnability.
¨ Achievement of a sufficient uniformity which, together with the homogenisation in the subsequent
silo, results in a high kiln feed uniformity.
Control parameters
¨ Chemical analysis, and parameters derived thereof such as lime saturation, silica ratio, alumina
ratio, potential clinker mineral phases C3S, C3A, etc.
¨ Fineness, usually in terms of sieve residues (e.g. on 200 µm and 90 µm sieves)
¨ Residual moisture content.
Process interaction
Adjustment of feed rate to the mill
off-line: manual, based on mix calculation
on-line: automatic, based on blending programme (fig. 7).
To be observed: Dynamics of grinding process (retention time, internal circulation, dead time of analysis).
Sampling
Usually, automatic compositing sampling from a chute or an airslide is applied. Standard samplers,
typically screw samplers or airslide samplers are used, with or without integrated mixing facilities.
Frequency
Typically every ½ to 2 hours.
Testing
Chemical composition: X-ray fluorescence
complexometric titration
carbonate titration
Fineness: Sieving, laser granulometer
Alternative techniques
Bulk material analysis (PGNA technology) can be applied to continuously monitor the composition of the
mill feed or the raw meal.
Comments
The set points of the raw meal composition have to be such that the target composition of the clinker is
being obtained. Allowance has therefore, to be made for:
¨ the coal ash incorporation in clinker
¨ the kiln dust absorption in the raw mill (kiln dust composition can significantly deviate from the kiln
feed composition)
¨ the discarding of kiln dust
¨ systematic errors in sampling and analysis.
The primary target is the clinker composition. If any of the above factors change, the raw meal set-point
has to be adjusted accordingly.
A practical example for a case where such changes have evidently occurred after a long kiln stop, but
without any reaction on the raw meal set point, is given below.

Plant with oil firing Monthly average values.

Raw meal
LSF Clinker
LSF Clinker
CaOF
December 99.1 98.1 1.4
January98.0 96.8 0.8
February 97.8 97.1 0.9
Kiln stop
June 96.0 99.7 2.1
July 97.0 100.0 1.9
August 97.2 100.4 2.1

As an illustration for the compositional range of industrial clinkers, the lime saturation, silica ratio and
alumina ratio of the clinkers produced in the Holcim group are graphically displayed in figures 8 and 9
Fig. 8 Clinker Composition (Alumina).

Fig. 9 Clinker Composition (Lime Saturation).

4.5 Kiln Feed

Purpose
Kiln feed control has only informative character. It provides guideline information (LS, SR, AR) for kiln
operation on currently processed material, as well as indications on the raw material blending and
homogenising efficiency. Figure 10a and 10b are an illustration of a poor kiln feed uniformity, caused by
poor raw mill control and low homogenisation silo efficiency.
Fig. 10a Kiln Feed.

Fig. 10b Raw Meal.

Procedure
Usual sampling positions are in front of a kiln feed airlift (e.g. with screw sampler) or from a belt weigh
feeder (manually). Sampling frequency varies according to the plant specific requirements form e.g. 2
samples per shift to no control at all. Normally, the same chemical and fineness parameters are
determined as for the raw meal.
4.6 Hot meal
Purpose
The control of the hot meal composition can have various objectives:
¨ Determination of concentration of volatile elements (SO3, alkalis, C1) in the case of kiln systems
affected by build-up formation in the pre-heater/kiln inlet area. The level of volatile elements can provide
indications or, in severe cases, can serve as control parameters for the operation of the kiln, with the
objective to reduce the tendency for build-up formation. Moreover, they indicate changes in the absolute
and relative input of circulation elements with raw meal and fuel, and corrective actions can - if possible -
be initiated.
¨ Determination of non-burnt combustibles introduced with the kiln feed or the secondary firing.
This can be of interest for assessing the combustion efficiency of pre-calciners, or in the context of
problems associated with circulating elements (locally reducing burning conditions).
¨ Determination of the degree of pre-calcination in pre-calciner and pre-heater kilos.
The hot meal control can be carried out on a regular basis (e.g. 1 per shift), or in the context of specific
investigations, depending on the prevailing plant situation.
Sampling
Hot meal is usually sampled manually from the meal duct downstream the lowest cyclone, with a cup
welded to a steel rod. For determination of remaining carbon, quenching of the sample within the
sampling cup is advisable. Fig. 11 shows a sketch of a sampler with a lid to facilitate quenching without
water spilling into the sample.
Fig. 11 Hot Meal Sampler.

Analysis
Accurate and sufficiently rapid analyses of the elements SO3, alkalis and C1 require analytical
instruments which do not necessarily belong to the standard equipment of a plant laboratory. Suitable
methods are:
SO3 : LECO sulphur analyser
K2O, Na2O : Flame photometry; atomic absorption spectroscopy
C1 : Potentiometric titration.
The determination of these elements in pressed tablets by Xray fluorescence spectroscopy a very fast
method available in most plant laboratories is less accurate. Reasons for the inaccuracy are strong matrix
effects and the lack of suitable calibration standards. Hot meals applied as calibration standards are
chemically unstable (hydration, carbonisation) and hence not suitable. Better suited are artificial
calibration standards prepared on the basis of raw meal, possibly also of clinker.
However, for practical purposes, the accuracy achievable with the XRFmethod can still be acceptable for
a correct assessment of the prevailing situation regarding the levels of circulating elements.
4.7 Clinker
Purpose
The objectives of clinker control are:
¨ Assurance of an adequate clinker quality in view of the final product cement
¨ Support for an efficient kiln operation at low heat consumption.
The primary criterion of the clinker quality is the free lime content; the main consequences of inadequate
free lime as a result of too weak or too hard burning are:
in the case of too high free lime:
¨ Loss in strength potential
¨ Increase of cement expansion (Le Châtelier, autoclave), to the extent of nonconformity with
specifications
¨ Disturbances in cement grinding
in case of too low free lime:
¨ Loss in cement reactivity
¨ Excessive heat consumption
¨ Poor grindability.
An adequate target free lime content has to be established individually for each production line (and
clinker type). The following statistical figures for the average free lime content of the clinkers from the
Holcim Group plants illustrate the range encountered in industrial clinkers (Fig. 12):
CaOf: x 0.96%
s 0.45%
min. 0.20%
max. 2.16% (n = 71)
Fig. 12 Free Lime in Industrial Clinkers (Holcim Group Plants 1988).
The target free lime content should be such that it permits a stable and economic kiln operation and that
an appropriate cement quality can be achieved. Upper limits have to be defined, above which the cement
quality will be seriously affected; clinker not meeting this internal specification should be stored separately
and returned to the process in a controlled way.
The extent of clinker control too has to be established individually for each situation, depending on the
uniformity of materials flow and general stability of kiln operation.
Frequent control (hourly or even more often), possibly with automated systems, can though need not
necessarily in all cases lead to reduced fuel consumption and hence appreciable cost savings. The
signals of the automatically determined control parameters (free lime, litre-weight) can be transmitted to
and be utilised in kiln automation systems.
The free lime determination can be substituted or complemented for process control purposes by litre-
weight or alkali content determination. In a number of cases good correlation’s are also found with NOX
measurement.
Clinker sampling
Clinker is still mostly sampled manually from a conveyor belt. Automated clinker sampling can either be
done along the clinker transport or inside of grate coolers (Fig. 13).
Fig. 13 Clinker Sampling.

Free lime determination

In addition to the established laboratory methods for manual free lime determination by titration (ethylene
glycol method), there are different systems for automated free lime determination:
¨ Conductometric free lime determination
Automatic free lime analysers, particularly designed for installation outside the laboratory, e.g. close to the
clinker cooler, are offered by two suppliers in France, namely ISYS and ITECA. The layout is shown in
Fig. 13.
In a usual arrangement, clinker samples are taken underneath the cooler grate. Free lime is determined
by extraction of the ground clinker with ethylene glycol and measurement of the resulting conductivity of
the solution. A measuring cycle takes about 6 to 10 minutes. The results are transmitted to the central
control room or laboratory.
Such systems are, with good experience, fairly widely applied in French and Belgium plants.
It should be noted that the conductivity measurement is influenced by soluble alkali sulphates. The
calibration has to account for this, though a more or less uniform alkali sulphate content in clinker is a
prerequisite for reliable measurements.
¨ Free lime determination by X-ray diffraction
This method is applied in a number of plant laboratories, usually in connection with the X-ray fluorescence
spectroscopy and quite often integrated in automatic systems. The chemical composition and the free
lime content can be determined on one and the same pressed tablet by XRF and XRD respectively. For
the free lime determination, the peak intensity or integrated intensity of the CaO 200-reflection (or 220-
reflection) is measured.
Calibration curves have to be established individually for each plant; due to the chemical instability of
CaOfree containing calibration standards, secondary standards containing NiO are usually applied.
The accuracy of the method as compared to the wet chemical methods is not excellent but mostly
sufficient for practical purposes (standard deviation of linear regression in the order of 0.1 0.15% CaOf).
It has to be noted that only CaOfree is determined, in contrast to the wet chemical or conductometric
method, where the sum of CaOf and Ca(OH)2 is measured.
Litre-weight determination
The determination of the clinker litre-weight on a sieved fraction typically 4 8 mm is a fairly fast method
frequently used for clinker control on an hourly or two hourly basis. It is usually complemented by free
lime determination on shift or daily composite samples.
The litre-weight determination can only be applied, if there is a sufficiently good correlation with the free
lime content. From Fig. 14 and 15 it can be derived that the free lime content is generally a reliable
indicator of the degree of burning, whereas the litre-weight is not in all cases.
Fig. 14 Free Lime Content Soft and well burnt Clinkers.
Fig. 15 Litre-Weight (Soft and well burnt Clinker).

In those cases where the litre-weight is a good indicator of the degree of burning, the correlation with free
lime can vary in dependence with the clinker composition (Fig. 16). Furthermore, the linear increase of the
litre-weight with harder burning can inverse at very hard burning (Fig. 17).
Fig. 16 Correlation between Free Lime content; Litre-weight and Silica Modulus.

Fig. 17 Correlation between Free Lime content and Litre-weight for over burnt Clinker

At a Holcim Group plant in Switzerland, the manual litre-weight determination has successfully been
replaced by an automatic online system, measuring the apparent clinker density with a nuclear
densitometer. The system is schematically shown in Fig. 18a, along with the correlation of automatic and
manual litre-weight measurement (Fig. 18b). It is worth noting that the density measurement is used as
the primary set point parameter for the automated kiln control system.
Fig. 18a On-line Litre-Weight Determination at Eclepens

Circuit diagram for the continuous measurement of the apparent density of clinker.
Fig 18b Manual and Automatic measurements.

Other control parameters

In a few plants, the levels of K2O or SO3 in clinker have been found to be the most sensitive clinker
parameter with respect to the burning degree. The clinker is analysed in these cases on a hourly or two
hourly basis by XRF spectroscopy.
Moreover, a correlation between the NOx level in the kiln gas after the pre-heated and the free lime
content of the clinker was established in several investigations (Fig. 19). However, this correlation can be
disturbed by various factors influencing the NOx measurement, and can, therefore, not make a clinker
control altogether redundant.
Fig. 19 NO and Free Lime.

4.8 Ground Cement

Purpose
The control of the ground cement serves to ensure the designed cement quality in terms of proportioning
of constituents and achievement of the required mechanical and physical properties. Since the
determination of the latter is time consuming, the process control has to be based on chemical, fineness
and possibly temperature parameters, for which a correlation with the cement performance has been
established.
Control parameters
¨ For process control:
· Fineness: Blaine
Residues (e.g. R45 ~m)
Parameter from particle size
distribution (slope, size
fraction)
· SO3: for gypsum dosage
· Selected elements: for dosage of mineral additives
· Temperature: to control gypsum dehydration
¨ For quality control
· Standard chemical, mechanical and physical testing; usually on composite sample (e.g. daily).
Process interaction
Adjustment of feed rate and of separator speed, usually in off-line, but increasingly also in online mode.
Sampling
Automatic or manual sampling from chute, airslide or conveyor belt. Various standard types of samplers
are used, typically screw samplers or air-slide sampler.
Frequency
Typically one sample per 1 to 4 hours.
Testing methods
SO3: XRF, LECO
Chemical composition: XRF
Blaine: - manual or semiautomatic Blaine meter
- on-line Blaine meter
- on-line Gamma granulometer
Particle size distribution:Laser granulometer.
4.9 Dispatched Cement
Purpose
Sampling and testing of the dispatched cement serves as a final verification of the cement quality. Testing
of dispatched cement can be a requirement of product conformity certification schemes (so-called auto-
control), or it can be requested in the context of delivery contracts to specific customers. Samples can be
retained for a certain period without testing, as a reference in case of complaints.
Control parameter
Chemical composition, standard mechanical and physical properties.
Sampling
Manual or semiautomatic from silo outlet, loading device or bags. Sampling procedures described in
pertaining cement standards.
Frequency
Daily or according to applicable sampling schemes. The European standard ENV 197 requests a
minimum of 2 samples per week and type of cement for assessing standard conformity.
4.10 Ground Coal
Purpose
The control of fine coal is required to ensure adequate flame properties (fineness), to verify the calorific
value, as well as to verify ash and sulphur content which influence clinker composition.
Control parameters
¨ For process control:
· Fineness: sieve residues R90 µm, R200 µm
· Moisture
¨ for verification and trend analysis:
· calorific value
· proximate analysis (moisture, volatiles, fixed C, ash)
¨ S, Cl, if required H, N (ultimate analysis)
¨ ash composition.
Sampling
Manual slitsampler or automatic screw sampler.
Frequency
Every 1 to 4 hours for fineness. Other tests on composite sample (e.g. daily).
Testing
¨ Fineness : Sieves
¨ Calorific value : Calorimeter
¨ Proximate analysis : According to pertaining standards
: Automatic proximate analyser
¨ Ultimate analysis : According to pertaining standards
¨ Sulphur : Gravimetric (fusion)
¨ Chloride : Titration.
5. UNIFORMITY
Significance
Uniformity is one of the most important prerequisites for smooth and efficient kiln operation.
Excessive fluctuations can easily upset the often less than robust balance of appropriate burning
behaviour, thus giving rise to operational disturbances. Furthermore, since the clinker should always be
adequately burnt, unnecessarily hard burning is practised for much of the production time.
Consequences are:
¨ high fuel consumption
¨ increased tendency to ring and build-up formation
¨ reduced brick lifetime
¨ fluctuations in product quality
Sources of fluctuations
¨ Raw components: chemical and mineralogical composition
¨ Raw meal: chemical and mineralogical composition, fineness;
disturbances in feed rate to the mill
¨ Combustible: ash content, sulphur content, calorific value, fineness
¨ Dust return: different modes of return during direct or indirect operation
¨ Feed rates: equipment related fluctuations at constant settings
(Kiln feed,
combustibles)
¨ Abrupt manual adjustment of kiln operation parameters
¨ Abrupt and excessive adjustment initiated by automatic control loops.
Acceptable variability of kiln feed composition
Since the reduction of material variability is associated with costs for homogenisation and control, an
acceptable, optimised target has to be established for each specific situation. Raw meals or clinkers of an
extreme composition (e.g. LS close to 100, high SR, low AR) or with unfavourable fineness characteristics
require more stringent variation limits than easy to burn clinkers. What eventually can be achieved
depends on the complexity of the raw material situation, the pre-blending and homogenising facilities as
well as on the efficiency of the quality control system.
Some values which are considered to provide a good basis for kiln operation, even when using difficult
materials, are given below.
Guide values for feed variations
¨ Accuracy of the feed system: 1 to 1.5%
¨ Regular calibration of the system mandatory
Guide values for good chemical uniformity of the kiln feed
(for random samples over 24 h; on raw meal rather than clinker basis)

Without analytical error Including analytical error

Titration methods = 0.2 % CaCO3 s = 0.25 % CaCO3
max. s = 0.3 % CaCO3 s = 0.35 % CaCO3

XRF method: s = 0.2 % CaO s = 0.15 % CaO

max. s = 0.17 % CaO s = 0.20 % CaO

SiO2 s = 0.07 % SiO2 s = 0.2 % SiO2

Al2O3 s = 0.07 % Al2O3 s = 0.2 % Al2O3
Fe2O3 s = 0.04 % Fe2O3 s = 0.2 % Fe2O3

LS s = 0.7 s = 1.2
SR s = 0.04s = 0.06
AR s = 0.06s = 0.08

Means of improving uniformity

The kiln feed uniformity is a result of various factors along the preparation process, starting from the raw
material deposits and going through several stages of homogenisation and blending.
Possibilities for improvements can be found in the following areas:
¨ Exploitation planning
Medium to long-term exploitation planning, based on accurate raw materials inventory. Application of
computer based methods.
¨ Quarry scheduling
Short-term quarry scheduling, based on blast hole dust analysis. Application of computer based methods.
¨ Raw material and coal pre-blending
¨ Blending control
Blending control at integrated pre-blending stockpile and raw mill. Appropriate selection of sampling
regime and analytical methods. Various degrees of automation from manual to online, or even to ‘real-
time’ with bulk material analyser.
¨ Raw meal homogenisation
6. EXTENDED QUALITY CONTROL
In addition to the basic test methods for routine control, a large variety of sophisticated methods and
procedures is applied for material technological investigations in connection with special manufacturing
and application problems and in research and development. Characterisation of raw materials, clinker,
additives, etc. is not only limited to chemical analysis, but also the mineralogical and textural features are
important. Thermo-analytical (DTA, TGA), microscopic (light and electron microscope) and X-ray
diffraction (XRD) methods are used as routine procedures in this context. Microprobe is a powerful tool to
determine the elemental composition of individual clinker minerals. Burnability and volatility tests are used
to assess the raw mix behaviour in the industrial kilos.
Although most of these methods are only applied in central or research laboratories, some of them are
also used in a number of plant laboratories for routine quality control, such as X-ray diffraction to monitor
the quartz and clay minerals of raw materials and to examine free lime in clinker; or differential thermal
analysis to control the dehydration of gypsum in cement during the grinding process. However, if these
specialised testing procedures are promoted too much, there is the danger that they might finally be
included in the standard specifications. This has to be avoided because it would make the quality control
procedures too sophisticated and expensive for the majority of plants.
In addition to the traditional tasks and methods of quality control, in many plants the scope of control is
significantly extended, not only due to more stringent process conditions and to higher quality
requirements and special requests by the customers. The following tasks require extended application of
already established quality control methods or even introduction of new techniques:
¨ Refractories testing, to ensure the material quality of the installed kiln brick lining which requires
apart from visual inspection extended chemical analysis, simple physical and thermal tests.
¨ Quality control of additives for production of blended cements; depending on the kind of additive,
its source and supply conditions, more or less extensive chemical, mineralogical and performance tests
have to be carried out; with the increasing use of industrial by-products, such as fly ashes, slags, etc.,
efforts are also undertaken to establish reliable and rational methods for their control and for their
determination in blended cements.
¨ The Blaine value for control and characterisation of cement fineness with respect to grinding
process and cement quality is only of limited significance. therefore, grain size analysis by laser diffraction
or automatic sedigraphs is used increasingly for quality and process control; in the future, the laser
diffraction technique might even be used in online installations.
¨ Use of waste materials as raw mix components and particularly as combustibles (e.g. tyres,
colliery wastes, battery casings, chemicals, etc.) require adaptation of existing or new testing methods.
¨ Last but not least environmental concerns and the resulting pressure upon industries force plants
to extend their quality control into the area of emission control (and, in some instances, even emission
control); this implies development and refinement of techniques for gas analysis especially for SO2 ,
NOX, but also for hydrocarbons as well as for dust determination and collection; analysis of traces in the
ppm or even the ppb-range for toxic elements such as Ti, Cd, Pb, Hg, etc., nowadays is not an unusual
task for the cement industry.

C10 - Basic Principles of Sampling and Testing

Basic Principles of Sampling and Testing

1. INTRODUCTION
2. SAMPLING REGIME
2.1 Basic considerations
2.2 Guidelines for sample size and sampling frequency
3. RELIABILITY OF TEST RESULTS
4. ANNEX 1

1. INTRODUCTION
When dealing with bulk materials, the properties of a certain quantity of material, such as the contents of
a preblending bed, a shift's cement production or a coal delivery, cannot be determined on the entire
quantity, but have to be estimated on the basis of measurements carried out on a limited number of
individual samples. The reliability of such an estimate depends on the heterogeneity of the material and
on the procedure of sampling, sample preparation and analysis. A high reliability - as may be required for
production or market purposes - is usually associated with comprehensive sampling, with precise
preparation procedures and analytical instruments, and may thus incur considerable costs. The objective
of a well designed testing procedure is, therefore, to extract the necessary information on quality
parameters of a material at the lowest possible costs.
This paper reviews various aspects relevant to the design of an appropriate sampling regime, and
summarizes the main factors influencing the reliability of test results. Emphasis is given to practical
aspects rather than to the theory and statistics behind them; for the latter, reference should be made to
the paper "Statistics" contained in the seminar documentation.
2. SAMPLING REGIME
2.1 Basic considerations
In order to decide on an adequate sampling regime and corresponding equipment, some considerations
are necessary concerning the objectives of sampling, the representativity of samples from bulk materials
and the material characteristics to be determined.
2.1.1 Objectives
Bulk materials can be sampled either for a mere determination of the characteristics of a certain basic
material quantity or for the purpose of process control.
a) Characterization of a given basic material quantity
Examples of such materials are:
¨ Area of quarry to be blasted
¨ Materials delivered to the plant (coal, slag, gypsum)
¨ Kiln feed
¨ Dispatched cement
The sampling regime has to be adapted to the given variability of the material and to the required
precision of the measurement. The complexity of sampling can vary from occasional manual grab
samples to sampling regimes prescribed in norms (bulk cement) or agreed upon between seller and
purchaser.
b) Control of process
Examples:
¨ Preparation of preblending bed
¨ Raw and cement mill control
¨ Clinker control
The sampling regime, in particular the sampling frequency, has to be adapted to the target variability of
the output material, to the variability of the input materials and to the dynamics of the process, i.e. how
fast and how precise corrections can be made and how fast they can be observed (dead time). This type
of sampling can readily be automated, which permits a comfortable precision to be attained.
2.1.2 Representativity of samples
In order to obtain meaningful information from a sample on the characteristics of the basic material
quantity, the sample must exhibit these characteristics in a representative way. Representative means
that the value for a certain characteristic determined on the sample differs only randomly - and not
systematically - from the corresponding mean value of the basic material quantity. For representative
sampling, it is normally a prerequisite that all volume sectors of the material have an equal chance of
being sampled, and that all particle sizes are correctly represented.
Representative sampling of bulk material is often rendered difficult, especially when stationary material is
concerned; some of the reasons are:
¨ Large volumes can be inaccessible when sampling materials on stockpiles, in silos, on ships or
on trucks
¨ Stationary materials can be stratified due to sequential deposition of different materials
¨ Materials with a broad particle size range tend to segregate, i.e. fines concentrate on the bottom
of a material heap. If coarse and fine particles differ in characteristics of concern (e.g. composition),
considerable inhomogeneities will occur, which can be an important source of sampling error. Excessive
moisture behaves in a similar way.
¨ Separation effects also occur when materials with a broad particle size range are thrown off a
quarry face or drop from one conveyor belt onto a second one running in perpendicular direction. In the
latter case, strongly inhomogenous material streams result.
¨ A similar effect occurs when two material streams combine on a conveyor belt, e.g. returned filter
dust added to the finish cement conveyor belt.
Sampling from stationary materials should be avoided whenever possible, and replaced by sampling
during loading or discharge over conveyor systems. If this cannot be done, preference should be given to
traverse sampling, i.e. a primary sample should embrace the whole cross section.
Examples for traverse sampling are:
¨ Blast hole sampling in the quarry
¨ Auger sampling of a railway car
Sampling from large stockpiles can be done according to the recommendations given in norms (e.g.
ASTM D 75-82 for sampling aggregates) or according to special agreements.
For the reasons mentioned above, due attention must be paid to representative sampling of conveyed
materials, independent whether manual or automatic equipment is used.
2.1.3 Selection of characteristics to be measured
To keep costs to a minimum, it may be adequate to limit the number of characteristics to be determined.
Preference should be given to characteristics easy to determine, which strongly correlate with other
material characteristics or with process conditions.
Examples are:

Ash content of coal correlating with calorific value

CaO- and Fe2O3-content correlating with remaining elements
in raw-meal
Literweight of clinker correlating with sinterzone conditions

The validity of correlation has to be periodically verified (e.g. on daily composite samples).
It is evident that the chosen characteristics must not be altered during sample preparation.
2.2 Guidelines for sample size and sampling frequency
The larger the number of samples taken and the larger the extracted quantity per primary sample, the
more accurate the sampling of a basic material quantity.
Thus, the minimum number and quantity of samples, which are required for a specific precision of the
mean value of a characteristic, have to be determined. They depend upon:
¨ the grain size
¨ the heterogeneity of the material
In a first approximation, the following applies:
The minimum size of a primary sample can be related to the maximum grain size of the material. The
German DIN specification states that the minimum weight of the primary sample must be at least 10 times
the weight of the largest grain. This third power relationship between sample mass and maximum grain
size is usually applied in linearised graphical form, as depicted in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Maximum grain size versus sample quantity

This graph mainly applies for coarse grained raw materials. For homogeneous fine ground materials such
as raw meals or cements, the recommended sample quantity is a few hundred grams to 1 kg. For
homogenous coarse grained materials, such as clinker, 1 to 3 kg are sufficient.
It may be noted that various national norm specifications relevant to the mining industry exist. The sample
size / grain size relationship can differ considerably from that in Fig. 1, as illustrated by the example of
manual sampling with norm scoops shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2: Japanese Industrial Standard M 8100
Sampling scoops and their capacities in kg for sampling bulk solids

Top Size Scoop Width Approx. Weight (kg) of scooped sample at various bulk densities
(mm) designation (mm) (ml) 0.75 1.5 2.0
t/m3 t/m3 t/m3
5 5 50 75 0.06 0.11 0.15
10 10 75 125 0.09 0.19 0.25
15 15 100 200 0.15 0.3 0.4
20 20 100 300 0.22 0.45 0.6
30 30 150 400 0.3 0.6 0.8
40 40 150 800 0.6 1.2 1.6
50 50 260 1700 1.3 2.5 3.4

The number of primary samples - or the frequency of sampling - directly bears on the sampling precision,
since the sampling variance of the mean of n-samples is n-times smaller than that of a single sample.
Hence, if the variance is known for a given basic material quantity - e.g. determined by means of a
sampling experiment - the number of samples can be calculated for any desired sampling precision. This
rule, however, only applies if all samples come from the same population. If the mean of the observed
characteristic changes with time (trend!), samples taken at different times can no longer be regarded as
originating from the same population.
Fig. 4 illustrates a reasonable sampling frequency with respect to a given materials variability, as well as
too frequent and insufficient sampling.
Automatic sampling normally ensures a more than sufficient sampling frequency.
Fig. 4 Sampling Frequency

A different way to determine optimum size and number of primary samples is based on a sampling
experiment in which a sufficient number of simultaneous pairs of samples of strongly different quantities
are taken.
A rough evaluation of the test results - visualized in Fig. 5 - may already indicate whether much more
precision is gained with a larger sample size or not. An exact evaluation can be made applying the
sampling theory of Yisman [1]; an example is given in Annex 1.
Fig. 5

3. RELIABILITY OF TEST RESULTS

As illustrated in Fig. 6, sampling and testing procedures consist of several independent steps. The
reliability of the final test result depends on the reliability of each individual step. Three types of errors can
occur at each stage, namely systematic errors, random errors and gross errors. They are characterised
as follows:
Systematic errors:
Systematic errors cause a bias of the estimated value for a certain characteristic with respect to the
(unknown) true value. They are caused by incorrect (non-representative) sampling and sample
preparation, by the malfunctioning of instruments, by inadequate calibration, or by person specific
peculiarities in performing the tests.
Fig. 6

Systematic errors can be detected by cross-checking with alternative, independent testing procedures.
Examples:
¨ Campaign of comprehensive manual sampling to test representativity of automatic sampler
¨ Norm-conform CaOf-determination to cross-check conductometric determination.
Systematic errors can either be of relevance - which requires their detection and elimination -, or they can
be irrelevant, usually under the condition that the error is approximately constant.
Example:
¨ A systematic error in determining the C3A-content may be irrelevant when producing cement of
ASTM Type I, but rather problematic when producing Type II or Type V.
Random errors:
Random errors arise due to the inherent heterogeneity of the sampled material and due to the imprecision
of sampling, sample preparation and analytical techniques. The amount of random errors may be
expressed by statistical measures of variability, such as variance or standard deviation (refer to paper
"Statistics").
Random errors cannot be eliminated, but they can be reduced by :
Repetition, i.e. extraction of more primary samples, performance of measurements on several test
samples, repeating measurements on individual test samples.
The variance (s2) of the mean value of n measurements is n-times smaller than the variance of a single
measurement

Applying more precise procedures and instruments for sample preparation and analysis
Random errors of a sequence of independent testing activities add up to the total random error of the final
result according to the law of error propagation (see Fig. 6).

From this law of error propagation, the following important conclusions can be derived:
¨ an error which has been committed in the testing procedure cannot be compensated by
increased precision in the subsequent testing steps
¨ the individual errors of the sequence should be as small as possible and of similar size: There is
no point in increasing the precision of one step as long as others are decisive for the overall error.
Therefore, it is necessary to determine the precision of the individual steps in each control.
Gross errors
Gross errors arise from the wrong performance of procedures, the wrong reading of scales, errors in
copying data, miscalculations etc. Such errors can considerably influence statistical evaluations. They
may show up as outliers in a series of data.
LITERATURE:
[1] Merks J.W.: Sampling and weighing of bulk solids.
Trans Tech. Publications, 1st Ed., Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany (printed in USA)
Additional literature:
Hasler R.:
Some aspects of process technology of raw material preparation.
HMC-report PA 74/6167/E
Gy P.:
L'échantillonnage de minérais en vrac.
Mémoires du Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières No. 67,
Paris 1971
4. ANNEX 1
OPTIMUM SIZE AND NUMBER OF INCREMENTS ACCORDING TO THE THEORY OF VISMAN [1]
The total variance of a sampling and testing procedure is split up into the terms:

in which s2(t) = total variance of mean value

s2(s) = sampling variance
s2(c) = composition variance
s2(d) = distribution variance
s2(p) = preparation variance
s2(a) = analysis variance
am = size of primary sample (kg)
n = number of primary samples
The composition variance and the distribution variance can be determined by means of a sampling
experiment, in which a number ( ~ 30) of pairs of primary samples differing strongly in size are taken and
analysed.

in which s2(c) = composition variance

s2(d) = distribution variance
s2(1) = variance for set of small samples
s2(2) = variance for set of large samples
am(1) = average mass of small samples
am(2) = average mass of large samples

The optimum size of primary samples is then given by

and the optimum number of primary samples to obtain a required total variance:

Example (compiled from [1]):

A coal delivery is sampled by means of 24 pairs primary samples of about 10Og and 50 kg size. The
primary samples of small size are entirely dried and ground to analytical fineness. The primary samples of
large size are dried, crushed and split and only a partial samples ground to analytical fineness. The ash
content is determined in duplicate. The results are given in tables A1 and A2.
Table A1: SAMPLING EXPERIMENT WITH SMALL SAMPLES

Sample
NumberMass
in g
First Ash on Dry
Second Basis
D Mean
1 89 14.20 14.23 0.03 14.22
2 126 13.27 13.66 0.06 13.69
3 152 18.44 18.42 0.02 18.43
4 109 15.87 15.75 0.12 15.81
5 149 13.71 13.81 0.10 13.76
6 87 17.10 17.13 0.03 17.12
7 110 13.64 13.70 0.06 13.67
8 142 19.71 19.64 0.07 19.68
9 111 16.34 16.31 0.03 16.32
10 140 12.49 12.38 0.11 12.44
11 121 12.19 12.21 0.02 12.20
12 150 10.73 10.75 0.02 10.74
13 160 23.24 23.20 0.04 23.22
14 96 15.71 15.80 0.09 15.76
15 105 21.83 21.89 0.06 21.86
16 132 11.78 11.73 0.05 11.76
17 141 12.14 12.05 0.09 12.10
18 123 19.84 19.67 0.17 19.76
19 135 8.34 8.37 0.03 8.36
20 150 12.80 12.85 0.05 12.82
21 108 14.02 13.91 0.11 13.96
22 99 9.35 9.31 0.04 9.33
23 102 12.46 12.38 0.08 12.42
24 129 13.15 13.18 0.03 13.16
Mean 123.9 0.063 14.69
Variance 0.0031 14.1448
Standard Deviation 0.0558 3.7610
Coefficient of Variation 25.6

Variance of the mean 0.5894

Standard deviation of the mean 0.7677
Coefficient of variation of the mean 5.2%

Sampling variance : total variance minus variance of analysis

s2(s) = 14.1448 -0.0031 = 14.1417
Table A2: SAMPLING EXPERIMENT WITH LARGE SAMPLES

Sample
NumberMass
in g
First Ash on Dry
Second Basis
D Mean
1 53.0 13.61 13.34 0.27 13.48
2 53.2 13.15 13.46 0.31 13.30
3 55.9 14.34 14.20 0.14 14.27
4 41.1 15.33 15.26 0.07 15.30
5 46.1 14.17 14.51 0.34 14.34
6 40.6 13.60 13.41 0.19 13.50
7 48.8 14.76 14.38 0.38 14.57
8 50.2 14.25 14.72 0.47 14.48
9 55.7 12.54 12.29 0.25 12.40
10 48.1 13.02 13.21 0.19 13.12
11 43.4 14.33 14.74 0.41 14.54
12 48.4 13.70 13.63 0.07 13.66
13 45.3 12.80 12.68 0.12 12.74
14 40.1 13.26 13.64 0.38 13.45
15 41.8 14.09 14.41 0.32 14.25
16 48.0 13.52 13.28 0.24 13.40
17 56.2 15.44 15.11 0.33 15.28
18 50.3 15.07 15.28 0.21 15.18
19 48.0 14.40 14.26 0.14 14.33
20 44.3 13.06 13.22 0.16 13.14
21 48.5 13.22 13.47 0.25 13.34
22 41.6 14.26 13.90 0.36 14.08
23 39.9 13.18 13.12 0.06 13.15
24 52.3 13.44 13.56 0.12 13.50
Mean 47.53 0.241 13.87

Variance 0.0455 0.7903

Standard Deviation 0.2134 0.8890
Coefficient of Variation 6.6

Variance of the mean 0.0329

Standard deviation of the mean 0.1815
Coefficient of variation of the mean 1.3%

s2(s) = 0.7903 -0.0455 = 0.7448

calculation of composition and distribution variance:
s2(c) = 123.9 . 47530 . (14.1417 - 0.7448) = 1664.2
47530 - 124
s2(d) = 0.7448 - 123-9 . (14.1417 - 0.7448) = 0.71
47530 - 124
Hence:
Optimal mass m(opt) = 1664.2 = 2343g 2.3 kg
0.71
(entire primary sample can be prepared to analytical fineness, thus only analytical variance to be
considered)
Optimal number of primary sample:
n= 0.71 + 1664.2/2343 = 0.71 + 0.71 = 1.42
s2(t) - s2(a) s2(s) s2(s)

Error of mean (95% conf intev.) Coeff. of Variation s s2(t) s2(s) =

s2(t - 0.0031 n
± 10% 5% 0.7 0.49 0.4869 3
± 5% 2.5% 0.35 0.12 0.1194 12
± 2% 1% 0.14 0.02 0.0165 86
± 1% 0.5% 0.07 0.0049 0.0018 (800)*

* Analytical variation outweighs sampling variation, i.e. error of mean is determined by analytical precision
and not by sampling regime.

Sampling Methods and Equipment

1. SAMPLING OF STATIONARY MATERIALS

1.1 Field sampling
1.2 Sampling of bulk cement
2. SAMPLING OF CONVEYED MATERIALS
2.1 Evaluation of the 3 categories
2.2 Various possibilities of collecting a transverse sample
2.3 Deviations from the ideal case
2.4 Rules for the sampler
2.5 Recapitulation of sampling rules
3. CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE BEST KNOWN SAMPLERS
3.1 Apparatus for transverse sampling with linear movement
3.2 Equipment for Transverse Sampling with a Rotary Motion
3.3 Equipment for Longitudinal Samples
3.4 Equipment for Quasi-Point Samples
3.5 Experimental Assessment of Samplers
4. HOW TO IMPLEMENT AN ADEQUATE SAMPLING SYSTEM

1. SAMPLING OF STATIONARY MATERIALS

Sampling of stationary material should, whenever possible, be replaced by sampling on conveyed
material. In a number of cases, however, sampling of stationary material cannot be avoided. Such cases
are reviewed in the following:
1.1 Field sampling
The mineralogical and chemical composition of sedimentary rocks generally vary far more rapidly in the
vertical direction (stratigraphic sequence) than they do in the horizontal direction of the layer; therefore a
vertically oriented sampling is required.

1.1.1 Surface sampling

In the sequence of increasing reliability, the following methods of surface sampling on an exposed face
can be applied:
a) unweighted spot sample
for each rock layer of a rock complex only one sample is taken at a definite spot.
Information: only a rough judgement of the investigated material possible.
aa) weighted spot samples
more reliable information is achieved as the spot samples of each layer are weighted up according to their
stratigraphic thickness.
b) chip sample
small material samples are broken out of the wall face at regularly spaced intervals.
Information: reliable information on the chemical and mineralogical composition.
c) trench sample
the sample is obtained by cutting a trench of uniform width and depth across the face of the exposed rock
and collecting the excavated material.
Information: reliable information on chemical and mineralogical composition as well as on moisture
content.
1.1.2 Drill hole sampling
¨ Dust drilling sample. Mainly hard, compact dry material is recovered from hammer, tri-cone or
rotary drilling.
Proper sampling requires a dust collector attached to the drilling equipment. The often encountered
procedure of dust collection around the borehole is often a source of systematic errors due to the loss of
the fine particles.

Core drilling sample

the core sample is obtained by rotary drilling with core barrel tipped with a steel or diamond bit. This
method can also be applied below the water table. A representative sample for chemical-mineralogical
investigations can only be guaranteed on a core recovery of over 90%. The cores can also be used to
determine the technological properties of the rock.
1.2 Sampling of bulk cement
In addition to sampling at the material surface, it is also required to collect material from the interior using
a tube sampler. For cement sampling tube samplers are often specified in the standard specifications e.g.
ASTM C183.
2. SAMPLING OF CONVEYED MATERIALS
This term applies to all types of material which are transported continuously; for instance gravel on a belt
conveyor, meal in an airslide or slurry in a slurry pipe.
There are three principal ways in which a material can be taken from a material flow:
1) Transverse sample consists of the whole of the material flow during short, predetermined time
interval.
2) Longitudinal sample consists of a part of the material flow which is continuously deflected from
the main stream.
3) Quasi-point sample is created by the branching off of a part of the material flow during a certain
period of time.
A visual impression of these three categories can be obtained by imagining the samples taken from a
stationary belt conveyor.

or drawn 3 - dimensionally:

2.1 Evaluation of the 3 categories

2.1.1 Transverse samples
This sampling method is, in principle, correct as the average value of the individual collected samples is
almost the true average value of the "lot". The term "lot" should be understood as that quantity to which
the measurements refer, as for example the heap of a mixing bed, a shipload, a rail wagon, a silo etc.
2.1.2 Longitudinal samples
If all particle sizes were represented in their correct relationship in that part of the stream sampled, this
type of sampling would yield a true picture of the "lot". In reality, however, the force of gravity causes a
segregation of the particle sizes to a lesser or greater extent, and therefore excludes the fulfillment of the
conditions mentioned above.
2.1.3 Quasi-point samples
This type of sample is only a combination of the preceding two types. It incorporates no new advantages,
but embodies the disadvantages of both the other categories.
The transversal sample therefore appears to be the only one promising success. It is the only one that
can fulfill the condition of having an equal chance of sampling all the particle size fractions.
2.2 Various possibilities of collecting a transverse sample
The various possibilities are illustrated below in the form of a three-dimensional illustration of the material
flow.
A) Rectangular cut

B) Horizontal inclined cut

C) Vertical inclined cut

D) Alternating horizontal inclined cut

E) Alternating vertical inclined cut

From a theoretical viewpoint, these five cuts are of comparable value. The differences lie in the ease of
their practical application.
Type A): Can only be realised on a stationary conveyor belt or by means of a travelling sampler.
Type B): Can be realised by means of a rotating sampler. The sampling aperture always moves in the
same direction through the material.
Type C): A bucket wheel sampler belongs to this type.
Type D): This is the most commonly found type of equipment. The reciprocating slit vessel and the
reciprocating chute types are typical examples.
Type E): This can only be realised by a radially mounted slit vessel; this type of equipment is generally too
large.
2.3 Deviations from the ideal case
1) The particles do not drop one behind the other, but in a more or less compact stream and can
therefore influence each other.
2) The particles make contact, not with a stationary separating wall, but with a moving one and can
therefore be deflected at the moment of impact.
3) The opening of the sampler is not of an infinite size. Processes on the one separating wall can
therefore be influenced by those on the opposite one.
4) The separating walls are not infinitely thin and can be bent in the course of time.
5) The particles themselves can break on impact. This would be of importance only when a screen
analysis is to be prepared from the sample.
The design of samplers must be aimed at overcoming all these difficulties. What form these solutions take
and what important rules must be respected, is described in the next chapter.
2.4 Rules for the sampler
(1) Slit width and speed are inter-dependent.
Width of slit B ³ 3 d + 10 mm
d = diameter of the largest particle.
This ensures that even for fine meal, the width of the slit does not fall under 10 mm.
Speed w ³ 300 mm/s
In special cases this can be increased to 400 mm/s, provided the slit width is increased to 4 d + 10 mm.
The conditions for the slit width must be respected for all slit dimensions.
(2) The edges of the sample apertures should be fitted with interchangeable sacrificial elements made of
a wear resistant steel.
(3) The slit aperture must transverse the entire cross sectional area of the material flow. The return and
stopping positions must be placed outside of this area.

(4) The speed of the sampler during its journey through the material must be constant, during any single
traverse as well as from one traverse to another.
¨ Quick starting electric motor with excess capacity. This drive is more suitable than a pneumatic or
hydraulic cylinder, as the latters speed cannot be easily regulated.
¨ An acceleration zone must be provided outside the material stream.
Fig. Motor starts too slowly

Fig. Motor too week

(5) The shape of the sampler aperture must be suited to the movement.

linear movement ¾¾¾® the side walls must be parallel

rotating movement ¾¾¾® the side walls must be positioned radially.

(6) Measures must be taken to avoid blocking and overflowing of the sampler.
Slit vessel cutter:
The capacity of the vessel should be twice as large as the nominal sample volume. In the filled vessel
there should be a remaining free height equivalent to d or at least 100 mm.

Chute type cutter:

The vertical walls must be of sufficient height to prevent the "splashing" of particles. To ensure a flawless
material extraction, the inclination of the walls must be chosen to suit the properties of the wettest
materials encountered. Care should be taken that there are no obstructions. Corners, joints and
protruding screws are often the cause of build-ups. Stainless steel should be used for sticky materials and
if necessary provision for heating should be made.

(7) The integrity of a sample must assured. Once a sample has been taken, it must be protected against
all alterations, especially from the loss or addition of particles.
Loss of dust:
To reduce the drop height, the sampler should be mounted as close to the discharge point as possible. To
avoid the formation of dust, the material can be slightly moistened before it reaches the sampler.
Addition of dust:
The whole sampling apparatus should be protected against dust. The aperture in the sampler can be
closed by a lid in its static position.

(8) Calculation of the single sample volume m.

straight movement:

M = material flow [kg/s]

B = slit aperture [m]
w = speed [m/s]
rotary movement :

q = aperture angle [red]

j = angular speed [rad/s]
Note
A sampler designed in accordance with the previous rules has a lower rated capacity. It would be wrong
to try to decrease the sample quantity by an increase in speed or y a reduction of the slit width.
2.5 Recapitulation of sampling rules

Fundamental
principles which
must be adhered
to. Principle No. 1
All sectors of the material stream must be sampled for an uniform time. Principle No. 2
All particle sizes
must have the
same chance of
being sampled. Principle No. 3
There must be no
alteration to the
sample once it has
been taken.
Measures to
maintain the
adherence to the
fundamental
principles. 1) Correct shape
of the sampler
aperture.

2) The whole of the

material flow must
be covered.
Stopping points
must lie outside the
material flow.

3) The speed must

stay constant
during the traverse
and from traverse
to traverse. 1) Minimum slit
size 3d + 10mm

2) Speed generally
less than 300 mm/s

3) Sampling to take
place at a location
where the fine
particles are not
thrown up as dust. 1) Prevention of
blockages and
overfilling.

2) No material loss.

3) No material
additions.

4) Protection
against any
alteration of the
composition.

3. CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE BEST KNOWN SAMPLERS

3.1 Apparatus for transverse sampling with linear movement
3.1.1 Sampling from a stopped conveyor belt
The sample is separated from the remaining material by a frame. This system is the closest approach to
the theoretical model of a right-angle cut. As the material is stationary, L only needs to conform to the
condition of L = 1.5 d + 100 mm. The minimum sample therefore is smaller.

m1 = minimum sample from the stationary belt

m2 = smallest sample at material discharge point

v = belt speed
This function for w = 0.4 m/s appears as follows:

It can be observed that with larger particle sizes and at higher belt speeds the minimum sample quantity
tends towards the sample from the stationary belt.
In practice it is, however, impossible to stop large conveyor belts for the purpose of sampling.
The sketch below shows a set-up which makes it possible to extract samples from a conveyor, fully
automatically, without having to stop the main conveyor.
Fig. Sampling belt

For a certain pre-set time, the material is deflected by the flap onto the sample belt. The sample belt is
stopped after the return of the flap. The sample can now be taken off the sample conveyor and the
process can be easily automated. The speed of the sample conveyor can be freely selected and kept
high. This makes it possible to reduce a sample down to 1/lOth of the size of those from a sampler at the
discharge end.
3.1.2 Hammer samplers

This equipment takes samples from a running conveyor. The hammer is designed as a scoop to ensure
that the material is not Pushed aside. Brushes fixed to the end of the hammer clean the fine material from
the belt. This type of sample is well-suited for non-sticky material.
3.1.3 Sampler with flaps
The sectional illustrations show that the principle of uniform sampling of all material layers is not
maintained. One might think that this systematic error could be avoided by a faster operation of the flap
and by a longer residence time in the sampling position. In the first case, an unwelcome violent
movement of the material would result whilst in the second case, the sample quantity will be very large or,
with longer intervals, the integration error becomes unacceptable.
3.1.4 Slit vessel - sampler
Properly designed equipment of this type can fulfill all conditions.

3.1.5 Chute sampler

The chute sampler, like the slit vessel sampler fulfills all require meets. It is suitable for the sampling of
slurry as well as of dry material. The chute is of a simpler design than the slit vessel, but requires more
headroom.

3.2 Equipment for Transverse Sampling with a Rotary Motion

3.2.1 Slit vessel on a radial swing

This type, when suitably adjusted for the materials properties, is precise and produces no systematic
errors. The equipment is of excellent design by virtue of the small drop height of the material and allows
the possibility to remove the sample immediately.
3.2.2 Vézin - Sampler

The design concept of this equipment is correct. It is unsuitable for installation at a discharge point, but
rather for small material flows of relatively fine grained dry solids or for slurries. One advantage is the
good separation of the sample from the remaining material.
3.2.3 Sampler with rotating distributor

This type has been developed from the Yezin sampler by means of exchanging the rotating and stationary
parts, and is therefore correct in its concept and principle. Due to the relatively high position of the
distributor tube, the material reaches the sampler aperture at a high velocity. This is unfortunate when
taking the sample and creates some dust. Furthermore, a demixing process does take place in the drop
tube due to the considerable centrifugal forces present.
Further variations of this type are shown in the sketches below.

All these types suffer from the disadvantage that the whole mass of the undivided sample has to be
accelerated.
3.2.4 Slides and flaps in ducts

In the case of the transport of bulk materials having a low bed depth, this sampling equipment may be
sufficient.

The material lying on the flap is extracted whilst the oncoming material is stopped during the sampling.
Provided the material does not stick, and provided that the dimensions have been well-chosen, this
sampler is just right and delivers reproducible samples.
3.3 Equipment for Longitudinal Samples
3.3.1 Multi-stage sample divider
This type of equipment has been extensively used in the past and is still in frequent use to reduce the
quantity of samples. It consists of several vertically orientated samplers. That alone has two
disadvantages:
1) The equipment requires considerable height for its installation and
2) the dust which is created by the partial free fall of the material is ducted upwards due to the
chimney effect of the closed vertical casing, so that the sample on the bottom is lacking in the finest
particle sizes.
A known representative of this type is the "Koulakoff-Divider". It consists of a series of rotating and
stationary double cones.

The ratio of partition can be widely varied through an increase or decrease of the number of steps. It can
also obtain very large values. By means of precise tests, Pierre Gy was able to establish a systematic
error of up to 20% using this equipment, caused by selective sampling of the various particle sizes.
Because of this considerable systematic error, the Koulakoff divider cannot be recommended for use in
sample preparation.
3.3.2 Sampling from screw conveyor

This type of sampling screw continuously takes part of the whole of the flow, therefore providing a
longitudinal sample. As the material layer in a screw conveyor is heterogeneously distributed, this sampler
will create a systematic error and therefore can not be recommended.
3.3.3 Sampling from a meal transfer chute

3.4 Equipment for Quasi-Point Samples

The same comments which were made for the category of section 3.3, are also valid for this class. The
samples are only representative if the material is homogeneous which is mostly not the case shortly after
a transfer station or a change in direction. Whether equipment of this type should be declined as a matter
of principle depends mainly on the use to which it is put. In the sampling of fine meal and small grained
bulk material, in which the units to be measured are not a function of the particle size, the resulting
systematic errors can be ignored. In each case, however, it would be more elegant to install a sampler
more suited to the material conditions. There now follows a few examples of meal samplers, which obtain
quasipoint samples.

3.5 Experimental Assessment of Samplers

This chapter does not go into the process of defining the precision of the results for samplers or sampler
systems, but limits itself to referring to the already mentioned book by Pierre Gy. We only wish to touch
briefly on two elements of precision namely representativeness and distribution of accidental errors.
The term representativeness has already been mentioned and signifies the difference of the true mean
value m of the material and the mean value of the single measurements. A representative sample is only
obtained if the total sample error has a random variation with the mean value of 0 or in other words, if no
systematic error appears. The distribution of the random error describes the reliability of the sampling. It is
independent of the representativeness and can, for an example, be very small, even if and m are not the
same. The illustration below attempts to explain these two expressions.
It is necessary to keep both terms strictly separated, and the appropriate methods must be applied to
determine them. It must be further stated that here an experimental assessment of a sampling plant will
cost a great deal of work and care, when done correctly.

4. HOW TO IMPLEMENT AN ADEQUATE SAMPLING SYSTEM

For the design or selection of an appropriate material sampler which satisfies the plant-specific
requirements, the following aspects must be considered:
¨ flow sheet, layout and detailed drawings of the area in question
· definition of the proposed sampling point and its position within the circuit
· space available
· definition of potential criteria
¨ process-oriented criteria with regard to the potential sampling point
· flow rate of material (t/h)
· velocity of material (m/s)
· pressure (in case of a closed system)
· rate of sampling (kg/h)
· frequency of sampling
¨ physical description of material samples
· type of material
· screen analysis
· density
· moisture or water content
· stickiness, dustiness, viscosity (slurry)
· etc.

C11 - Chemical and Physical Methods of the Laboratories

Chemical and Physical Methods of the Laboratories.

1. SAMPLE PREPARATION
1.1 METHOD
1.2 APPLICATION:
1.3 TIME OF PREPARATION
1.4 MAINTENANCE AND PERSONNEL
1.5 SUPPLIERS:
1.6 COST OF EQUIPMENT
2. GRAVIMETRY
2.1 METHOD
2.2 APPLICATION
2.3 TIME OF ANALYSIS
2.4 MAINTENANCE AND PERSONNEL
2.5 EQUIPMENT:
3. TITRATION OF CARBONATES
3.1 METHOD
3.2 APPLICATION
3.3 TIME OF ANALYSIS
3.4 MAINTENANCE AND PERSONNEL
3.5 SUPPLIERS
3.6 COST OF EQUIPMENT
4. COMPLEXOMETRIC TITRATION
4.1 METHOD
4.2 APPLICATION
4.3 TIME OF ANALYSIS
4.4 MAINTENANCE AND PERSONNEL
4.5 SUPPLIERS
4.6 COST OF EQUIPMENT
5. SPECIFIC SURFACE ACCORDING TO BLAINE
5.1 METHOD
5.2 APPLICATION
5.3 TIME OF ANALYSIS
5.4 MAINTENANCE AND PERSONNEL
5.5 SUPPLIERS
5.6 COST OF EQUIPMENT
6. DETERMINATION OF SULPHUR AND CARBON DIOXIDE
6.1 METHOD
6.2 APPLICATION
6.3 TIME OF ANALYSIS
6.4 MAINTENANCE AND PERSONNEL
6.5 SUPPLIERS
6.6 COST OF EQUIPMENT
6.7 ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROMETRY
6.8 METHOD
6.9 APPLICATION
6.10 TIME OF ANALYSIS
6.11 MAINTENANCE AND PERSONNEL
6.12 SUPPLIERS
6.13 COST OF EQUIPMENT
7. ATOMIC EMISSION SPECTROMETRY (BY INDUCTIVELY COUPLED PLASMA)
7.1 METHOD
7.2 APPLICATION
7.3 TIME OF ANALYSIS
7.4 MAINTENANCE AND PERSONNEL
7.5 SUPPLIERS
7.6 COST OF EQUIPMENT
8. X-RAY FLUORESCENCE (XRF)
8.1 ANALYSIS:
8.2 METHOD
8.3 PRINCIPLE
8.4 APPLICATION
8.5 TIME OF ANALYSIS
8.6 LABOUR
8.7 SUPPLIERS
8.8 COST OF EQUIPMENT
9. X-RAY DIFFRACTION (XRD)
9.1 ANALYSIS
9.2 METHOD
9.3 APPLICATION
9.4 TIME OF ANALYSIS
9.5 STAFF
9.6 SUPPLIERS:
9.7 COST OF EQUIPMENT
10. LIGHT MICROSCOPY
10.1 ANALYSIS
10.2 METHOD
10.3 APPLICATION
10.4 TIME OF PREPARATION
10.5 STAFF
10.6 SUPPLIERS
10.7 COST OF EQUIPMENT
11. THERMAL SHOCK TESTING OF BASIC REFRACTORIES
11.1 METHOD
11.2 APPLICATION
11.3 TIME OF ANALYSIS
11.4 MAINTENANCE AND PERSONNEL
11.5 COST OF EQUIPMENT
12. THERMAL ANALYSIS - DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL ANALYSIS (DTA)
12.1 METHOD
12.2 PRINCIPLE
12.3 APPLICATION
12.4 TIME OF ANALYSIS
12.5 PERSONNEL
12.6 SUPPLIERS
12.7 COST OF EQUIPMENT
13. THERMAL ANALYSIS - THERMO-GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS (TGA)
13.1 METHOD
13.2 PRINCIPLE
13.3 APPLICATION
13.4 TIME OF ANALYSIS
13.5 PERSONNEL
13.6 SUPPLIERS
13.7 COST OF EQUIPMENT
14. THERMAL ANALYSIS - DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETRY (DSC)
14.1 METHOD
14.2 PRINCIPLE
14.3 APPLICATION
14.4 TIME OF ANALYSIS
14.5 PERSONNEL
14.6 SUPPLIERS
14.7 COST OF EQUIPMENT

1. SAMPLE PREPARATION
1.1 METHOD
Much work has to be done before a sample of any material is ready for analysis. The usual sequence is
as follows:
¨ weighing and registration of the received sample
¨ drying in a laboratory oven
¨ splitting of the sample to obtain smaller, representative samples
¨ coarse crushing in a laboratory jaw crusher
¨ re-splitting into smaller portions
¨ fine grinding with a swing grinding mill
¨ sieving with different sets of sieves (60 um for analytical purposes)
¨ fine re-grinding
¨ homogenizing of the final samples with a Turbula-mixer
¨ filling into bottles and labeling the samples
1.2 APPLICATION:
All types of material from raw material to cement and concrete
1.3 TIME OF PREPARATION
2- 3 samples per hour can be prepared to 60 un fineness depending on hardness and size of the original
sample.
1.4 MAINTENANCE AND PERSONNEL
Installation and service of mills, crushers and mixers can be done by the in-house workshop and
electricians. The work has to be done by trained personnel .
1.5 SUPPLIERS:
A. Fritsch & Co., Retsch Laborgeräte, Maschinen fabrik Herzog, Bachofen AG Maschinenfabrik for
Turbula-mixer
1.6 COST OF EQUIPMENT
Approx. SFr. 140'000 to 150'000 for complete preparation laboratory
2. GRAVIMETRY
2.1 METHOD
Gravimetric analysis or quantitative analysis by weight is the process of isolating and weighing an
element or a definite compound of the element in as pure a form as possible. The element or compound
is separated from a weighed portion of the substance being examined. A large proportion of the
determination in gravimetric analysis is concerned with the transformation of the element or ion to be
determined into a pure stable com pound which can be readily converted into a form suitable for
weighing. The weight of the element or ion may be readily calculated from a knowledge of the formula of
the compound and the atomic weights of the constituent elements.
The separation of the element or of the compound containing it may be effected in a number of ways,
such as: precipitation methods, volatilisation or evolution methods, electro-analytical methods and
miscellaneous physical methods.
One of the most important methods in gravimetry is precipitation, i.e. the constituent being determined is
precipitated from solution in a form which is almost insoluble in water so that no appreciable loss occurs
when the precipitate is separated by filtration and weighed.
2.2 APPLICATION
Determination of all elements in all kinds of material. The alkalis sodium and potassium are very difficult
to determine by gravimetry.
2.3 TIME OF ANALYSIS
Very time consuming! At least five hours for the determination of the four main elements - or 4 samples
per day
2.4 MAINTENANCE AND PERSONNEL
Minimum of maintenance required for balances and furnaces. Routine work should be executed by skilled
and qualified personnel.
2.5 EQUIPMENT:
No special instruments and apparatus are needed apart from the normal equipment of an analytical
laboratory such as glassware, furnaces, balances, etc.
3. TITRATION OF CARBONATES
3.1 METHOD
A sample of a raw material (e.g. limestone) or raw meal is dissolved in a known excess of hydro chloric
acid:
CaCO3 + 2HCl ® Cal2 + H2O + CO2
The excess of acid is then determined by a so called back titration with sodium hydroxide solution
HCl + NaOH ® NaCl + H2O
The end point of the back titration can be found visually by means of an indicator (dye stuff) which
changes its colour or by measuring an electrical parameter, i.e. the potential difference between two
electrodes dipping into the solution. The result is calculated with a programmable pocket or desk
calculator.
3.2 APPLICATION
All types of raw material and raw meal; including all carbonates which are expressed as CaCO3 by
calculation.
3.3 TIME OF ANALYSIS
10 minutes per sample
3.4 MAINTENANCE AND PERSONNEL
Instruments have to be installed and introduced to the operator by the supplier. Routine work can be
performed by trained personnel.
3.5 SUPPLIERS
e.g. Metrohm, Mettler, Radiometer, etc.
3.6 COST OF EQUIPMENT
approx. SFr. 22'000 for semiautomatic titration apparatus.
4. COMPLEXOMETRIC TITRATION
4.1 METHOD
The complexometric determination of many elements is based on a titration with a solution of EDTA
(Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic Acid) using many special indicators. The end point of the titra tion is found
either visually or with the aid of a spectrophotometer which is more sensitive to colour changes of many of
the indicators. The results are calculated from the consumption of the EDTA solution.
4.2 APPLICATION
Ca, Fe, Al, and Mg in cement, clinker, raw meal and raw material such as limestone, clay and sand.
Titanium and manganese may be determined also by complexometric titration whereas silica has to be
analysed by gravimetry or colorimetry.
4.3 TIME OF ANALYSIS
3 - 4 hours per sample including silica, or 6 - 7 samples per day
4.4 MAINTENANCE AND PERSONNEL
Installation and implementation by the supplier or a chemist. Routine work requires laboratory assistant.
4.5 SUPPLIERS
of spectrophotometer and semiautomatic titrators potentiographs: Metrohm and Mettler
4.6 COST OF EQUIPMENT
ca: SFr. 20'000.
5. SPECIFIC SURFACE ACCORDING TO BLAINE
5.1 METHOD
The Blaine air permeability apparatus is used to draw a definite quantity of air through a prepared bed of
cement of definite porosity. Number and size of the pores in the prepared bed (cement layer of 2.7 9 and
1.5 cm thickness) is a function of the size of the particles and determines the rate of flow through the bed.
The cement is filled into a cylindrical cell and pressed by a plunger to form the bed. The cell is attached to
the U-tube of a manometer, one arm of which is now slowly evacuated until the liquid reaches the top
mark on the glass tube. After opening a valve, the liquid flows back again and passing two other marks, a
definite volume of air is pressed through the bed of cement.
The time which is required for the meniscus of the liquid to pass from one mark to the other is measured.
It is necessary to use a complicated formula for the calculation of the specific surface, there fore it is
advantageous to split this formula into three factors, one of them depending only on the density of the
cement, the second one depending on the temperature and the third one being the square root of the
stopped time. The first two factors may be taken from a diagram which has to be established once for
every Blaine apparatus.
5.2 APPLICATION
Cement only! Although the method has been used for the determination of the fineness of various other
materials, it should be clear that in general relative rather than absolute values are obtained.
5.3 TIME OF ANALYSIS
Double determination for one material takes approx. 20 minutes if the density of the cement is known.
Otherwise, additional 45 min. are needed for the determination of the density.
5.4 MAINTENANCE AND PERSONNEL
Trained personnel.
5.5 SUPPLIERS
e.g. Schiltknecht, Zürich; Tonindustrie for semi automatic instrument.
5.6 COST OF EQUIPMENT
SFr. 800 to 6'000 for semiautomatic instrument
6. DETERMINATION OF SULPHUR AND CARBON DIOXIDE
6.1 METHOD
The solid sample is mixed with metal powder (copper, iron or tungsten) as an accelerator and burnt in a
high frequency or resistance induction furnace at cat 1500°C in a stream of pure oxygen. The gases
produced in the chemical reaction during combustion are sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide and water
steam. With different analysers it is possible to determine either SO2 or CO2 or even both compounds.
The simplest and cheapest method uses a titration with potassium iodate executed in an automatic
burette which is connected with the induction furnace. Another possibility is the use of an infrared
analyser instead of a burette. The IR analyser determines the sulphur dioxide by its absorption of infrared
light and displays the result as percent SO3. - Carbon dioxide can be determined with another model
which gives the result as total carbon. Instruments for the determination of both SO3 and carbon by
infrared light are also on the market.
The Leco Corporation has another type of instrument for carbon analysis which does not apply infrared
absorption but a heat conductivity cell.
6.2 APPLICATION
Total sulphur and carbon in all types of solid material, with special instruments or by means of
accessories and chemical reagents also in fuels such as coal and oil.
6.3 TIME OF ANALYSIS
6 - 12 minutes per sample with sulphur titrator depending on material. 3 - 4 minutes per sample with
infrared or heat conductivity analyser
6.4 MAINTENANCE AND PERSONNEL
Instruments have to be installed by supplier or specialist. Routine work can be done by trained personnel.
Service by the supplier is very important for infrared and heat conductivity analysers.
6.5 SUPPLIERS
LECO Corporation (USA) for: Titrator DB 64 and IR 232 for SO3, IR 212 and WR 12 for carbon, CS 244
for sulphur and carbon
Leybold-Heraeus (Germany): Series 302 for sulphur and carbon
6.6 COST OF EQUIPMENT
Titrator ca. SFr. 26'000
Infrared analyser ca. SFr. 50'000 to 70'000
Infrared analyser for C + S ca. SFr. 90'000
6.7 ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROMETRY
6.8 METHOD
The sample has to be dissolved in acid, generally hydrochloric acid. This solution is then sprayed into a
very hot flame (ca. 2000.C, for some elements 3000.C) where the solvent evaporates and the chemical
compounds dissociate into their atomic components. Most atoms remain in the ground state, a fact which
is important for atomic absorption.
The light of a so-called hollow cathode lamp (HCL), the cathode of which consists of the element to be
determined is led through the flame with the cloud of mostly neutral atoms. The atoms are able to absorb
this HCL-light so that the intensity of the light beam is reduced. The absorption is a measure of the
number of atoms in the flame which is proportional to the concentration of the element in the solution or at
least the sample.
6.9 APPLICATION
All types of material and all elements of interest in cement chemistry except sulphur, fluorine, chlorine and
phosphorus.
6.10 TIME OF ANALYSIS
approx. 4 hours for one analysis including Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, K, Na or 6 analyses per day.
6.11 MAINTENANCE AND PERSONNEL
The method has to be introduced by a specialist or chemist. Routine work can be executed by trained
personnel.
Service by supplier should be guaranteed.
6.12 SUPPLIERS
Perkin Elmer, Beckman, Varian, Hilger Watts, Jarell Ash, Instrumentation Laboratory, Pye Uni cam
(Philips)
6.13 COST OF EQUIPMENT
SFr. 50'000 to 120'000 depending on spectrometer single or double beam, etc.)
7. ATOMIC EMISSION SPECTROMETRY (BY INDUCTIVELY COUPLED PLASMA)
7.1 METHOD
The sample has to be dissolved in acid very often after a fusion procedure. This solution is then sprayed
into a very hot argon plasma, a physical flame of more than 6000.C where the solvent evaporates and the
chemical compounds dissociate into their atomic components. The atoms are excited by the high
temperature of the plasma and are then able to emit light of certain wave lengths which can be measured
and which is proportional to the concentration of the elements to be determined.
7.2 APPLICATION
All types of material and all elements of interest in cement chemistry with the exception of the halogens.
7.3 TIME OF ANALYSIS
approx. 1 hour for determination of 30 to 40 elements and including preparation of the solution.
7.4 MAINTENANCE AND PERSONNEL
The method has to be introduced by a specialist and chemist. Routine work can be executed by very well
trained personnel.
Very important it that good and prompt service is guaranteed by the supplier.
7.5 SUPPLIERS
ARL, Jarell-Ash, Instrumentation Laboratory, Jobin-Yvon, Kontron, Philips.
7.6 COST OF EQUIPMENT
SFr. 180'000 to more than 300'000 depending on the instrument: sequential or multi-channel
spectrometer.
8. X-RAY FLUORESCENCE (XRF)
8.1 ANALYSIS:
Qualitative and quantitative determination of chemical elements with atomic number higher than 9.
8.2 METHOD
Wave lengths dispersive method or non-dispersive technique (energy dispersive)
8.3 PRINCIPLE
The sample (in form of pressed powder tablet or fused bead) is irradiated by primary X-radiation from an
X-ray tube. Atoms and ions of the various elements in the sample are thereby excited and emit their
characteristic radiation.
¨ Wave length dispersive method
The fluorescence radiation from the excited sample is dispersed on special analysing crystals according
to Bragg's law (compare with dispersion of sunlight by a prism into the bands of colour of the visible
spectrum). The resolved characteristic radiation of the different elements is analysed individually and
measured by appropriate detectors. The intensity of the characteristic radiation is thereby a direct
measure of the chemical concentration of the corresponding element.
¨ Energy dispersive technique
The fluorescence radiation is measured using a semi-conductor together with an analyser which has an
electrical response proportional to the quantum energy of the radiation to be measured.
8.4 APPLICATION
Determination of the chemical composition of raw material, raw meal, clinker and cement. Plant
laboratories are mostly equipped with so-called wave length dispersive multi-channel units and make use
predominantly of pressed powder tablets; central laboratories often prefer the installation of sequential
spectrometers to increase flexibility of analysis.
8.5 TIME OF ANALYSIS
According to the application used: 3 to 20 minutes for 8 elements excluding preparation.
8.6 LABOUR
1 well trained man
8.7 SUPPLIERS
Philips, Siemens, ARL, Rigaku (Ortec, EDAX)
8.8 COST OF EQUIPMENT
SFr. 250'000 - 400 '000
9. X-RAY DIFFRACTION (XRD)
9.1 ANALYSIS
Qualitative and quantitative determination of crystalline solids
9.2 METHOD
A monochromatic X-ray beam is directed upon a fine powdered sample. By varying the angle between
sample and incoming beam, the X-rays are reflected from the various crystallographic planes of the
minerals present. The reflected X-rays contain the following information:
Angle: identification of mineral
Intensity: concentration of individual mineral
9.3 APPLICATION
Raw meal: content of quartz, clays, dolomite, etc.
Clinker: content of free lime, periclase, sulphates, aluminate, ferrite and modifications of C3S, C2S, C3A,
etc.
9.4 TIME OF ANALYSIS
Quantitative 10 minutes (computerised)
Qualitative 1 hour
9.5 STAFF
Skilled laboratory assistant, mineralogist, chemist
9.6 SUPPLIERS:
Philips (Netherlands), Siemens (W. Germany), Seiffert and Co. (W. Germany), CGR (France), Rigaku
(USA, Japan)
9.7 COST OF EQUIPMENT
SFr. 80'000 to 200'000
10. LIGHT MICROSCOPY
10.1 ANALYSIS
Determination of microstructure and mineralogical composition
10.2 METHOD
Samples are examined on:
¨ polished sections using reflected light
¨ thin sections and loose powders using transmitted light
Qualitative information:
¨ phase association
¨ texture
¨ structure
Quantitative information:
¨ phase composition
¨ crystallite / grain / granule size
10.3 APPLICATION
Determination of actual clinker composition, e.g. percentage of elite, belite, ferrite, aluminate, free lime,
periclase and sulphates
Determination of clinker microstructure to ascertain conditions present during production.
Characterisation of raw mix components (e.g. limestone) Investigation of refractory and concrete
damages.
10.4 TIME OF PREPARATION
Preparation: approx. 3 hours:
Interpretation: 1 - 3 hours
10.5 STAFF
Skilled laboratory assistant, mineralogist, chemist
10.6 SUPPLIERS
Wild & Leitz (Switzerland), etc.
10.7 COST OF EQUIPMENT
SFr. 20'000 to 60'000
11. THERMAL SHOCK TESTING OF BASIC REFRACTORIES
11.1 METHOD
Test prisms (35 x 35 x 200 mm) are cut from the supplied brick(s) using a diamond impregnated saw,
such as to give a full hot to cold face section. For dolomite products, the cutting should be performed dry;
with magnesite bricks wet cutting is possible but requires immediate drying afterwards.
For shock testing, the prepared prisms are heated at 1350.C in a laboratory furnace, for a period of up to
15 minutes, including heating up time. They are then placed vertically (i.e. end-on) upon a water-cooled
copper plate, on which they are allowed to cool for 10 minutes. After this time, the now cooled prisms are
checked for spelling and crack development. They are then returned to the furnace for more heating up
and subsequent cooling cycles until 20 such treatments have been performed, assuming of course that
previous destruction has not taken place.
11.2 APPLICATION
Testing of new refractory types and quality control on already delivered ones, in cases where doubt exists
as to the quality supplied.
11.3 TIME OF ANALYSIS
For the cutting of the prisms about 1 hour is required with drying taking place overnight. The actual
thermal testing requires about 9 hours, the actual number of samples tested depending principally on the
capacity of the 1350°C furnace.
11.4 MAINTENANCE AND PERSONNEL
No special requirements with regard to type of equipment and its maintenance. The work can be
performed by semi-skilled personnel after a short training period.
11.5 COST OF EQUIPMENT
approx. SFr 10'000 for diamond saw, high temperature furnace and cooling plate.
12. THERMAL ANALYSIS - DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL ANALYSIS (DTA)
12.1 METHOD
Qualitative and semi quantitative determination of caloric changes due to exo- and endothermic reactions
in materials subjected to heating; max. temperature: 1500°C.
12.2 PRINCIPLE
Approx. 100 mg of sample are weighed into a Pt-crucible and placed into the DTA furnace. A second
crucible with Al2O3 is used as reference. Both, sample and reference are heated in the same furnace
according to a selected temperature gradient. The temperature of sample and reference is measured
continuously and the difference is recorded.
To relate temperature difference with energy it is necessary to perform a calibration in the temperature
range of interest prior to the measurement.
12.3 APPLICATION
Identification of clay minerals in cement raw materials, investigations on de-carbonisation of carbonates
and formation of clinker minerals. Behaviour of circulating elements under different atmospheric
conditions.
12.4 TIME OF ANALYSIS
Depending on type of application: 30 minutes to 3 hours.
12.5 PERSONNEL
Skilled laboratory assistant
12.6 SUPPLIERS
Perkin Elmer, Stanton Redcroft, Dupont, Netsch
12.7 COST OF EQUIPMENT
SFr. 70'000 - 130'000
Purchase price depends on whether DTA is combined with DCS and/or TGA.
13. THERMAL ANALYSIS - THERMO-GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS (TGA)
13.1 METHOD
Quantitative determination of weight losses or weight gains in materials subjected to heating; max.
temperature 1000°C.
13.2 PRINCIPLE
Up to 1g of sample (generally approx. 50 mg) are weighed into a Pt-crucible which hangs on filament of
the TGA-balance. The sample is heated in a platinum resistance furnace at a selected heat rate. The
weight of the sample is determined and recorded continuously. Weight changes are given in absolute
values or in percent of initial weight
13.3 APPLICATION
Investigation of decomposition, dehydration and oxidation accompanied by weight changes, e.g.
determination of degree of hydration and carbonisation in hydrated clinker or cement (open clinker
storage, coating in cement mill or silos); determination of crystal water, e.g. of gypsum, hemihydrate etc.;
determination of fillers (components) in blended cements; oxidation of sulphides and organic compounds.
13.4 TIME OF ANALYSIS
Depending on type of application: 30 minutes to 3 hours
13.5 PERSONNEL
Skilled laboratory assistant
13.6 SUPPLIERS
Mettler, Perkin Elmer, Dupont, Stanton Redcroft
13.7 COST OF EQUIPMENT
SFr. 60'000 - 80'000 Purchase price may depend on whether TGA is combined with DSC and/or DTA.
14. THERMAL ANALYSIS - DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETRY (DSC)
14.1 METHOD
Qualitative and quantitative determination of caloric changes in materials subjected to iso thermal or non-
isothermal heating; max. temperature approx. 600°C.
14.2 PRINCIPLE
Approx. 10 - 100 mg of sample are weighed into a Al or Pt crucible and placed into the sample furnace of
the DSC. An empty crucible is used as reference and placed into the reference furnace. Both, sample and
reference are subjected to the same temperature program and equal atmospheric conditions. Differences
in temperature between sample and reference - due to caloric changes - are compensated by supplying
the required amount of electrical energy. The heat of reaction is determined by integration of the energy
flow. The kinetics of the reaction may also be determined.
14.3 APPLICATION
Transformation of phases: melting, crystallisation, evaporation, volatilisation, changes in modifications.
Chemical reactions: decomposition, oxidation, dehydration, hydration, e.g. determination and optimization
of gypsum phases in cement, hydra tion of cement, determination of sulfides in raw materials.
14.4 TIME OF ANALYSIS
Depending on type of application: 30 minutes to 1 day.
14.5 PERSONNEL
Skilled laboratory assistant
14.6 SUPPLIERS
Perkin Elmer, Mettler, Dupont, Stanton, Redcroft
14.7 COST OF EQUIPMENT
SFr. 60'000 - 150'000
Purchase price depends on whether DSC is combined with DTA and/or TGA
Ref. PRO MA.86/0015/2

Quality Assurance

1. SCOPE OF TESTING
2. TYPES OF XRF-SPECTROMETERS
3. X-RAY FLUORESCENCE SPECTROMETERS LOW COST EQUIPMENT (200 W)
4. ANALYTICAL TRENDS IN XRF
5. ADDITIONAL METHODS
6. ADDITIONAL ANALYTICAL EQUIPMENT
7. ADDITIONAL ANALYTICAL EQUIPMENT

1. SCOPE OF TESTING
¨ Production control
¨ Quality Control (due to standard specifications)
¨ Material technological investigations
· project planning
· application
· research & development
METHODS OF CHEMICAL CONTROL

Criteria
Method Investment Information Times of analysis Personnel
TitrationVery little å Of carbonates Minutes Few, trained
Gravimetry volumetry Little Main elements LS, SR, AR; BOGUE Many hours Several, trained
Complexometry colorimetry ~ $10'000 CaO, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO Approx. 2 - 3 Hrs.
Several, trained
AAS ~ $30'000 All elements except S, Cl, F, P Approx. 2 - 3 Hrs. Several + specialist
XRF ~$250' 000 All elements + complete automation (off or online) Minutes Few + specialist

Fig. 1 Standard deviations for clinker analyses by different analytical techniques.

2. TYPES OF XRF-SPECTROMETERS
¨ Wavelength dispersive (WLD)
· Sequential Mode
· Simultaneous (`Mull) Channel`) mode
¨ Energy dispersive (ED)
¨ Low cost (200 W) WLD Systems
¨ Bench-top XRF analysers
¨ Continuous (`on-line`) XRF analysers
3. X-RAY FLUORESCENCE SPECTROMETERS LOW COST EQUIPMENT (200 W)
¨ ADVANTAGES:
· Moderate purchase costs
· Lower operational cost
· Simple operation and maintenance
¨ DISADVANTAGES:
· Less sensitive
· Increased! measuring time
· Frequent re-calibration
· No trace element analyses
4. ANALYTICAL TRENDS IN XRF
¨ Trace element analyses
¨ Chemical analysis of liquids
¨ Analysis of carbon
¨ Sulphide/sulphate analysis
5. ADDITIONAL METHODS
¨ Sulphur analyser
¨ Carbon analyser
¨ Coal analyser
· calorimeter
· proximate analysis
¨ Free lime
· Conductometric
· X-ray diffraction
6. ADDITIONAL ANALYTICAL EQUIPMENT
¨ delivery control of waste
¨ emission control
¨ XRF (additional channels or sequential mode)
or
AAS ® trace elements in liquids/solids
¨ Ion chromatography or ion-sensitive electrodes
· halogens (chlorine, fluorine, bromine)
¨ flash point determination
¨ viscometer
¨ gas chromatography
· organic compounds (PCB's etc.) bomb calorimeter (automatic)
7. ADDITIONAL ANALYTICAL EQUIPMENT
¨ gas chromatography with mass spectrometer
· emission control on stack gas (organic compounds, volatile toxic elements etc.)

C12 - Automation in Quality Control

Automation in Quality Control

1. INTRODUCTION
2. CENTRALISED CONTROL SYSTEMS
2.1 The Automated Control System at Obourg (Lit. 1)
2.2 The Control Concept at Gmunden (Lit. 2)
3. DECENTRALISED CONTROL SYSTEMS
3.1 Raw Meal Control at Altkirch
3.2 Clinker Control
3.3 Physical Cement Testing
4. BULK MATERIAL CONTROL BY NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS

First Chemist’s Colloquium of

North American Holcim Group Plants
January 17-19, 1990 in St. Louis, MO

Automation in Quality Control

by Dr. P. Bürki,
Holcim Group Support Ltd.
Technical Centre
Summary:
Automated quality control systems find increasing application in the cement industry. The main objectives
are to intensify the control in order to achieve more uniform materials properties and to reduce risks
associated with inadequate quality and to reduce shift personnel in quality control. Automated systems
are widely applied for raw mix blending and clinker control, to a lesser extent so far on cement grinding,
and little for physical cement testing.
The paper reviews the concept and main features of such systems on the hand of examples mainly from
Holcim group plants, and briefly discusses the potential and limits of neutron activation analysis.
Report No. MA 89/3702/E
1. INTRODUCTION
There is definitely a trend to increase the automation in quality control procedures in the cement industry,
whereby the degree of automation can vary from individual automated testing equipment to complex
integrated on-line systems.
The objectives of automation, and possible drawbacks are summarised in the following figure.
Fig. 1 BENEFITS AND DRAWBACKS OF AUTOMATED CONTROL SYSTEMS
BENEFITS:
Increased product quality and reduced operation costs through improved uniformity:
¨ high sampling frequency
¨ more sampling points
¨ round-the-clock control
¨ optional on-line link to process computer
¨ high standard of sample preparation and analysis
¨ elimination of operator related errors
Liberation of personnel from routine work for more demanding duties.
Reduction of personnel.
DRAWBACKS:
High investment costs
Susceptible to {minor) technical faults
Requirement of back-up methods
Highly qualified personnel required for maintenance
An attempt to classify various concepts of automation is made in Figure 2.
FIG. 2 CONCEPTS OF AUTOMATED CONTROL SYSTEMS
¨ Centralised:
· sample transport to central test laboratory
¨ Decentralised:
· sample transport to testing equipment installed close to production unit
· continuous analysis on full or partial, by-passed materials stream
The present paper does not aim at giving a systematic, well balanced review of current automation
systems, but to highlight some selected aspects of automation, mainly taken from examples of such
systems installed in Holcim Group plants.
2. CENTRALISED CONTROL SYSTEMS
2.1 The Automated Control System at Obourg (Lit. 1)
2.1.1 Objective
Obourg is one of the few remaining wet plants in western Europe. The tradition of using low-cost ash rich
coal has made it possible to produce at costs competitive to dry plants. The lay-out is shown in Figure 3.
Fig. 3 Preparation of Clinker at Obourg.

The reasons for investing into a complex automated control system were:
¨ High variability in chemical composition; occasional quality problems due to excessive C3A
content.
¨ Intention to increase the use of ash rich coal, aiming at an ash content in clinker of 20% (including
non-combustible components injected into the sinter zone), which increases the average C3A content.
· Clinker targets:
LS : 98 ±1
C3A : 12 ±1 %
C4AF : 11.5 ±1 %
Such an extreme clinker composition does not tolerate significant fluctuations!
¨ Intention to change the slurry preparation from a batch to a continuous mode, to eliminate
frequent bottlenecks in slurry production.
The realisation of these objectives necessitates very close blending control for both slurry and clinker
production. After a detailed evaluation, it was decided:
¨ to automate slurry and clinker control up to the stage of calculation of feed corrections (excluding
feeder adjustments)
¨ to adopt a centralised concept
¨ to realise the investment as a turnkey project.
A corresponding contract was made with Polysius to supply their POLAB-system, whereby detailed
guarantee conditions for system performance and availability were agreed upon.
2.1.2 Aspects of hardware
Fig. 4 Block Diagram of the Polab system.

Figure 4 shows the elements of the POLAB system. Features of particular interest are:
¨ Slurry sampling (Figure 5)
Emphasis was given to obtaining a representative sample of the slurry, which still contains an appreciable
quantity of large grains; hence the complex preparation plant.
¨ Clinker sampling
The sampling from the cooler (second screen plate) reduces the dead time of the control loop.
¨ Laboratory automate
Sample preparation by grinding and pelletising was selected, one reason being the scarce experience
available at that time with automated fused lead preparation.
¨ XRF-spectrometer
The eight channel simultaneous spectrometer is exclusively used for the POLAB system.
¨ Free lime analyser
The POLAB is complemented with a free lime analyser DIA 2000 (ethylene glycol extraction method),
which was formerly installed at the kilns.
Fig. 5 Slurry sampling and preparation plant.

2.1.3 Aspects of software

The POLAB blending control software is responsible for calculating the components feed rate both for
slurry preparation and for clinker production.
One aspect of the clinker ‘blending’ control is worth commenting on:
A number of the 4 or more components injected at the kiln hood into the sinter zone affect both the ash
and the heat input. The blending control has therefore not only to meet the clinker composition targets,
but also the target of the kiln heat requirement. The latter is introduced and continuously adapted by the
kiln operator through a terminal in the control room.
2.1.4 Link to kiln automation
Recently, LINKMAN kiln automation systems were implemented for both kilns. The essential tasks of the
system are to determine the kiln heat requirement and to control and automatically adjust the feed rates
of all materials fed to the kiln. Because the POLAB and the LINKMAN have obviously to fulfill
complementary tasks, the two respective suppliers were obliged to establish a link between these
systems, with the aim of having an integrated kiln automation, simultaneously fulfilling set points for kiln
operation and clinker composition. Figure 6 illustrates, in a simplified way, the concept of data exchange
between the two systems.
Fig. 6 Link of COLAB and LINKMAN

The link has been in successful operation since October 1989.

2.1.5 Experiences with the POLAB
Fig. 7 C3A: Daily Mean Sample.
The experiences can be summarised as follows:
¨ The ash content in clinker could be raised close to 20%.
¨ The clinker uniformity could be significantly improved; C3A can be controlled within + 1%, as
compared to previous +3% (see Figure 7).
¨ The slurry preparation and control concept are successful; production bottlenecks are eliminated.
On-line control of the components flow rate is anticipated.
¨ The K2O-content of clinker turned out to be a rapid and significant indicator of the burning
degree.
¨ Technical difficulties, mainly in the sector of slurry sampling and preparation - causing delay in
commissioning - could be solved in a co-operative manner.
¨ The guaranteed systems availability of 95% could eventually be met.
¨ The formation of personnel to operate and maintain the system became far more demanding and
time consuming than envisaged. Preventive maintenance and rapid trouble-shooting are essential to
achieve and maintain the required high availability.
2.2 The Control Concept at Gmunden (Lit. 2)
The automation system at the Hans Hatschek cement plant at Gmunden, Austria, was supplied by
Siemens (with Pfaff and Herzog as subcontractors). It will integrate the raw meal (already realised),
clinker and cement control in three stages.
The concept is shown in Figure 8 (simplified)
Fig. 8 Automatic Concept (Gmunder Zementwerke Hans Hatschek)

In comparison to the system at Obourg, the following aspects are worth commenting.
¨ The sample fine-grinding is done at the place of sampling. Advantages: no bottlenecks in sample
preparation in the central laboratory; less risk of sample contamination. Both untreated (for fineness
determination) and fine ground samples are sent to the laboratory.
¨ The sequential XRF-spectrometer is also used for general analytical purposes. The software
ensures that samples arriving automatically are given priority over manually introduced samples.
¨ The clinker free lime will be determined by X-ray diffraction, on samples prepared in the same
way as for XRF-analysis.
¨ The future automated cement control shall include the following control parameters:
· Fineness
Presently evaluated alternatives are:
* Automated Blaine-metre, AB500 by Pragoinvest, Czechoslovakia
* Laser-Granulometer, either with wet-dispensing system (e.g. CILAS) or dry dispensing system
(e.g. Sympatec). The former would necessitate recuperation of ethanol.
· A major criteria will be the correlation between possible fineness parameters (Blaine, size
fraction) and standard mortar strength.
¨ Chemical composition by XRF-analysis. In addition to SO3 determination for gypsum dosage, the
determination of additional guide-elements for fly-ash and slag proportioning is anticipated.
3. DECENTRALISED CONTROL SYSTEMS
3.1 Raw Meal Control at Altkirch
Until recently, on-line raw meal control was carried out by means of an XEG (X-ray emission gauge)
system installed at the exit of the raw mill. The raw meal composition was continuously determined by
XRF-analysis directly on a by-passed stream of raw meal.
As the analytical accuracy has always been affected by matrix effects due to the fluctuating quartz
content in the raw meal, one requirement for the necessary replacement of the system was to include
conventional XRF-spectroscopy on fused beads. For reasons related to the plant layout, the new system
should again be installed close to the raw mill, accepting the risks associated with a very limited systems
supervision.
The new on-line control system was supplied as a turnkey project by Phillips France (Figure 9).
Fig. 9 Ciments D’Origny
Rep Désignation Fournisseurs
1 Vanne de dérivation KIVAIR
2 Qualdoris 30 MINEMET
3 Ecluse rotative Devance Industries
4 Vibrant AEG
5 Qualminos MINEMET
6 Ventilateur Delta neu
7 Transport pneumatique PFAFF
8 Transport pneumatique PFAFF
9 Mapp x Phillips
10 Dépoussiérage PFAFF
11 Perl x -2- Philips
12 Refroidisseur SCU 4E F&R Cooling Ltd.
13 Spectrométre Philips
14 Argon Méthane Alphagaz
15 Récupération farine PFAF

The following features deserve comment:

¨ Application of a robot for sample manipulation (MAPP'X):
Although in this application the task of the robot is limited to control the weighing of sample and fusing
agent, the principal advantage of laboratory robots is seen in their flexibility to be programmable for a
wide range of conventional laboratory equipment, equipment which can also be manually operated.
¨ Application of a low-power (200 W) XRF-spectrometer PW1660.
In contrast to previous instruments, the performance of the latest generation of low-power XRF-
spectrometers (PW 1660, Oxford QX) appears to be quite satisfactory, unless special emphasis is laid on
the speed of analysis and on analysis of heavy or very light elements.
3.2 Clinker Control
3.2.1 Conductometric free lime determination
Automatic free lime analysers, particularly designed for installation outside the laboratory, e.g. close to the
clinker cooler, are offered by two suppliers in France, namely ISYS and ITECA. The layout is shown in
Figure 10.
Fig. 10 ITECA Free Lime Analyzer.

In a usual arrangement, clinker samples are taken underneath the cooler grate. Free lime is determined
by extraction of the ground clinker with ethylene glycol and measurement of the resulting conductivity of
the solution. The results are transmitted to the central control room or laboratory.
Such systems are, with good experience, fairly widely applied in French and Belgium plants, including the
plants of Ciments d'Origny and Ciments d'Obourg (Lit. 3).
3.2.2 Automatic litre weight determination
At the Eclepens plant of the ‘Societe de Ciments et Betons’, Switzerland, the manual litre weight
determination has successfully been replaced by an automatic on-line system, measuring the apparent
clinker density with a nuclear densitometer (Lit. 4). The system is schematically shown in the next section
-Figure 11a, along with the correlation of automatic and manual litre-weight measurement (Fig. 11b).
3.2.3 On-line Litre-weight Determination of Eclepens
Fig. 11aCircuit diagram for continuous measurement of the apparent density of clinker.

1) Kiln
2) clinker from grate
3) vibrating screen
4) measuring cell
5) overflow
6) gamma-ray source
7) variable vibrating funnel
8) cooling system
9) measuring electronics
10) cooling fan
11) process computer
12) analogue recorder
13) monitor screen
14) kiln control
15) clinker silo
16) clinker crusher
17) clinker to silo
Fig. 11bDevelopment of manual and automatic measurements of density over a period of 4 hours.

It is worth noting that the density measurement is used as the primary set-point parameter for the
automated kiln control system.
3.3 Physical Cement Testing
Automated, computer controlled equipment for physical cement testing has been available on the market
for several years, in particular from the German company RK TONI TECHNIK. Such equipment
comprises individual testing instruments up to integrated testing systems for mortar preparation, VICAT-
testing, specimen storage and strength determination. A comprehensive review is given in Lit. 5.
While automated testing instruments such as Blaine-meter, laser granulometer, VICAT-testing apparatus,
penetrometer etc. are frequently used in plant laboratories, integrated testing systems are not often
applied we are presently not aware of any such installation in Holcim Group plants. It would appear that
the potential for rationalisation and cost-savings is too small with the usual testing frequency in plant
laboratories.
4. BULK MATERIAL CONTROL BY NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS
The technique of prompt gamma neutron activation analysis (PGNAA) has already existed for a few years
for on-line analysis of bulk materials. ~ Commercial equipment is presently available from Gamma
Metrics, USA.
The principle of the method, and some characteristics relevant to its application are summarised in Figure
12 to 15.
Fig. 12a How Activation Analysis Works.

Fig. 12b Principles of Operation.

Fig. 13 PROMPT GAMMA NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS (PGNAA)

Application:
¨ On-stream analysis of crushed raw materials or coal
¨ Blending control upon filling of integrated pre-blending becs
¨ Blending control on feed to raw mill
¨ Blending control on raw meal
Fig. 14 PROMPT GAMMA NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS (PGNAA)
Advantages;
¨ Analysis on entire material stream maximum 1000 t/h
¨ Analysis on crushed material Ømaximum 100 mm
¨ Continuous, real-time analyses
¨ Multi-element analysis, incl. moisture
¨ Permits rapid reactions in control loops
¨ Low maintenance requirements
¨ High availability
Fig. 15 PROMPT GAMMA NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS (PGNAA)
Disadvantages:
¨ High investment costs, excluding installations for material transport
¨ High service costs
¨ Problematic material flow with moist and sticky materials
¨ Relatively high threshold concentrations for certain elements (Na2O, K2O, MgO)
¨ Low precision at short measuring times
¨ Subject to regulations regarding handling of radioactive sources
Apart from the Phoenix plant in USA, the longest experience with such equipment has been made at the
cement plant of the ‘Compagnie des Ciments Belge’, in Belgium, where it is installed ahead of the raw mill
for raw mix blending control. The experience is apparently very satisfactory, both in achieving a uniform
raw meal and a very high systems availability (Lit. 6).
Nevertheless, the still limited industrial experience does not yet permit a definite assessment of the
potential and restrictions of the PGNAA application in the cement industry. A thorough assessment for
each individual project is, therefore, still necessary.
In the context of assessing the PGNA-analyser for the pre-blending bed control at the future Norte plant of
Cementos Apasco, Mexico, HMC has carried out analyser tests with six different plant specific raw
material samples at the Gamma Metrics premises.
The tests revealed that:
¨ a linear calibration is possible over a wide range of concentration (Figure 16a)
¨ the standard deviation of repeated measurements is - as expected rather poor (Figure 16b)
¨ the analytical results are not affected by the water content of the material.
As a first conclusion, the analyser is considered to be suitable for the control of the filling of pre-blending
beds. On the other hand the consequences of the high scatter of short-term analysis for the application in
raw mill control - especially with raw components of fluctuating composition - need to be further clarified.
Fig. 16a Calibration of SiO2 with PGNAA

Fig. 16b PGNAA Reproducibility of SiO2

REFERENCES
Lit. 1 : F. Lamproye; Automatic supervision of clinker production in Obourg Cement Works, ‘Holderbank’
News 5/1989
Lit. 2 : W. Gerger; Automatic quality control of raw meal in an Austrian cement works,
Zement-Kalk-Gips No. 6/1989 (German) No. 8/1989 (English)
Lit. 3 : F. Lamproye; Automatic free lime control: a step towards efficient kiln operation, Report
MA85/3288/E (29th Technical Meeting, 1985)
Lit. 4 : A. Daina, T. Guignard; Automatic determination of the specific weight (litre weight) of clinker,
‘Holderbank ‘ News 4/1989
Lit. 5 : C. Voos, O. Scheer; Modern ways of cement testing: presented at the General Technical
Committee Meeting of the Portland Cement Association, 1989, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, USA (available
through J. Campbell, Ciment St.Laurent)
Lit. 6 : P. Bürki; Inspection of GAMMA METRICS ‘Bulk Material Analyser’ installed at the plant of S.A.
Compagnie des Ciments Belges, Report MA 89/3582/E

C13 - Statistics

Statistics

1. INTRODUCTION
2. SIMPLE DATA DESCRIPTION
2.1 Graphical Representation
2.2 Statistical measures
2.2.1 The p-quantile
2.2.2 The Box Plot
2.2.3 Measures of location
2.2.4 Measures of Variability
2.2.5 Statistical program packages
2.2.6 Interpretation of the standard deviation
2.2.7 Outliers
3. The normal distribution (ND)
4. Confidence limits
4.1 Confidence limits for the mean
4.2 Confidence limits for the median
4.3 Confidence limits for the standard deviation
4.4 Other methods for the construction of confidence limits
5. Standard Tests
5.1 General Test Idea
5.2 Test Procedures
5.2.1 z-Test
5.2.2 Sign Test
5.2.3 Signed-rank test
5.2.4 Wilcoxon-Test
5.2.5 t-Test
5.2.6 Median-Tests
5.2.7 X2-Test
5.2.8 F-Test
5.3 Sample Size Determination
6. Data Presentation and Interpretation
6.1 Intelligible Presentation
6.2 Interpretation
6.3 Data Interpretation related to Problems in Cement Application
6.4 Control Charts
6.5 Comparative representation
7. CORRELATION AND REGRESSION
7.1 Correlation coefficient
7.2 Linear Regression
7.2.1 Regression line with slope 0:
7.2.2 Regression line with y-intercept 0
7.2.3 Intercept = 0. Slope = 0
7.2.4 Comparison of models
7.2.5 Standard deviation of the estimates
7.2.6 Coefficient of determination
7.2.7 Transformations before Regression Analysis
7.2.8 Multiple and non-linear regression
8. STATISTICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND THEIR DESIGN
8.1 The Five Phases of a Statistical Investigation
8.2 Sample Surveys and Experiments
8.3 Fundamental Principles in Statistical Investigations
8.3.1 Experiments
8.3.2 Sample Surveys
9. OUTLOOK
9.1 Time series and growth curves analysis
9.2 Categorical and Qualitative Data Analysis
9.3 Experimental Designs and ANOVA
9.4 Multivariate Methods
9.5 Nonparametric Methods
9.6 Bootstrap and Jack-knife Methods
9.7 Simulation and Monte Carlo Method
9.8 General Literature
10. STATISTICAL PROGRAM PACKAGES

PREFACE
For appropriate process and quality control in the cement and concrete industry, a large number of data
are derived. Optimum benefit is, however, only achieved if these are adequately processed and
interpreted. Statistics is one of the important means to make best use of the data be it by application of
numerical methods and/or by graphical representation.
The present handbook describes the relevant basic definitions, formulae and applications of statistical
methods which are useful in the cement industry. Emphasis is put on adequate data description and
graphical representation to ensure reasonable processing and interpretation of statistical data. Most of the
described procedures are illustrated with practical examples.
Chapters 1 and 2 are concerned with the basic ideas of statistics, the rules for the representation of a
given set of data (graphical representation, numerical measures) and the treatment of outliers.
Chapters 3 to 8 present some statistical methods, useful for decision making, experimentation and
process control.
Of special practical significance is the Application Section (chapter 5.2), which includes a procedure
manual with a general check list and a collection of important test procedures. Chapter 9 gives an
outwork to more sophisticated statistics.
Appendix I contains a selection of practical examples to illustrate applicability and interpretation of the
demonstrated methods. A useful work sheet to construct frequency tables and to check the data for
normality is given in Appendix II. Further Appendices contain: the required statistical tables for the
determination of confidence limits and the application of test procedures, a list of recommended literature
and an index of examples used in the text.
A subject index (English, German, French) of statistical terms is provided in Appendix VI.
The copyright for this documentation is reserved by Holcim Group Support Ltd. The right to reproduce it
entirely or in part in any form or by any means is subject to the authorisation of Holcim Group Support Ltd.
1. INTRODUCTION
Statistics is concerned with methods for collecting, organising, summarising, presenting and analysing
data, obtained by measurement, counting or enumeration.
With descriptive statistics a given set of observations is summarised or presented to get a quick survey of
the corresponding phenomena.
In a more sophisticated analysis of representative samples statistical inference (inductive statistics) allows
conclusions to be drawn about the entire population.
A sample is considered to be representative only if it is drawn from the population at random. Such a
group of n observations is called a sample of size n.
Some main topics of interest in statistical analysis are:
a) Location of the data:
Where are the observations located on the numerical scale? This question leads to the use of central
values as the mean or the median.
b) Variability or dispersion:
Problems concerning the degree to which data tend to spread about an average value.
c) Correlation:
Degree of dependence between paired measurements, e.g.: Is there a real dependence of mortar
strength on the alkali content in clinker?
d) Regression:
Fitting lines and curves to express the relationship between variables in a mathematical form especially
used for prediction and calibration.
e) Splitting variability:
Looking for the importance of several causes to the variability of observations. Variability arises due to
different components of random errors. Special experiments must be designed to split these components.
The use of statistical methods and the interpretation of statistical results requires a certain comprehension
of variability. If ten pieces of coal from a delivery are analysed as to their water content, the results are not
identical with the water content of the full quantity. Rather we have ten different results in a certain range.
This variability of data arises not only from the fact that the pieces really have different water contents, but
also because the results are influenced by three different types of errors which may occur in every set of
observations:
Random errors cannot be avoided. They are due to imprecise measurement, rounding of data,
environmental effects and not identically repeatable preparation. The amount of random errors may be
expressed by statistical measures of variability.
Systematic errors lead to a bias in location, but not necessarily in dispersion. A bias in dispersion is
obtained if several systematic errors are mixed.
Example: Every laboratory assistant has usually his own systematic error. This error may be relevant or
not and it may change with time. But we always expect a greater variability of the observations if more
than one person have performed the measurements. On the other hand, we recognise in this example
that a small variability does not necessarily lead to a better average value. Environmental effects may be
systematic too (e.g. air humidity).
Gross errors are "wrong" values in the set of observations. Experience shows that 5% to 10% of gross
errors have to be expected in a data set. Reasons may be: wrong reading of scales, errors in copying
data, data not legible, miscalculations, gross error in measurement. Gross errors have a considerable
influence on statistical results.
Careful measurement and data handling is, therefore, important. Data have to be inspected for outliers
before a statistical analysis is performed.
Conclusion: The deviation of the single results from the true mean of the full quantity originate from real
differences between the samples on one hand, and from the occurrence of several types of errors on the
other.
It is often stated that "everything can be proved with statistics", this reasoning clearly is wrong; false or
often only misunderstood statistics originate from insufficient representations, application of wrong
procedures or assumptions, or misleading interpretation of the results. Especially graphical
representations can easily be manipulated. It is therefore essential that the applicant of statistical
techniques knows what he can and what he cannot do! An amusing booklet dealing with such statistical
"lies" is "How to Tell the Liars from the Statisticians".
In our days of growing computer use, a lot of powerful (and sometimes less powerful or even poor)
statistical software packages are available, leading to extensive use of statistics procedures by
nonstatisticians or people not having enough statistical background. These packages manage nearly any
instruction without being able to decide whether the statistical procedure is appropriate. This bears a
great danger of use of statistics by statistical amateurs or ignorants. It is therefore absolutely necessary
that the user of statistics has a solid statistical education.
2. SIMPLE DATA DESCRIPTION
In this section some descriptive methods are presented to get a quick survey of the data. The methods
are illustrated with an example of concrete strength.
Example 1
The following data represent the compressive strength of 90 cubes (20 x 20 x 20 cm) of concrete. The
data listed in chronological order of measurement is called set of observations.

35.8 39.2 36.8 32.4 30.7 30.8 23.5 22.8 23.7 31.7 34.6 27.6 29.9
28.4 29.3
33.0 37.6 38.1 33.3 38.9 37.1 33.3 33.4 36.4 44.3 48.9 40.1 43.4
35.4 36.6
32.8 34.1 37.4 27.9 30.2 32.0 45.3 45.8 41.0 26.1 27.9 24.4 35.3
34.5 36.1
30.1 40.2 37.9 25.0 23.0 27.8 33.5 34.2 30.0 29.0 35.2 35.8 23.9
34.9 31.5
35.9 39.7 39.4 32.4 33.6 35.2 32.8 30.2 31.6 28.5 28.5 30.3 31.4
31.8 35.5
27.1 24.5 20.9 24.6 27.2 31.7 32.2 38.6 32.8 37.8 36.8 35.3 41.9
34.4 35.5

Generally a set of n observations is denoted by x1, x2, ..., xn where the index j of xj corresponds to the
number of the observation in the set.
2.1 Graphical Representation
Although the set of observations gives the complete information about the measurements, it is little
informative for the reader. A better survey is obtained by grouping the data in classes of equal length,
presented in a frequency table with tally.
Rules for classification:
1) The mid points should be impressive values with a few number of digits.
2) Choose 8 to 20 classes of equal length (approx. Ön; classes)
3) Class boundaries should not coincide with observed values (if possible)

mid-point class tally absolute frequency relative frequency

20.0 18.75 - 21.25 I 1 0.011
22.5 21.25 - 23.75 llll 4 0.044
25.0 23.75 - 26.25 llll l 6 0.067
27.5 26.25 - 28.75 llll llll 9 0.100
30.0 28.75 - 31.25 llll llll 10 0.111
32.5 31.25 - 33.75 llll llll llll llll 19 0.212
35.0 33.75 - 36.25 llll llll llll ll 17 0.189
37.5 36.25 - 38.75 llll llll ll 11 0.122
40.0 38.75 - 41.25 llll ll 7 0.078
42.5 41.25 - 43.75 llll 2 0.022
45.0 43.75 - 46.25 ll 3 0.033
47.5 46.25 - 48.75 0 0.000
50.0 48.75 - 51.25 l 1 0.011
Total 90 1.000

In this representation we recognise directly a minimum of 20.0 N/mm2, a maximum of 50.0 N/mm2, and
an average value between 32.5 and 35.0. The measurements are distributed symmetrically about the
average value.
The graphical representation of the tally with rectangles is called a histogram.
Fig. 1 Histogram.

The area of the rectangles must be proportional to the tally not the height of the bar, e.g. if two classes
contain the same number of observations and the width of class 1 is twice the one of class 2, then the
height in class 1 is half the height in class 2. Same number of observations same area of rectangle!
Two further informative graphs are the frequency curve and the cumulative frequency curve. They are
constructed as follows:
Frequency curve
¨ plot the class frequency (absolute or relative) against the class midpoint (again take into account
the note for the histogram, same number = same area).
Fig. 2 Frequency Curve.

Cumulative frequency curve

¨ cumulate the absolute frequencies less than the upper class boundary for every class
¨ plot the cumulative frequency in percent against the upper class boundary.
Fig. 3 Cumulative Frequency Curve.

From this graph we can determine the portion of observations smaller than any given strength value x.
Example: Percentage of the observations smaller than 30.0 N/mm2: 26 %. Inverse
problem: Half of the measurements are smaller (resp. greater) than 33.5 N/mm2.
These two frequency curves are especially suited to compare two or more different distributions with one
another.
Fig. 4 Compare Distributions.

Stem and Leaf Plot

The stem and leaf plot is very similar to the histogram but allows to reconstruct the individual data. [The
stem and leaf plot is shown in the next picture, the comment does not belong to it, but shows how the
data are reconstructed.]

STEM LEAF COMMENT

20 9 20.9
21 no observation
22 8 22.8
23 0579 23.0, 23.5, 23.7, 23.9
24 456 24.4, 24.5, 24.6
25 0
26 1 etc.
27 126899
28 455
29 039
30 0122378
31 456778
32 0244888
33 033456
34 124569
35 2233455889
36 14688
37 14689
38 169
39 247
40 1
41 029
42
43 4
44 3
45 38
46
47 9
48
49
50

Small Samples
Individual values are marked on the scale
Fig. 5 Small Sample Table.

A further attractive possibility to describe graphically the distribution of a variable, the Box Plot, will be
given in the next section. Often it is appropriate (especially in quality control) to plot the observations in
chronological order to show a possible change of the level during the experiment.
Fig. 6 Chronological Order.

If only few data are available, the single values may be represented as points on the measurement scale
(cf. example A1, Appendix I).
The scatter diagram or scatter plot is used to represent the relationship between two variables (paired
observations concerning the same individual sample). The following diagrams show the dependence of
concrete strength in N/mm2 from cement/water ratio after 2 days and 28 days. Different symbols can be
used to discriminate groups of observations. In the present case two groups are considered: Portland
cement (PC) and blended Portland cement (BPC).
Fig. 7 Scatter Diagram.
If we are dealing with more than 2 variables a suggested graphical representation is the draftmansplot,
which plots all pairwise scattergrams in one picture.

2.2 Statistical measures

As statistics deals with the behaviour of random variables, i.e. variables which take certain values with
certain probabilities, we are interested in describing this behaviour of the random variable by a few
characteristic measures. The first measures we will be considering are the p quantiles (or p fractiles),
which are roughly said those values for which 100.p % () of the data are smaller or equal to. The p
quantiles allow a full description of the data, similar e.g. to the cumulative frequency curve from Section
2.1. The use of the p quantiles gives way to construct a simple and attractive graphical representation of
the data, the box plot.
2.2.1 The p-quantile
xp is called the p-quantile (or p-fractile) if

of the values of the random variable are smaller or equal to xp.

Based on a set of observations from a random variable x, a first method to estimate these quantiles is
given by the cumulative frequency curve.

Given a sample x(i), i=1,..,n the empirical cumulative distribution function (cdf) is defined as
F(x): = (number of the x(i)'s smaller or equal to x) / n
and the following relations between the p quantile y(p) and the cdf F(x) hold
a) F(y(p)) = p
b) Y(p) = min {x(i) : F(x(i)) >= p}
The p quantile y(p) is roughly said the value for which 100*p% of the observed data are smaller or equal
to.
Estimation of P quantile v(P)
Denote by z(i), i=l, ..,n the ordered sequence of the x(i)'s, e.g.
z(1) <= z(2) <= z(3) <= .... '= z(n 1) '= z(n)
and let p(i) = (i 0.5)/n.
Then the P quantile can be computed as follows:
1) 1) If P equals a p(i), then z(i) is the P quantile
Y(P) = z(i)
2) Otherwise compute
j(P) = nP + 0.5
and split this value j(P) into a whole number j and the remaining part B (e.g. 1.347 is split into j=1 and
B=0.347). The P quantile is then

An example
Consider the following ordered sample

i Z(I) p(i)
1 156 0.0417
2 158 0.1250
3 159 0.2083
4 160 0.2917
5 161 0.3750
6 161 0.4583
7 163 0.5417
8 166 0.6250
9 166 0.7083
10 168 0.7917
11 172 0.8750
12 174 0.9583

12.5 % quantile (P=0.125)

As P=p(2), our 12.5 %-quantile y(.125) equals the second ordered observation, thus y(.125) = 158
10 % quantile (P=O.1)
Compute j(P)=nP + 0.5 = 12*0.1 + 0.5 = 1.7
As this yields no whole number our 10 % quantile is (j=1 and B=0.7)
y(.1) = (1 B) z(1) + B z(2)
= 0.3*156 + 0.7*158 = 157.4
25 %-quantile (P=0.25)
Compute j(P)=nP + 0.5 = 12*0.25 + 0.5 = 3.5
As this yields no whole number our 10 % quantile is (j=3 and B=0.5)
y(.25) = 0.5*159 + 0.5*160 = 159.5
50 % quantile (P=0.5)
Compute j(P)=nP + 0.5 = 12*0.5 + 0.5 = 6.5
As this yields no whole number our 10 % quantile is (j=6 and B=0.5)
y(.5) = 0.5*161 + 0.5*163 = 162
Some of the quantiles have special names, e.g.

50 % quantile median (M)

25 % quantile lower quantile (LQ)

75 % quantile upper quantile (UP)

10 % quantile lower decile (LD)

90 % quantile upper decile (UD)

OQ UQ Inter quantile range (IQ)

2.2.2 The Box Plot

Today the box-plot is perhaps the most frequently used graphical representation for univariate data. It
offers a condensed picture of the data's distribution and shows location, variability and extremes of the
data.
In order to construct the box plot we need three quartiles:
¨ the median
¨ the lower quantile
¨ the upper quantile
The construction is very simple:

where L = max (LQ 1.5 x IQ, min xi)

U = min (UQ + 1.5 x IQ, max xi)
IQ = UQ IQ
x denotes extreme values.
This construction is based on the fact that for a normal distribution approximately 1 % of the data lie
outside the interval (L,U).
An alternative method also frequently used, would be not to use L and U but instead use the lower and
upper decile. Especially for non normal distributions this representation seems preferable.
2.2.3 Measures of location
The arithmetic mean is the mean of all observations and corresponds to the centre of gravity in physics.
The median is the central value. Half of the observations are smaller, respectively greater than the
median.
Place the measured values in an ordered array starting with the smallest value

From this array we obtain the median by

if n is odd
if n is even
For a great number of observations the ordering is very laborious. In this case the median may be
determined graphically from the cumulative frequency curve by looking for the point on the x axis
corresponding to a cumulative frequency of 50 %.
Mean or Median?
If the histogram is symmetrical, mean and median are approximately the same. In this case the mean is a
better estimate of central tendency if the distribution is not too long tailed.
If the histogram is skew, mean and median are different.
¨ Use the mean if you are interested in the centre of gravity or the sum of all observations
¨ Use the median if you are interested in the centre, i.e. with equal probability a future observation
will be smaller, resp. greater than the median.
Example 2
The following histogram represents the income of 479 persons

In this extremely skew distribution the arithmetic mean is quite different from the median. Whereas the
median represents a typical income, the mean can be used in a projection to estimate the total income of
the population if the sample is drawn at random.
The trimmed mean is used to estimate the mean of a symmetrical distribution if gross errors in the data
are suspected.
To calculate the a-trimmed mean the a-percent largest and smallest values are deleted. The trimmed
mean is then the arithmetic mean of the remaining observations. Notation for the 5%-trimmed mean:
xtrimmed 0 05
Usual values for a: 5 % to 10 %
The weighted mean is used if certain weighting factors wi are associated with the observation xi. Reasons
may be:

- samples of unequal weights

- observation are measured with unequal precision

Schematic survey on the use of measures of location:

Type of distribution

Measure to be used: arithmetic mean

Measure to be used: trimmed mean

Measure to be used: median

Measure to be used: median or arithmetic mean. The choice depends on the interest of the user.
Remark: The median is equal to the 50%-trimmed mean.
2.2.4 Measures of Variability
The variance is the mean square deviation of single observations from the mean.

For practical computations use

The standard deviation is the positive square root of the variance.

In our example:

The coefficient of variation is a relative measure of the variability (relative to the mean).

v is often used for comparing variabilities. It is especially useful if s increases proportionally with the mean
, i.e. v = constant.
Example of compressive strength:

The range is the difference between the largest and the smallest value.

Useful with small sample sizes.

Note: The range increases in general with increasing sample size n (greater probability to get extreme
values).

If the variables under consideration are assumed to be normally distributed then

the range can be used to provide an estimate of the standard deviation, according to

where for
For sample size n >10 divide the set of observations in random sub samples of size n', calculate the
arithmetic mean of the range in these sub-samples, and estimate s according to

using a k-value corresponding to n'. . For a first rough estimation the following k values may be used:

for n = 20
for n = 50
for n = 100

The interquartile range is the difference between the upper and lower quartiles.

If the distribution is symmetric

2.2.5 Statistical program packages
There are a lot of statistical programs on PCs, microcomputers and mainframes that offer the possibility to
compute these statistical measures including quartiles and even to plot the box plots. The perhaps most
prominent under many others are SAS, SYSTAT/SYGRAPH, SPSS, BMDP, STATGRAPHICS.
2.2.6 Interpretation of the standard deviation
In the histogram of example 1 (chapter 2.1) frequency of observations decreases on both sides of the
mean. The distribution law seems to be symmetrical. In the present case we consider the 90
measurements to be a random sample of a specific distribution model, the normal distribution (or
Gaussian distribution). This type of distribution is represented by a symmetrical, bell shaped curve, and
often observed in practical applications.
The normal distribution is determined by the mean and the standard deviation.

For this distribution about 68 % of the observation are expected in the interval mean ±1 standard
deviation.
If the distribution is not normal, the standard deviation allows no direct interpretation. In this case we can
determine the interval that contains a certain portion of the observations graphically from the cumulative
frequency curve.
Another possibility to get an interpretation of the standard deviation in a skew distribution is “normalising”
of the distribution by transformations. In the case of example 2 (chapter 2.2.3), the logarithms of incomes
show approximately a normal distribution. So called variance-stabilising transformations are especially
used to fulfil normality conditions in higher statistical analysis.
For further information consult e.g. Natrella (1963).
Further properties of the normal distribution are given in section 3.
2.2.7 Outliers
As mentioned in the introduction we have to expect about 5 % to 10 % gross errors in a set of
observations. Most of them may not be recognisable in the region of all other values. Some may be
extremely outlying values with an important influence on statistical results.
In modern statistics robust methods are studied, which are not sensitive to a certain portion of gross
errors, as for example the median or the trimmed mean. More sophisticated robust procedures are in
general rather complicated.
If classical measures as the standard deviation and the arithmetic mean are used, we have to check the
data for outliers and to eliminate them from the set of observations (cf. example A2, Appendix I).
Note: If outliers are eliminated, they must be recorded separately in the report.
To detect outliers, check the data plot (tally, histogram or chronological order) for suspicious values. If
outliers are suspected and the data show a normal distribution, use the Dixon criterion for rejecting
observations (n<26).
The Dixon Criterion
Procedure
1) Choose a, the probability or risk we are willing to take of rejecting an observation that really belongs in
the group.
2) If

3£n£7 Compute r10

8 £ n £ 10 Compute r11
11 £ n £ 13 Compute r21
14 £ n £ 25 Compute r22

1) where rij is computed as follows

If is suspect If is suspect

3) Look up for the from Step (2), in Table A 2

4) If reject the suspect observation; otherwise, retain it.
In the case of a sample size n>25 use the following procedure:
1) Choose a, the probability or risk we are willing to take of rejecting an observation that really
belongs to the group
2) Calculate
3) Look for in Table A 3, Appendix III
(4) If reject the suspect observation, otherwise retain it.
Note: The presented outlier rejecting rules are only valid in normal distributions. In a skew distribution, the
elimination of outliers is very dangerous and should be avoided. In this case the reason for the extreme
observation must be known.
A check for outliers is not necessary if the trimmed mean or the median is used and if we are only
interested in a location measure.
For further tests on outliers cf. "Wissenschaftliche Tabellen Geigy, Statistik".
The standard deviation is extremely sensitive to outliers.
A check is therefore important, because it is not allowed to calculate a standard deviation from a trimmed
set of observations.
3. THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION (ND)
As mentioned in section 2, the normal distribution is a theoretical model of a statistical universe
(population), defined by the mean m and the standard deviation s. Graphically it is represented by a
smooth, symmetric mean x and the standard deviation s of the samples are estimated for the true, but
unknown values m and s.
By the standardisation formula
(respectively if n is large)
the ND is transformed in a normalised form with mean 0 and standard deviation 1.
Formulae for the standard normal distribution:
Density function (bell shaped curve):

Especially of interest is the area under the curve (distribution function), which corresponds for every given
value z to the probability of an observation to be smaller than z.

Numerical values for z and f(z) are given in Table A 1, Appendix III. The probability to observe a measured
value between two given limits T1 and T2 can be calculated as follows:
1) transform the limits T1 and T2 in a standardised form
2) calculate the probability with help of Table A 1 by

Interpretation of the standard deviation in a normal distribution:

We expect about 95 % of the observation between m-2s and m+2s . More general we have:
The statement that the values (of the population) lie between m+z1-a/2.. and m-z1-a/2.. is right with the
probability S = 1 - a and wrong with probability a. One sided or two sided regions may be considered. The
corresponding z-values are taken from a table of the standard normal distribution.
Usual percentiles for the statistical confidence S:
a) Two sided,

S(%) 90 95 99 99.9
-z a/2 = z1 -- a/2 1.64 1.96 2.58 3.29

b) One sided,

S(%) 90 95 99 99.9
-z a = z1 -- a 1.28 1.64 2.33 3.09

How to check normality?

Before using the characteristics of the ND the validity of the model has to be checked.
Method: Draw the cumulative frequency curve in the normal probability paper (Appendix II). Normality can
be assumed if the resulting curve is approximately a straight line between 5% and 95%.
Example: Normal probability plot of compressive strength data

Conclusion: The observations of compressive strength follow approximately a normal distribution.

Short cut rule for rejecting normality: If no negative values are allowed in the observations and the
coefficient of variation is greater than 30 %, the distribution is not normal.
4. CONFIDENCE LIMITS
4.1 Confidence limits for the mean
The arithmetic mean is an estimate for the true, unknown mean of the population of all possible
observations. We may be interested in the precision of this estimation. Therefore we calculate a
confidence interval that contains the true value with high probability (confidence level).
a) If the distribution is normal:
Two sided confidence interval at confidence level 1-a

with
f = n-1 degrees of freedom
t1-a/2;f given in Table A 4, Appendix III (Student t-Distribution)
Interpretation:
With probability 1-a the true mean m lies between the two confidence limits.
For n>50 t1-a/2;f may be replaced by z1-a/2 given on page 15 (corresponding to normal deviates of
Table A 1, Appendix III). In our example of compressive strength we calculate the 95% confidence interval
by replacing the t- by the z- value:

b) If the distribution is not normal:

Approximate confidence intervals can be obtained by

This approximation is derived from the central limit theorem and can be used if

c) Range method:
In the case of a normal distribution, confidence limits may be calculated by use of the range instead of the
standard deviation (often used in quality control for small sample sizes n).

Values for are given in Table A 6, Appendix III.

4.2 Confidence limits for the median
Confidence limits for the median can be determined directly from the ordered array of observations.

(1-a)-confidence interval:

with rounded to the next lower integer value

z1-a/2 is given in Table A 1, Appendix III.
4.3 Confidence limits for the standard deviation
If the population follows a normal distribution, two sided confidence limits are given by

with f = n 1 degrees of freedom

critical values of the chi-square distribution given in Table A 5, Appendix III
Confidence intervals are reduced with increasing sample size n, i.e. the more observations available, the
better is the estimation.
The degree of improvement for the arithmetic mean can be derived from the fundamental central limit
theorem. If several samples of size n are drawn from the same population, the arithmetic means of these
samples are approximately normal with mean m and standard deviation s/Ön, the so called standard error
of the mean (SEM).
For increasing n to infinity, the standard error of the mean tends to zero, i.e. the estimation tends to be
absolutely precise if no systematic errors are present.
4.4 Other methods for the construction of confidence limits
Sometimes it happens that we have to deal with very complicated functions of random variables, for
which we can't derive or know the underlying distribution function, but we would like to have confidence
limits for the values of this complicated function. A newer method, the Bootshap method (B. Efron, 1983),
allows to obtain such results, but is rather intensive in calculation.
5. STANDARD TESTS
5.1 General Test Idea
Tests are used to make decisions in the case of incomplete information. We want to know if some
observed difference is significant or only an effect of random errors.
Significant:
We decide that a difference really exists. The probability of this decision to be false is known and can be
chosen by the decision maker. A usual choice of this error probability is 5%.
Not significant:
The observed difference may be realized by chance alone. The data give no argument to suppose the
existence of a real difference. If such a difference really exists the sample size n is too small to detect it.
Example 3:
At a cement plant A, 618 titration samples gave the mean value and the calculated standard deviation.
At a later stage a further series of 525 samples were taken and after processing, yielded the information
of calculated mean value and calculated standard deviation
Your decision problem is:
State whether a significant change has occurred under plant conditions!
Example 4:
The production rate of a cement mill in tons/hr was measured as:

28.3 27.2 29.3 26.7 29.9 24.6 25.0 30.0 26.3 27.8

After modification, the production rate of the same mill in tons/hr was measured as:

28.0 30.0 30.5 26.0 31.0 30.3 24.6 25.4 26.7 29.3

Your decision problem is:

Has the modification made a significant improvement?
There are many problems in which we are interested in whether the mean (or another parameter value)
exceeds a given number, is less than a given number, falls into a certain interval, etc.
Instead of estimating exactly the value of the mean (or another parameter), we thus want to decide
whether a statement concerning the mean (or other parameter value) is true or false, i.e. we want to test a
hypothesis H0 about the mean (or another value).
In example 3 the hypothesis H0 could be
“No significant change has occurred in the plant conditions"
In example 4 the hypothesis H0 could be
“No significant improvement has been made by the modification”
We will solve the two given decision problems later in section 5.2 (test procedures).
Now we will consider another specific example introducing at the same time the important parts of all
similar decision problems.
Example 5:
In the manufacture of safety razor blades the width is obviously important. Some variation in dimension
must be expected due to a large number of s mall causes affecting the production process. But even so
the average width should meet a certain specification. Suppose that the production process for a
particular brand of razor blades has been geared to produce a mean width of 0.700 inches. Production
has been underway for some time since the cutting and honing machines were set for the last time, and
the production manager wishes to know whether the mean width is still 0.700 inches, as intended.
We call set of all blades coming from the production line in a certain time interval (t, t+h) the statistical
population to be studied. For example t = January 5th, 0oo and t+h = January 6th, 000, if the statistical
population we are interested in is the set of all blades produced on January 5th.
If the production process was initially set up on that day to give a mean width of 0.700 inches, we can say
that the hypothesis H0 "the produced mean width of the regarded population is 0.700" should be tested.
In symbols this is: µ0 = 0.700 = hypothesized mean.
Accepting the Hypothesis H0:
Suppose we draw a simple random sample of 100 blades from the production line. We measure each of
these carefully and find the mean width of the sample to be 0.7005 inches. The standard deviation in the
sample turns out to be 0.010 inches. That is,

n = 100
= 0.7005 inches
s = 0.010 inches

For the hypothesis µ0 = 0.700 to be true, the sample mean = 0.7005 inches would have to be drawn from
the sampling distribution of all possible sample means whose overall mean is 0.700 inches.
Now the important question arises: If the true mean of the population really were 0.700 inches, how likely
is it that we would draw a random sample of 100 blades and find their mean width to be as far away as
0.7005 inches or farther? In other words, what is the probability that a value could differ by 0.0005 inches
or more from the population mean by chance alone?
If this is a high probability, we can accept the hypothesis that true mean is 0.700 inches, because it is very
easy to get it (high probability).
If the probability is low, however, the truth of the hypothesis becomes questionable because the sample
we got is in reality very seldom.
To get at this question, compute the standard error of the mean from the sample:

Since the difference between the hypothetical mean and the observed sample mean is 0.0005 inches and
the standard error of the mean is 0.001 inches, the difference equals 0.5 standard errors. By consulting
Table A-1 (zp = 0.5)* we find that the area within this interval around the mean of a normal curve is 38%,
so that 100 - 38 = 62 % of the total area falls outside this interval (cf. dashed lines below).If 0.700 inches
were the true mean, therefore, we should nevertheless expect to find that about 62% of all such possible
means would, by chance alone, fall as far away as 0.5 sx or farther.
Therefore, the probability is 62% that our particular sample mean could fall this far away. This is a
substantial reason to accept the hypothesis and attribute to mere chance the appearance of a 0.7005
inches mean in a single random sample of 100 blades.
Naturally we reject in the same time the contrary of H0 namely that:

In case H0 can not be rejected, avoid saying “it is proved that H0 is correct”. or "there are no differences
in the means”, say "there is no evidence that H0 is not true" or "there is no evidence H0 should be
rejected”.
Rejecting the Hypothesis H0:
Later, after production has gone on for some time, the query again arises:
Is it reasonable to believe that the true mean width of blades produced remains 0.700 inches? Since the
process was adjusted to yield that figure the hypothesis still seems reasonable. We could then test it by
taking another random sample of 100 blades.
This time the standard deviation is still 0.010 inches, so the standard error of the mean is still 0.001
inches, but the mean is now 0.703 inches:
In order to test the hypothesis that the true mean of the population is 0.700 inches, we again go through
the same line of reasoning. If the true population mean really were 0.700 inches, how likely is it that we
should draw a random sample of 100 blades and find their sample mean to be as far away as 0.703
inches?
Since the difference between the hypothetical mean of 0.700 inches and the actual sample mean of 0.703
inches is 0.003 inches, and the standard error of the mean is 0.001 inches, the difference is equal to three
standard errors of the mean (i.e. 0.003/0.001 = 3).
Now if 0.700 inches really were the population mean, we know from Table A-1, Appendix III that 99.7% of
all possible sample means, for random samples of 100, would fall within three standard errors around
0.700 inches. Hence, the probability is only 0.3% that we would get a sample mean falling as far away as
ours does.
We have two choices:
1) We may continue to accept the hypothesis (i.e. leave the production process alone), and attribute
the deviation of the sample mean to chance.
2) We may reject the hypothesis as being inconsistent with the evidence found in the sample
(hence, correct the production process).
Either of two things is true and we have to make a decision between them:
1) the hypothesis is correct, and an exceedingly unlikely event has occurred by chance alone (one
which would be expected to happen only 3 out of 1000 times); or
2) the hypothesis is wrong
Type I and Type II Errors
Understandably, the question can be raised: What critical value should we select for the probability of
getting the observed difference (x - m0) by chance, above which we should accept the hypothesis H0 and
below which we should reject it? This value is called the
critical probability or level of significance
The answer to this question is not simple, but to explore it will throw further light on the nature and logic of
statistical decision making. Let's study the following example:
in H0 is true H0 is false

In reality H0 is true H0 is false

We decide
Accept H0 3 right decision
accept a true hypothesis 2 error II
accept a false hypothesis
Reject H0 1 error I
reject a true hypothesis 4 error II
accept a false hypothesis

Example:
H0: the parliament building burns
Decision maker is the commander of the fire brigade.
Another expression for error I is: error of first kind
Another expression for error II is: error of second kind
If we ask here, what is worse
¨ error I or error II,
then error I naturally costs a lot of money because the fire will destroy the whole parliament building. Error
II only moves the fire-brigade.
In a long run of cases which the hypothesis is in fact true (although we do not know it is true, for otherwise
there would be no need to test it), we will necessarily either be wrong as in 1 or right as in 3.
That is to say, if we make an error it will be of Type I.
Suppose we should adopt 5% as the critical probability. accepting the hypothesis when the probability of
getting the observed difference by chance exceeds 5% and rejecting the hypothesis when this probability
proves to be less than 5%. This amounts to the decision to accept the hypothesis when the discrepancy
of the sample mean is less than 1.96 standard deviations, and to reject the hypothesis when the
discrepancy is more than 1.96 standard deviations.
If we take 1% instead of 5%, as above, we will get as limit 2.58 standard deviations.
In fact, the percentage of cases in which we would expect to make an error of the first kind is precisely
equal to the critical probability adopted.
(The probability of error I will be abbreviated quite often by a).
Just significant probability level:
In many studies the critical probability is used to describe the statistical significance of a sample result.
For example, an economist collects some data on, say, interest rates and the demand for money. He
hypothesizes some relationship and wishes to see if the data support his thesis. He tests the hypothesis
to rule out the alternative that the observed relationship occurred by pure chance. He reports his sample
results as "significant at the 1 percent level". Such a statement is a report to the reader that has the
following meaning:
1) if we were to set up a statistical hypothesis
2) if we were to test this hypothesis using a critical probability of 1%
3) then we would reject the hypothesis and rule out a chance relationship
Significance levels of 10%, 5%, 1%, 0.1% are often used in reporting sample data. The smallest of these
probability values is chosen at which the hypothesis can be rejected.
So we see now what is basic for every statistical test:
1) we need a clear hypothesis H0
2) we have to know by which statistic we want to test H0 (in our example it was )
3) we need a criterion C for decision making in the following form:
reject H0 if C applies
accept H0 if C does not apply
The criterion C is usually given in form of a critical limit, called significance limit, which should not be
exceeded by the calculated test statistic.
To perform such a statistical test, it is necessary to select the risk to commit a type I error, i.e. the
significance level a (see section 5.2, p. 28).
Often a relevant difference has to be detected with a certain probability, i.e. with a predetermined type II
error b. This is only possible with a certain sample size n, as is further outlined in section 5.3.
If we reject a hypothesis when it should be accepted, we say that a Type I error has been made. If, on the
other hand, we accept a hypothesis when it should be rejected, we say that a Type II error has been
made. In either case a wrong decision or error in judgement has occurred.
In order for any tests of hypotheses or rules of decision to be good, they must be designed so as to
minimize errors of decision. This is not a simple matter since, for a given sample size, an attempt to
decrease one type of error increases the other type. In practice one type of error may be more serious
than the other, and so a compromise should be reached in favour of a limitation of the more serious error.
The only way to reduce both types of error is to increase the sample size, which may or may not be
possible.
Note that from the philosophy of testing there is always the possibility to reject H0 although H0 effectively
is true (the probability for this is a, the type I error probability). So if you are testing say 100 “correct”
datasets (i.e. for which H0 holds) to a significance level a = 5% you will expect about five results that
reject H0, although it holds. This has to be considered if a lot of (statistical) tests are made on the same
data material (see e.g. Multiple Testing ....... .”Simultaneous Statistical Inference”, Miller, 1981).
One-sided and two-sided tests
In example 5 we are interested in values of significantly higher or smaller than m0. Any such test which
takes account of departures from the null hypothesis H0 in both directions is called a two-sided test (or
two-tailed test )
However, other situations exist in which departures form H0 in only one direction is of interest. In example
4 we are interested only in an improvement of production rate due to the modification of the cement mill
and so a one-sided test is appropriate. It is important that the decision maker should decide if a one-tailed
or two-tailed test is required before the observations are taken.
5.2 Test Procedures
Performance of a statistical test requires in advance the recognition and formulation of the present
decision problem (test situation). Use the following checklist for applications of statistical tests:
CHECKLIST
1) Is the decision problem concerned with the mean. median. standard deviation. correlation
coefficient or other?
Formulate a clear hypothesis H0.
2) Is it a one-sample or a two-sample problem?
One-sample problem:
Mean, median or standard deviation of a given sample of size n is compared with a hypothetical value
(example 5).
Two-sample problem:
The decision problem is concerned with differences between two given samples.
3) For the two-sample problem: Are the observations independent or paired? Observations are
paired if every value in the first sample can be attached definitely to a value in the other sample. Paired
comparisons are in general considerably more efficient than a comparison of independent samples.
4) Is the sample drawn from a normal distribution?
5) Decide between one-sided or two-sided test.
One-sided tests are used if differences only in one direction may occur or are of interest.
Two-sided tests are used if no preliminary information is available, in what direction the sample may differ.
6) Choose the test procedure in the table “TEST CONCERNED WITH” (sample sizes n<50 are
considered to be small).
7) Choose the significance level a. Usual choices are a = 5% or a = 1% (error of type I).
8) Calculate the test statistic T of the chosen test (cf. the formulae of the following pages).
9) Look for the significance limit Tp for the test statistic in the corresponding table with p = 1-a/2
(two-sided test) or p = 1-a (one-sided test).
10) Decision: If the calculated test statistic exceeds the significance limit, reject the hypothesis H0
(the observed difference is significant at the level a). Otherwise there is no reason to reject the hypothesis
H0 and the difference is considered to be not significant.
TEST CONCERNED WITH

test situation median mean general normal distribution mean standard deviation
0ne-sample problem
small n (n<50) sign test signed-rank-testt-test x2-test
large n (n³50) sign test z-test z-test x2-test
Two-sample problem independent
small n median test Wilcoxon-test t-test F-test
large n median test z-test z-test F-test
paired
small n sign test signed-rank-testt-test -
large n sign test z-test z-test -
More than two samples x2-test Krukskal- Wallis-test Analysis of variance (ANOVA) Friedmann-test
Bartlett-test
(These tests are not treated i n this paper)

Selected test statistics

5.2.1 z-Test
Used to test means with large sample size n.
a) One-sample-problem:
Given is a sample of size n with arithmetic mean and standard deviation s, we test the hypothesis that
the mean (estimated by ) is equal to a given or target value m0
Hypothesis H0 m = m0
Test statistic
In general s is not known. It can be replaced by s for large sample sizes.
b) Two independent samples:
Given are two samples of size n1 and n2 with arithmetic means and standard deviations s1, s2.
Hypothesis H0 m1 = m2
Test statistic
c) Paired comparison
Given is a sample of n paired observations xi, yj. Calculate the arithmetic mean of all the differences and
the standard deviation sd.
Hypothesis H0 mx = my respectively md = 0
Test statistic
Significance limits
Often used significance limits for z1-a (one-sided test) and z1-a/2 (two-sided test) are

z0 95 = 1.645 z0.975 = 1.960

z0 99 = 2.326 z0 995 = 2.576

For other significance levels a look for z1-a in Table A-1.

Decision
The difference is significant if
two sided test
one-sided test
Example
a) In the example 1 we test the two-sided hypothesis H0:
µ = 35.0 N/mm2 = µ0 (one-sample problem).
= 33.2
s = 5.6
n = 90
a = 0.05

Izl = 3.05 ' 1.96 = Z0.975

Decision: The sample mean differs significantly from the standard strength 35.0 N/mm2.
b) in example 3 (chapter 5.1) we test the hypothesis whether a change in plant conditions has
occurred or not (two independent samples):
H0: µ1 = m2
n1 = 618, n2 = 525
x1 = 82.67, x2 = 85.58
s1 = 4.13, s2 = 3.79
a = 0.05 (two-sided test)
85.58-82.67

Decision: Highly significant difference between the two samples of titration values.
5.2.2 Sign Test
Test for the median in one-sample problems and paired comparisons.
a) One-sample problem: Given is a sample of size n.
We test the hypothesis that the median of the population is equal to a given value m0
H0: median = m0
Test statistic:
Count the number of observations smaller than m0 and those larger than m0. The test statistic k is then
the smaller of the two numbers.
b) Paired comparison: Given are n paired observations xi, yj.
We test the hypothesis that xi and yj have the same median.
Test statistic:
For each pair of observations xi, yj record the sign of the difference yi - xi .
The test statistic k is then the number of occurrences of the less frequent sign.
Significance limits
Calculate (two-sided test).
For the one-sided test replace a/2 by a. Zp is the significance limit of the z-test

Decision
If k is less than ka/2 (resp. ka) conclude that the medians are different, otherwise, there is no reason to
believe that the medians differ. 44
Example
Test the hypothesis that 50% of the population has an income of more than 3000 (example 2).
H0: m0 = 3000
k = 217
n = 479
a = 0.05 two-sided test

The test is just significant at the 5% level. Because the sample median is 2700, we conclude that less
than 50% of the population has an income of 3000.
5.2.3 Signed-rank test
Test for the mean in symmetrical distributions with small sample sizes n (one-sample or paired
comparison).
a) One-sample problem: Given is a sample of size n from a symmetrical distribution.
Hypothesis H0 : µ = µ0
Disregarding signs, rank the di according to their numerical value, i.e., assign rank 1 to the smallest
observation, assign the rank of 2 to the di which is next smallest, etc. In case of ties, assign the average
of the ranks which would have been assigned if the di's had differed only slightly. (If more than 20% of the
observations are involved in ties, this procedure should not be used).
To the assigned ranks 1, 2, 3, etc., prefix a + or a - sign, according to whether the corresponding di is
positive or negative. The test statistic T is then the sum of these signed ranks.
a) Paired comparisons: Given are n paired observations xi, yi.
The hypothesis is tested that both have the same mean.
Test statistic: Compute di = yi - xi for each pair of observation and continue as in a).
Significance limits
Look for T0.95 or T0.975 in Table A-7. If the number m of differences di exceeds 20 perform a z-test with
Decision
Conclude that the means differ if

two-sided test
one-sided test
one-sided test

5.2.4 Wilcoxon-Test
Test for a comparison of means in two independent samples:
Given are two independent samples of size n1 and n2.
We test the hypothesis that both samples have the same mean
H0:µ1 = µ2
Test statistic:
Combine the observations from the two samples, and rank them in order of increasing size from smallest
to largest. Assign the rank of 1 to the lowest, a rank of 2 to the next lowest, etc. (Use algebraic size, i.e.,
the lowest rank is assigned to the largest negative number, if there are negative numbers). In case of ties,
assign to each the average of the ranks which would have been assigned if the tied observations had
differed only slightly. (If more than 20% of the observations are involved in ties, this procedure should not
be used).
Let n1 = smaller sample
n2 = larger sample
n = n1 + n2
Compute R, the sum of the ranks for the smaller sample. (If the two samples are equal in size, use the
sum of the ranks for either sample).
Compute W = 2R - n1(n + 1)
Significance limits
Look for W0.95 or W0.975 in Table A-8. For sample sizes not mentioned in the table perform a z-test with

Decision
Conclude that the means differ if

two-sided
one-sided
one-sided

Example
In example 4 (chapter 5.1) we are interested in an improvement of production rate after a modification of
the cement mill.
a = 0.05 (one-sided test)
Combined sample (values in italics correspond to the sample after modification):

tons/hr 24.6 24.6 25.0 25.4 26.0 26.3 26.7 26.7 27.2 27.8
rank 1.5 1.5 3 4 5 6 7.5 7.5 9 10

tons/hr 28.0 28.3 29.3 29.3 29.9 30.0 30.0 30.3 30.5 31.0
rank 11 12 13 14 15 16.5 16.5 18 19 20

The sum R of ranks in the second sample is

R = 1.5 + 4 + 5 + 7.5 + 11 + 13 + 16.5 + 18 + 19 + 20 = 115.5
W = 2 . 115.5 - 10 . 21 = 21
W = 21 < 46 = W0.95
Decision
The improvement is not significant. We have no reason to assume a real improvement due to the
modification.
5.2.5 t-Test
This test is used for comparisons of means in normal distribution with small sample sizes n. If the
distribution is not known to be normal, prefer rank tests (Wilcoxon, signed ranks).
The test situation is the same as in 5.2.1 (z-test) refer for remarks on hypothesis and decision. Instead of
z1-a look for significance limits t1-a in Table A-4, with n-1 degrees of freedom (df) in the one-sample case
or for paired comparison, and with n1 + n2 - 2 degrees of freedom (df) for the two-sample case
respectively.
One-sample problem: Given is a sample of size n drawn from a normal distribution.

Two independent samples: Given are two independent samples of size n1 and n2 from two normal
distributions with means µ1, µ2 and equal standard deviation s.

Paired comparison: Given are n pairs of observations xi, yi, when x and y follow a normal distribution.

5.2.6 Median-Tests
Median tests for two independent samples are not given here in an explicit form. For small sample sizes n
Fisher's test for 2 x 2 contingency tables and for large n x2-test for contingency tables may be used
(Natrella 1963, Noether 1971).
In a comparison of two independent samples we are often not interested in differences only of means or
medians, but generally in location differences of the two samples.
In this case use the tests for means, which are more efficient than median tests (Wilcoxon-test or z-test).
5.2.7 X2-Test
Several X2-tests are available for different test situations. The test we explain here is used to compare
the standard deviation s of a sample with hypothetical value s0.
X2-tests are also used for
¨ Goodness of fit test
¨ Independence test
¨ Loglinear models
(see e.g. Haberman, 1978)
Given is a sample of size n drawn from a normal distribution with mean m and standard deviation s. We
test the hypothesis that the standard deviation s, estimated by s from the sample is equal to a
hypothetical standard deviation s0.
H0: s = s0 Test statistic:
Significance limits
Look for significance limit X2p,m, in Table A-6 with m = n-1 degrees of freedom (df).
Decision

If X2 ³ X21-a/2;m or X2 £ X2a/2;m conclude: s = s0 (two-sided)

If X2 ³ X21-a;m conclude: s > s0 (one-sided)
X2 £ X2a;m conclude: s < s0 (one-sided)

Otherwise we have no reason to believe that s differs from s0.

5.2.8 F-Test
Comparison of the standard deviation in two independent samples.
Given are two independent samples of size n1 and n2 with standard deviations s1 and s2. Both samples
are drawn from a normal distribution. We test the hypothesis that both populations have the same
standard deviation.
H0: s1 = s2
Test statistic:
Let be s1 > s2, then compute

Significance limits
Look for F1-a;m1,m2 (one-sided) or F1-a/2;m1,m2 (two-sided) in Table A-9 with m1 = n1-1 and m2 = n2-1
degrees of freedom.
Decision
Conclude s1 ¹ s2 if F ³ F1-a/2;m1,m2 (two-sided)
or s1 > s2 if F ³ F1-a;m1,m2 (one-sided)
5.3 Sample Size Determination
As stated at the end of chapter 5.1, the probability b of making a type II error in a given test with
significance level a (type I error) depends upon the sample size n.
How can we determine the sample size that is necessary to hold the type II error within certain
boundaries (probability b)? Or in other words: What sample size n is necessary to detect a relevant
difference with great probability (1-b)?
Let us first examine a one-sided one-sample-test for testing a mean:
Suppose we are interested in the mean µ of a random variable X. We want to test the hypothesis H0: µ =
µ0 against the alternative hypothesis A: µ > µ0 with a z-test. The error-type-one shall be a.
The probability to detect a deviation of D from µ0 shall be at least (1 - b), if this deviation exceeds a
preselected relevant difference d (b is now an upper bound for the type II error).
The following figure shows the distribution of the sample mean under H0 and under the (special)
alternative hypothesis A: m = m0 + d:

Interpretation of the graph:

¨ CHo is the criteria (significance limit) of the test:
The hypothesis H0 is rejected with probability a even if it is true.
¨ On the other hand, the probability to accept H0: m = m0, even if the true mean is m = m0 + d
(type II error), is greater than b.
¨ The relevant difference d may only be detected with probability (1-b), if CHo £ CA; in this case the
risk to commit a type II error is £ b.
The variance of the two distributions becomes smaller with increasing n and hence CA moves to the right
and CHo to the left. Therefore, we can find an n such that CHo £ CA:

(1)

or (2)

n corresponds with the required sample size to detect a desired difference d with probability (1-b) by a z-
test with significance level a.
For the two-sided one-sample-test we only have to replace a by a/2, and we get:

(3)

Note: b is not replaced by b/2!

In a similar (but somewhat more complicated) way we find lower bounds for the sample sizes n1 and n2
satisfying our conditions in the one-sided two-sample-test:

(4)

For equal standard-deviations (s1 = s2 = s) we obtain from (4):

(5)

In the two-sided two-sample-test we simply have to replace a by a/2 in (4) or (5).

The following table shows short rules for determining sample sizes when a = b = 5% and s1. = s2 = s in
the two-sample-case. The numbers in parentheses refer to the formulae from which the rules are derived.

one sample two samples

one-sided
(2) (5; for s1 ¹ s2 see (4))
two-sided
(3) (5)

with d = relevant difference to be detected with probability (1-b)

a = b = 5%
Note:
¨ The variance s2 is usually not known, but often some knowledge about s2 is available from
former experiments (standard deviation). Otherwise s2 may be estimated in a pilot study.
¨ In the case of small sample sizes (t-test, Wilcoxon-test), add 5% to the calculated n.
6. DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION
(Chambers, Cleveland, Kleiner and Mikey, 1983).
The problem of data presentation and interpretation is common to cement manufacturers and users. In
every stage of cement, aggregate, concrete production and application, data concerning materials,
equipment, energy consumption, market situation, costs, etc. are generated. All this information must
increase the knowledge about what happens in the process and market, thus providing the basis of
decision. Moreover, communication between supplier and consumer has to rely on this information. We
consider it, therefore, vital not only for optimum manufacture of cement and cement based products, but
also with respect to the mutual relation between manufacturer and user that appropriate attention is given
to data handling, i.e. presentation and evaluation.
We may differentiate between three levels of information:
¨ data needed for direct process and quality control (routine decision, off- or on-line)
¨ data required for day-to-day management decisions based on quality reports
¨ additional data allowing long-term improvements and developments.
With respect to presentation and interpretation of test results, the main problems for plant management
are:
¨ how to organize the required information flow so that decision can be made at all levels of
competence
¨ to reproduce and evaluate the corresponding data in a specific situation.
The relevant data of al1 domains cannot be made available without a functional information system. But
availability alone does not necessarily result in a rational decision based on the data. To achieve this, two
further aspects must be considered: first, the data should be presented in an intelligible form, i.e. a high
transparency of the results enables the management to recognize certain relationships or critical results in
time. Secondly, the decision maker must be aware of accuracy, significance and relevance of the
considered data in order to provide a realistic interpretation.
Availability of data
A quick availability of data does not necessarily require a fully integrated data based system with
electronic data processing, but is rather a matter of organization. Important data (e.g. for process and
quality control) should circulate with little loss of time. Consequently, an appropriate reporting system
(organization) must be established. Additional data should not disappear in some drawer where a later
retrieval is impossible or at least very inconvenient. To avoid such a disorder, all data are recorded in a
similar way, including a note on the circumstances of measurement and provenance of samples and test
results. Remarks about circumstances and provenance are used to judge the comparability of different
sets of observations. A standardised recording procedure makes data surveying easy and simplifies a
later change to electronic data processing.
6.1 Intelligible Presentation
The main aim of data presentation is transparency rather than secrecy, i.e. graphs should be employed
instead of tables. A graphical presentation gives a quick survey on relevant information such as changes
in time, extreme values, relationship between variables. A short survey on frequently used graphs can be
found in section 6.4. It is recommended to produce the graphs directly at the source of the data in the
form of tallies and/or control charts. A control chart may already be included in the laboratory journal and
reports, directly behind the columns for sample identification and test results. The possibility of obtaining a
quick survey by consulting a well presented graph will not only help the management in its decision
making, but transparency will also improve interest and motivation of the personnel at any level of
competence.
6.2 Interpretation
First of all. we must know how much we can rely on the data.
Test results are never "true" values, but are rather subject to errors of three types (see also section 1):
¨ random errors caused by sampling, imprecise measurement, environmental effects, etc.
¨ systematic errors caused by bias in sampling or process measurement, by the use of inadequate
experimental design
¨ gross errors caused by recording wrong or not comparable values.
Usually, we expect 5 to 10% gross errors in a set of observations. Random errors may be denoted as
reproducibility and expressed as the corresponding standard deviation. In general, these errors are
underestimated. Reproducibility should be known for every important analyzing method. Systematic and
gross errors are difficult to characterize. They should be minimized by careful experimentation and data
handling. A periodic check for systematic errors should be done (calibration, comparison with a standard,
inter-laboratory test).
How to compare several data sets or groups of data?
Before any comparison is made, we have to seriously check the comparability of data. Often, data sets
differ in provenance of samples or circumstance of measurement, so that a comparison ma y be
impossible. Even the fact that sample 1 was measured by laboratory assistant Miller and sample 2 by
Brown will lead to a biased comparison if there is any relevant systematic error between the two persons.
If the data sets are comparable and we observe a certain difference, we have to ask the following
questions before taking any action:
a) Is the difference significant?
b) Is the difference relevant?
The problem of significance is answered by a statistical test. If it is not significant, we have no reason to
take any action because the observed difference may occur by chance alone. If the test indicates a
significant difference, it is not necessarily relevant for the problem we are concerned with. Of course, the
decision whether or not it is relevant is not a statistical problem. Perhaps a decision maker is alarmed
when an observed difference, considered to be relevant in the present problem, does not lead to a
significant test result. In this case, the sample size used may be too small or the testing procedures may
not be sufficiently sensitive to solve the given problem.
Consequently, experience in product manufacture and application is necessary to assess the relevance of
difference between target quality and experimental values. However, to judge whether it is significant
requires a training in statistical technique, particularly test procedures. Decisions based simply on either
practical experience of many years (relevance) or on statistical technique and procedures (significance)
will lead to too frequent and unnecessary actions in both the manufacturing process and product
application.
6.3 Data Interpretation related to Problems in Cement Application
If confronted with the problem of finding the reasons for poor quality of cement related products (concrete,
asbestos cement, etc.), the cement is often suspected to be the cause. This can be explained by the fact
that cement is the binding agent, and in the majority of cases constitutes the most expensive component,
although it is known that the effect of other components, proportioning and curing conditions etc. are of
great importance. A further reason to inspect the cement first is the difficulty to specify the other effects
while cement is well defined by its chemical and mineralogical composition and its fineness.
To find out the causes for inferiority or changes in quality, a collaboration of consumer, producer and
statistician is indispensable: the statistician may be omitted in uncomplicated problems if delegates of
consumer or producer are well trained in statistics. In a first retrospective analysis of available data,
parallel changes of parameters and quality are studied. This is done by drawing scatter diagrams and
performing a regression analysis. The disadvantage of retrospective studies is the difficulty to find out
causal relationships. The effects of several variables are mixed and cannot be separated due to their
causal origin. On the other hand, an observed correlation indicates a possible causal effect. The decision
about what cause is really responsible must be made by an experienced specialist and not by a statistical
test. Often a decision is not possible because dependencies are too complex. In this case, a special
experiment has to be planned and performed with a controlled variation of suspected variables and
careful elimination of interfering effects (prospective analysis). In contrast to the retrospective analysis, an
adequately designed experiment renders it possible to evaluate and judge causal effects with statistical
methods. A short survey on the use and interpretation in regression/correlation analysis and designed
experiments is given in chapter 7.
Survey on Graphical Data Representation
Representation of one sample - documentation
Frequency table / Tally
Given is a sample of large size n. Observations are grouped into classes of equal length and marked in
the tally.
Example: 90 values of concrete strength

Histogram
Graphical representation of the tally. Visualization of minimum, maximum, center and shape of the
distribution.
Area of rectangles corresponds to absolute or relative frequencies in the classes.

Frequency curve
Relative (or absolute) frequencies plotted against class mid point. Every point on the curve corresponds
to the relative (or absolute) frequency of observations falling in this class.

Cumulative frequency curve

Cumulated relative frequencies plotted against upper class boundaries. Every point on the curve
corresponds to the portion of values which are smaller than any given strength x.
Example: Half of the measurements are smaller (respectively greater) than 33.5 N/mm2

Stem-and-leaf Diagram
Similar to the histogram, but allows to see the individual data. Each observation is a leaf of a stem.

Representation of small samples

For small sample sizes n the individual values are plotted directly on the measurement scale. Suitable to
detect outliers and skewed distribution.

Example: K2O-content of 10 cements

Time-plot
Often it is appropriate to draw the observations in chronological order to show a possible change of the
level in time.
Useful in annual reports.

Cumulative time-plot
Cumulated values are plotted against time. Used to show deviations from a cumulative target.
Example: Actual clinker production is cumulated every month and compared with a target.

Box-Plot (Box-and Whisker-Plot)

Special and frequently used plot to numerize data. Shows median, lower and upper quartile (forming the
box) and two lines (the whiskers) extending to the extremes of the data. If unusual extreme values occur,
the whiskers extend only to those points that are within 1.5 times the inter-quartile range.

Scatter-plot or x-y plot

Plots two variables against each other.
Draftmensplot
Plots two or more variables against each other!

Flury-Riedevyl faces and Chemoff faces

Faces are a method to show multivariate data graphically. Each variable is mapped to one or more of the
face parameters. Other methods to represent multivariate data are the star symbol plot, the sun ray plot,
castles and trees.

6.4 Control Charts

Control charts are special time-plots to show a possible change of the characteristics in a production
process. The essence of a control chart is its clearness and intelligibility. In a quick survey it is possible to
recognize natural subgroups, within which variation is likely to be random but among which assignable
causes of one sort or another may cause non-random variation.
Summarized statistical errors (such as means or standard deviations) and confidence limits determined
from overall sample data can be very misleading, if the data are not free from the effects of assignable
causes. In cement industry annual means and standard deviations are mostly misleading due to a
nonstationarity of the process, i.e. the occurrence of systematic changes at the production level.
(Example: mean and standard deviation of the lime saturation of raw meal and/or clinker in annual
reports. Changes in the target value required by the process or the product lead to a high non-
interpretable standard deviation.)
If possible, the data should originally be collected with this subgrouping in mind; in such cases, the
analyses can be simplified by arranging for an equal number of observations in each subgroup. If the data
must be analyzed as they come, subgrouping may still be possible with knowledge of the data's source,
i.e. obvious changes in the process conditions must be registered together with the data.
Control limits
To judge a significant change at the production level, the charts are completed with control limits. As a
general rule it can be assumed that such a change is present, if a sample point falls outside of 3 s-limits,
where s is the standard deviation of a homogeneous production phase.
This engineering rule has been found to work well. No exact probability is given for a chance variation
beyond 3 s-limits, but in general it is very s mall, in the order of perhaps 0.3%.
It may be of advantage to use two limits, such as a 2 s-warning-limit and a 3 s-action-limit. In this case, an
action should already take place when two subsequent values lie between the two limits.
The use of 3 s-limits bases on pure statistical considerations. It may occur that these limits are in conflict
with the required tolerances of an external standard (e.g. process, standard or market requirements). If
the required tolerances are smaller than the statistical ones, a modification of the process is necessary to
improve its precision. In the opposite case, the statistical limits may be used in order to detect changes as
early as possible.
Control Charts
Several types of charts may be used to detect different types of changes in the process:

Control chart
Cause of Change Mean
X Range
R Standard
deviations Cumulative
Gross error (blunder) 1 2 - 3
Shift in average 2- - 1
Shift in variability - 1 2 -
Slow fluctuation (trend) 2 - - 1
Rapid fluctuation (cycle) -1 2 -

- = not appropriate / 3 = least useful

2 = useful / 1 = most useful
Samples of fixed size n are taken from time to time. The arithmetic mean of the samples are plotted
versus time.
Control limits (for warning and/or action) can be computed with the help of special procedures.

R-chart of s-chart
Given are small samples of fixed size n. The range or the standard deviation of the sample is plotted.
Values exceeding a certain control limit indicate an increase of variability.

Chart of individual values

Instead of means, individual values ma y be plotted in the order of measurement.

CUSUM-chart
Cumulative-sum-chart. The deviations of individual values from a target value are cumulated.
This chart is especially sensitive to slow fluctuations in the process.

6.5 Comparative representation

Frequency polygon
Comparison of the distribution of two samples. Relative frequencies corresponding to the histogram are
plotted on a line graph against the mid-points of the classes.
Example: Mortar strength in the first and the second half-year.

Cumulative Frequency plot

Comparison of the distribution of two samples. Relative cumulative frequencies are plotted against upper
class limit.

Grouped Box-Plots
Shows two or more box-plots in the same graph. May be used to show the distribution of different
variables or the distribution of the same variable in different groups (samples). The notched box plot may
be used for the latter comparison.

Time-plot
Comparison of simultaneous changes of several variables in an observed period.
Example: Silica- and alumina ratio of a cement type in a specific year.

Scatter-plot
Illustration of the relationship between two variables.
Example: Relation between strength and density of concrete. The relationship is not linear.
Don't use the correlation coefficient in this case, because it is only a measure for linear dependence.

Comparison of small samples

Individual values are marked on the scale separately for each group of observations.
Example: Inter-laboratory-test concerned with elite-content.

Asymmetrical Flury-Riedwyl Faces

This is a special version of the faces. E.g. the variables before and after treatment, respectively, are
mapped to the same face parameter on the left and right face side, respectively. 0r the left side shows the
specification values of the variables and the right side the actual measurements.

7. CORRELATION AND REGRESSION

7.1 Correlation coefficient
The degree of linear dependence between two random variables X and Y can be expressed by the
correlation coefficient rxy.

with the covariance of X and Y

and sx, sy standard deviations of X and Y.
For practical computations use

The following figure shows the scatter diagrams for several degrees of dependence.

Properties of rxy:
a) rxy = ranges from -1 to +1
rxy = +1 : All measured values lie on an increasing line
-1 : All measured values lie on a decreasing line
0 : No linear relationship between the measured values
b) rxy is a measure of linear dependence. If the scatter diagram indicates a non-linear relationship,
then the correlation coefficient will be misleading and should not be calculated.
c) rxy is very sensitive (not robust) against outliers.
The necessity of drawing a scatter diagram is illustrated in the following figures. Completely different
graphs may result with equal correlation coefficients (r = 0.82).

rxy can be close to zero even though the variables are clearly non-linear dependent and rxy is not defined
if sx or sy is zero.

Interpretation of rxy
A high correlation coefficient between two variables does not necessarily indicate a causal dependence.
There may be a third variable not under control which is causing the simultaneous change in the first two
variables, and which produces a spuriously high correlation coefficient. In order to establish a causal
relationship it is necessary to run a carefully controlled experiment (see chapter 8). Unfortunately it is
often impossible to control all the variables which could possibly be relevant to a particular experiment, so
that the experimenter should always be on the lookout for spurious correlation.
The following is an example for confusion of correlation with causation:
The following figure shows the population of Oldenburg at the end of each of 7 years plotted against the
number of storks observed in the corresponding year. Although in this example few would be led to
hypothesize that the increased number of storks caused the observed increase of population,
investigators are sometimes guilty of this kind of mistake in other contexts. Correlation between two
variables Y and X often occurs because they are both associated with a third factor W. In the stork
example, since the human population Y and the number of storks X both increased with time W over this
7-year period, it is readily understandable that a correlation appears when they are plotted together as Y
versus X.
Fig.: A plot of the population of Oldenburg at the end of each year against the number of storks
observed in that year.

By using sound principles of experimental design and, in particular, randomization, data can be generated
that provide a more sound basis for deducing causality.
7.2 Linear Regression
If the scatter diagram indicates that the two variables are linearly related, then we may want to predict the
value of one of the variables from a given value of the other variable. For this purpose a regression line is
fitted to the data (method of least squares).
Model assumptions
(1)
where the residuals Ej's are independent normal random variables with mean 0 and constant variance s2.
a = y -intercept
b = slope
x = independent variable - Y dependent variable
This assumption is essential if parameter reductions (see later), i.e. reduced models are tested and the
assumptions have to be checked when a model is fitted.
The estimates of the parameters a and b in model (1) are obtained by the method of Least Squares
(MLS), i.e. the estimates are obtained by minimizing the sum of squared residuals

with respect to a and b !

This method is very wide spread in statistics and the estimates have good statistical properties under the
above model assumptions! Today there are also procedures which do not minimize the sum of squared
residuals but use other criteria (Robust Methods!).
In the following let

The resulting estimated regression line is

, where

with a resulting minimal sum of squares (MSSQ) with n-2 degrees of freedom (2 parameters a and b are
estimated). is the predicted value for the dependent variable y.
Note:
1) In the mentioned problem there are two regression lines, one to predict y from x and one to
predict x from y. The two lines are not identical and therefore it is not allowed to invert the regression
equation.
2) The prediction equation is valid only in the observed range of observations. Extrapolations may
give misleading results. We have no information that linearity holds outside of the present observations.
For each pair (xj, yj) we can therefore compute the predicted value of y by
means of the regression function i.e.

and the estimated residual

is an estimate for the variance of the residuals. The analysis of the residuals gives us the possibility to
validate the model assumptions (Independence, Normality and constant Variability). The first check is
done by plotting the residuals against the predicted yj. The residuals should be randomly scattered
around the line e = 0 and show no pattern.

For example the following structures of the residuals would indicate, that the model is not correctly
specified (e.g. that the variables x and y should be transformed before calculation of the regression line).

The second check would be a normal probability plot of the residuals.

If the residuals suggest that the assumptions do not hold, then further investigations are necessary
(suitable transformations, other influencing variables, time-dependence => growth curves, time-series-
analysis).
After confirmation of the assumption and calculation of the regression line (sometimes also before
calculation) it is possible that we want to investigate whether perhaps the y-intercept equals zero, or the
slope equals zero or whether there is no relation between y and x (a = b = 0) or whether the a or b equal
some specified values a0 or b0 (e.g. if a value of may be replaced by ). This means that we want to test if
a reduced (simplified) model is sufficient to describe the relationship between y and x. For this it is
essential that the model assumptions hold.
7.2.1 Regression line with slope 0:
Model: yj = a + Ej
Estimate for a : (= mean of the yj's)
Minimal Sum of Squares (MSQ): Smin = Syy
Degrees of freedom (df): df = n-1
7.2.2 Regression line with y-intercept 0
Model: yj = bxj + Ej
Estimate for b:
MSQ: .
df = n-1
7.2.3 Intercept = 0. Slope = 0
Model: yj = Ej
no parameters to estimate

df = n
Other models:

The estimates and MSQ can be obtained by differentiation of the corresponding Sum of Squared
Residuals!
These special models are only useful if the data really speaks for them!
7.2.4 Comparison of models
This is done by performing an Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). ANOVA is a widely spread statistical
technique. (Comparison of more than two means, Experimental Designs etc.). ANOVA compares the
Minimal Sum of Squares of the models to each other. The basic results for the comparison are filled in a
table, the ANOVA-Table.
ANOVA-TABLE

Model MSQ df
H0 S0min df0
A Smin df
Reduction S0min - Smin df0 - df

Ho denotes the null hypothesis, A the alternative model. By H0 the test-statistic

is distributed according to a F-distribution with m1 = (df0 - df) and m2 = df degrees of freedom.

Significance limits: Look up in Table A-9 with m1 = (df0-df) and m2 = df degrees of freedom.
Decision: If then conclude that the simplification to the null-model H0 is not permitted, therefore the
alternative model has to be used; otherwise (F£F1-a) there is no evidence that the null-model should be
rejected.
7.2.5 Standard deviation of the estimates
The ANOVA of the null hypotheses H’0 : y = a and H'’0 : y = bx, resp. against the alternative A : y = a + bx
allows us to compute the standard deviations (sd) of the estimated parameters and in the alternative
model A : y = a + bx: let F(b = 0) be the calculated F-statistic for the test H’0 against A (e.g. ANOVA for b =
0) and correspondingly F(a = 0) for H’’0 against A.
Then

so that the regression line of the alternative (full) model is

In order to obtain the standard deviation in a model A : y = bx, this model has to be compared with the
null-model H0 : y = 0.
For A : y = a, compare A to H0 : y = 0
For A : y = a0+bx, compare A to H0 : y = a0
For A : y = a+b0x, compare A to H0 : y = b0x
1-a confidence intervals for the estimated parameters can be obtained by calculating

and

where m equals the degrees of freedom in the alternative model and t1_a/2,m can be looked up in Table
A-4.
7.2.6 Coefficient of determination
The prediction of y with a regression line is more or less accurate dependent on the degree of linear
dependence. How well does the regression line fit the data? A measure to express the relative accuracy
of prediction compared with the total variation of y is the coefficient of determination r2. In the case of a
regression line the coefficient of determination is the square of the correlation coefficient

The total variation of y can be partitioned into two components. Total variation = explained variation +
unexplained variation
where

total variation =
unexplained variation = (observed - predicted)
explained variation =

The coefficient of determination is the ratio

In this form r2 is defined also for non-linear curves and multiple regression.
7.2.7 Transformations before Regression Analysis

Kind of transformation Type of relation Regression after

transformation

(exponential)

(logarithmic)

(exponentiation)

(hyperbolic)

Model Overview for Linear Regression

7.2.8 Multiple and non-linear regression

Often the variable to be predicted is not only dependent on one but on several independent variables.
Model:

where Ej are independent normal random variables with mean 0 and constant variance s2. Again these
assumptions have to be checked after a model has been fitted.
In this case prediction can be improved in a multiple (or multivariate) regression expressed as

Or the scatter diagram shows a non-linear relationship which demands to fit a non-linear curve to the
data. Often a logarithmic or some other transformation of one or both variables may lead to a linear
relationship, and a regression line can be fitted to the transformed data. In more complex situations
further methods are available.
For multiple, non-linear and mixed (multiple/non-linear) procedures consult literature (ref. Chatfield 1975)
Flury + Riedwyl (1988) give a very good praxis oriented introduction to multiple linear regression and
multivariate analysis, including Discriminant Analysis, Principal Components, Identification and
Specification analysis.
Example 6
The following data represent
y: water requirement (%) and
x: grain fraction 10-32 m (%)
of n = 34 different cements.

x y x y x y x y
32.9 25.0 38.6 27.2 29.8 23.3 37.2 26.8
35.4 26.3 32.5 25.4 30.3 25.6 42.2 25.6
33.1 24.9 31.3 25.1 36.0 25.2 35.8 24.6
38.7 27.9 35.1 26.9 30.2 24.5 39.1 25.2
33.8 24.8 32.2 24.4 35.6 24.0
32.9 25.0 31.5 24.8 40.6 26.4 40.1 26.6
29.6 24.0 31.1 25.4 40.3 25.2 43.2 27.4
29.7 25.0 38.8 25.6 38.1 25.5 36.7 24.5
36.1 26.2 42.1 27.0 34.7 25.8

The scatter diagram shows a positive linear relationship between water requirement and grain size.
Regression lines to predict x or y are clearly distinct. The lines are identical if rxy is 1 or -1.
If r = 0 the lines are perpendicular, i.e. the best prediction of y is the arithmetical mean . In the same way
is the best prediction of x if no dependence exists.

Computations
In a first step five auxiliary sums are provided:
A = Sxi = 1'205.3 n = 34
B = Sx2i = 43'253.19
C = Syj = 867.1
D = Sy2i = 22'150.93
E = S xjyj = 30'828.44

Sxy = 89.7550
Sxx = 525.3050
Syy = 37.3297
Smin = 21.9973
df = 32

Correlation coefficient:
Regression line:

Test: a = 0

Model MSQ df
H0 : y = bx 178 l527 33
A : y = a + bx 21.9973 32
Reduction 156.1553 1

F.95;1,32 = 4.17 (Table A-9)

® Simplification not permitted
Test b = 0

Model MSQ df
Ho : y = a 37.3297 33
A : y = a + bx 21.9973 32
Reduction 15.3324 1

F95,1,32 = 4.17 (Table A-9)

® Simplified model not allowed !
We obtain the following standard deviations for the parameter estimates and

and the regression line is:

95% confidence intervals for and

From table A-4: t.975,32 = 2.042

Coefficient of determination: r2 = 0.41

Comment:
Only 41% of the total variation of Y can be explained by the dependence of the grain fraction. The
prediction can be improved when further variables are considered in a multiple regression. The coefficient
of determination increases to 69% if C3A- and alkali-content is included in the equation
y = 17.44 + 0.15x1 + 0.26 x2 + 0.52x3
x1 = grain fraction 10-32m%
x2 = C3A- content %
x3 = K20 + Na2O%
The improvement is visible in a scatter diagram of observed against predicted values.

8. STATISTICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND THEIR DESIGN

In practice numerous problems and questions cannot be answered unless special quantitative
investigations are performed. This applies to every practical field, starting with the raw material
exploitation and ending with the sale of the finished product. In many cases, it is not possible to attain
complete information as an effective basis for decision making. For this reason, it is becoming more and
more common to resort to statistical investigations in form of sample surveys and experiments.
The proper performance and interpretation of statistical investigations is essential. The so-called “lies of
statistics” generally have to be attributed to the wrong selection of data, a misinterpretation, or procedures
which do not relate to the objective. Experience has shown that very rarely data are manipulated
intentionally. However, people who employ “wrong statistics”, are convinced, due to a lack of in-depth
knowledge, that their argumentation is objective and correct.
8.1 The Five Phases of a Statistical Investigation
Despite the variety of potential applications, a statistical investigation can roughly be divided into five
phases in the following order:
1) Formulation of problem:
exact definition of purpose for which information is acquired
2) Planning:
purpose-oriented planning of investigation according to statistical principles with the objective to acquire
optimum information at given expenses. In case of doubt and problems contact an experienced
statistician.
3) Performance:
procurement of data strictly in accordance with the established planning
4) Evaluation:
summary and presentation of results; inference from sample to population
5) Conclusions:
realistic interpretation of results
Essential basic principle:
Statistical investigations will only provide truly efficient results if knowledge in the investigated field is
optimally combined with thorough statistical knowledge. Usually this will lead to teamwork, since the
investigator who lacks extensive knowledge in statistics is usually just as unsuccessful in his attempt to
carry out the investigation on his own as the statistician who is entrusted with the entire problem complex.
8.2 Sample Surveys and Experiments
Statistical investigations are subdivided into two groups sample surveys and experiments - which differ
significantly with respect to their objective and interpretation.
Experiment
In an experiment response variables are investigated, which depend on various factors. The results are
produced by a controlled variation of the factors of primary interest, whereas all other effects on the
response have to be eliminated.
Factors that are being studied may be quantitative (e.g. temperature, concentration) or qualitative (e.g.
type of ample preparation, origin of samples).
In an experiment, causal effects on the response variable can be determined quantitatively if the
necessary provisions have been made in the planning and performance.
Sample survey
Samples are taken from one or several populations (the set of sample units is called sample of size n).
Certain interesting characteristics are measured in order to evaluate (estimate)unknown characteristics of
the populations or to compare populations. Contrary to the experiment, the results of a sample survey do
not permit any conclusions regarding cause and effect. This is often ignored when correlations between
two characteristics are assessed.
Reliable results of both experiments and sample surveys can only be obtained if the respective statistical
principles have been adhered to in the planning and performance of the investigation.
8.3 Fundamental Principles in Statistical Investigations
8.3.1 Experiments
The five criteria of a good experiment are:
1) The experiment should serve a well defined purpose
In a first step the problem has to be clearly identified for each experiment, and the hypotheses to be
investigated have to be determined.
2) Factors. which are not of primary interest. should not influence the results
Influencing factors, which are not included in the investigation, must be under control at fixed levels.
Otherwise several effects become mixed up and cannot be separated by statistical methods. Systematic
effects of factors, which cannot be controlled, are eliminated by random allocation of samples to
treatments or factor levels and by random measuring sequence (randomization).
Practical performance of randomization: In example A 1 we assign a number to each sample, No. 1 - 8 to
tablets and No. 9 - 16 to beads. Each number is written on a leaflet and mixed in a box. The order of
measurement is given by blind drawing of the leaflets from the box.
3) The experiment should be free of systematic errors
This requirement is partially connected with 2). Systematic errors, due to any change of effects in time,
are eliminated by randomization. An often underestimated source of systematic errors is the prejudice of
the experimenter. In order to avoid this, mainly “blind" experiments should be performed. The samples are
coded with random numbers, the decoding key only known to a confidential person, who herself is not in
a position to perform analyses.
4) The experiment should provide a measure of its precision
An estimate of the precision is obtained by a replication of the experiment. For each step of the
experiment several measurements should be taken. In example A 1 it would be impossible to state
whether a systematic difference exists, if only one tablet and one bead are measured. (Appendix I)
5) Precision and efficiency of an experiment should be high enough to reach the set goals
There are various measures to improve the precision and efficiency of an experiment:
· Reduction of variability by using homogeneous materials and by carefully controlling all the
factors, as well as by strictly observing the analytical regulations.
· Increasing the number of replications; this will lead to the problem of determining the sample
volume required to achieve the desired precision.
· Blocking: Measurements are performed in homogeneous groups (blocks). Such blocks may be
'measurements made by the same operator' or 'measurements made on the same day'.
A special blocking procedure is the paired comparison. In example A 3 both laboratories measure the
compressive strength on samples drawn from the same cement bag.
Block experiments should be balanced and randomized, i.e. the number of measurements and treatments
is equal in each block and assignment of samples or treatments to blocks is random.
Special cases of blocking: paired comparison.
· Analysis of covariance: factors, which are not subject to the experimenter's control, are recorded
in order to eliminate their effects in a later analysis.
The principles above are valid for any experimentation. Special designs for various problems are given in
the literature. Problems may be: Effects of one or several factors on a response, additivity of factor
effects, splitting of components of variability in a measurement procedure in order to achieve a prescribed
precision at minimum cost, inter-laboratory tests, calibration, evaluation of systematic errors etc.
Note:
In contrast to a regression analysis with a given set of observations, a carefully designed experiment
allows the evaluation of causal relationships. In regression the effects are usually mixed and can only be
separated due to some mathematical model and not due to their real origin (ref. Interpretation of rxy
section 7.1).
STRUCTURE OF AN EXPERIMENT
1) Recognize problem
2) Describe problem in detail and determine hypotheses
3) Define experimental area; contact statistician; determine factors, levels and number of
replications; elaborate exact analytical regulations; determine a reference basis if required. It is often
necessary to analyse what happens if no treatment is applied (e.g. Placebo in clinical experiments).
4) Establish experimental design, taking into account methods to improve precision (blocking).
Randomization:
- random selection of sample units
- random allocation of treatments
- coding of samples
5) Specify variables, which cannot be maintained constant (covariables)
6) Determine number of replications
7) Determine procedural organization
8) Determine procedures of statistical data analysis; exact regulation concerning the manner in
which data are to be supplied (form)
9) Perform experiment
10) Evaluate results (statistical data analysis)
11) Draw conclusions
12) Take measures
Step 2) to 7) are designated as experimental planning. The results of this planning should absolutely be
recorded in an experimental plan. Since experiments are usually quite expensive, careful planning will
definitely be worthwhile.
The request to prepare a written experimental plan entails significant advantages:
¨ the necessity to formulate statements in precise terms
¨ clear conditions and thus less uncertainty in the performance of the experiment
¨ the circumstances of the experiment can be reconstructed, if later on the results are used for
comparison with new results.
8.3.2 Sample Surveys
Sample surveys and experiments are performed in an analogous way. Differences are due to the different
situation. While the purpose of an experiment is to directly produce results, sampling is carried out to
analyse existing characteristics of a population.
Special attention should be paid to the following points:
1) Target population and sampled population
The target population is the aggregate about which the investigator is trying to make inferences from his
sample. It is usually helpful to focus the attention on differences between the population actually sampled
and the population that is attempted to be studied.
2) Sample unit
The sample units have to be described in clear terms. They should not overlap and the sum of all the
sample units must be equal to the investigated population.
In the cement production for instance, if an individual sample is analysed, the results and interpretations
are different from those of an analysis performed on a daily composite sample.
3) Representativity and sampling method
Samples only supply unbiased results if they represent the entire population. It is often mistakenly
believed that the large sample size n ensures its representativity, or it is simply maintained that the
sample is representative in order to prevent rejection of the results.
Representativity can only be ensured by an appropriate, random sampling method, giving each sample
unit an equal chance to be included in the sample (exceptions in special cases: sampling with unequal
probabilities, systematic sampling).
In literature a number of selection procedures are described. Depending upon the problem situation,
various methods ma y be considered. They differ in their practicability, financial consequences (expenses)
and efficiency.
In most cases an optimum selection procedure for a specific problem situation can be found.
STRUCTURE OF A SAMPLE SURVEY
1) Recognize problem. What information is required about what populations?
2) Detailed definition of problem
- definition of target populations
- what information with what accuracy?
3) Determine the sample population. Where, when and how are the sample units extracted from the
population? Determine the variables to be recorded
4) Determine sampling method (equal probability sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling,
multi-phase sampling, multi-stage sampling, systematic sampling, unequal probability sampling)\
5) Determine sample scheme (in accordance with the required accuracy)
6) Outline procedural organization
7) Determine procedures of statistical data analysis; exact regulation concerning the manner in
which data are to be supplied
8) Perform sampling
9) If possible perform measurements in random sequence
10) Evaluation and presentation
11) Conclusions
12) Take measures
9. OUTLOOK
This section will give a short outlook to further and perhaps more sophisticated statistical applications. It
also contains references for further readings. All these applications require more than elementary
knowledge of statistical methods.
9.1 Time series and growth curves analysis
This is the analysis of chronological observations, (e.g. daily temperatures at a certain location or
observations over a certain time period of a patient obtaining a certain medicament). The characteristic of
these data are that the observations are not independent from each other and the method of linear
regression cannot be applied.
Literature:
Box, G.E.P. and Jenkins, G.M. (1976). Time Series Analysis, Forecasting and Control, second edition.
San Francisco: Holden-Day, Inc.
Cox, D.R. and Lewis, P.A.W. (1966). The Statistical Analysis of Series of Events. London: Methuen.
Nelson, C.R. (1973). Applied Time Series Analysis for Managerial Forecasting. San Francisco: Holden-
Day, Inc.
9.2 Categorical and Qualitative Data Analysis
This is the analysis of counts. Many experiments contain qualitative and nonmetric variables, e.g. when
analyzing the number of smokers and non-smokers beyond male and female persons. Smoking
behaviour and sex have no natural numeric values associated with them. Used statistical methods for
such data are
¨ Crosstabulation
¨ Contingency tables
¨ Goodness of fit tests
¨ Log linear models
¨ Logistic regression
¨ Correspondence analysis
Literature:
Agresti, A. (1984). Analysis of ordinal categorical data. New York: Wiley-Interscience.
Bishop, Y.M.M., Fienberg, S.E. and Holland, P.W. (1975). Discrete Multivariate Analysis: Theory and
Practice. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Haberman, S.J. (1978). Analysis of Qualitative Data, Vol. 1: Introductory Topics. New York: Academic
Press.
Haberman, S.J. (1979). Analysis of Qualitative Data, Vol. 2: New Developments. New York: Academic
Press.
9.3 Experimental Designs and ANOVA
This is a wide field containing among others:
¨ One-Way ANOVA
¨ Multifactor ANOVA
¨ Analysis of Nested Designs
¨ Full and Fractional Designs
¨ Response Surface Analysis
¨ Covariance Analysis
¨ and a lot more.
Literature:
Box, G.E.P., Hunter, W.G. and Hunter, J.S. (1978). Statistics for Experimenters. New York: Wiley.
Neter, J. and Wassermann, W. (1974). Applied Linear Statistical Models. Homewood, Illinois: Richard E.
Irvin, Inc.
9.4 Multivariate Methods
This title involves the analysis of multivariate data. It is not appropriate to analyze multivariate data
univariate, because correlations among the different variables are not taken into account.
Statistical Methods:
¨ Correlation Analysis
¨ Covariance Analysis
¨ Multiple Regression
¨ Principal Components
¨ Factor Analysis
¨ Discriminant Analysis
¨ Cluster Analysis
¨ Canonical Correlations
¨ Multidimensional Scaling
¨ and a lot more.
Literature:
Sieber, G.A.F. (1984). Multivariate Observations. New York: Wiley.
Flury, B. and Riedwyl, H. (1988). Multivariate Statistics. A practical approach. London, New York:
Chapman and Hall.
Johnson, R.A. and Wichern, D.W. (1982). Applied Multivariate Statistical Analysis. London: Prentice-Hall.
Morrison, D.F. (1976, 2nd edition). Multivariate Statistical Methods. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Everitt, B.S. (1980). Cluster Analysis, 2nd edition, London: Heinemann Education Books, Ltd.
9.5 Nonparametric Methods
Parametric methods base on certain assumptions on the data (e.g. normality of residuals in linear
regression, normality of the observations in testing etc.). If these assumptions do not hold, it is often more
efficient to use methods that do not use a particular underlying distribution function, so called
nonparametric methods (e.g. the Wilcoxon Test known for Section 5.2.4 is a nonparametric test). Some
nonparametric procedures exist for:
¨ Tests of binary sequences
¨ Tests for randomness
¨ Tests for location
¨ Comparison of 2 samples
¨ Rank correlation analysis
¨ Goodness of fit tests
Literature:
Conover, W.J. (1980). Practical nonparametric statistics, 2nd edition. New York: John Wiley and Sons,
Inc.
Lehmann, E.L. (1975). Nonparametrics. San Francisco: Holden-Day, Inc.
Gibbons, J.D. (1976). Nonparametric Methods for Quantitative Analysis. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston.
Hollander, M. and Wolfe, D.A. (1973). Nonparametric Statistical Methods. New York: Wiley.
9.6 Bootstrap and Jack-knife Methods
In dealing with complicated functions of data, it is mostly not possible to derive the underlying distribution
function. Bootstrap and Jackknife sometimes provide the possibility to derive the distribution functions,
statistical measures and a lot more at such complicated data.
Literature:
Efron, B. (1982). The Jackknife, the Bootstrap and Other Resampling Plans. Philadelphia: Soc. for
Industrial and Applied Math.
9.7 Simulation and Monte Carlo Method
By use of simulation and Monte Carlo methods it is often possible to investigate and analyse complex
functions of random variables or systems of events. Simulation incorporates also the generation of
random variables.
Literature:
Fishman, G.S. (1978). Principles of Discrete Event Simulation. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Rubinstein, R.Y. (1981). Simulation and the Monte Carlo Method. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
9.8 General Literature
Seber, G.A.F. (1984). Multivariate Observations. New York: Wiley.
Belsley, D.A. Kuh, E. and Welsh, R.E. (1980). Regression Diagnostic: Identifying Influential Data and
Sources of Collinearity. New York: Wiley.
Chambers, J.M., Cleveland, W.S., Kleiner, B. and Tukey, P.A. (1983). Graphical Methods for Data
Analysis. Boston: Duxbury Press.
Flury, B. (1980). Construction of an asymmetrical face to represent multivariate data graphically. Tech.
Rep. No. 3, University of Berne, Dept of Statistics.
Schupbach, M. (1984). ASYMFACE - Asymmetrical Faces on IBM-PC. Tech.Rep. No.16. University of
Berne, Dept of Statistics.
Draper, N.R. and Smith, H. (1981), 2nd ed.). Applied Regression Analysis. New York: Wiley.
Grant, E.L. and Leavenworth, R.S. (1980). Statistical Quality Control, fifth ed. New York: McGraw Hill.
Montgomery, D.C. (1985). Introduction to Statistical Quality Control. New York: Wiley.
Recommended literature pp. 90 ff
Huff, D. (1974). How to lie with statistics.
Miller, R.G. (1981). Simultaneous Statistical Inference, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley.
Morrison, D.F. (1983). Applied Linear Models. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall Inc.
10. STATISTICAL PROGRAM PACKAGES
Very complete and sophisticated packages are (all programs are available for PC's under DOS):

BMDP Statistical Software Ltd., Cork Technology Park. Cork, Ireland (phone: 021-542722)
SAS: SAS Inst. GmbH, Cary NC, USA
(phone: (919)467-8000)
SPSS SPSS Inc., Chicago Il, USA (phone: (312)329-3300)
SYSTAT SYSTAT Inc., Evanston Il, USA (phone: (312)864-5670)
STATGRAPHICS STSC Inc., Rockville MD, USA (phone: (301)984-5000)

A review of 49 statistical packages is given in the PC magazine, Vol. 8, No. 5, March 1989.
Appendix I
Example A1:
In the application of XRF-analysis of raw meal it was required to know to what extent the results are
dependent on sample preparation, by pressed powder tablets and by fusion with Litetraborate,
respectively.
With 8 preparations of tablets and beads of the same raw meal the following results for CaO and Si02
were obtained.

CaO SiO2
Tablets Beads tablets beads
42.63 42.42 13.87 14.15
42.59 42.44 14.01 13.86
42.63 42.45 14.04 13.92
42.80 42.42 14.09 13.83
43.02 42.59 14.26 14.01
42.61 42.49 13.70 13.78
42.40 42.62 13.89 14.24
42.79 42.26 13.77 13.88

We are interested in differences between the preparation methods. To get a quick survey on the data we
mark every observation on the measurement scale for tablets and beads respectively.

Looking at the graph we suppose a significant difference of CaO-results between

beads and tablets. For Si 02 results no difference is visible.
The final decision whether the differences are significant is made with an appropriate test.
Test situation:
¨ We test the hypothesis that the mean results of both preparation methods are the same
H0: mtablets = mbeads
¨ Two independent samples with small sample sizes N = 8
¨ two-sided test: we have no idea in what direction a possible difference may occur before the
observations are taken.
Test procedure: Wilcoxon-test at a = 5% level
As an alternative representation we can mark the data on both side of one line. In this case ranks of the
observations can be read directly from the graph.

The ranksum of beads is R = 45.5

W = 2 . 45.5. - 8 . 17 = -45
|W| = 45 => 38 = W0.975 (from Table A-8, Appendix III).
Decision:
The difference of CaO results between tablets and beads is significant.

|W| = 1 < 38 = W0.975

There is no significant difference for SiO2 results.
Example A2:
Control of homogenization efficiency.
In intervals of 30 minutes, 20 samples are taken from the raw ma serial stream both before and after
homogenization.
Measured values: CaCO3 content
Total capacity of homogenization silo: 1000 tons

Sample No. CaCO3 before

homogenization CaCO3 after
homogenization
1 76.4 76.9
2 76.7 77.0
3 77.5 77.0
4 77.5 76.8
5 76.5 76.9
6 76.0 76.8
7 76.8 76.9
8 77.0 77.0
9 77.1 77.0
10 77.2 76.8
11 77.2 76.9
12 77.1 76.9
13 76.9 76.9
14 76.7 77.0
15 76.8 77.0
16 77.0 76.0
17 77.1 76.8
18 77.0 76.9
19 76.7 77.0
20 76.8 76.9

The graph is chronological order (time-plot) shows a systematical variation of CaCO3 content before
homogenization. Except for one outlying value the variation is small after homogenization.
Before Homogenization

After Homogenization

Using the Dixon criterion to check for outliers we compute

with x(1) the smallest, X(3) the third smallest and X(n-2) the largest value.
Since r22 = 0.8 > r0.995 = 0.562 (Table A-2, Appendix III) the extreme value is considered to be a real
outliner (with significance level a = 1%). It is deleted for further analysis.
Statistical data description

CaCO3 before homogenization CaCO3 after homogenization

n 20 (20) 19
76.9 (76.87) 76.92
76.95 (76.9) 76.9
s 0.36 ( 0.22) 0.076 one outlier deleted: 76.0
v 0.0046 ( 0.0028) 0.0010
xmax 77.5 (77.0) 77.0
xmin 76.0 (76.0) 76.8
R 1.5 ( 1.0) 0.2

Comment:
Mean and median are almost equal. The distribution of observations seems to be therefore symmetrical
about the mean either before and after homogenization. Due to homogenization the standard deviation is
reduced from 0.36 to 0.08 corresponding to a factor of four to five.
Note:
Elimination of the outliner reduces the standard deviation from 0.22. to 0.08 !
Example A3:
In order to control mortar strength a national control laboratory takes every month a sample of cement in
a plant. It was supposed that these control results tend to be lower than results of internal quality control.
To find out a suspected syste ma tic error between results of control office and plant laboratory during a
year the samples were measured in both laboratories:

Plant x Control y Difference

d=x-y
January548 526 22
February 540 524 16
March 574 591 -17
Apri1 469 477 -8
May 540 531 9
June 515 431 84
July 520 485 35
August 531 476 55
September 530 490 42
October464 452 12
November 524 498 26
December 519 516 3

The strength values are paired. Each pair of observation is concerned with the same sample. To test for a
significant difference we use the singed-rank test at a significance level of a = 5% (two-sided)
H0: m = 0
Plot of differences di = xi - yi

Sum of signed ranks:

T = (-6) + (-2) + 1+ 3+ 4+ 5+ 7+ 8+ 9+ 10+ 11+ 12 = 62
Since T = 62 > 52 = T0 975 we decide that the difference between results is systematic.
Example A4:
The following data represent 115 measurements of Schmidt-haamer-strength (abutment of a bridge).

A detailed interpretation of these data requires their representation in a frequency table and histogram.
With the probability paper we check the data for normality.
The cumulative frequency curve plotted on the probability paper is not linear and the distribution is
therefore not normal.

Histogram and tally show that even values of Schmidt-hammer strength are more frequent than odd
values. This seems to be caused by a reading error of scale. Probably only even values are marked on
the measurement scale.

EXTENDED PROBABILITY PAPER

Table A-1 Standard Normal Distribution - Values of P

Values of P corresponding to zp for the normal curve.

z is the standard normal variable. The value of P -zp equals one minus the value of P for +zp, e.g. the P
for -1.62 equals 1-0.9474 = .0526.

Table A-2 Critical values for the Dixon Criterion

Table A-3 Critical values for Outlier-tests, (large sample size n)

Table A-4 Critical values of the t-distribution

Table A-5 Critical values of the x2-distribution

Table A-6 Values of l1-a for confidence limits (Range method)

Table A-7 Critical values of the signed-rank test

Table A-8 Critical values of the Wilcoxon-test

Table A-9 (continued) Critical values of the F-distribution : F0 975

Recommended Literature
The following list gives a selection of books on applied statistics for further reading. The list is restricted to
books which are easily comprehensible for users without profound knowledge in mathematics.

C. Chatfield "Statistics for Technology" Chapman and Hall, London (1975), 350 pages
General survey on statistical methods with good comments on the interpretation of statistical results.
Special chapters on regression, design of experiments and quality control
Noether"Introduction to Statistics: A Fresh Approach" Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston (1971) 230
pages
Modern statistical methods, especially for the analysis of experiments. Good explanation of basic
statistical ideas and problems based on intuition.
M.G. Natrella "Experimental Statistics" US Department of Commerce, NBS Handbook 91 (1963)
"Cookbook" with many test procedures and designs of experiments. Often it is somewhat difficult to know
what procedure has to be chosen.
M.R. Spiegel "Theory and Problems of Statistics" Schaum's Outline Series,(1961) New York 350 pages
Definitions and procedures of classical statistics accompanied by many examples (875 solved problems)

C14 - Case Study

Case Studies

Case studies are not included here

B03 - MT III

C01 - Cement Hydration

CEMENT HYDRATION
Author: S. Montani
1. INTRODUCTION
2. MAIN FEATURES OF CEMENT HYDRATION
3. HYDRATION REACTIONS
3.1 Hydration of the individual clinker components
3.2 Mineral additives
4. MECHANISM AND KINETICS
4.1 Basic theories
4.2 Reaction sequence during cement hydration
4.3 Acceleration or retardation of cement hydration
5. HEAT OF HYDRATION
6. ROLE OF GYPSUM IN CEMENT
6.1 General aspects
6.2 Calcium sulphate modifications
6.3 Gypsum and setting of cement
6.4 Effect of gypsum on strength and volume stability
6.5 Gypsum substitutes
7. MICROSTRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CEMENT PASTE
7.1 Basic physical features
7.2 Morphological features
7.3 Evolution of pastes during hydration
7.4 Influence of the aggregates on the structure
8. LITERATURE
8.1 General overview on cement hydration
8.2 Gypsum and setting of cement
8.3 Microstructure and properties of hardened cement paste

1. INTRODUCTION
The term cement hydration applies to all the reactions of cement with water. These reactions determine to
a great extent the concrete properties, as it is finally the mixture of cement with water which is the binding
agent in concrete. With regard to the cement application, it is thus essential to have a basic
understanding of the processes occurring during cement hydration.
To a minor extent, hydration reactions can also take place before the cement is applied in concrete during
the storage of clinker and the grinding and storage of cement. Even this minor surface hydration may
cause serious changes of the physical properties of cement. Table 1 gives an idea of the possible
hydration of cement from clinker storage up to cement application.
Table 1:Occurrence of cement hydration

Percentage hydration
Storage of clinker 0 to 10%
Grinding of cement 0 to 1%
Storage of cement 0 to 4%
Concrete mix 0 to 100%

The study of the mechanisms and phenomena of cement hydration has a long tradition in cement
research. First basic theories to explain setting and hardening of cement have been established by Le
Châtelier and Michaelis at the end of the last century. The actual more refined theories still base on the
work of these two researchers. The open questions remaining are principally related to the reaction of
C3S and C3A at early stages.
2. MAIN FEATURES OF CEMENT HYDRATION
As for any chemical reaction, main features of interest with regard to the cement hydration are the
hydration reactions, the mechanisms and kinetics and the heat of hydration. In the following, a brief
overview on these three aspects shall be given:
¨ Hydration reactions
The nature of the hydration products is decisive for the mechanical properties of the hardened concrete.
In Portland cement, the hydration is predominantly a reaction of the calcium silicates with water,
producing a gel-like calcium silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide:
Calcium silicates + H2O ® CSH gel + Ca(OH)2
In blended cements, the reaction schemes get more complex. Nevertheless, the hydration products are in
general quite similar.
¨ Mechanisms and kinetics
The understanding of the mechanisms of cement hydration gives valuable indications on the reaction
behaviour to be expected, including the kinetics. The knowledge of the kinetics of cement hydration and
the influencing factors is very important for the concrete practice. The reaction speed of the cement
hydration must be slow enough to allow the placement of concrete; after that, a rapid reaction is desired.
¨ Heat of hydration
The heat liberated during cement hydration may improve or impair the quality of the concrete. For
ordinary Portland cement, the heat of hydration is typically 380 J/g at 28 days. This value is lower for the
other special Portland cements with the exception of rapid hardening cement. In case of the blended
cements, generally less heat is developed.
Besides the above mentioned chemical aspects, considerable changes in the physical properties of the
cement are associated with the cement hydration. The principal changes are:
¨ Development of strength
From the practical point of view of course the most important change. As long as the hydration proceeds,
the cement is continuously gaining strength.
¨ Increase in specific surface
The transformation of the low surface cement to a gel-like hydrated product of extremely high surface is
one of the most striking changes of cement hydration. After complete hydration, typically a 1000 fold
increase in specific surface is obtained.
¨ Increase in solid volume
The total volume occupied by the hydration products is roughly twice the volume occupied originally by
the unhydrated cement. That means that 1 cm3 of cement will give more or less 2 cm3 of hydrated
cement.
More detailed and specific indications on the different aspects of cement hydration will be given in the
following chapters.
3. HYDRATION REACTIONS
3.1 Hydration of the individual clinker components
3.1.1 Calcium silicates
The hydration reactions of the two calcium silicates in clinker - C3S and C2S - can be represented by the
following chemical equations:

2 (3CaO • SiO2) + 6H2O è 3CaO • 2SiO2 • 3H2O + 3Ca(OH)2

Weight fraction 100 + 24 è 75 + 49
(in symbols of cement chemistry: 2C3S + 6H è C3S2H3 + 3CH)
2 (2CaO • SiO2) + 4H2O è 3CaO • 2SiO2 • 3H2O + Ca(OH)2
Weight fraction 100 + 21 è 99 + 22
(in symbols of cement chemistry: 2 C2S + 4H è C3S2H3 + CH)

The reactions of both silicates are thus stochiometrically very similar and require more or less the same
amount of water. The main difference between the two reactions is that C3S produces more than twice as
much calcium hydroxide as C2S.
The principal hydration product of the calcium silicates is a gel-like or microcrystalline calcium silicate
hydrate. The formula C3S2H3 is only approximate, because the composition of this hydrate is actually
variable over quite a wide range. In contrast, the calcium hydroxide formed is a crystalline material with a
fixed composition.
It is believed that calcium hydroxide is not significantly contributing to strength and that the calcium
silicate hydrates are in the first place responsible for the strength development. The importance of the
calcium hydroxide being a strong base is mainly related to its effects on the passivation of the steel
reinforcement, the leaching of concrete and the reaction with reactive silica and alumina from pozzolanic
additives.
3.1.2 Tricalciumaluminate
The hydration of aluminates is heavily influenced by the presence of gypsum. In the absence of gypsum,
the reaction of C3A with water is very violent and leads to immediate stiffening of the paste (known as
flash set) due to the rapid formation of hexagonal calcium aluminate hydrates (C2AH8 and C4AH13).
These hydrates are not stable and later convert into the cubic form C3AH6, so that the final form of
reaction can be written as follows:

3CaO • Al2O3 + 6H2O è 3CaO • Al2O3 • 6H2O

Weight fraction 100 + 40 è 40
(in symbols of cement chemistry: C3A + 6H è C3AH6)

The theoretical capacity of C3A to combine with water is such that 100 parts by weight of C3A combine
with 40 parts by weight of H2O; it is thus nearly double that of the silicates.
When gypsum is present in the cement, flash set can be avoided and the C3A reacts first with the gypsum
to form calcium trisulfate-aluminate hydrate (ettringite):

3 CaO • Al2O3 + 3CaSO4 + 32H2O è 3 CaO • Al2O3 • 3CaSO4 • 32H2O

Weight fraction 66 + 100 + 137 è 203
(in symbols of cement chemistry: C3A + 3CS + 32H è C3A • 3 CS • H32)

This reaction continues until all the available gypsum is used up. After the depletion of gypsum, ettringite
is converted into the monosulfate:

3CaO • Al2O3 • 3CaSO4 • 32H2O + 2(3CaO • Al2O3) + 4H2O

è (3CaO • Al2O3 • CaSO4 • 12H2O)
(C3A • 3CS • H32 + 2C3A + 4H è 3C3A • CS • H12)

Calcium aluminate hydrate continues to be formed from any remaining unhydrated C3A and the final
product of C3A hydration is generally a monosulphate-calciumaluminate hydrate solid solution.
3.1.3 Ferrite phase
The C4AF forms the same sequence of hydration products as does C3A, with or without gypsum. The
reactions are, however, slower; C4AF never hydrates rapidly enough to cause flash set and gypsum
retards C4AF hydration more drastically than it does C3A.
3.1.4 Calcium oxide and magnesium oxide
The uncombined lime (calcium oxide) and periclase (magnesium oxide), if present in large quantities in
cement, may cause expansion due to a slow hydration reaction after the setting:

CaO + H2O è Ca(OH)2; MgO + H2O è Mg(OH)2

The actual degree of expansion depends on the state and distribution of these oxides in cement, in
particular the large crystals of periclase or hard burnt free lime produce unsoundness.
3.1.5 Alkalis
Alkalis are present as alkalis sulphates or are incorporated in the main clinker phases. The first type of
alkalis go readily into solution upon mixing with water and accelerate the early hydration reactions. The
effect of alkalis contained in the clinker phases is not well known; there is at least some dissolution with
time which has some effect on later hydration reactions.
The presence of alkalis in the pore solution generally does not give any special problems except when
certain aggregates are used that can participate in the alkali-aggregate reaction leading to expansion and
disruption of the concrete. The aggregates giving raise to such a reaction contain either reactive silica or
dolomite minerals.
3.2 Mineral additives
3.2.1 Blast furnace slag
Granulated blast furnace slag does not hydrate per se in water, but in the presence of activators like lime,
alkalis, sulphate and Portland cement, it shows hydraulic properties. The activators appear to function by
the removal of passive surface films that act as a barrier to significant hydration. The glass in the
granulated slag is the hydraulic component in the presence of Portland cement.
The hydration reactions of blast furnace slag are not easy to follow and it is thus difficult to establish clear
reaction equations. Studies on slag cements have revealed that the hydration products of the slag
hydration are similar to those of the calcium silicate reaction. It is believed that the main difference to
Portland cement hydration is the lower C/S ratio of the calcium silicate hydrates and the reduced amount
of calcium hydroxide present.
3.2.2 Pozzolanic additives
The natural and artificial pozzolans contain reactive siliceous and aluminous materials which on their own
do not possess cementitious properties. They react, however, in the presence of water with dissolved
calcium hydroxide released from the hydration of the Portland cement clinker. The reaction products are
calcium silicate and calcium aluminate hydrates similar to those found in the hydration of Portland cement
clinker. Favourable for this pozzolanic reaction seems to be the presence of alkalis.
3.2.3 Limestone filler
Finely ground limestone can react during hydration with the C3A from the clinker to form
monocarboaluminate (C3A • CaCO3 • 11H2O). The presence of limestone in the cement can thus to a
certain extent retard the hydration of C3A, but it is by far less effective than gypsum and can not avoid
flash set. Moreover, fine limestone filler can have an indirect influence on the hydration reaction of C3S.
4. MECHANISM AND KINETICS
4.1 Basic theories
As mentioned in the introduction, the first theories to explain setting and hardening of cement were
advanced by Le Châtelier and Michaelis. Le Châtelier attributed the development of cementing action to
the passage of the anhydrous cement compounds into solution and the precipitation of the hydration
products as interlocking crystals. In the theory put forward by Michaelis, cohesion is considered to be the
result of the formation of a colloidal gelatinous mass. The formation of the gel may take place without the
cement compounds going into solution by a direct „topochemical“ or „solid state“ reaction.
Both hydration mechanisms take place within in the cement paste. Cementitious reaction initially takes
place by some dissolution and precipitation, whilst the hydrated material formed has only a small degree
of crystalline order being gel-like and of colloidal dimensions. The colloidal theory can also explain the
phenomena of swelling, shrinkage, creep and selfhealing of cracks.
4.2 Reaction sequence during cement hydration
Hydration of cement is a sequence of overlapping chemical reactions between clinker components,
mineral additives, calcium sulphate and water, leading to continuous cement paste stiffening and
hardening. The hydration reactions described before proceed simultaneously at differing rates and
influence each other.
A simplified schematic presentation of the hydration process of Portland cement is given in Figure 1. The
three main stages which can be distinguished in this presentation are:
First stage
In the first stage, ettringite and calcium hydroxide are formed. The ettringite covers the aluminate particles
and avoids flash set of the cement paste. After these first reactions, the so-called „dormant“ period of
typically four to six hours starts where no considerable further hydration takes place (certain increase in
Ca2+ concentration).
The dormant period is usually explained by the behaviour of the C3S, the main constituent of Portland
cement. The two principal theories are based on the protective layer and the delayed nucleation concept
respectively. The first ascribes the „dormant“ period to the formation of a protective layer on the C3S
particles which is destroyed with time and the latter regards the retardation in C3S reaction as the cause
of a delayed nucleation of the corresponding hydration phases.
Still in the first stage, the cement paste is setting. This stiffening is attributed by some researchers to the
recrystallisation of the initially finely divided ettringite. Others believe that the setting is caused by the loss
in plasticity due to some first formation of calcium silicate hydrate from C3S.
Figure 1: Schematic representation of the formation of hydrate phases in Portland cement paste

Second stage
The second stage after the dormant period is characterised by the restarting of the hydration.
Precipitation of CSH in form of long fibres and calcium hydroxide takes place on the surface of the silicate
phases and the reaction proceeds rapidly for all clinker phases. This stage ends with the termination of
the ettringite formation and the development of a basic matrix after about 24 hours.
Third stage
In the third stage, the spaces between the solid particles are overbridged and filled with short fibres of the
CSH phase. The initial matrix, formed by first hydrates of the aluminate, ferrite and silicates, is thus
densified and the strength of the cement paste increases. The calcium hydroxide formed in large crystals
is built into the CSH gel matrix. At this stage, ettringite is converted into monosulfate and corresponding
hydration products are formed from the still not hydrated aluminate and ferrite phases.
As the hydration proceeds, the reactions get more and more diffusion controlled and the overall rate of
reaction is decreasing. Hydration reactions, primarily those of C2S, will continue as long as the reactants
and space permit it; this can go on for years. In practice, there is usually never a complete hydration of
the cement and unhydrated cement is nearly always remaining in the hardened cement paste.
A good overview on the hydration reactions in Portland cements can also be obtained by taking a look at
the heat evolution curves. Figure 2 shows such a curve with the indications of the main reactions going on
in the process of cement hydration.
Figure 2: Heat evolution curve of Portland cement

For blended cements, the reactions sequences get more complex. In case of the active mineral additives,
the main differences to Portland cement hydration can be seen in more formation of CSH phase at later
stage and a decrease in the amount of calcium hydroxide and the pore space. For the inert mineral
additives, the effect will primarily be a „dilution“ of the Portland cement matrix.
A general effect observed in blended cement is a certain delay of setting and hardening at early stages.
Normally, the active mineral additives start to contribute to cement hydration only after more than 3 days,
when suitable activation has taken place (blast furnace slag) or sufficient calcium hydroxide has been
formed (pozzolans) for their reaction.
4.3 Acceleration or retardation of cement hydration
The process of hydration can be accelerated or retarded by different factors:
¨ Use of accelerators and retarders
Until now, the most efficient accelerator is calcium chloride (CaCl2), but the problem with this product is
the corrosion of the steel reinforcement. The exact mechanism of acceleration by CaCl2 is not known; it is
believed that CaCl2 is acting like a catalysator.
Retarders for cement hydration are for instance phosphates, zincates and carbohydrates (including
sugar). The retarding action is simply explained by the formation of a monomolecular protective film
around the cement particles which slows down their reaction with water.
¨ Hydration temperature
The rate of hydration is strongly influenced by the temperature. Rate of hydration at early age roughly
doubles when the temperature increases by 10°C. The effect of temperature on cement hydration is of
particular importance in extreme climates and for steam curing.
¨ Cement fineness
The higher the fineness of the cement, the more extended is the zone of reaction. This leads of course to
a higher rate of hydration.
¨ Cement composition
The activity of the clinker used in the cement affects considerably the rate of hydration. A high rate of
hydration can be expected of clinkers rich in C3A and C3S (see Figure 3) and with a high alkali content.
Important for the rate of hydration is also the content of mineral additives in the cement. The rate of
hydration generally is the lower, the higher the dosage of mineral additives in the cement.
Figure 3: Rates of hydration of compounds in Portland cement

Increasing the rate of hydration, and hence the early strength development, is always done at the
expense of the ultimate strength. An explanation is that the microstructure formed during the accelerated
hydration is usually more coarse and less favourable for strength development. Contrary to this, retarded,
slow hydration leads to the formation of a more refined microstructure which results in better final
strength.
5. HEAT OF HYDRATION
The hydration reaction is an exothermic process, that means during the reaction of cement with water
heat is liberated. The quantity of liberated heat is quite appreciable (typically 380 J/g for OPC at 28 days)
and can lead to a significant temperature rise in mass concrete construction, where the heat is not
allowed to escape (see Figure 4). During cooling of the hardened concrete, thermal gradients may
develop and give problems with crack formation. That is the reason why special low heat cements have to
be used for mass concrete applications.
Figure 4: Temperature rise in 1:9 (weight) concrete under adiabatic conditions for different Portland
cement types

The main measure to control the heat of hydration of Portland cement is the adjustment of clinker
composition. The clinker minerals contributing most to the heat of hydration are C3S and C3A (see Table
2), so that it is necessary to limit these compounds to reduce heat development during hydration. On the
other hand, it is also possible to keep the heat liberation low by not grinding the cement too fine.
Table 2:Heat of hydration of the clinker components at 21°C (J/g)

Clinker component 3 days 28 days 6 ½ years

C3S 245 380 490
C2S 50 105 225
C3A 890 1380 1380
C4AF 290 495 495

The effect of clinker composition and cement fineness on the heat of hydration can be well seen in Figure
5 which shows the development of heat of hydration for the different Portland cement types. The low heat
cements used for mass concrete - type II and IV ASTM - with low heat of hydration of about 250 to 300
J/g after 28 days contain less C3S and C3A and are fairly coarse. The rapid hardening cement - type III
ASTM - with increased heat of hydration of about 420 J/g after 28 days is usually richer in C3S and C3A
and of higher fineness, compared with the ordinary Portland cement - type I ASTM.
Figure 5: Development of heat of hydration for the different Portland cement types cured at 21°C
(w/c-ratio of 0.40)

For practical purposes, it is not only the total heat of hydration that matters but also the rate of heat
evolution. The same total heat produced over a long period of time can be dissipated to a greater degree,
consequently producing a smaller rise in temperature in the concrete. In ordinary Portland cement about
one half of the total heat is liberated between 1 and 3 days and about three quarters in 7 days. It is
common to specify the heat of hydration after 7 and 28 days, giving a reasonable indication of both total
heat of hydration and its rate of liberation.
In addition to the composition and fineness of cement, the rate of heat evolution is also greatly influenced
also by the temperature of hydration (see Table 3). The ambient conditions thus play also a decisive role
with regard to the effects of heat of hydration on the concrete properties.
Table 3:Heat of hydration (J/g) developed after 3 days at different temperatures

Cement type Temperature of cement hydration

4°C 24°C 32°C 41°C
I 154 285 309 335
III 221 348 357 390
IV 108 195 192 214

A very effective means to reduce the amount and rate of heat of hydration of Portland cement is the use
of mineral additives in the cement (blended cements). By the replacement of the clinker by the less
reactive or inert mineral additives, the heat development of the cement can be easily controlled. As an
example, the heat development curves of slag blends with different Portland cement contents are
presented in Figure 6. The advantage of the blended cement over the low heat Portland cements is that
the same clinker as for the ordinary Portland cement can be used.
Figure 6: Heat of hydration of mixtures of OPC (P.C.) and ground blast furnace slag (S); isothermal
method.
6. ROLE OF GYPSUM IN CEMENT
6.1 General aspects
Ever since cement has been produced in greater quantities, gypsum (CaSO4•2H2O) has been ground
into the cement. Gypsum is added to the cement mainly for the purpose of regulating its setting time. It
prevents flash setting and makes the concrete workable for hours.
The gypsum influences not only the setting but also other cement properties such as grindability,
sensitivity to storage, volume stability and strength. Gypsum is an extremely important part of cement. It
is, however, often neglected to pay proper attention to it in the production of cement.
Here, only the effect of gypsum on setting, volume stability and strength shall be elucidated more in detail.
For the better understanding of the influence of gypsum on cement, it is first necessary to take a look at
the different modifications in which calcium sulphate can be present. In a final part of this chapter, the
possible gypsum substitutes shall be discussed.
6.2 Calcium sulphate modifications
In cement, it is possible to find at least five basic modifications of calcium sulphate (see Table 4). The
stable modifications, dihydrate (gypsum) and anhydrite II (natural anhydrite), can be found in nature and
both are used as additives to clinker in the grinding process. The metastable modifications, hemihydrate
and anhydrite III, are not available in nature, but can easily form during grinding and storage of cement at
elevated temperatures by dehydration of gypsum. The high temperature modification anhydrite I can form
during burning of the clinker in the cement kiln.
Table 4:Modifications of calcium sulphate in cement

Designation Formula Crystal water Density Range of stability Solubility at

20°C Occurrence
% g/cm3 °C % nature cement
Dihydrate CaSO4 •2H2O 20.92 2.32 < 40 0.20 yes yes
Hemihydrate (a,b) CaSO4 •1/2H2O 6.21 2.70 metast. 0.95 no yes
Anhydrite III (a,b) CaSO4 0 2.50 metast. 0.95 no yes
Anhydrite II CaSO4 0 2.98 40-11800.20 yes yes
Anhydrite I CaSO4 0 -- > 1180 -- no (~clinker)

The different mode of action of the individual modifications on the properties of cement can be mainly
attributed to their different solubilities in water. In Figure 7, it can be seen that the solubility of the
hemihydrate and anhydrite III is appreciably higher than that of dihydrate or anhydrite II. The high
solubility of hemihydrate and anhydrite III can lead to anomalous setting, as discussed later. The solubility
of dihydrate and anhydrite II in the ambient temperature range is approximately the same, but their effect
on properties of cement can be very different. The reason for this is the different rate of solubility which is
greater for the dihydrate than for anhydrite II.
Figure 7: The Solubility of gypsum, hemihydrate and anhydrite

6.3 Gypsum and setting of cement

The reactions which take place immediately after the addition of water to cement are of decisive
importance for the setting of cement. Directly after the mixing of cement with water, sulphate dissolves
and reacts with aluminate to form ettringite. This vigorous initial reaction ceases after a few minutes and
then the so-called dormant period starts.
According to the classical theory, the set retardation is due to the fact that the ettringite forms a cohesive
cover around the aluminate particles and in this way inhibits their further reaction (see Figure 8). The
reaction inhibiting effect of the ettringite cover is ended only when this cover is broken open by the
pressure of crystallisation and not sufficient sulphate is left to close the burst section. Thereafter, the
reaction of C3A can continue unhindered until complete hydration.
Figure 8: Schematic description of set retardation due to C3A sulfate interaction

The reasons for the setting of cement are still not exactly known. Some researchers explain the setting of
the cement by the recrystallisation of the initially finely divided ettringite into bigger crystals which are
building bridges between the cement particles. Other researchers attribute the initial set of cement as
corresponding to that stage in the hydration sequence when a sufficient amount of tricalcium silicate has
been converted to calcium silicate hydrate. This initial removement of water causes a partial loss of the
plasticity of the cement paste.
The setting of cement is mainly influenced by the reactivity of the clinker (i.e. C3A and alkali content) and
by the type and amount of the calcium sulphate added. The cement fineness, the dosage of mineral
additives, use of chemical admixutres and the hydration temperature play also an important role. The
effect of C3A content, gypsum dosage and hydration temperature on the initial setting of Portland cement
is illustrated in Figure 9.
Figure. 9: Influence of gypsum dosage, C3A content and hydration temperature on initial setting of
Portland cement

In order to obtain normal setting, it is essential to adjust the supply of soluble sulphate to the reactivity of
the clinker during the first minutes and hours of hydration (see Figure 10). If there is no proper balance
between sulphates and clinker reactivity, abnormal setting can occur:
Flash set is caused by the formation of aluminate hydrate, due to a high content of reactive C3A and/or a
too small amount of easily soluble calcium sulphate.
False set can be traced back to high temperature in the mill, causing a dehydration of the gypsum to an
easily soluble hemihydrate and anhydrite III. Hemihydrate and anhydrite III recrystallize to gypsum whose
crystals grow into each other and form a solid framework which affects the stiffening of the cement paste.
This framework of gypsum crystals is broken down again through reaction with C3A. For this reason the
cement paste can regain its previous plasticity by remixing.
Quick set: The high content of easily soluble sulphate and reactive clinker minerals can also have an
accelerating effect on the formation of sulfo-aluminate hydrate and calcium silicate hydrate which can
likewise lead to early stiffening of the cement (quick set).
Figure 10: Formation of rigid structure during setting of Portland cement

Effect of gypsum on strength and volume stability

The addition of gypsum - in addition to its principle purpose of regulating setting - has a significant effect
on the strengths and volume stability. Up to a certain limit, which depends on the clinker composition, the
gypsum addition increases the strengths and prevents shrinkage. If the gypsum addition surpasses this
limit, it causes considerable swelling which can lead to expansion. This is why an upper limit for the SO3
content is given in the cement standards (see Fig. 11).

Figure 11: Shrinkage and compressive strength of cements as a function of the SO3 Content

The gypsum required to obtain optimum strength and volume stability grows with the C3A content of the
clinker, cement fineness, alkali content and application temperature. Other variables influencing the
optimum SO3 content are the form (and solubility) of the calcium sulphate in the cement, the nature and
amount of mineral additives and also the presence of chemical admixtures. Often the optimum SO3
content would be even above the maximum value given by the standards.
6.4 Gypsum substitutes
There has never been lack of effort to substitute gypsum by other set regulators. In particular in countries
with few natural gypsum deposits, the cement industry is searching intensively for alternative materials.
The main alternatives up to date are the use of natural anhydrite and limestone and the application of by-
product gypsum coming form other industries.
The use of natural anhydrite as partial substitute for gypsum is already well established in practice. In
general, it appears that blends of 40 to 60 percent gypsum and 60 to 40 percent natural anhydrite can be
safely used with all clinkers. The advantage of such blends over pure gypsum is the reduction of the risk
of false setting and the improved storage stability and flowability of the cement.
In some places, limestone is used as replacement for gypsum. For very reactive clinkers, the replacement
is typically limited to 25%. In cements with less reactive clinkers, replacement levels of up 50% may be
possible without negative effects on the setting of cement.
With respect to by-product gypsum, there are a number of commercial processes which produce such
materials. An overview on the main sources of by-product gypsum is given in Table 5; the most important
sources regarding quantities are phosphogypsum and desulphogypsum. Another type of by-product not
mentioned in the table are used plaster moulds, which are for instance used in casting certain clay
products.
Table 5:Main sources of by-product gypsum

Product/process By-product % sulphate* % impurities

orthophosphoric acid phosphogypsum 95-98 (G) 0.2-1.5 P2O5, up to 1.5 fluoride
hydrofluoric acid fluorogypsum 80-95 (HH or AH) 2-3 CaF2, unreacted silicofluorides
citric, formic and tartaric acid organogypsum --- ---
boric acid borogypsum 40-50 (G), 20-30 (AN) 7-10 H3BO3
flue gas SO2 removal desulfogypsum 90-95 (G), sulfite for mod. process ---
titanium white titanogypsum 90-95 (G) 0.4 TiO2

* G = CaSO4 • 2H20, HH = CaSO4 • ½H2O, AN = CaSO4

The main problem for the use of such by-products as subsitute for natural gypsum is the presence of
impurities, which may have some harmful effect on setting, strength develpment or some other property of
the cements. Moreover, the amount of impurities can fluctuate quite a lot so that the variability in cement
properties may also be higher.
7. MICROSTRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CEMENT PASTE
7.1 Basic physical features
In this section we deal with the physical structure of hydrated cement paste (HCP), as well as the effect of
its morphology on the important properties of hardened concrete.
We will be concerned with the main chemical reaction taking place during hydration:
Calcium Silicates + H2O ---> C-S-H + Ca(OH)2
where C-S-H are the hydrates of the Calcium Silicates (C3S and C2S), also called "C-S-H gel".
The most important physical aspect of that reaction is the fact that the total volume occupied by the
hydration products is, roughly, twice the volume occupied originally by the unhydrated cement (see Figure
12):
Figure 12: Basic physical feature of cement hydration

It must be mentioned that, out of that total volume, 28 % are very small pores (gel pores) and the rest (72
%) is solid phase:
Gel pores = 0.28 Vhp
Figure 13 shows schematically the growth of crystals during hydration of two pastes, one of low and the
other of high water/cement ratio (w/c). The w/c ratio is a measure of the degree of dispersion of the
cement grains in water.
Figure 13: Structure formation in cement paste during hydration
High w/c Low w/c
0h
No setting Setting
2-4h
High age
Cement hydration can be seen as a continuous process by which the capillary pores (space originally
occupied by water) are being gradually filled with hydration products.
7.2 Morphological features
Figure 14 presents a model (Feldman and Sereda) of the general structure of HCP, showing its main
features.
In the hydrated cement paste, there are two distinctive phases:
¨ Solid Phases
¨ Pores (at least partially filled with water)
Figure 14: Model of Feldmann and Sereda for the general structure of hydrated cement paste

Legend
 x Water in interlayer regions
o Water absorbed on surfaces
C Capillary pore
— C-S-H sheets
7.2.1 Solid phases
7.2.1.1 Calcium silicate hydrates-(C-S-H)
The C-S-H particles occupy 50 - 60 % of the total solid volume in hydrated paste; it is also called C-S-H
gel. The particles are very small (colloidal dimensions) and sheet-like shaped (see Figure 15)
Figure 15: Basic feature of C-S-H particle

The C-S-H particles are arranged as a highly disordered layered structure (see Figure 14) with very high
specific surface » 3.000.000 cm2/g.
The strength of the HCP is attributed to the attraction forces between the C-S-H crystals over their
enormous surface.
The space left between the particles is called gel pores; these pores are extremely small (about 1.5 nm),
of the order or magnitude of a water molecule (0.25 nm).
7.2.1.2 Calcium Hydroxide (CH)
Compound with a definite stoichiometry: Ca(OH)2, forming large crystals (0.01 - 0.1 mm) of hexagonal
shape (Portlandite).
These crystals constitute 20 - 25 % of the solid volume in the hydrated paste.
Their contribution to strength is low (low surface area); however, their presence is very important to
passivate the embedded steel rebars.
7.2.1.3 Calcium Sulfoaluminates
Occupy 15 - 20 % of solid volume in hydrated paste; they only play a minor role in strength.
There exist two forms:
Ettringite: Elongated needle shaped crystals
Monosulfate: Hexagonal plates or "rosettes"
Iron oxide can replace aluminium oxide in the Crystal structure.
7.2.1.4 Unhydrated Clinker Grains
Smaller grains react faster and coarser grains (> 30 mm) tend to remain partially unhydrated.
7.2.2 Pores
7.2.2.1 lnterlayer space in C-S-H (gel pores)
Occupy 28 % of bulk volume of C-S-H gel
Size: 0.5 nm - 2.5 nm (H2O molecule = 0.25 nm)
They are always present in HCP but, due to their small size do not adversely affect strength and
permeability. However, the movement of water - that is firmly held within the gel pores - is the main
reason for drying shrinkage and creep.
7.2.2.2 Capillary pores
Represent the space originally occupied by water, not filled with hydration products. Their size and
volume depend on the w/c ratio and the degree of hydration:
¨ well hydrated paste, low w/c: 10 - 50 nm
¨ at early ages, high w/c: up to 10 mm
7.2.2.3 Macropores
Air bubbles naturally entrapped or intentionally entrained during mixing (10 - 100 mm).
"Compaction" voids: mm or cm
7.3 Evolution of pastes during hydration
Figures 16, 17 and 18 show the evolution of the structure of cement pastes, made with the same amount
of cement (1 kg) but with different w/c ratios, during hydration (under water).
Figure 16: Development of Hydration of Cement Paste made with 1 kg of cement; w/c = 0.70

Figure 17: Development of Hydration of Cement Paste made with 1 kg of cement; w/c = 0.50

Figure 18: Development of Hydration of Cement Paste made with 1 kg of cement; w/c = 0.30
lnitially, all pastes contain about 320 cm3 of unhydrated cement (1 kg), but different volumes of water,
700, 500 and 300 cm3 for w/c ratio 0.7, 0.5 and 0.3, respectively. Consequently, pastes with higher w/c
ratio will have larger total volumes. The volume of water corresponds to the initial volume of capillary
pores.
As hydration proceeds, the total volume remains basically constant, but the amount of unhydrated cement
is gradually reduced. At degree of hydration 0.5, half of the original cement has been consumed and
replaced by hydration products. The latter occupy a volume about double that of the original cement that
hydrated, thus reducing the volume of capillary pores. From the total volume of hydrates, 72% are solid
phase and 28% are gel pores.
If we compare the pastes with w/c 0.50 and 0.70 we see that, as they contained initially the same volume
of cement, at any stage both pastes contain the same amount of hydration products. However, the paste
with higher w/c ratio will contain more pores because the cement grains were more dispersed.
The paste with w/c ratio 0.30 can never reach full hydration because there is no room left to accomodate
new hydration products. High-strength concretes, with very low w/c ratios always contain unhydrated
cement for that reason.
Clearly, pastes and concretes with lower w/c ratios will have less and smaller capillary pores, thus
explaining why they are stronger and less permeable (more durable), see Figures 19 and 20.
Figure 19: Strength vs. w/c-ratio

Figure 20: Permeability vs. w/c-ratio

7.4 Influence of the aggregates on the structure

Figure 21 shows that the presence of the aggregates distorts the structure of the HCP in their vicinity. In
this contact or transition zone (about 20-25 mm thick), there exists a higher capillary porosity and a higher
proportion of Ca(OH)2 than normal, making it weaker than the rest of the paste. This explains why, in the
case of rounded and smooth aggregates the failure of concrete tends to happen at the interface between
the coarse aggregate and the paste.
Figure 21: Model of the contact zone between cement stone and aggregate

To achieve high-strength concretes it is necessary to overcome this weakness of the contact zone. The
increased porosity has to be compensated by using high dosages of a superplastizer and the preferential
alignment and presence of Ca(OH)2 crystals can be solved by adding microsilica or fly-ash.
8. LITERATURE
8.1 General overview on cement hydration

Author Title, Publisher pp

Taylor, H.F.W. Cement chemistry, Academic Press, London, 1990
Jawed, I., Skalny, J. and Young J.F, Hydration of Portland cement, in: Structure and Performance of
Cements, Ed. P. Barnes, Applied Science Publishers, Londond and New York, 1983 237 - 316
Mindess, S. and Young J.F. Concrete, Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs
Lea, F.M. The chemistry of cement and concrete, Edward Arnold Ltd., Glasgow, 1970

8.2 Gypsum and setting of cement

Author Title, Publisher pp

Frigione G. Gypsum in Cement, in: Advances in Cement Technology, Ed. S.N. Ghosh, Pergamon
Press, Oxford, 1983 307 - 347
Roy, D.M. and Grutzeck, M.W. Gypsum & anhydrite in Portland cement, 3rd Edition, United States
Gypsum Company
Locher, F.W., Richartz, W., Sprung, S. et al. Setting of cement
Part I Reaction and development of structure, Zement-Kalk-Gips, 1976, 10 435 - 442
Part II Effect of adding calcium sulphate, Zement-Kalk-Gips, 1980, 6 271 - 277
Part III Influence of clinker manufacture, Zement-Kalk-Gips, 1982, 12 669 - 676
Part IV Influence of composition of solution, Zement-Kalk-Gips, 1983, 4 224 - 231

8.3 Microstructure and properties of hardened cement paste

Author Title, Publisher pp

Diamond, S. The microstructures of cement paste in concrete, 8th International Congress on the
Chemistry of Cement, Rio de Janeiro, 1986, Vol. I 122 - 147
Mehta, P.K. Hardened cement paste - microstructure and its relationship to properties, dto., Vol.I
113 - 121
Taylor, H.F.W. Structure and composition of hydrates, 7th International Congress on the Chemistry of
Cement, Paris, 1980, Vol. I, Subtheme II-2 pp 2 - 13
Diamond, S. Cement paste microstructure - an overview at several levels, in: Hydraulic Cement
Pastes: Their Structure and Properties, Cement and Concrete Association, Wexham Springs, Slough, UK,
1974 pp.2 - 30

C02 - Special Cements

SPECIAL CEMENTS

1. DEFINITION
2. TYPES OF SPECIAL CEMENTS
2.1 Special Portland Cements for Durability
2.1.1 Sulfate resisting cements
2.1.2 Low heat cements
2.1.3 Leaching resistant cements
2.1.4 Low alkali cements
2.1.5 Sea-water resisting cements
2.1.6 Freeze-thaw resisting cements
2.2 Blended Cements for Durability
2.3 High Early Strength Cement, Rapid Hardening Cement
2.4 Fast Setting Cement (Vicat Cement)
2.5 Sulfo-aluminate Cement
2.6 Regulated Set (Regset) Cement
2.7 Oil-well cements
2.8 White cement
2.9 Hydrophobic cement
2.10 Masonry Cements
2.11 Ultrafine Cements (Microcements)
2.12 High Alumina Cement
2.13 Phosphate cements
2.14 Other non-Portland cements
2.14.1 Alkali-activated cements
2.14.2 Alkali-activated slags
3. OVERVIEW OF PRODUCTION IMPLICATIONS IN SPECIAL CEMENTS
4. LITERATURE

1. DEFINITION
Special cements are cements with special properties that meet particular requirements which are not
fulfilled by ordinary cements.
These properties refer either to the performance of cement in fresh and hardened concrete as well as in
other cementitious blends, or to a special field of application. They can be produced with appropriate
selection of clinker raw materials and/or cement constituents, adoption of special measures in
manufacturing, tailored cement compositions.
As a consequence of these actions, special cements can still comply with existing standards on common
cements, but very often they are better described in appropriate specifications, or otherwise they are
produced on the basis of specific agreements between producer and user.
In spite of the several types listed in the following, their application is still limited in quantity and the total
amount of marketed special cements can be estimated in the order of 10 to 15% of production.
Nevertheless the additional possibilities given by the recently issued new cement standards and the
increased severity of the environments where concrete is put into service are going to make this quantity
increase in the near future.
2. TYPES OF SPECIAL CEMENTS
Special cements are usually developed and produced to meet performance and durability requirements,
in particular
¨ improved strength development
¨ increased resistance to chemical attack
¨ improved compatibility with reactive aggregates
¨ suitability for use at elevated temperatures and pressures
¨ suitability for use in special applications
¨ applicability in architectural purposes
As already discussed in the chapter on special clinkers, special cements may belong to three main
categories
· Portland cement or blended Portland cement
· Modified Portland cement
· non-Portland cement.
2.1 Special Portland Cements for Durability
Their main hydraulic constituent is generally Portland cement clinker, very often tailored to obtain special
characteristics that yield the desired properties to the cement. For this reason, particular measures need
to be taken in the production of clinker, expecially from the point of view of the selected raw materials to
employ. In some cases this could not be enough or the involved costs are much higher than the obtained
benefit.
So, the same or even better final properties can be achieved by blending clinker with appropriate mineral
components and/or additions, as described in chapter , dealing with design and properties of blended
cements.
Main durability characteristics for Portland type special cements are
· resistance to sulfate attack
· low heat of hydration
· resistance to pure water attack
· low alkali content or low reactivity with amorphous silica
· resistance to freeze-thaw cycles.
Before dealing with the different durability aspects that can require use of special cements, a general
remark must be done. The main factor influencing durability is the proper design, production, compaction
and curing of concrete. Any special cement, designed for the enhancement of durability will fail when
used in the production of a poor concrete. A well compacted, high strength, low porosity concrete will be
by far less prone to be attacked by external agents, even when produced with ordinary cements.
2.1.1 Sulfate resisting cements
Sulfates can be found in natural and industrial waters, as well as in soils. Soluble sulfates can react with
lime and aluminates present in the hardened concrete and form respectively gypsum and ettringite. Both
reactions entail expansion and consequent concrete deterioration. Sulfate resisting cements are
characterized by a low C3A content, to minimize the risk of ettringite formation. This type of binders set
and harden normally and in fully compacted concrete are not attacked by sulfates in a wide range of
concentration. At the same time they possess low-heat properties.
2.1.2 Low heat cements
Hydration reactions of cement develop heat. When cement is used in the production of mass concrete,
temperature gradients generate between core and surface of the conglomerate cause strains and may
eventually lead to cracking. Low heat cements have a reduced heat of hydration, obtained by altering the
chemical composition (low C3S and C3A contents). The use of low-heat cement is recommended for
mass concrete production or for large structural sections. They usually set and harden at a lower rate
than for ordinary cements, especially in cold weather, but ultimate strengths may be higher. They possess
also good sulfate resisting properties.
2.1.3 Leaching resistant cements
Waters with low salinity or a high content of carbon dioxide (CO2) are capable to dissolve hydration lime
present in hardened concrete structures and may subsequently also subtract lime from silicate hydrates,
thus causing damage to the hardened cement paste. Cements resisting to leaching have a low
development of calcium hydroxide (lime) after hydration of clinker silicates, as a consequence of their low
C3S content. Their use is suggested in hydraulic works like basins, river barriers and sides. At the same
time they possess rather low heat evolution characteristics.
2.1.4 Low alkali cements
Some aggregates may contain forms of reactive amorphous silica. In the presence of water this can react
with the soluble alkali of cement and form locally an expansive gel that can deteriorate concrete. In such
cases, when the use of reactive aggregates is absolutely unavoidable, the use of a cement proven to
counteract alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is suggested. Such cements can either be low-alkali or blended
cements, since the pozzolanic or slag material can immediately react with alkali and prevent subsequent
reaction with aggregates in the hardened paste.
2.1.5 Sea-water resisting cements
Deterioration of concrete which is in contact to sea water takes place as a consequence of some of the
already described phenomena. Concurring factors are chemical attack by MgSO4, mechanical stress
caused by tydal waves, crystallisation pressure due to deposition of salts in the wind and water line. Cold
climates add freeze-thaw effects, while in warm areas some reactions are accelerated. Sea-water
resisting cements are standardised in some countries, being moderate C3A content or blended cements.
2.1.6 Freeze-thaw resisting cements
In harsh climates with high temperature differences and repeated freeze-thaw cycles, freezing of water
contained in gel and aggregate pores will cause a volume increase of ab. 10% and the consequent
development of internal pressure; repeated actions of this type deteriorate the concrete. Entrainment of
air in form of microbubbles will produce a closed artificial porosity acting as expansion chambers for the
ice generated. Some standards such as ASTM provide for cement types with air entrainment.
2.2 Blended Cements for Durability
In the chapters 2.1.1.to 2.1.5 specifications set limits for clinker components, i.e. maximum C3A and C3S
content, maximum Na20 equivalent, as reflected in the ASTM C150 specification for Portland cement.
But in all of these cases, the simple “dilution” of clinker with a suitable pozzolan or a slag, when not simply
the addition of limestone, will yield the same effect in terms of reduction of the content of the sensitive
clinker component.
Additionally, the use of a mineral component like slag, pozzolan or fly ash will improve the durability and
the pore structure of hardened concrete by lowering its lime content and porosity as a consequence of the
enhanced development of calcium silicate hydrates.
Then, the ASTM C595 and C1157 deal with blended cements and set limits referred to the performance of
cement with respect of sulfate resistance and heat of hydration, without any prescription on the basis of
cement composition.
If we look at these durability aspects in the context of the European standard ENV 197-1, we can
immediately realize that most of the Portland composite cements of the II/B type, with addition of 21 up to
35% of non-clinker materials, as well as type III (slag), type IV (pozzolan) and type V (composite)
cements can be considered as “special” with respect to many properties mainly related to durability.
Nevertheless, a CEN working group is now drafting new ENV 197 parts specifically dealing with special
cements, in particular low heat- and sulfate resisting cements.
2.3 High Early Strength Cement, Rapid Hardening Cement
High early strength cement (HES) and rapid hardening cement (RHC) may either be finer than ordinary
cement or have a special clinker composition.
Especially in the past, production of HES/RHC cements often required the production of a special clinker,
with high C3S and C3A contents.
In present times, the improvements gained in grinding technology and in the use of quality enhancers as
grinding aids, combined with the need of rationalization for storage and transports in cement plants, allow
for the production of high early strength cements based on the same clinker used for ordinary binders.
The higher grinding fineness and the related enhanced reactivity usually require increased gypsum
dosage.
Physical properties of HES/RHC cements in comparison with ordinary Portland cements are shown in
table 1. It should be noted that an increase in fineness would often also reflect in higher late strengths.
Table 1 Physical Properties of High Early Strength and Ordinary Portland Cement

Type Blaine (cm²/g) Initial setting time (minutes) Compr. strength MPa (ISO) 2 days
28 days
OPC 3000 ¸ 3500 150 ¸ 240 10 ¸ 20 38 ¸ 43
High early strength 3800 ¸ 4500 120 ¸ 180 20 ¸ 30 48 ¸ 55
Rapid hardening 4800 ¸ 5500 90 ¸ 150 30 ¸ 40 58 ¸ 67

The use of HES/RHC cements is indicated when a rapid strength development is required, e.g. if
formwork has to be removed or re-used after a short time (precast elements production) or when
sufficient strength is required for further construction (slipforming).
However, since rapid strength gain is usually associated to high rate of heat devlopment, HES/RHC
cements should not be used in mass concrete or in large structural sections. On the other hand,
concreting at low temperatures would profit from the use of a high heat cement as a safeguard against
early frost damage.
2.4 Fast Setting Cement (Vicat Cement)
A particular type of fast setting cement is the so called Vicat cement from the name of its inventor and
main producer. It is obtained by burning at low temperature (1200 to 1250 °C) selected natural marls with
rather high alumina contents. The clinker produced is mainly composed of belite and aluminates; after
grinding it is capable to set in a few minutes, developing sufficient strength to fulfil requirements for easy
and fast repair or small construction jobs.
“Artificial” fast setting cement can be produced by blending OPC and High Alumina cement (see § 2.12)
approximately at a 9:1 ratio.
2.5 Sulfo-aluminate Cement
Cements having calcium sulfo-aluminate (C4A3S*) as main component. Examples of this binder type are
type K cement produced in USA and the so called third cement series (TCS) in India and China. Typical
composition ranges are reported in Table 4.
Characteristics of these cements are
* reduced setting times
* high workability, low water demand
* rapid strength development
* low shrinkage (even expansive)
Hydration of C4A3S* leads to the formation of ettringite, which is mainly responsible for early strength
development. Microstructure of ettringite depends on the presence of lime. When ettringite forms in
presence of lime it provokes expansion and this property is used to produce no-shrinkage cements. In the
absence of lime, ettringite is not expansive and mainly contributes to strength development.
Binders of this type can then be used, according to mineralogy, to prevent shrinkage in concrete or to
develop high early strength for special applications.
The blend of TCS cements with OPC yields to flash setting.
Table 4 Chemical and mineralogical composition of Sulfo-aluminate Cements

Sulfo-aluminate clinker (type K) TCS sulfo-aluminate cement (SAC) TCS ferro-aluminate

cement (FAC)
SiO2 2 - 4 3 - 10 6 - 12
Al2O3 45 - 49 28 - 40 25 - 30
Fe2O3 1 - 2 1-3 5 - 12
CaO 37 - 39 36 - 43 43 - 46
SO3 7 - 10 8 - 15 5 - 10
CaO free 0 - 0.3 0 - 0.3 0 - 0.3
mineralogical composition
C4A3S*55 - 70 55 - 75 35 - 55
CA 15 - 20 - -
C2AS 15 - 20 - -
C4AF 0 - 5 3-6 15 - 30
C2S - 15 - 30 15 - 35

2.6 Regulated Set (Regset) Cement

Modified Portland cement type with rapid setting and hardening characteristics. The active component is
a calcium fluoroaluminate (11 CaO. 7Al2O3. CaF2).
The regset cement is characterized by a setting time of 15 to 60 minutes. The setting is controlled by the
addition of retarders (citric acid). Additional characteristic property is its unusually high early strength. A
comparison between strengths achieved with Regset and HES cement is reported in Table 2.
Table 2 Properties of Regset and High Early Strength Cement

EN method Regset Cement H.E.S. Cement

Compr. Strength MPa
2 hours 6 0
8 hours 8 2
16 hours 9 15
2 days 10 35
7 days 18 47
28 days 35 60
Setting time minutes
Initial 45 120
Final 75 180

The very early strength gain makes this cement useful for all applications where there is a vital need for
short times between placing and hardening of concrete, i.e. shotcrete, repairs on airport runways or
highways, pavements.
Regset cements are batched, handled and mixed in pretty well the same way as Portland cements,
making however the necessary provisions for rapid handling and placing of concrete. Although production
is as cheap and easy as for Portland cement, the fast and often unpredictable setting behaviour puts
serious limits to the use in constructions and the total world production is estimated in the order of 10000
tons/year.
2.7 Oil-well cements
Oil-well cements are developed for use in oil and gas wells and are designed to set and cure at high
temperatures and pressures in well grouting. They can also be used for sealing water wells, waste
disposal wells and geothermal wells. Cement plays an important part in the successful drilling of a well. It
is used primarily to seal the annulus between the walls of the borehole and the steel casing, to isolate the
pressured or weak zones encountered whilst drilling.
The oil-well cement must possess the following properties:
* low permeability
* form a good bond between rock and casing
* maintain these properties under downhole temperature and pressure conditions
* protect the casing against corrosion and collapse
To achieve these aims, the cement slurries must stay pumpable for sufficient time to permit placement,
give stable suspensions, harden rapidly once in place and retain high strength and low permeability
during well lifetime.
API specification 10 from American Petroleum Institute classifies eight different oil-well cements. Other
national standards exist, e.g. in Russia, China, India, most Eastern European countries, but so far no EN
standard has been drafted. In Table 3 an overview of API 10 cements is compiled.
Table 3 Overview of oil-well cements

Class Typical use

A from surface to 1830 m, special properties not required, ASTM type I
B from surface to 1830 m, moderate or high sulfate resistance
C from surface to 1830 m, high early strength
D between 1830 and 3050 m, moderately high T and p conditions, moderate or high sulfate
resistance
E between 3050 and 4270 m, high T and p conditions, moderate or high sulfate resistance
F between 3050 and 4880 m, extremely high T and p conditions, moderate or high sulfate
resistance
G and H from surface to 2440 m, for use with accelerators or retarders, moderate or high sulfate
resistance, class H coarser than G
J between 3660 and 4880 m, pure OPC, extremely high T and p conditions

Such cements need special test procedures for suitable characterisation and additional care during
manufacture so as to ensure consistency of quality between batches of the same plant.
In use, they are frequently mixed with additives in various proportions to produce satisfactory slurry
performance for given well conditions, so they should additionally be compatible and responding to these
additives (Table 4).
Table 4 Common types of additives for Oil-well Cements

Classification Function Example

Accelerator Reduces thickening time of cement CaCl2, sea-water
Retarder Lengthens thickening time Lignosulfonates, sugars
Dispersant Improves flow properties of cement Superplasticizers
Lightweight extender Improves stability of suspension Bentonite, various clays
Weighing agent Improves density of slurry Haematite, barite, sand
Lost circulation controller Prevents cement losses through strata Walnut shells, cellophane
flakes, expanded clay
Inhibitor of strength retrogression Prevents loss of strength and formation of low strength silicate
hydr. Silica flour, silica sand
Fluid loss controller Controls rate of water loss polymers, cellulose
Defoamers Removes foaming during mixing Lauryl alcohol, glycols

2.8 White cement

One of the most important special Portland cements. It is characterized by a white colour, obtained with
suitable selection of raw materials, in which the colouring elements iron, chromium and manganese must
be kept at the lowest possible level. Reduced formation of melt phase during burning is sometimes
compensated by addition of fluoride as mineralizer.
Mechanical properties of white cements are comparable to those of OPC. Lower strength binders are
produced intergrinding (up to 35%) high purity limestone. To improve whiteness, use of “optical whiteners”
such as methylene blue in cement grinding can be applied.
White cement is used for architectural purposes in white or coloured concrete. To achieve best results, a
properly coloured aggregate has to be used.
2.9 Hydrophobic cement
A small amount of a water-repellent agent (stearic acid, oleic acid, a.s.o.) is added to Portland cement
during grinding. This forms a protective coating around each cement particle that retards hydration until
cement is mixed with water and prevents deterioration during storage, especially in humid countries.
2.10 Masonry Cements
Masonry cements are successfully used in the production of mortars and plasters for most non-structural
building purposes.
Their main characteristics are: low early- and late strengths, low shrinkage, limited water permeability,
high water retention, excellent plasticity and cohesiveness in the fresh state, frequently also air
entrainment for better workability and freeze-thaw resistance.
These properties are achieved by a low to medium clinker content, use of a suitable limestone and/or
other mineral additions, use of air-entraining agents.
MC’s are mostly produced by intergrinding Portland cement clinker, gypsum, precrushed limestone and/or
other mineral additions. When the grindability of the constituent materials is much different, it might be
opportune to grind them separately, especially if the following blending facilities are available.
The main advantage from the production point of view is the limited clinker content (may be as low as
25%) and the availability of the limestone in the plant. Production
25 Holcim Group plants produce masonry cements in an extremely wide range of compositions and
properties, reported in the following table 5 (based on 1996 Annual Technical Report).
Table 5 Characteristics of Masonry Cements in the Holcim Group

Masonry Cement Characteristics avg. min. max.

Clinker content, % 1) 54.2 24.0 81.5
Specific surface acc. to Blaine, cm²/g 6470 3765 9420
Residue on a 45-µm sieve, % 8.9 1.7 25.7
Residue on a 90-µm sieve, % 5.5 1.1 9.5
Air entraining agent, dosage g/t 1210 91 4000
Sulfate content, % SO3 1.93 0.62 3.00
Water demand, % 2) 26.3 21.5 30.2
Initial setting time, minutes 2) 190 113 383
Compressive strength 7 days, MPa 2) 12.8 3.7 25.6
Compressive strength 28 days, MPa 2) 15.2 3.4 29.5
Specific milling energy consumption, kWh/t 65.6 34.3 132

1) main other constituent is limestone, but also fly ash and pozzolana are used
2) figures related to both ASTM and EN test methods are considered
2.11 Ultrafine Cements (Microcements)
These binders are characterized by a narrow and steep particle size distribution (see figure 1), specially
designed for injection grouts used for sealing and improving mechanical properties of porous systems
(rocks, damaged concretes, soils).
Due to the reduced particle size, water-microcement suspensions are highly stable and penetrating than
OPC grouts. Results obtained using microcement injections are comparable to those of chemical
products such as resins and soluble silicates, with the advantage of being more environment friendly.
Microcements are usually Portland or blast furnace slag cement based and are produced by ultrafine
grinding or subsequent efficient separation of finer fractions from common cements.
Particle size distribution may range between 0 and 10 -15 µm. Due to this, they also develop much higher
early strength than the corresponding common cement , but usually require higher water demand. This is
not a drawback in most applications, since for injection grouts a W/C ratio of 1.5 to 3 is quite in the normal
range.

Figure 1 Particle size distribution of various cement types

As mentioned, their main use is in fields where common cements cannot be used due to their limited
fineness characteristics
· agglomeration of loose soils
· sealing of microcracked rocks
· restoration of foundations, tunnels, leaching dams, historical buildings.
2.12 High Alumina Cement
Typical non-Portland cement, high-alumina cement (HAC) produces a concrete which has an
exceptionally fast rate of hardening and is resistant to attacks by most sulfate solutions. It also has a
higher resistance against acidic solutions than Portland cement based concretes, but it does not resist the
attack of caustic alkali.The strength development of HAC is demonstrated in Figure 2. About 80% of its
ultimate strength is achieved after only 24 hours. The high rate of strength gain of HAC is due to the rapid
hydration of the anhydrous calcium aluminate (CA).
Rapid hardening is not accompanied by fast setting. Initial setting takes place between two and six hours
after mixing, becuase of the slow setting pattern of hydration of the main compound CA.
Setting time can be shortened by addition of OPC. HAC/OPC blends are used in applications where rapid
setting is compulsory, but lower ultimate strengths are then obtained.
Inversely, the same effect on setting is achieved by replacement of 10 to 20% HAC to OPC.
The high rate of heat evolution (Figure 3) of high-alumina cement (ab. 40 J/g.hour in the first 24 hours)
makes it necessary for HAC concrete to be placed in thin sections and never in large mass. The rise in
temperature causes cracking and adversely affects strength. HAC concrete needs also more water for
hardening and better curing during the first two days than OPC concrete.
The main drawback of high-alumina cement concrete is the loss of strength associated with expansion
due to the conversion of the aluminate hydrates under moist conditions at elevated temperatures. The
hexagonal hydrate CAH10 is converted into the cubic aluminate C3AH6 as from the reaction
3 CAH10 ® C3AH6 + 2 AH3 + 18 H
This means that concrete which is properly placed and has developed a high strength will lose a
considerable proportion of its strength upon exposure to temperatures over 30 °C and moisture.
Figure 2 Strength development of different cements

Figure 3 Heat evolution of different cements

2.13 Phosphate cements

A mixture of tetracalcium phosphate and dicalcium phosphate, when mixed with a dilute phosphoric acid
or other aqueous solutions will harden like a cement-producing hydroxyapatite, Ca10(PO4)6HOH, as the
final product. The setting property, combined with biocompatibility, makes calcium phosphate cements
useful in many applications in dentistry and medicine.
Pastes prepared from diammonium orthophosphate, as well as NaH2PO4 or Na-polyphosphate, and
calcined MgO exhibit a fast setting and hardening at room temperature associated with NH3 liberation.
MgO-phosphate binders may be used for high temperature applications, since strength remains
preserved up to 1000 °C.
2.14 Other non-Portland cements
2.14.1 Alkali-activated cements
“Pyrament “ (developed in USA) belongs to this type of binders; they are mainly composed of pozzolans
and possibly other active silica-based materials such as silica fume, fly-ash, slag or Portland cement, and
alkali compounds (alkali silicate, hydroxide or carbonate); water reducers and retarders are also added to
set regulation. They display excellent early strength properties as well as high density and strength at
later age, but the complicated multicomponent formulation indicates a very sensitive system, difficult to
control under field conditions.

Development of “Geopolymers” is based on the work of Davidovits. The main reaction takes place
between sodium hydroxide and kaolinite to form hydrosodalite at room temperatures or preferably
between 150 and 180 °C. This reaction is the typical hydrothermal synthesis of zeolites.
2.14.2 Alkali-activated slags
The ability of activating blast furnace slags (BFS) by the addition of alkalis has been known for many
decades. Hydration of slag requires the breaking of bonds and dissolution of the three-dimensional
structure of glass and this is easily achieved in the high pH environments produced by alkali. Research on
slag activation dates back to the early 50’s; interest in alkaline activation has grown markedly and in
recent years alkali-activated cement and concrete have received greater attention worldwide.
Compared with ordinary Portland cement and interground slag cement, alkali activated slag cement has
some advantageous properties, including rapid and high strength development, good durability and high
resistance to chemical attack.
Finely ground, well granulated BFS can be utilized in the production of cements suitable for the precast
industry, after addition of alkaline activators and superplasticizers, as for the “F” cement (Finland). When
used with thermal curing, these cements can develop strengths 30% higher than normal Portland
cements.
3. OVERVIEW OF PRODUCTION IMPLICATIONS IN SPECIAL CEMENTS
In the following table 5, the implications related to the production of special cements are summarized. In
particular, after highlighting the main properties and applications of each special cement type, a list of
special measures that need to be taken at the plant to achieve the expected properties is compiled.
Table 4 Properties , application and measures for proper production of special cements

Type Properties Application

Raw mat Manufact Additions Application
OPC normal workability and stength general application in building and construction - -
- -
ASTM II / SRC/LHC moderate sulfate res. low heat of hydration drainage, large piers and
retaining walls, sea water x - (x) -
ASTM III / HES-RHC high early strength, rapid hardening precast concrete, repairs, cold weather
concreting - x finer - -
ASTM IV / LHC low heat of hydration mass concrete, large dams x - x x
ASTM V / SRC sulfate resistant severe sulfate action in (soils, ground water) x (x) x
x
Air entrain. frost resistance roads, freeze-thaw action - - x -
Low alkali low reactivity with amorphous silica in concrete with reactive aggregates x
x x -
Leaching resisting low content of hydrat. lime in presence of pure waters or high CO2
solutions x - x -
Oil well retarded setting, moderate sulfate res. in oil, gas and other types of wells x -
(x) x
Regset fast setting time road repairs, dry mortars x x - x
White cem white colour architectural concrete x xx (x) x
Sulfoalum. cement fast setting, high workab., (expansive) precast concrete, repairs, no-shrinkage
concrete x x - x
Ultrafine max size < 15 µm injection grouts - xx (x) xx
High alum. cement high early strength, rapid strength devel. demand of very high early strength,
refractories x xx - xx

4. LITERATURE
1) Special and New Cements - A K Chatterjee Proceedings of the 9th ICCC, New Delhi 1992
2) Development in non-Portland Cements - Nuzhen, Kurdowski, Sorrentino as above
3) Mineral Admixtures in Cement and Concrete - Sarkar, Ghosh Progress in Cement and Concrete
vol. 4 - Akademia Books International, New Delhi 1993
4) Specialty Cements with Advanced Properties - Scheetz, Landers, Odler, Jennings Symposium
Proceedings Materials Research Society 1989
5) International Development Trends in Low-energy Cements - Stark, Müller ZKG 4/88
6) J. Bensted - Oilwell cements World Cement 10/89
7) Structure and Performance of Cements - ed.Barnes Applied Science Publishers 1983
8) New Ultra-rapid Cements - Costa Proceedings of the FAST Congress, Milan 1997

C03 - Mineral Components

MINERAL COMPONENTS
1. INTRODUCTION TO MINERAL COMPONENTS
1.1 Definition of Mineral Components
1.2 Types of Mineral Components
1.3 Industrial MIC - Production Worldwide
1.4 Opportunities of MIC
1.5 Threats of MIC
1.6 Mineral Components - A Core Business of Holcim
2. MINERAL COMPONENTS STRATEGY
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Concept of a MIC Strategy
3. MINERAL COMPONENTS - OVERVIEW
3.1 Mineral Components in Cementitious Applications
3.2 Chemical Composition of Mineral Components
3.3 Performance of Mineral Components
3.4 Standards for Mineral Components
3.5 Testing Methods
4. MAIN MINERAL COMPONENTS FOR PRODUCTION OF BLENDED CEMENTS
4.1 Blast-Furnace Slag and other Slag Types
4.1.1 General
4.1.2 Definition of Blast-Furnace Slag
4.1.3 Production of Blast-Furnace Slag
4.1.4 Processing of Blast-Furnace Slag
4.1.5 Properties of Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag and Influence on Processing and Performance
4.1.6 Application of Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag
4.2 Fly Ash
4.2.1 Definition of Fly Ash
4.2.2 Production of Fly Ash
4.2.3 Properties of Fly Ash and Influence on Processing and Performance
4.2.4 Standard Specifications
4.2.5 Optimum Fly Ash Properties
4.2.6 Applications
4.3 Pozzolans
4.3.1 Definition of Pozzolans
4.3.2 Natural Pozzolans
4.3.3 Artificial Pozzolans
4.3.4 Applications
5. REFERENCES
6. CONTROL QUESTIONS

1. INTRODUCTION TO MINERAL COMPONENTS

1.1 Definition of Mineral Components
Mineral Components are materials with binding properties, which are not derived from the clinker
manufacturing process.
Mineral Components can be used
- as alternative material for clinker (clinker substitute) or
- for the manufacturing of concrete (cement substitute).
Other terms used for Mineral Components are mineral additions, mineral additives, mineral admixtures,
cement extenders, or for chemically inert material, fillers.
1.2 Types of Mineral Components
According to their reactivity, Mineral Components are subdivided in three groups:
¨ latent hydraulic material (e.g. granulated blast-furnace slag)
¨ pozzolanic component (e.g. natural pozzolana, fly ash, silica fume, burnt clay)
¨ filler (usually limestone).
Latent hydraulic materials have a natural hydraulic potential (i.e. they develop silicate hydrates by
hydration reactions). To accelerate the reaction with water they require an activator such as:
¨ Lime
¨ Portland cement clinker
¨ Gypsum
¨ Chemical activator
Blast-furnace slag is the most typical latent hydraulic material.

Pozzolanic Materials can give rise to the formation of silicate hydrates only in presence of lime (calcium
hydroxide, Ca(OH)2), as a consequence of its reaction with the amorphous (glassy) silica contained in the
pozzolana. The hydration reaction of Portland cement clinker with water will provide the necessary lime to
make the pozzolanic reaction happen.
Natural pozzolanas, generally of volcanic origin, and low-calcium fly ashes are the most commonly used
materials belonging to this group.
Inert additions (fillers) possess no hydraulic or pozzolanic activity, but contribute to cement properties
other than strength development.
Limestone filler is the most commonly used, particularly in the production of fillerized cements, with up to
35% clinker replacement, and in the manufacture of masonry cements (up to 75% limestone).
Mineral Components can also be grouped according to their origin into natural and artificial materials.
Artificial Mineral Components are either derived from industrial production as by-products, or can be
obtained by thermal activation of natural materials or by-products.
Table 1 shows an overview of the classification of Mineral Components.
Table 1 Classification of Mineral Components according to reaction mechanism.

Example: SLAGS Example: NATURAL POZZOLANS, FLY ASH

artificial natural artificial
* granulated blast-furnace slag (gbfs) * volcanic ashes * activated natural
materials
(burnt clays, shales, and volcanic rocks, metakaolin, Kalsin, etc.)
* all other rapidly cooled slags * tuffs * industrial by-products (fly ash, silica
fume, rice husk ash, etc.)
* opaline cherts and shales * activated industrial by-products
(calcined red mud, waste, pulverized clay bricks or tiles, etc.)
* diatomaceous earth

* rhyolites, etc.

The properties of the two different groups of Mineral Components are described in detail in chapter 4.
Owing to their wide application and strategic importance fly ashes are discussed separately from
pozzolans in section 4.2.
1.3 Industrial MIC - Production Worldwide
The global volume of industrial MIC produced each year amounts to approximately 830 million metric
tons, compared to a total cement output of 1’500 million metric tons.
Figure 1 shows the annually produced volumes of the main industrial MIC. Fly ash makes up for more
than half of the total quantity, followed by blast-furnace slag. Almost two thirds of this slag is granulated
and is hence suitable for cement addition. A yearly volume of 6 million metric tons of granulated blast-
furnace slag is traded by ship and can potentially travel to any destination port around the globe.
Figure 1 Global production of slag (1996) and fly ash (2000)

Figures 2 and 3 give an overview on the geographic distribution of the produced blast-furnace slag and fly
ash volumes.
Figure 2 Global production of gbfs and ungranulated bfs (1996, mio t/y)

Figure 3 Global production of fly ash (2000, mio t/y)

Today, industrial MIC have become valued commodity products. The following trends contribute to this
development:
· Changes in environmental legislation / constraints
¨ Dumping of industrial by-products is being restricted or not allowed any more. At the same time,
disposal costs increase.
· Reduced margins on core products
¨ Increased competition in the steel sector and deregulation of power industry put the margins
under pressure. Steelworks and power plants find new value potential in the commercialisation of their by-
products.
· High technical competence, sophisticated processes
¨ The improvements in their core processes also result in a more consistent quality of the by-
products. Consequently, larger volumes of good quality slags and fly ashes can be expected.
· Lower trading barriers
· Lower transportation costs
1.4 Opportunities of MIC
The integration of MIC offers considerable opportunities, ranging from environmental benefits to product
performance, marketing aspects and financial profits.
The main opportunities with MIC are:
· Reduction of CO2: As a clinker substitute, MIC is the most important means to considerably
reduce the output of CO2
· Reduction of operational costs
· Reduction of net operating assets (NOA)
· Extension of lifetimes (e.g. quarries, machines) and/or delay in investments
· Differentiation of products
· opportunity to produce tailored products
· improvement of cement properties for selected applications
· Entrance into new geographic markets
Although the opportunities mentioned above rarely appear simultaneously, in most companies the
significance of even one single opportunity justifies the integration of MIC.
With CO2 taxes soon to be imposed in many countries, the use of MIC as most effective means to reduce
CO2 emissions will gain further importance.
1.5 Threats of MIC
Figure 4 visualizes the integration of MIC in the cement process. The MIC deriving from pozzolan
quarries, coal power stations or integrated steel mills can be introduced at different stages of the value
chain:
· As raw meal component for clinker production
· As cement constituent in the cement mill (‘clinker substitute’)
· Pure as concrete addition (‘cement substitute’)
From a cement manufacturer’s point of view the MIC flows should be restricted to the first two channels,
shown with green arrows in figure 4. The red arrows indicate the direct supply of MIC to the concrete
producers. In this case the MIC bypass the cement process and partially substitute cement in the
concrete mix.
Figure 4: Integrated Cement and MIC Business Structure

This can have the following impacts:

· Partial replacement of cement in concrete lowers our cement sales
· MIC as traded commodities lower the entrance barriers for new competitors in the cement
markets
· New non-cement competitors try to control the MIC sources and the direct MIC channels to
concrete producers and
· will substantially reduce the cement price level by introducing low priced MIC in order to gain
important market shares
· Lower priced MIC blended cements compete against OPC (in spite of the same or better
performance)
· MIC enables competitors to react much faster in the markets
1.6 Mineral Components - A Core Business of Holcim
In 1997, MIC was declared part of Holcim’s core business. Thus, it must be integrated in the business
plan of a Group company.
Since then, a number of projects related to MIC strategies have been realized by the Group companies,
ranging from sourcing strategies (e.g. Holdercim Brasil) to blast-furnace slag granulators (e.g. Alsen and
Holnam) and grinding stations dedicated to composite cements (e.g. Juan Minetti).
The HMC-Corporate Product Development division assists Group companies in developing their
strategies, co-ordinates and acts as information turntable.
2. MINERAL COMPONENTS STRATEGY
2.1 Introduction
The development of an appropriate MIC strategy is an important part of any cement business plan. It
should aim at revealing and preventing potential threats at an early stage and making best use of the
opportunities offered by MIC.
2.2 Concept of a MIC Strategy
A comprehensive MIC strategy covers aspects along the entire value chain of cement business and
comprises all MIC materials (blast-furnace slag, fly ashes, and other pozzolans).
Following the value chain, the focus lies on five major topics:
1. Sourcing
The MIC sources are usually not owned by the cement industry, but are inter-linked with other
production processes. Analysing and understanding the MIC supply market, keeping track of the
developments of upstream industries and knowing the relevant sources are crucial factors in order to
evaluate the accessible MIC volumes in the market. Furthermore, the quality of MIC material and its
consistency over time need to be analysed carefully to decide on its suitability for cement production.
2. Logistics
An extensive use of MIC is linked with an increase in logistic flows. The optimization of these
flows by using synergies becomes most important in order to reduce expenses. The MIC strategy process
should comprise inbound, interplant and outbound logistics.
3. Manufacturing
The impact of MIC integration on cement production can achieve various dimensions: extension
of quarry lifetime, modification of clinker properties, increase of cement capacity, elevation of production
complexity. Therefore the MIC strategy process should take into account all activities from raw material
exploitation to clinker and cement production and estimate the required investments. Environmental
questions, like the CO2 issue, should also be addressed.
4. Product
Mineral Components are an adequate tool for product differentiation. Understanding the application
segments and the resulting concrete property requirements within the market is essential for the
development of customer-focussed products and services.
5. Market
Analysing and understanding the composite cement market, scrutinising the product mix and identifying
competitors and their strategies are prerequisites for the assessment of the MIC potential in a market and
the basis for the development of an accurate product mix and a suitable marketing concept.
HMC-CPD has developed a tool that visualizes the process of strategy shaping: the MIC Pyramid.
Figure 5: The MIC Pyramid

The functional structure of the MIC Pyramid follows the value chain from sourcing to marketing. The base
of the pyramid is composed of 24 boxes containing the key topics for a thorough analysis of the MIC
situation in a company.
In the vertical dimension the pyramid is organized according to the concept of MIC strategy development.
The analysis is followed by a synthesis, where opportunities, threats and key issues of the functional
sections are recognized. In a next step MIC options are developed, which are interrelated to sourcing and
marketing scenarios. The evaluation of the options regarding impacts and risks results in the definition of
the most appropriate MIC strategy for the Group company.
Going from top down, the MIC Pyramid visualizes the implementation process of the MIC strategy from
the approved strategy to the individual action plan at operational level.
MIC strategies can have different objectives, ranging from reduction of clinker factor to expansion of
production capacities, product differentiation or prevention of market entrance by a competitor. In any
case, the MIC strategy is part of the cement business plan and as such impacts on all issues covered by
the latter, such as procurement, logistical set-up, investments, product-mix, financial projections etc.
3. MINERAL COMPONENTS - OVERVIEW
3.1 Mineral Components in Cementitious Applications
Slags have been known since ancient civilizations. It has been illustrated that ancient Egyptians produced
glass slags, rich in vesicles (air bubbles) and containing crystals of the minerals melilite and tridimite, by
burning wheat straw. This contains opal, an amorphous form of silica, that combines during burning with
alkali to form glassy slag.
More than 2000 years ago, the Romans discovered the activity of the volcanic ash from Pozzuoli when it
was mixed with lime. This was used in many structures that lasted through the centuries and are still
existing today, such as aquaducts, bridges, historical buildings like the Pantheon Figure 6.
Vitruve, architect and engineer in the 1st century AC was the first who tried to explain the reactions that
transform some rocks into cementitious materials.
Figure 6 Pantheon, Rome (2nd century).
More recently, the production of blended cements has been practiced for many decades in many
countries. The latent hydraulic reactivity of vitreous blast-furnace slag was discovered by Emil Langen in
1862. The first use of slag in cement dates back to 1865, when in Germany a slag-limecement was
commercially produced. In 1883 slag was used as raw material for Portland cement manufacture. The
first production of a Portland blast-furnace type of cement by grinding together Portland cement and
granulated slag occurred in Germany in 1892.
Fly ash cements has been used since the 1930ies in cementitious applications. Cements containing
natural pozzolanas have been firmly installed in the Italian and Greek markets for decades, and are used
in practically all applications involving concrete construction.
Table 2 gives a rough overview on the present use of composite cements worldwide:
Table 2 Production of Composite Cements worldwide.
Addition ®
Situation

Slag Ash Pozzolan Limestone

established EC countries Europe Italy Europe
Latin America
East. Europe Oceania South Africa Turkey
Latin America Morocco
Japan Greece
South Africa
increasing Australia Canada Middle East East. Europe
Brazil Far East Far East New Zealand
Canada
India

3.2 Chemical Composition of Mineral Components

¨ Mineral Components exhibit in many respects very different properties. However, they have one
thing in common: They consist essentially of the same major chemical elements as PC clinker: SiO2 -
Al2O3 - CaO.
The respective proportions regarding the CaO - SiO2 - Al2O3 diagram are shown in Table 3 and
represented in Figure 7.
Table 3 Ranges of the chemical composition of Mineral Components (on the basis of dried and calcined
materials)

Elements Blast-furnace Slag Natural and/or Artificial Pozzolan Class F Fly Ash
SiO2 30 - 40 50 - 75 40 - 65
Al2O3 (TiO2) 8 - 25 15 - 25 15 - 40
Fe2O3 0.5 - 1.5 3 - 10 3 - 17
CaO 35 - 45 1 - 15 1 - 10
MgO 1 - 18 < 5 -3
SO3 1.5 - 6 0.1 - 1.5 0.3 - 3
K2O 0 - 0.5 0.5 - 4 2 - 3
Na2O 0 - 0.5 0.5 - 4 0.4 - 2
MnO 0.2 - 2 - < 0.3

Figure 7 CaO-SiO-AlO-System

3.3 Performance of Mineral Components

Mineral Components have to be activated for adequate hardening.
Slag has a high silica and calcium oxide content. If activated by OH- or SO4-- ions, it displays hydraulic
activity (cementitious properties). In practice, the activation is realized by addition of lime, Portland
cement clinker (OH-) or gypsum (SO4--).

Silica, and alumina at a lower degree, are the main components of pozzolan, whereas the calcium oxide
is low. Pozzolan supplies the silica (or alumina) that reacts with added lime or with the lime (Portlandite)
produced by hydration of Portland cement clinker.
When analyzing the calcium hydroxide content in mortar as a function of time, it can be observed that the
quantity of CH decreases significantly for a a blended cement compared to pure Portland cement Figure
8.
Figure 8 Calcium Hydroxide Content of Pozzolanic Cement and Portland Cement Mortar

The main hydration products of Mineral Components when mixed with OPC and water are essentially the
same as those formed during the hydration of Portland cement, namely nearly amorphous calcium-silicate
hydrates (CSH) of different stoichiometric composition, the so-called AFt and AFm-phases (Aluminate-
Ferrite-tri-sulphate, hydroxide etc.; C3(A,F).3(CaSO4, Ca(OH)2).aq and Aluminate-Ferrite-mono-sulphate,
hydroxide, chloride, carbonate, etc.; C3(A,F). (CaSO4, Ca(OH)2, CaCO3, CaCl2). aq, and Ca(OH)2 .
The amount of CSH gel of cements containing slag, fly ash or natural pozzolans is substantially higher
than that of Portland cement, because less calcium hydroxide is generated due to the lower free lime
content of blended cements compared with OPC.
That leads to
- a shift in pore size to smaller pores Figure 9 and 10 and
- the blocking of corresponding pores ("pore blocking effect", Figure 10)
In concrete the porous interfacial zone around the aggregates is considerably smaller when Mineral
Components are used.
Figure 9 Pore size distribution in hydrated binder vs. content of ground granulated blast-furnace
slag.

Figure 10 Pore size reduction and pore blocking.

The denser microstructure of concrete containing Mineral Components significantly

- decreases the permeability of the concrete and thus
- increases the resistance to chemically aggressive environments
- increases the strength at long-term (because of the lower hydration rate of Mineral Components)
The CSH-phases of blended cements are able to incorporate alkalis. The "trapped" alkalis are no more
available to form alkali silicates, which owing to volume expansion can damage the concrete. Concretes
containing Mineral Components are less sensitive to alkali silicate reaction.
Mineral Components also improve the properties of fresh concrete. They
- improve workability
- decrease the water demand.
The rate of hydration of Mineral Components is lower compared with Portland cement. Therefore MIC
additions result in lower early strength. When the concrete contains MIC proper curing is very important.
The lower rate of hydration of the MIC is coupled with a lower heat development, which makes Mineral
Components additions beneficial in mass concrete construction.
3.4 Standards for Mineral Components
3.5
The increased use of Mineral Components in cement and concrete brought to the development of
specifications describing the characteristics of the different materials and the testing methods applied to
evaluate suitability of use in cementitious blends.
These features are usually enclosed in the main cement standards (e.g. EN 197, ASTM C-595 and 1157).
When the mineral component can be directly used in the mix design of concrete, specific standards are
usually drafted.
A comprehensive description of national and international specifications for blended cements and their
mineral constituents is given in the chapter on cement standards.
As an example, some of them are listed below.
¨ ASTM C 618 “Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral
Admixture in Portland-Cement Concrete”
¨ EN 450 “Fly Ash for Concrete”
¨ ASTM C 989 “Specification for Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag for Use in Concrete and
Mortar”
¨ ASTM C 1240 “Specification for Silica Fume for Use in Hydraulic Cement Concrete and Mortar”
¨ EN 13263 "Silica Fume for Concrete".
Often the question is raised whether it is more advisable to use Mineral Components in the manufacture
of blended cements rather than in the preparation of concrete mixes. Basically, a concrete prepared with
a blended cement and another prepared by addition of the mineral component directly into the concrete
mixer, prove to be equivalent in performance. However, the use of blended cements offer the folowing
advantages: a well established quality control on materials, the availability of large storage facilities that
smoothen quality fluctuations, and the possibility to adjust the cement composition and production
parameters to the desired final binder performance.
3.6 Testing Methods
The most currently used testing methods for the determination of the quality of an addition are:
¨ Chemical analysis including heavy metals and insoluble residue
¨ Mineralogical analysis by means of XRD and microscopy
¨ Calorimetric methods such as DTA, DSC or TGA
¨ Particle shape (microscopy)
¨ Density
¨ Fineness and particle size distribution (Blaine, sieve analysis, laser granulometry)
¨ Grindability (Holcim grindability test)
¨ Activity index and pozzolanic activity determination:
· Keil Index (hydraulic)
· Strength Activity Index (SAI) according to ASTM C 311
· CEN pozzolanic activity test
¨ Test on standard laboratory cement
¨ Specific accelerated mortar test, etc.
A combination of 2 or 3 of the above methods is generally necessary for the current quality control of
acceptance of an addition.
4. MAIN MINERAL COMPONENTS FOR PRODUCTION OF BLENDED CEMENTS
4.1 Blast-Furnace Slag and other Slag Types
4.1.1 General
Slags are by-products of different metallurgical industries such as the ferrous industry or non-ferrous
industries like copper, lead, or nickel production.
When metal is extracted from the ore or refined by a further process, slag of various qualities are
obtained. The slags basically form by fusion of silica, alumina and alkali earth compounds from ore and
flux and combustion residues of the fuel. These reactions take place at temperatures between 1300 and
1600°C.
The chemical and mineralogical composition of the slag varies considerably according to the raw
materials and the refining process Table 4.

Table 4 Chemical Composition of Metallurgical Slags - Examples.

Non-ferrous Slags Ferrous Slags

Lead Zinc
U.K. Nickel

Canada Copper

S. Africa Phosphorus Furnace

USA Steel BOF Slag
Germany Iron Blast Furnace
Europe
SiO2 18 29 34 41 13 34
CaO 20 4 9 44 47 41
MgO 1 2 4 1 1 7
Al2O3 6 1 6 9 1 13
FeOx + MnOx 38 53 41 1 31 1
CaO/SiO2 1.1 0.1 0.3 1.1 3.6 1.2

Owing to the favourable chemical composition (no heavy metals, no unstable mineral phases), blast-
furnace slag is the major slag type used in cementitious binders. Therefore the following chapters are
related to blast-furnace slags.
The amount of other slag types than blast-furnace slag for the production of Portland blended cements is
limited. EN standards, for example, define a maximum content of 5%.
Steel furnace slags are widely used as aggregates in road construction as pavement material (fill,
subbase, base) and in asphalt and thin bituminous surfacings.
4.1.2 Definition of Blast-Furnace Slag
Blast-furnace slag is the non-metallic product, consisting essentially of silicates and alumosilicates of
calcium and other bases that is developed in a molten condition simultaneously with iron in a blast
furnace.
4.1.3 Production of Blast-Furnace Slag
4.1.3.1 Origin and Classification
Blast-furnace slag (bfs) is a by-product in the manufacture of pig iron in the blastfurnace Figure 11. The
raw materials (iron ore, flux, steel slag) and coke introduced at the top of the furnace move down and
become heated from below. Due to air injection near the bottom of the furnace, the oxidation of the coke
supplies enough energy to melt the burden. The oxidic iron ore is reduced to pig-iron.
The blast-furnace slag forms by fusion of the gangue material of the iron ore (mainly silica and alumina
compounds) with the remaining calcium and magnesium oxides of the thermally decomposed carbonatic
flux (limestone, dolomite) and combustion residues of the coke. These reactions take place at
temperatures between 1300 and 1600°C.
The slag floats on the top of the liquid iron and is drawn off at regular intervals. In dependence of the ore
composition and efficiency and size of the blastfurnace, the amount of slag per ton of pig iron varies. For
an economic iron production the ratio of slag to pig iron weight should be as low as possible. In modern
blast-furnaces processing high quality ore the slag/pig iron ratio is ~250-300 kg/t.
Figure 11 Schematic Section of a Blast Furnace.

The main constituents of bfs are lime-silica-alumina and magnesia compounds. The chemical
composition of blastfurnace slags depends on the burden and the fuel used in the blastfurnace. Thus, the
composition of slags from different sources varies within certain limits. Slags originating from the same
blastfurnace exhibit a relatively constant composition, because to ensure a constant quality of the iron,
significant changes of the feed have to be avoided.
Other properties of the slag such as mineralogical composition, density and porosity are mainly influenced
by the cooling procedure. With decreasing cooling rate the crystalline proportion of the slag rises.
Basically two types of slag can be distinguished – air-cooled and quenched slag (Table 5).
Air-cooled slag (Figure 12) is obtained by slow cooling of the molten slag in open pits. It is mainly
crystalline and hardly exhibits any cementitious properties. Crushed and sieved, the material is used as
aggregate and filler in road construction as pavement material (fill, base, subbase) and also in concrete
manufacture.
The specific gravity of crystalline slag lies between 2.38 and 2.76, the bulk density between 1150 and
1440 kg/m3.
In the past 50 years the percentage of air-cooled slag has gradually decreased in favour of quenched
slag, which owing to its reactivity is widely used in cementitious applications.
Quenched slag, a predominantly vitreous product, is obtained by rapid cooling (quenching) of bfs.
Depending on the quenching procedure, slag wool, expanded, pelletised, and granulated bfs can be
distinguished. Due to their glass content, quenched slags exhibit latent hydraulic properties, i.e. upon
activation, they show cementitious behaviour. Unground quenched slags can be used as aggregate or
even lightweight aggregate. In ground form quenched slags are used in the production of blended
cements as clinker substitute and in concrete manufacture as cement substitute. Granulated slag (Figure
12) is the most important slag type for cementitious applications. Therefore in the following, emphasis is
laid on production and properties of granulated bfs. The production of pelletized slag (Figure 12) is
mentioned shortly as well.
Table 5 gives an overview on the different types of blast-furnace slag.
Figure 12 Different Types of Blast-furnace Slag.

Table 5 Different Types of blast-furnace slag.

Blast-Furnace Slag
quenched air-cooled
granulated pelletized foamed/ expanded
mainly vitreous partially crystalline partially crystalline crystalline
dense or porous porous porous dense
mainly ground in cement or concrete lightweight aggregate or ground in cement/concrete
lightweight aggregate road or concrete construction

4.1.3.2 Quenching Techniques

4.1.3.2.1 Granulation
Wet granulation (with water) is the most common and well-established quenching method. Granulated
blast-furnace slag (gbfs) is produced by breaking-up and quenching the stream of molten slag by water
jets to particles with a maximum size around 5 mm. Figure 13 shows as an example a schematic
illustration of the Salzgitter granulator, Germany, which is operated by Alsen.
The formation of gbfs with a glass content >95% requires rapid quenching of the slag melt to
temperatures below the crystallisation temperature of approx. 840°C. Therefore ~5-10 tons of water are
necessary, depending on the granulation equipment.
The bulk density of the granulate usually is between 0.9 and 1.1 kg/l.
Figure 13 Schematic illustration of a granulator (Source: Alsen).

From the granulation tank the mixture of granulate and water is transported to the dewatering system,
which differs depending on the equipment supplier. The basic dewatering systems are
¨ Pit method (granulate settles under gravity in a pond and is clammed out with a crane or
excavator)
¨ De-watering silos (granulate settles and water flows off the top through a steel mesh in the sides
and discharge cone of the silo)
¨ Gravel bed filters (similar to silos, only with a bed of gravel at the base of the cells acting as a
filter. After drainage, the granulate is removed by an overhead crane)
¨ INBA drum (Paul Wurth) (most widely used unit ; slurry flows under gravity to a distributor box
located along the axis of a horizontal cylindrical mesh filter. The drum contains lifters that elevate the
dewatering slag until it falls on a conveyor belt for drum exit)
¨ Dewatering wheel (AJO) (Single or double wheels rotate slowly in a secondary slurry reservoir,
wheels reclaim the gbfs via pockets with steel mesh to allow the water to flow back into the reservoir as
the pocket rises above water level, gbfs falls out of the pocket onto a belt conveyor)
¨ Screw conveyors (RASA) (screw conveyor rotates inclined at an angle in the reservoir elevating
the granulate, while the water runs back into the reservoir under gravity, gbfs falls off the screw on a belt
conveyor)
After dewatering the granulate is stored in silos or stockpiles, where it continues to drain. The residual
moisture content is normally around 10 wt.-%. Depending on the grinding technique (compound or
separate grinding) and equipment (mill type) drying of the gbfs before grinding can be necessary.
4.1.3.2.2 Pelletizing
The slag pelletiser was patented by National Slag Ltd., Hamilton, Canada in the late 1960’s. At present
only few units are still working due to environmental and availability problems.
Pelletised slag is formed by the expansion of molten bfs under water sprays. The pyroplastic material
passes a spinning drum with fins, which break the slag and flinge it in the air, where due to surface
tension, the pellets form (Figure 14).
Figure 14 Schematic illustration of a slag pelletizer
Advantages are the lower water consumption compared with granulation (about 0.5 tons of water per ton
of slag), and the low residual moisture of the pellets of ~5.5 wt.-%. Also gas emissions are lower owing to
the entrapment of sulfide gases in the pores of the pellets. However, the emissions occur at ground level
and cause more occupational health problems. Additionally, pelletisers create noise levels in excess of
most industrial standards. Also the formation of considerable amounts of slag wool may create problems.
The glass content of pelletised bfs can be controlled by fractionation, because it increases with
decreasing grain size. For the use as light weight aggregate, the demand for low water sorption and good
thermal conductivity requires a quite crystalline structure. For this application bigger grains are used. The
smaller fraction is used for cementitious applications, where higher glass contents are favourable.
The grindability and also the hydraulic activity of slag pellets do not differ significantly from that of
granulated slag.
4.1.4 Processing of Blast-Furnace Slag
4.1.4.1 Granulated Slag
The granulate is mostly stockpiled. During the storage dewatering continues. The granulate can be used
in the unground form as sand substitute, e.g. in road construction.
For the production of binders, the granulate has to be ground. This can be done either
- separately or
- together with the clinker.
When gbfs and clinker are interground it is normally difficult to achieve the necessary slag fineness for
optimum strangth development without overgrinding the clinker, which is easier to grind. Therefore
separate grinding is recommended. Separate grinding offers furthermore a higher flexibility regarding the
design of different cements with defined clinker and slag fineness according to the market demand.
Depending on the grinding system and the moisture of the granulate drying of the slag prior to grinding
can be necessary.
Major factors influencing the grinding energy consumption of a gbfs are
- bulk density
- chemical composition, especially TiO2 content
- glass content
- Degree of hydration / loss on ignition
- Grinding system (see Chapter 12).
Grinding aids, e.g. diethylenglycol, offer the possibility to decrease the grinding energy consumption in the
range of 5-10%.
Basically, the grinding energy consumption of gbfs increases exponetially with fineness (Figure 15).
Therefore it is beneficial to process slags of high quality, which do not require too high finenesses for a
satisfactory performance in cement or concrete.
Figure 15 Grinding energy consumption of different slags (HMC Laboratory trials with ball mill).

The ground slag is stored in silos. It can be added directly into the concrete or mixed with a cement to
produce a blended cement. This is done in multiple chamber silos with batch or continuous mixing units.
4.1.4.2 Air-Cooled Slag
After cooling of the surface of the slag in the open pits it is sprayed with water to accelerate cooling and
enhance crack formation by thermal shock. After entire cooling the slag can be digged out more easily. It
is then transported to a crushing and sieving plant. The different grain size fractions are used a s
aggregates in road construction and concrete.
4.1.5 Properties of Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag and Influence on Processing and Performance
4.1.5.1 Chemical Composition
The main constituents of bfs are lime-silica-alumina and magnesia compounds. In dependence on the
composition of the burden and the fuel used, the chemical composition of slags from different sources
varies within certain limits. Typical chemical compositions of bfs are listed in Table 6.
Table 6 Chemical composition of bfs worldwide (Locher, 2000).

  Western Europe Russia / Ukraine USA, Canada Rep. South Africa India
Japan Australia
SiO2 30 … 39 30 … 40 33 … 42 30. … 36 27 … 39 31 … 40
33 … 38
Al2O3 9 … 18 5 … 17 6 … 16 9 … 16 17 … 33 13 … 17 15 … 19
CaO 33 … 48 30 … 50 36 … 47 30 … 40 30 … 40 38 … 45
39 … 44
MgO 2 … 13 2 … 14 1 … 16 8 … 21 0 … 17 2 … 8 1…4
FeO 0,1 … 1 0,2 … 0,9 1,3 … 4,5 - < 0,5 < 0.7 -
MnO 0,2 … 3 0,2 … 1,4 - - <1 0,3 … 1,5 -
Na2O 0,2 … 1,2 - - 0,2 … 0,9 - - < 0,2
K2O 0,4 … 1,3 - - 0,5 … 1,4 - - < 0,5
SO3 0 … 0,2 - - - - - -
S2- 0,5 … 1,8 - - 1,0 … 1,6 <1 - 0,6 … 0,8

The chemical composition has a very strong influence on the reactivity of a slag, because it controls the
solubility and hence the reactivity of the slag during hydration. In general, the hydraulic activity of a slag
increases with increasing contents of CaO, (MgO), Na2O, and Al2O3 and with decreasing contents of
SiO2, FeO, TiO2, MnO, and MnS.
For the prediction of slag reactivity, numerous compositional moduli were developed, for example
¨ I - Basicity Index 1.0 £ CaO/SiO2 £ 1.4
¨ II - according to DIN 1164
¨ III - EN Standard
¨ III - Keil ("F-value")
good hydraulic properties poor hydralic properties

¨ IV - Langavant Index i = 20 + CaO + Al2O3 + ½MgO - SiO2

i £ 12 poor hydraulic properties 12 £ i £ 16 good hydralic properties
i>16 Very good hydraulic properties (but difficult to granulate)
¨ VI - Silica-alumina Ratio

These moduli are convenient tools for rapid quality control of slag originating from the same furnace, but
their applicability for a general prediction of strength development of blended cements is questionable.
Strength testing remains the most reliable method to access slag reactivity.
As a guideline, for optimum reactivity in cementitious applications the gbfs should meet the following
chemical criteria (composition of granulate, without impurities):
Desirable Optimum
CaO/SiO2 >1.0 1.3
Al2O3 >10% 13%
MgO 5-10%
TiO2 as low as possible £0.5%
The CaO/SiO2 ratio influences the solubility of the slag glass and therefore is a decisive parameter for
slag reactivity. To a limited degree low CaO/SiO2 ratios can be compensated by elevated Al2O3 or MgO
contents.
Elevated Al2O3 contents in the slag increase the strength development of composite cements, especially
at early age owing to enhanced ettringite formation.
TiO2 in bfs is very undesired, because it strongly reduces reactivity and increases grinding energy
consumption of the granulate. TiO2 is added to the blast furnace in order to increase the service life of the
refractory.
The composition of the slag is adjusted by the iron producer in order to optimise the quality of the iron and
to maximize the efficiency of the blast furnace. Subsequent changes in slag composition mostly are not
advantageous for the cement producer. An adjustment of the slag composition according to the demands
for cementitious applications is possible only to a limited degree.
Because the composition of the bfs can change over longer time periods the cement producer must
ensure to obtain granulate of a constant quality by specification of relevant slag properties in the supply
contract he signs with the steel mill.
4.1.5.2 Mineralogical Composition and Glass Content
The reactivity of a gbfs cannot be evaluated based on the chemical composition only. Also the
mineralogical composition, especially the glass content, influence reactivity.
According to EN standard gbfs for cement should exhibit a glass content of at least 2/3 by mass standard.
With state-of-the-art granulation equipment in most cases glass contents > 90% are obtained, which from
a reactivity point of view are satisfactory.
Perfect vitrification is no criterion for optimum reactivity. Often an increase of the compressive strength of
slag cements is observed when the slag contained small amounts of finely distributed crystals, which may
act as hydration nuclei.
The presence of crystal phases in gbfs reduces grinding energy consumption, however at higher amounts
(>10-15%) at cost of reactivity.
The main crystalline constituents in gbfs are calcium silicates and silico-aluminates (Table 7). Melilite
(solid solutions in the composition range from Gehlenite (C2AS) to Akermanite (C2MS2)) and Merwinite
are the most common mineral phases in gbfs. Slag granulate can also contain some metallic iron. The
iron should be removed (magnetic separator) prior to grinding and within the grinding circuit to avoid a
concentration of iron in the mill, which can damage the mill or cause higher grinding time.

Table 7 Some crystalline constituents of blast-furnace slag.

Mineral name mineralogical formula simplified formula

Silicates
Melilite
Gehlenite 2 CaO. Al2O3 . SiO2 C2AS
Akermanite 2CaO . MgO . 2SiO2 C2MS2
Dicalcium Silicate* 2 CaO. SiO2 C2S
Rankinite 3 CaO . 2 SiO2 C3S2
Wollastonite CaO . SiO2 CS
Forsterite 2 MgO . SiO2 M2S
Enstatite** MgO . SiO2 MS
Merwinite* 3 CaO . MgO . 2 SiO2 C3MS2
Monticellite* CaO . MgO . SiO2 CMS
Anorthite** CaO . Al2O3 . 2 SiO2 CAS2
Diopside** CaO . MgO . 2 SiO2 CMS2
Oxides
Spinels MgO . Al2O3 MA
Sulfurous compounds CaS, MnS, FeS
Others Carbonaceous, sulphurous, nitrogenous compounds, alkali thiosulphates etc
* only in basic slags; ** only in acidic slags
In slags with high lime contents dicalcium silicate (C2S) can form. It occurs in three different crystalline
forms. Below 675°C b-C2S is stable, which at atmospheric temperatures transforms into g -C2S,
accompanied by a volume increase of ~10%. This can lead to a spontaneous disintegration of the slag
matrix. Therefore, in some standard specifications the CaO/SiO2 ratio is limited (e.g. BS 6699 and 1047
CaO/SiO2 max = 1.4).
The mineralogical composition and glass content can be measured by X-ray diffraction (XRD) or by
microscopy, the latter being often coupled with an image analysis system.
By differential thermal analysis, vitreous slag shows irreversible exothermic peaks at about 860°C, when
heated between 800 and 900°C. These peaks are mainly due to the heat of devitrification of the glassy
part of the slag. Some authors tried to find a correlation between the areas under the peaks and the slag
content.
4.1.5.3 Age / Loss on Ignition (LOI)
As gbfs is latent hydraulic, it hydrates also in absence of an activator, for instance during being stockpiled.
The loss on ignition is a measure for the degree of hydration of a slag glass.
The grinding energy required to grind a gbfs with high LOI (e.g. in the range of 2 wt.%) to the same
fineness like a fresh gbfs (LOI normally below 0.5%) is considerably lower. The reason are the soft
hydrates at the surface of the granules, which are very easy to grind and excessively contribute to the
fineness measurement ("false Blaine"). The comparably lower fineness of the reactive slag glass causes
a lower strength development compared with fresh ggbfs of same fineness. The lower reactivity can be
compensated by higher fineness of the hydrated granulate.
4.1.5.4 Bulk Density
The bulk density of granulated slag influences
- its moisture content
- grinding energy consumption.
A slag with low bulk density is easier to grind, but exhibits elevated moisture contents, which can create
transportation problems, can reduce the stockpile life of the granulate and may require drying of the
granulate prior to grinding. Granulate of high bulk density has low moisture contents, but requires a higher
grinding energy and in some cases may also be less reactive. An optimum bulk density range would be
0.9 - 1.1 kg/l.
Factors influencing bulk density are slag temperature, slag composition, temperature of the granulation
water, and the granulation process.
4.1.5.5 Fineness and Grain Size Distribution
As for most cementitious materials, the hydraulic activity of ggbfs increases with its surface area and thus,
with the fineness. The effect is especially strong for the late strength development.
The influence of the fineness on strength development can increase with the CaO/SiO2 ratio of the slag.
Finer grinding of gbfs is a common countermeasure for compensation of poor slag reactivity. The limiting
factors for slag fineness are performance indicators such as shrinking and economical considerations
(grinding costs).
The experiences regarding the influence of the grain size distribution of the ggbfs on strength
development are conflicting. A shallow grain size distribution can reduce water demand and thus favour
strength development. But also opposite experiences were described.
4.1.6 Application of Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag
Concrete containing ggbfs offer numerous advantages compared with concrete with pure OPC such as
higher long-term strength, durability, and resistance to chemical attack, sea water, sulphates, lower heat
of hydration, low sensitivity towards alkali silicate reaction, bright color. Also the properties of the fresh
concrete are improved (lower w/c, improved workability). The hydration rate and early strength
development is lower. Therefore curing is of paramount importance.
Ggbfs is widely used in concrete construction, especially where strength and durability aspects are
important:
- Industrial construction (waste gas desulphurization plants, coking plants, silos, sewage treatment plants,
towers, chimneys etc.)
- Transportation (bridges, tunnels, parking houses and areas, air ports, etc.)
- Hydraulic / marine construction
- Mining, etc.
In mass concrete construction the low heat of hydration is beneficial for rapid construction progress.
Ggbfs is used in precast products, in prestressed concrete, shotcrete, ultra-high performance concrete,
and self compacting concrete.
Granulated and ground granulated bfs is also used in road construction (e.g. in road binders).
The following figures illustrate some applications of ggbfs.
Figure 16 TV Tower and administrative building, Duesseldorf, Germany.
TV-Tower/Admin. Building: 350/300 kg/m3 slag cement, w/c 0.50/0.57, aggregate 1860 kg/m3, Fly ash
0/50 kg/m3 (Source: Weber et al., 1998).

Figure 17 Flood gates in the Philips-Dam, Netherlands.

Prestressed concrete, impermeable, 300 kg/m3 slag cement, w/c ~0.5, aggregate 1895 kg/m3,
superplasticizer, air entraining agent (Source: Weber et al., 1998).

Figure 18 Coking plant in Duisburg-Huckingen, Germany.

Heat and chemical resistant concrete with air cooled bfs as aggregate (no strength losses at elevated
temperature (400°C), 350-440 kg/m3 slag cement, w/c ~0.5, aggregate 1660-1829 kg/m3, partially
superplasticizer (Source: Weber et al., 1998).

Figure 19 Concrete sculpture Beethoven in Bonn, Germany (Weber et al., 1998).

Low heat of hydration, satisfactory strength, bright color, 380 kg/m3 slag cement, w/c 0.45, aggregate
max. size 8 mm, retarder (Source: Weber et al., 1998).

Figure 20 Mixing of road binder with soil.

Example for composition of a road binder for subbase and base layers: 76% slag, 10% clinker, 5% CKD,
9% gypsum, fineness ~3500 cm2/g.

More details on slag processing and reactivity are given in the HMC report MIC 00/5005/E "Properties,
Grindability, and Reactivity of Granulated blast-furnace slag: A Literature Review".
4.2 Fly Ash
4.2.1 Definition of Fly Ash
Fly ash is a fine powder of mainly spherical glassy particles derived from burning of pulverized coal, with
pozzolanic properties consisting mainly of SiO2 and Al2O3. Fly ash is formed mainly by the unburnable
part of the coal, which derives from inorganic material in the coal and bedrock material mined with the
coal.
4.2.2 Production of Fly Ash
Fly ashes are obtained by electrostatic or mechanical precipitation of dust-like particles from the flue
gases from furnaces fired with pulverized coal.
The pulverized coal is injected into the furnace, ignites in the burner and burns while moving upwards
through the boiler. Retention time of the coal particles in the boiler is around 10 seconds, while the coal
and ash particles see different temperature ranges as well as partially oxidizing and reducing
atmospheres. Larger particles fall at the bottom of the boiler and are discharged wet or dry forming so
called bottom ash.
The non-burnable particles and partially unburned carbon is carried with the exhaust gases to the dust
filters (electrostatic or baghouse filters), where they are separated from the flue gas and collected
(Figures 21, 22). The electrostatic filters consist of a number of filter stages, usualy 3, where different
fractions of the fly ashes are separated. The coarser particles are separated at the first stage, finer
partcles at the following stages 2 and 3 (Figure 23).
The ratio between bottom ash and fly ash of the total ash content is around 20:80. Volume ratio of the fly
ash at the filter stages is 80:16:4 from filter stage 1 to 3.
Depending on the coal fired resp. the ash composition of the coal fly ashes are mainly characterized as
siliceous or calcereous. The former have pozzolanic properties, and the latter have, in addition, hydraulic
properties. There are no strict limits between these properties, as the types of coal are manifold.
Fly ash is a mixture of mineral matters which have undergone thermal transformations and which contain
still unburnt materials. The main components of the fly ash are complex glass phases consisting of Si, Al,
Fe and Ca in various compositions. Quartz is the main cristaline phase.
Technically fly ashes can be categorized according to the burning temperature in the boiler. Three types
of fly ash may be distinguished:
¨ Type I: Fluidized Bed combustion
· Burning temperature 850 to 1000°C
· crystal structure remains
· no melted material
· pozzolanic properties due to sintered clays (high water demand)
¨ Type II: Dry bottom furnace
· Burning temperature 1100 to 1500°C
· most minerals are melted (about 50-80%)
· slow reaction with Ca(OH), only medium pozzolanic activity
· grain size distribution similar to cement
¨ Type III: Wet bottom or slag tap furnace
· Burning temperature 1500 to 1700°C
· all minerals are melted
· grain size distribution similar to cement
· rapid cooling of the fly ash induces the production of 60-80% of glassy particles
· development of good pozzolanic properties
It is generally known that the volume of fly ash produced in most countries exceeds largely the volume
that can be utilized, but specific statistics are not available.
Worldwide utilization rate of fly ash in all kinds of applications is estimated at 30%. Leaders in utilization
rate and level of sophistication are Germany and France (100%), Japan (70%) and the US (30%). Free fly
ash volumes are estimated at about 300 mio t not indicating suitable volumes regarding quality and
geographical availability.
Figure 21 Coal Fired Power Station - schematic.

Figure 22 Coal Fired Power Station.

4.2.3 Properties of Fly Ash and Influence on Processing and Performance

The ash quality depends greatly on the type of coal and its bedrock material, type of boiler and its
operation. The operating conditions as well as the coal quality strongly influence the variability of the ash
with respect to residual carbon content, fineness, chemical composition and pozzolanic activity.
Environmental measures to reduce SO2- and NOx-emissions can influence the fly ash properties
negatively (increased carbon and SO3, ammonia smell).

Key parameters influencing fly ash quality and quantity are:

Coal
- Coal type
- Ash-content
- Bed rock material
Boiler
- Boiler Type, Temperature
Dedusting equipment
- Electrostatic precipitator
- Baghouse
Environmental installation
- High dust equipment for DeSOx and DeNOx
4.2.3.1 Chemical and Physical Properties
The main chemical components of ashes are SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and CaO. Substantial amounts of
alkalis and sulfate may also be present. In the case of lignite or brown coal, the observed amount of free
lime as well as of anhydrite is generally high (Table 8). Significant amounts of periclase can also be
noticed in lignitic fly ash. The typical aspect of fly ash observed by microscopy is given in Phototable 1.
The photos demonstrate the different morphology of the fly ash depending on the type of boiler. Figure 24
shows the grain size of the fly ashes from the different filter stages of the electrostatic precipitator
obtained by laser granulometry.
Figure 23 Granulometry of fly ash from different filter stages of the electrostatic precipitator (ESP)

Figure 24 Morphology of fly ashes from different boiler types (Scanning Electron Micrography)

4.2.3.2 Mineralogical Properties

The mineralogical composition of fly ashes depends on the amount of glassy material. The following
minerals can be observed (Table 9), depending on the operating conditions and type of coal. Moreover,
calcareous fly ash possesses hydraulic properties, due to a more or less greater amount of dicalcium
silicate CS.
Table 8 Chemical and Physical Composition of Fly Ash

Table 9 Mineralogical Composition of Fly Ash

Minerals Quantity % in weight
Glass 70 – 98
Quartz 1 – 15
Mullite 1 – 10
Magnetite 1–8
Hematite 1–5
Calcite < 2
Plagioclase <2
Merwinite <2
Melilite < 2
Anhydrite 1–8
Free lime 1–8
Periclase 1–6
Wollastonite 1–5
Dicalcium silicate 1 – 15

4.2.3.3 Carbon Content

The carbon content is an important criterion to assess quality of fly ash. Residual carbon is due to the
non-burnt organic matter and lies generally in the range of:
¨ 5 to 12% in anthracitic fly ash
¨ 2 to 8% in bituminous fly ash
¨ 1 to 5% in sub bituminous fly ash
¨ 1 to 4% in lignite fly ash
The different C-contents are due to differences in burnability and grindability of the coal types. The
variations in C-content of each coal are mainly due to instabilities of the burning and grinding system, to
variations in burning intensity or to changes in coal supply. The installation of Low-NOx burners to reduce
NOx emissions can lead to an increase of the carbon content.
Types of unburnt carbon are either not burnt coal or coke. The latter is very porous and has a very high
specific surface.
A high carbon content (> 5%) is considered detrimental for the quality of concrete since it might
· impair the air-entrainment in freeze/thaw resistant concrete
· have a negative effect on workability and strength development of concrete
From the manufacturing point of view, it is worth while mentioning that most of the unburnt material is
agglomerated and concentrated in the coarse fraction of fly ashes. Recent developments in the
technology of fly ash benefication allow to improve quality by mechanical or electrical separation of the
organic matter, making it possible to use high-carbon fly ashes (separated unburnt coal can be used as
additional fuel for clinker burning). The main beneficiaiton technologies are air classifiers, triboelectric
separation and burn-out systems.
4.2.3.4 Classification
Fly ash can be classified according to its chemical and physical properties as well as to its performance.
The main standards used world-wide are EN 197, EN 450 and ASTM C 618. Fly ashesa re in the
following classes of Table 10.
Table 10 Classification of Ashes

Characteristics ASTM EN
Fly ash from anthracite or bituminous coal Class F
Siliceous fly ash Class V
Fly ash from lignite or subbituminous coal Class C
Calcareous fly ash Class W

4.2.4 Standard Specifications

The requirements do not significantly differ between ASTM and EN standards. Tables 11 and 12
summarizes the ASTM 618 and EN 450 requirements for fly ash used in concrete, whereas those for EN
197 for cement additions are given in Table 13.
Table 11 EN 450 and ASTM 618 Chemical Requirements

Table 12 EN 450 and ASTM 618 Physical Requirements

Table 13 EN 197-1 Requirements

4.2.5 Optimum Fly Ash Properties

The key quality parameters of fly ashes are fineness and unburnt carbon and additionally free lime
content for lignite fly ashes. The following parameters give an indication what a good quality fly ash would
look like:
¨ Hard coal fly ash in Europe (EN 450, EN 197-1 Type V)
¨ Sub bituminous fly ash in US (ASTM 618 Class C)
¨ High glass content (> 80 %)
¨ Spherical particles (> 50 %)
¨ High total CaO content (> 20%)
¨ Low CaOfree content (< 1 % or highly reactive)
¨ Low LOI (Europe: < 5%, US: < 2%)
¨ High fineness (> 2500 cm2/g Blaine/ residue on 45mm < 10 %)

Fly ash properties can be improved either by upgrading (carbon reduction, classification), activation (e.g.
alkali activators) or grinding.
4.2.6 Applications
Fly ashes can be used in most building materials and construction applications. It is used as binder
replacement as well as aggregate or conditioning material in soils. In countries where fly ash is used it is
a standard constituent of most of the concretes used and a part of the specifications.
The following list gives an indication of the variety of applications and can also be seen an a value ranking
of the fly ash by application:

¨ Composite Cements
¨ Concrete addition in all types of concrete
¨ Autoclaved Aerated Concrete
¨ Non-aerated concrete blocks
¨ Sand lime brick
¨ Bricks + ceramics
¨ Lightweight aggregate
¨ Cement raw material
¨ Asphalt filler
¨ Road construction
¨ Grouting

Actual developments are the use of fly ash in Self Compacting Concrete as well as in high performance
concrete without silica fume.
First applications date back in the 40ties, where fly ash was used to reduce hydration heat in mass
concrete in dams (Figure 25). Over the last 60 years today sophistication of fly ash applications has
increased considerably. Fly ash is used due to improved workability and durability in high performace
concrete with up to 105 Mpa (Figure 26).

Figure 25 First large scale application of fly ash in concrete

Figure 26 High performance application of fly ash in concrete

4.3 Pozzolans
Pozzolans are classified according to their genesis into the two types ‘natural’ (Table 14) and ‘artificial’
(Table 15).
Table 14 Natural Pozzolans

Genetic process Examples

1 Explosive volcanic activity Italian Pozzolan earth (‘Pozzolana’), Greek Santorin earth,
volcanic ashes and pumicites
2 Explosive volcanic activity + zeolitic diagenesis Italian Neapolitan Yellow Tuff, German Rhenish
Trass
3 Meteorite impact German Bavarian Trass
4 Building of skeletons of siliceous organisms Diatomaceous earth, Moler earth
5 Ultrafine weathering of siliceous rocks Gaize, Tripel, opaline cherts

Table 15 Artificial Pozzolans

Genetic process Examples

6 Fast cooling of silicate melts in metallurgical processes Non-ferrous slags, HSR-granulate
7 Flue gas cleaning of power stations Coal fly ash (class F)
8 Oxidation and condensation of SiO-gas in metallurgical Si- and Ti-processes Silica fume
9 Thermal activation of clay minerals and rocks Metakaolin, oil schist, crushed bricks, shale,
phonolite
10 Controlled burning of agricultural, SiO2-rich wastes Rice husk ash, crop ash

All examples have in common that they consist of fine glassy particles with a CaO : SiO2 ratio below 0.5.
Obviously this is prerequisite to develop a pozzolanic reaction.
In the following sections focus will be on pozzolans 1, 2, 8 and 9 of Tables 14 and 15. More detailed
information about pozzolans is given in HMC report “Pozzolan Survey 2001” by P. Kruspan/CPD. Due to
their importance Fly Ashes class F (pozzolan 7 in Table 15) are discussed separately in the preceding
chapter 4.2.
4.3.1 Definition of Pozzolans

Pozzolans are siliceous or siliceous and aluminous materials which in themselves possess little or no
cementitious properties. When finely ground, they react in the presence of water at ambient temperatures
with dissolved calcium hydroxide (Portlandite Ca(OH)2) from lime or Portland cement clinker to form
strength developing calcium silicate and calcium aluminate compounds.
Brought into a simplified chemical notation the pozzolanic reaction can be written as follows:

x Ca(OH)2 + y SiO2 (amorphous) + z H2O ® x CaO × y SiO2 × (x+z) H2O

Portlandite + Pozzolan + Water ® Calcium Silicate (Hydrate)

It becomes obvious that only with a constant supply of dissolved Portlandite the pozzolanic reaction can
occur. Furthermore a fast pozzolanic reaction is directly controlled by the dissolution rate of the pozzolan.
Therefore a ‘good’ pozzolan has the following characteristics:
· small particle size
· high specific surface/porosity
· glass with high amount of (earth)alkalies
· zeolites

4.3.2 Natural Pozzolans

The vast majority of natural pozzolans used today are of volcanic origin (pozzolans 1 and 2 in Table 14).
Therefore the discussion in this section is restricted to this type.
The pozzolans were named after the Italian town Pozzuoli near Naples (Italy) where deposits were
formed by the explosive eruption of Campi Flegrei caldera 12’000 years ago. The Roman used these
pozzolans together with burnt lime as building materials, hardening either in air or even under water.
Many remainders from that time prove the good quality of these materials. When Portland cement was
invented in the 19th century, pozzolans fell into oblivion, but today regained their importance.
4.3.2.1 Genesis and its Influence on Properties and Performance of Natural Pozzolans
The genesis of pozzolans of volcanic origin follows three steps (processes):
1) melting in the magma chamber
2) fragmentation and cooling of the melt during the volcanic eruption
3) alteration, weathering and diagenesis of the deposited volcanic material
For every single process a certain amount of parameters can be defined which control the course of the
process. Furthermore every process is influenced strongly by the preceding one. And to make it more
complicated, even a single volcanic event does not produce materials with constant quality. Pozzolan
deposits are therefore heterogeneous by their very nature. For this reason the main challenge is to find
high-quality pozzolans by means of specific geologic prospecting.
Helpful for successful prospecting in a volcanic area or in a single deposit is the distinction between
volcanic materials with different geologic histories (geneses). In Table 16 and Figure 27 two opposing
histories are listed, one leading to high-quality pozzolans (‘Plinian’ genesis), the other one leading to low-
quality pozzolans (‘Hawaiian’ genesis).
The most important parameter for the melting, fragmentation and indirectly even the diagenesis process
is the viscosity of the magma. In other words the whole genesis of pozzolans is mainly controlled by the
viscosity. The viscosity on its part depends on temperature, chemical composition (SiO2, Fe2O3, FeO,
CaO, Na2O, K2O), amount of volatiles (H2O, CO2, SO2) and amount of crystallized phases.
Table 16 Pozzolans with different qualities depending on their genesis

High quality pozzolans Low quality pozzolans

Type of eruptionExplosive (‘Plinian’) Non-explosive - effusive (‘Hawaiian’)
Viscosity of magma High Low
Degree of magma fragmentationHigh Low
Cooling rate of magma High Low
Eruption phenomena Pyroclastic flow, ash fall Fire fountain, lava flow
Deposited material Ash, tuff, pumice.
Fine-grained, high glass content, high to medium porosity Scoria, spatter, lava.
Coarse-grained, low glass content or even fully crystallized, medium to low porosity
Examples Mt. St. Helens, Vesuvius, Mt. Pinatubo Hawaii, Stromboli, Etna

Figure 27 Two opposing types of volcanic eruptions: Plinian (left) and Hawaiian (right); (Table 16).
Not to scale.

In Figure 28 the pozzolanicity of samples with different geologic histories was tested according to EN 196-
5. This test determines the calcium binding capacity of the pozzolan in an OPC-pozzolan paste (cf.
chapter 4.3.1). The lower the CaO-concentration in the solution (y-axis), the higher the pozzolanicity of
the sample. It can be seen that high pozzolanicities are favoured by pyroclastic flows generated
exclusively in explosive Plinian eruptions. If such deposits of pyroclastic flows are additionally solidified by
zeolitisation during diagenesis the pozzolanicity is risen significantly.
Figure 28 Pozzolanicity (EN 196-5) of samples generated by volcanoes with Plinian and Hawaiian
type of eruption, respectively.

From Figure 27 it becomes clear that an evaluation of natural pozzolans starts in the field with an
assignment of specifically collected samples to their correct geologic history. This knowledge will provide
the quarry manager with the ability to separate high-quality pozzolans from low-quality material in order to
premix different qualities as early as possible in the production chain.
Ignoring the geologic context (genesis) and considering only certain properties of an unspecified pozzolan
sample (e.g. chemical composition) will give results hardly useable for an evaluation.
Therefore self-standing prescriptions of some pozzolan characteristics like specification ASTM C 618
(Table 17) should be used only as a very rough guideline. It is impossible to predict the performance of a
pozzolan in cement or concrete on the basis of such a prescriptive specification.
Table 17 Specification ASTM C 618 (chemical requirements for natural pozzolans)

Specifications Class N
- Silicon dioxide (SiO2) + aluminium oxide (Al2O3) + iron oxide (Fe2O3), min % 70.0
- Sulfur trioxide (SO3), max. % 4.0
- Moisture content, max. % 3.0
- Loss on ignition, max. % 10.0
Supplementary optional chemical requirements. These optional requirements apply only when specifically
requested.
- Magnesium oxide (MgO), max. % 5.0
- Available alkalies, as Na2O equiv., max. % 1.5

For the time being the cement producer should control the quality of a natural pozzolan by applying a
combination of following methods:
· chemical composition
· mineralogical composition
· physical properties
· strength development of a blended cement (ASTM C 1157) or of a concrete mix
4.3.3 Artificial Pozzolans
4.3.3.1 Silica Fume
Silica fume is a by-product of the manufacture of silicon metal (Figure 29). Silicon metal is used for the
production of ferrosilicon, which is required by the steel industry for the improvement of its products.
SiO-gas produced in an electric arc furnace is oxidized, condensed to ultra fine SiO2-particles and
subsequently separated from the flue gases in a baghouse filter where it is collected as silica fume.
Figure 29 Production of Silica Fume

CO + O ¾¾® CO2
SiO + O ¾¾® SiO2 (silica fume)

QUARTZ + COAL
(SiO2 + 2C)
ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE (2000°C) ¾¾® Si (silicon metal)
(98% purity)

Condensed silica fume consists of very fine spherical particles with a high content of amorphous silica. It
is an extremely fine powder, very much finer than Portland cement or fly ash, its fineness being roughly
comparable with the finest particles in tobacco smoke (Table 18).
Table 18 Fineness of Different Materials

Type of MaterialFineness (cm2/g)

Silica fume approx. 200’000
Tobacco smoke approx. 100’000
Fly ash 2’000 to 5’000
Normal Portland cementapprox. 3’000

The grain size distribution is shown in Figure 30. The extreme fineness gives rise to a number of
problems in handling and transporting this material. Its bulk weight is not higher than 300 kg/m3. Exposed
piles are stirred by the least breath of wind. Silica fume is either packed in bags as such, or densified and
packed in bags, as well as in the form of a 50% water slurry. Transport and transshipment facilities clearly
necessitate efficient dedusting systems.
The chemical composition (Table 19) may vary somehow depending on the impurities of quartz, the
features of the manufacturing process, the dust precipitation facilities and the coal used. The effect of
different compositions can become quite significant depending on the particular type of application.
Table 19 Chemical Composition of Silica Fume
Elements Range
Min. Max.
Loss on Ignition 0.7 2.5
SiO2 90.0 96.0
Al2O3 0.3 3.0
Fe2O3 0.2 0.8
CaO 0.1 0.5
MgO 0.5 1.5
NaO 0.2 0.7
HO 0.4 1.0
C 0.5 1.5
S 0.1 0.4

Only silica fume that meets the following requirements shall be used:

- amorphous silica SiO2 ³ 85% by mass

- loss on ignition £ 4% by mass
- specific surface (untreated) ³ 15 m2/g (BET)

Owing to the great fineness, its completely amorphous state and its high content of SiO2, silica fume
exhibits properties closely resembling those of pozzolan. However, the usual methods for characterizing
the pozzolanic activity are not suitable and they had to be first adapted to suit its unusual properties.
The high pozzolanic activity made it seem obvious to add the silica fume directly to cement or concrete.
Tests performed in a great number of laboratories proved that there are a number of problems connected
with the handling properties of the silica dust, however, they can be overcome when suitable
modifications to the process technology are made.
The level of replacement cement by silica fume is limited and lies generally in the range of 8 ± 2%. The
following hardening characteristics (Table 20) have been observed for an ISO standard mortar with a pure
Portland cement compared to a 5% silica fume substitution.
Table 20 Characteristics of an ISO Standard Mortar

Strength after ... Days Pure Portland Cement 95% PC

+ 5% Silica Fume
2 20.3 N/mm2 21.4 N/mm2
28 42.8 54.1
90 53.3 61.2

The amount of water required by the binder is higher and the setting time is generally somewhat shorter
compared to pure PC. The increase of strength is remarkable and conduct naturally to the use of silica
fume for the production of high performance concrete. In order to reduce the higher water requirement, it
is recommended to add superplasticizer in the concrete mix. In spite of its remarkably high price, this
material is chosen in most cases where production of a high performance concrete is required.
Figure 30 Grain Size Distribution

4.3.3.2 Thermally Activated Minerals and Rocks

Artificial Pozzolans of this type are produced by means of thermal treatment from non-pozzolanic
materials (e.g. marl, shale) or from materials with very low pozzolanic properties (e.g. phonolite). They are
activated by a rise of temperature which lies between 150°C and about 1500°C depending on the nature
of the raw material. The materials develop pozzolanic properties by a transformation of their crystalline
structure into a glass.
Clays, shales and rocks with very low pozzolanic properties need a calcination at temperatures between
500 and 1000°C in order to be activated.
Burnt clays
After calcination at a relatively low temperature (usually below 800 °C), some clays can be converted to
pozzolanic materials, after production of reactive phases by alteration of the original crystalline structure
of the clay. The required heat treatment is generally variable, since it depends on the nature and fineness
of clays. Both the calcination temperature and time have to be adjusted to get best enhancement of
pozzolanic activity.
Burnt Shale, Calcined Marls and ‘KALSIN’
Burnt shale, in special cases burnt oil shale, calcined marls and Kalsin (a patented product of the
‘Holderbank’ Group) are produced in conventional rotary kilns as well as fluidized beds at a temperature
of approximately 800°C. Owing to the composition of the natural materials and the manufacturing
process, these products contain hydraulic mineral phases identical to those produced during the
clinkering operation. These phases are mainly dicalcium silicate and monoaluminate as well as reactive
gehlenite and calco-spurrite. Due to the specific burning process (generally under reducing atmosphere)
only small amounts of free lime is produced whereas calcium sulfate proportion depends essentially on
the sulfur present in the raw material. Beside these hydraulic minerals, large proportions of pozzolanic
reacting oxides, especially silica and alumina are present.
In a very finely ground state burnt shale, calcined marls and Kalsin show like Portland cement
pronounced hydraulic and in addition pozzolanic properties.
According to EN 196-1 these burnt products must develop a compressive strength of at least 25.0 N/mm2
after 28 days. If not they are classified in the category of artificial pozzolan.
The expansion shall be less than 10 mm (Le Châtelier test) in accordance with EN 196-3 using a mixture
of 30% by mass burnt material plus 70% by mass reference cement.
4.3.4 Applications
As discussed in chapter 3.3 natural and artificial pozzolans are preferably used wherever a high durability,
high long-term strength or a low heat development is needed. This is especially the case in structures
severely exposed to water of different chemical quality and in mass concrete applications such as:
· Spillways
· Stilling basins
· Water canals
· Water and waste-water treatment facilities
· Landfill construction purposes
· Underwater constructions and repairs
· Dams
· Bridges (Figure 31)
· Offshore platform construction
· Bank vault construction
· High-pressure concrete pipes
· Concrete in high-rise structures
· Shotcrete operations
Figure 31 Construction of Golden Gate Bridge (San Francisco, USA) in 1932 using a Portland
pozzolan cement with 25% interground calcined siliceous shales

5. REFERENCES

Locher, W. (2000) Zement, Grundlagen der Herstellung und Verwendung, Verlag Bau + Technik, 522 p.

Matthes, W. (2000) Properties, Grindability, and Reactivity of Granulated blast-furnace slag: A Literature
Review, HMC report MIC 00/5005/E, 91 p.
Weber, R., Bilgeri, P., Kollo, H, Vissmann, H.-W (1998) Hochofenzement - Eigenschaften und Anwendung
im Beton, Verlag Bau und Technik, 2nd edition, 56 p.
6. CONTROL QUESTIONS

Mineral Components - Overview

1) How Mineral Components are defined?
2) How can Mineral Components be classified (according to material and reactivity)?
3) Compare the annual global production of industrial Mineral Components (blast-furnace slag and
fly ash) with the global annual cement production!
4) Which advantages does the use of Mineral Components offer for a cement company (name at
least five advantages)?
5) What are the threats of Mineral Components for a cement company (name at least five threats)?
6) Which major topics have to be covered by a MIC strategy?
7) Which tool visualizes and supports the process of MIC strategy development?

MIC - Overview
1) How do MIC affect the properties and performance of concrete?
2) In which applications the use of MIC is beneficial?

Slags
1) How blast-furnace slags can be classified?
2) Which properties of ground granulated bfs influence the reactivity? Which properties should an
"ideal" granulate have?
3) In which applications ground granulated bfs can be used? Which are the benefits to use ggbfs?

Fly Ashes
1) Name the key quality parameters of fly ash
2) What are the major influence factors on fly ash quality and quantity
3) Name the different boiler types and coal types and its effect on fly ash properties

Pozzolans
1) What is the common feature of all pozzolans (in terms of properties)?
2) Write down the (simplified) pozzolanic reaction. What favours a fast reaction?
3) Name general applications where pozzolans are preferably used.

C04 - Blended Cement

PROPERTIES AND APPLICATION OF COMPOSITE CEMENTS

D. Rosani, April 2001
1. COMPOSITE (BLENDED) CEMENTS
1.1 Definition
1.1.1 Abbreviations
1.2 A brief history of composite cements
2. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE CEMENTS
2.1 Bleeding
2.2 Workability
2.3 Setting time
2.4 Strength
2.5 Shrinkage
2.6 Creep
2.7 Heat of hydration
2.8 Porosity
2.9 Durability
2.10 Lime leaching
2.11 Carbonation
2.12 Sulphate attack
2.13 Chloride attack
2.14 Sea water attack
2.15 Alkali Silica Reaction
2.16 Frost resistance
3. ASPECTS OF MANUFACTURE OF BLENDED CEMENTS
3.1 Pretreatment of additions
3.2 Properties of the addition and type of grinding
3.2.1 Grindability
3.2.2 Strength activity
3.2.3 Type of grinding
3.2.4 Use of chemical admixtures
3.3 Proportioning
4. TRENDS OF PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF COMPOSITE CEMENTS
5. CONCLUSIONS
6. LITERATURE REFERENCES

1. COMPOSITE (BLENDED) CEMENTS

1.1 Definition
A Composite or Blended Cement is a binder that contains
¨ Portland clinker
¨ gypsum or other set regulators
¨ and one of, or a combination of, the following materials in relevant amount (normally >5%)
· a latent hydraulic component
· a pozzolanic component
· an inert component (filler)
and is produced by grinding (separate or compound) or blending of the constituents.
Typical materials for the production of composite cements are therefore
¨ Latent hydraulic
Having natural hydraulic potential (they harden when mixed with water). A suitable activator is needed to
accelerate the reaction with water (examples: blast furnace slag, class C fly ash)
¨ Pozzolanic
Having no hydraulic properties. They react in presence of water and Ca(OH)2 from clinker hydration, to
form compounds contributing to strength (examples: natural pozzolana, class F fly ash)
¨ Inert
Having no real participation in the chemical hydration process (examples: limestone, sand).
Important to mention is that clinker hydration, slag hydration and reaction of pozzolana with lime cause
the formation of the same type of compounds, i.e. calcium-silicate-hydrates possessing binding
properties.
For specific aspects regarding composition and properties of mineral components, please refer to the
related chapter.
1.1.1 Abbreviations
In the following text and in relevant literature, acronyms and abbreviations may be used to indicate
specific materials. These are the most important.
mic mineral component
(g)(g)bfs (ground)(granulated) blast-furnace slag
(p)fa (pulverised) fuel ash or fly ash
(c)sf (condensed) silica fume
1.2 A brief history of composite cements
The hydraulic properties of blends of pozzolana and lime are known from thousands of years, from the
times of the ancient Greeks and Romans, whose constructions (“opus cementitium”) survived the
centuries and can be still seen nowadays. At those times, natural pozzolana or crushed bricks were used
as cement constituents together with lime, but the association of pozzolana with Portland cement only
started at the beginning of the 1900.
The practice of replacing a hydraulic material for Portland cement dates back to the end of the 19th and
the beginning of 20th century.
The discovery of the hydraulic properties of blast furnace slag was made in 1862 and the first use in
Germany dates back to 1882.
During the two World Wars the clinker shortage suggested the addition of finely ground limestone to
Portland cement to increase the availability of cement. At that time, the replacement was considered not
legal or at least questionable; however, the use of this cement did not give rise to any claims from the
users owing to the good results obtained in terms of both strength and durability. In the sixties, at the end
of long and accurate studies, limestone cement was definitively accepted among standard cements.
An example of the many different composite cements is given in the following table, where the cement
types according the European standard EN 197/1 are listed.
2. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE CEMENTS
Blended cements have properties very similar to those of Portland cements for two main reasons:
¨ all of them contain Portland cement clinker
¨ their products of hydration are identical to those occurring in Portland cement pastes both in
terms of composition and microstructure.
Increasing amounts of blending components gradually change any original property of the plain Portland
cement. This replacement may either improve or worsen the properties of the parent Portland cement
(clinker) as a consequence of the effect of mineral components and additions on chemical, physical and
mechanical properties of cement, mortar and concrete.
Typically, addition of most mineral components in relevant quantities reduces the strength, but increases
the chemical resistance and the related durability of the cementitious products.
Proper cement design may contribute to limit the undesired effects to the minimum and enhance the
advantages of mineral components.
In the following chapters, the impact of mineral components on the most important properties of blended
cements is considered.
2.1 Bleeding
Bleeding occurs when the various constituents of a mix start to separate so letting the water rise to the
surface of the fresh concrete. Whereas a certain amount of bleeding is favourable for adequate curing of
concrete, an excess of bleeding water can cause undesired surface effects like efflorescence
(crystallisation of calcium carbonate and alkali salts) and weaker surface strength.
Bleeding depends on the grain size distribution and the specific surface of the cement and of the
individual cement components. Therefore, natural pozzolanas, burnt clay, silica fume and limestone
reduce bleeding, while fly ash and ground granulated blastfurnace slag tend to increase it.
On the other hand, an increase of water demand in concrete due to the presence of high-specific surface
materials, may have the contrary effect of increasing the porosity in the hardened dry structure, reducing
the strength and increasing the permeability.
2.2 Workability
As a general rule, workability of concrete decreases with the increase in water demand of the cement and
therefore with the specific surface area of the components.
As a consequence, workability of cements containing slag, fly ashes and limestone on average is higher
than that of the parent Portland cement, whereas that of cements containing natural pozzolanas and silica
fume is lower.
However, within each cement type and cement class, the values of workability (slump test) are widely
scattered owing to the large variability of both chemical and mineral composition and fineness of cements.
Example: slump frequency distribution

The different performance of fly ash and slag cements can also be explained by the following reasons
¨ little water absorption of the gbfs/fly ash particles
¨ smooth surface of the gbfs and fly ash particles.
Problems may arise with very soft and porous pozzolanas, which tend to reduce workability.
Example: compaction time for OPC/BFS cements

2.3 Setting time

The degree to which the setting time is affected depends on:
¨ the grinding fineness
¨ the type of clinker and mic used
¨ the mic content of the composite cement
¨ the initial curing temperature of the concrete
¨ the water/cement ratio of concrete
Typically, the initial set is extended by half-an-hour to one hour at temperatures of 23° C / 73° F. Above
29° C / 85° F no change in setting time occurs compared to OPC.
Example: data from Products Handbook
2.4 Strength
On replacing a Portland cement with other fine materials, the strength development curve changes
depending on the type and the amount of the addition.
Clinker is the main responsible for early and medium term strength development, and therefore its
substitution with less active constituents may lead to reduced strength. The difference from the plain
Portland cement tends to disappear after about 28 days of curing, owing to the reaction of the mic’s and
depending on their activity. In the case of silica fume, a very reactive material, strength recovery takes
place earlier.

However, when clinker replacement does not exceed 10%, early strength of cement may increase since
fine additions tend to accelerate hydration.
The ultimate strength can be higher than that of OPC when the cement contains other hydraulic
components. In this case, after 28 days, the strength development curve can intersect and surpass the
curve of the parent Portland cement.

Strength and strength gain of concrete with blended cement depend on following factors:
¨ Fineness of the cement
¨ Mic and clinker reactivity
¨ Curing temperature
¨ Content of mic in the blended cement
The drop in early strength should not always be considered as a negative effect since it is often
associated with the improvement in other properties.
In any case, the cement factories can remedy the strength loss by taking appropriate action. Such
corrective actions may increase production costs, so the advantage of any solution must be assessed on
a case-by-case basis.
As a consequence, blended cements predominate in the cement classes having lower strength.
This prevalence does not mean that it is impossible to produce rapid hardening and high-early strength
composite cements, but that they are not often produced, at least in large quantities, since they are more
expensive than Portland cement.
Concrete strength depends on a number of factors, the most significant of which are:
¨ cement strength,
¨ cement content,
¨ water/cement ratio,
¨ curing degree.
The type of cement is not a primary factor provided that cements with the same
strength and the same w/c ratio are compared.
On the contrary, if concrete is compared on the basis of equal workability, some
differences could occur depending on the different water demand.
2.5 Shrinkage
Shrinkage of cementitious products depends on the initial water content of the mix.
For this reason, shrinkage of standard mortars made with the same w/c ratio is not influenced by the
cement type.
In the practice, differences in shrinkage occur if comparison of different cement types is made on mortars
or concrete having the same workability but different w/c ratio.
Differences among cements, if any, decrease passing from paste to mortar and concrete, the shrinkage of
concrete being about 25% of that of a mortar with the same w/c ratio.

In any case, the influence of the type and strength class of cement on shrinkage is noticeably less than
that of the water/cement ratio of concrete and of the type of aggregate used therein.
Beneficial effects from the use of fly ash and blast furnace slag have been noticed, in combination with
adequate curing of the structure.
2.6 Creep
Creep of concrete represents the deformation of concrete under load. It.depends on the water content of
the mix and the modulus of elasticity of the aggregate.

The creep value is linked to the strength of the concrete at the time of loading and so, all other conditions
being equal, it depends on:
¨ the strength class of the cement,
¨ the water/cement ratio,
¨ the curing degree.
Thus, if the same load is applied on concrete having the same strength, the cement type is not significant.
Creep in blended cement concrete is higher than in Portland cement only when concrete is loaded too
early.
High early creep may have a positive effect since, as an example, it allows massive structures to settle
before the concrete becomes dangerously rigid.

2.7 Heat of hydration

Blending Portland cement with natural and artificial pozzolana, ground slag and calcareous filler of similar
fineness lowers strength and heat of hydration.

However, if the composite cement attains the same strength as the plain Portland cement, thanks to finer
grinding or because it contains particularly active components such as silica fume, its heat of hydration is
the same as that of the plain Portland cement.
In fact, there is a significant correlation specially between the early compressive strength of mortars and
the heat of hydration of cement pastes after 24 and 48 hours of curing.

An increasing interest for crack prevention in voluminous concrete elements leads to an increasing
demand of blended cements in many countries. Applying these cements for mass concrete leads to
economical benefits for the concrete producers as well as for the construction companies (no cooling
system or chemical admixtures are needed).
2.8 Porosity
Porosity is an intrinsic property of concrete, which may be limited but not completely eliminated.
Porosity mostly results from the porosity in the cement paste and the paste/aggregate interface. It is
responsible for many properties of concrete, from its mechanical features to its durability and directly
affects strength, since pores reduce the cross sectional area of the structure.
Several experimental works have assessed that hardened plain cement without pores would attain
compressive strength higher than 700 MPa.

Hardened Portland cement paste has a lower porosity than pozzolanic and blastfurnace slag cements
and thus it should have higher strength. However, differences are little and they become negligible in
concrete where the interfacial porosity is definitely higher than that of a bulk paste.
Moreover, the interfacial zone of concrete made with blended cements is generally less porous, less
permeable and poor in portlandite crystals. For this reason the interfacial bond is stronger, as is shown by
the higher flexural strength.
Porosity is also related to the following transport properties of concrete:
¨ permeability (entry of fluids under pressure),
¨ sorptivity (entry of fluids by capillary suction),
¨ diffusion (entry of gas and ions dissolved in the water).
These properties are not synonymous with porosity since they depend on the structure of the pores rather
than on the total porosity of cementitious products
As a matter of fact, hardened cement pastes containing ground blastfurnace slag or pozzolana have
greater porosity but lower permeability and sorptivity than Portland cement pastes, due to the difference
in pore diameters.

2.9 Durability
The improvement achieved with the use of active mineral components is direct consequence of:
¨ lower permeability of cement stone
¨ lower content of calcium hydroxide
¨ reduced leaching of calcium hydroxide
Permeability of hardened concrete with blended cement is decreased due to the reduction of:
¨ the pore size in the hydrated cement gel
¨ the filling of capillaries by further hydration products
The decreased permeability prevents the penetration and migration of damaging chemicals such as
chloride and sulfates and leads to high durability of the concrete
Actually, pores of pozzolanic cement pastes - which are larger than Portland cement ones - are
connected by more segmented or finer pores.
The differences in porosity and permeability of cement pastes as a result of the type of cement have, in
any case, very little impact on the actual concrete where the porosity of the aggregate/cement paste
interface is much higher than that of the bulk paste.
When concrete is dense, i.e. strong, any difference in permeability becomes statistically very little and
only low strength concrete shows a wide variability in permeability
In the practice, when 28-day strength exceeds about 35 N/mm2, permeability does no longer
significantly decrease.
2.10 Lime leaching
Portlandite makes up some 20-22% of hardened Portland cement paste and is quite soluble in water. So,
concrete that is permanently kept in contact with water will lose lime.
Leaching of Ca(OH)2 makes porosity and permeability increase and strength and durability decrease.
Cement pastes containing pozzolanic materials, as well as granulated blast furnace slag, release less
lime than Portland cement. This is because they have a smaller Ca(OH)2 content and a greater C-S-
H gel content that make paste generally less permeable.

The effectiveness of hydraulic additions increases as their % content increases.

Leaching rate increases when waters contain aggressive carbon dioxide but blended cements resist
better than Portland cement.
Reduced hydrated lime availability decreases susceptibility to acids.
2.11 Carbonation
For some time, it had been generally held that pozzolanic cements and cements with a high slag content
were less resistant to carbonation than Portland cements due to the lower Portlandite content in their
pastes.
However, a number of studies have established that there is no connection between the depth of
carbonation and the type of cement, but that the depth of carbonation decreases with increasing strength,
i.e. with decreasing porosity and permeability.
2.12 Sulphate attack
Waters and soils containing sulphate ions attack concrete through the formation of ettringite and,
occasionally, gypsum.
Preventing or reducing the consequences of the attack requires the following factors to be minimized:
¨ tricalcium aluminate (C3A) content in the clinker,
¨ Ca(OH)2 content in the paste,
¨ permeability of concrete.
Cements rich in ground granulated blastfurnace slag and pozzolanic cements satisfy the three criteria and
thus resist well to sulphate attack.
Blended cements decrease the permeability of concrete but their high resistance to the sulphate attack is
due also to other factors.
In fact, by comparing Portland cement and fly ash cement pastes, both stored in a 0.7M Na2SO4 solution
for 12 weeks, it was found that, while their permeability was roughly the same, the moment corresponding
to the onset of the first crack differed by one order of magnitude.

Replacement of part of the sand in concrete with ground limestone reduces sulphate expansion in
mortars. However, this result cannot be attributed to chemical reasons. It is due to the decrease in
permeability caused by an increase in the fine particles of the mix
2.13 Chloride attack
Waters containing chlorides are detrimental to the concrete structure because they may cause or
facilitate:
¨ leaching of free lime,
¨ break-up of concrete,
¨ corrosion of the reinforcement.
Blended cements containing high percentages of natural pozzolanas, fly ash, silica fume and slag
significantly reduce these risks since the resulting concrete shows:
¨ a lower portlandite content and
¨ a lower diffusion coefficient of the dissolved ions

The compressive strength of pozzolanic cement or blastfurnace cement pastes is little affected by
prolonged immersion in concentrated CaCl2 solution, whereas the strength of the parent Portland cement
already begins to drop after 7 days’ immersion.
2.14 Sea water attack
Seawater attacks concrete as a result of the penetration of chloride and sulphate. No concrete is strictly
impermeable, thus any structure exposed to seawater for many years shows:
¨ decrease in CaO content,
¨ increase in MgO and SO3 content.
The chemical attack is associated with:
¨ mass loss and
¨ expansion.
Apart from the general requirement of high compactness, concrete attack can be reduced by using
pozzolanic and blastfurnace cement since the resulting pastes have:
¨ a lower content of soluble CaO,
¨ a higher C-S-H content
and this helps reduce:
¨ the water permeability and
¨ the diffusion coefficient of the aggressive ions.
Marine structure built by the Romans with pozzolana concrete have kept a large part of original strength
after about two thousand years.

2.15 Alkali Silica Reaction

Certain constituents of the aggregates can react with the alkali ions present in the pore solution of the
cement paste giving rise to expansion and cracking of concrete and consequent loss of strength and
durability of the structure.
The majority of research studies have concerned the “alkali-silica reaction” resulting from certain forms of
reactive silica in the aggregate.
Harmful expansion can be prevented by using Portland cements with an equivalent Na2O content of less
than 0.6%. However, modern cement technology and pollution-preventive regulations make this target
too expensive.
Blended cements containing considerable amounts of natural pozzolana, fly ashes, silica fume or
blastfurnace slag give the same result. Alkalis react quickly with the amorphous silica of the fine ground
mineral component and are no longer available for further reactions with the aggregates.

Limestone decreases expansion not because particular reactions occur but only because it makes the
total alkali content in cement diminish.
2.16 Frost resistance
In many countries frost is a serious cause of damage of concrete. Freezing of free water present in the
hardened cement paste results in an increase of volume, which causes the formation of stresses inside
the concrete. If these exceed the flexural strength of concrete, cracks occur.
High strength concrete resists better than low strength concrete, but the sole system that has proved to
be effective in preventing the effects of frost is the entrainment of microscopic air bubbles inside concrete.

3. ASPECTS OF MANUFACTURE OF BLENDED CEMENTS

For optimum production of blended cements, some important aspects related to the grinding process
should be carefully evaluated
¨ pretreatment of additions
· drying
· preblending
¨ properties of the addition
· grindability
· strength activity
¨ type of grinding
· compound
· separate
¨ dosing of components.
3.1 Pretreatment of additions
The additive may have a considerable moisture content, and drying has to be done prior to or during the
grinding process. The dosing facilities should be adequate to allow precise and trouble free operation
even in case of very moist and sticky materials.
Depending on the nature and the number of the additions used, pre-blending of the materials would be
necessary to achieve sufficient homogeneity of the component and of the cement itself. Some mic’s are
industrial by-products and therefore subject to changes in composition and physical state.
3.2 Properties of the addition and type of grinding
3.2.1 Grindability
The grindability of the components is generally different, even in materials of the same type. Big
differences might therefore be justified between different plants, and generally a specific solution has to
be found for each plant.
The following table summarizes some data, taken out of the annual report, giving information on physical
properties and the grinding energy needed for the production of blended cements containing slag,
pozzolan or fly ash compared to Portland cement.
Average Physical Properties and Grinding Energy for Blended Cements

MaterialDensity

[g/cm3] Blaine

[cm2/g] Grinding
Energy
[kWh/t]
Clinker 3.18 3135 32.43
Slag 2.90 2980 34.17
Nat. Pozzolan 2.55 6150 20.92
Fly ash 2.45 4405 11.92

This table shows that slag is usually harder to grind than Portland cement clinker, while pozzolanic
materials are mostly softer. The advantage of fly ash is that it can be added directly to the separator feed,
since most of it is already of the required cement fineness.
This also implies that during grinding of a slag cement, clinker will be ground finer, thus contributing to
early stregth development, while the slag remains coarser and will react lately. Thanks to its glassy
nature, slag does not greatly affect the water demand and the workability characteristics and can be used
at very high addition rates.
In the case of pozzolanic cements, the very soft pozzolana will concentrate in the fine fraction of cement,
thus affecting water demand, workability and early strength development. Proper selection of the grinding
equipment (central discharge mills, vertical roller mills, separate grinding) will prevent overgrinding of
pozzolanas and improve cement properties.
High fineness of silica fume and/or important variability of the fineness of fly ash may be responsible for
severe problems of handling, transporting and proportioning. This type of material is generally introduced
after the mill, in the output bucklett or directly in the separator, in order to provide a good mixing, avoid
quality fluctuations and improve mill operation.
When designing a new grinding plant for blended cement manufacturing, the process can be optimized to
the requirements. Unfortunately, in most plants blended cements have to be produced in old grinding
equipment designed for Portland cement production.
3.2.2 Strength activity
A mineral component is clearly expected to contribute to strength development of cement. Its strength
activity will reflect on cement design and on the proportioning system. Typical dosage of a mineral
component ranges between 25 and 40%; other contents can be chosen depending on standards and
target performance.
3.2.3 Type of grinding
As already mentioned, grindability of the various components can influence the choice of the grinding
system, especially in new plants.
Intergrinding of cement is easier from the point of view of plant design and operation, but requires
accurate dosing and might be considerably disturbed by quality fluctuations of the different constituents,
also in terms of grindability.
The advantage of separate grinding is that each component can be ground at the optimum fineness, thus
enhancing its peculiarities and reducing drawbacks usually associated with unproper grinding.
3.2.4 Use of chemical admixtures
Some of the drawbacks of blended cements can be compensated by the use of selected chemical
admixtures.
Besides the simple addition of grinding aids especially in the case of high replacement rates with hard to
grind materials, more sophisticated quality improvers can be applied
¨ water reducers/plasticizers
¨ early strength improvers
¨ multipurpose admixtures.
3.3 Proportioning
The most important quality requirement of blended cements are usually related to their performance in the
different applications.
Some of these properties can be summarized as follows:
¨ Satisfactory rheological properties for good workability in concrete and mortar
¨ Acceptable setting behavior
¨ Adequate strength development and sufficiently high early and 28-day strength
¨ Satisfactory expectations for durability of the resulting concrete, as regards
· residual porosity and permeability
· resistance to carbonation
· freeze-thaw resistance
· resistance to chemical attack (sulfates, pure water, sea water, weak acids)
¨ Acceptance of resulting concrete color
¨ Reduction of Alkali Aggregate Reaction (AAR) risks
¨ Lower heat of hydration
and all specific properties providing better service or higher performances compared to ordinary Portland
cement.

Error! Cannot read or display file.

The design of composite cements requires first of all the establishment of clear objectives with respect to
product characteristics and performances. Both characteristics and performances must comply to cement
standard specifications and test methods as well as for concrete production.
The optimum proportion of mineral additions in blended cements is then to be found as a consequence of
the available materials and the related cement standards.
In general terms, slags are usually characterised by a good hydraulic potential and a low water
requirement in cement, derived from their glassy nature; these features allow for the production of slag
cements with high contents of BFS (up to 95%!).
On the other hand, the amount of pozzolana is a compromise between the minimum amount necessary to
combine the hydration lime and produce additional silicate hydrates and the maximum acceptable content
due to the softness and high porosity of pozzolanas that yield particles with high water demand, thus
affecting cement workability. In this case, a normal range for natural pozzolanas or activated clays in
cement is 20-45%.
As a rule of thumb, one shall consider that pure replacement of OPC with a mineral component will cause
a loss in early strength of 1.5 times the amount of the addition. That is to say that 20% replacement will
drop early strength by approximately 30%. This strength loss can be compensated to a great extent by
finer grinding, either the cement as such in case of intergrinding, or the clinker fraction in case of separate
grinding and following blending.
Increase of grinding fineness will anyway reflect in higher energy consumption of the mill and could impair
some of the cement characteristics, especially water demand. In this respect, the technology of chemical
admixtures is capable to provide a selection of suitable products for the various needs. Through the
proper use of additions, one can improve mill performance, increase early strength, reduce water
demand, improve workability.
4. TRENDS OF PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF COMPOSITE CEMENTS
The present and future challenges for the cement industry relate to its positioning with respect to the
various environmental matters.
On one side, it can help solve the problems related to an optimum reuse of industrial by-products, as
alternatives for raw meal, fuel and cement materials. On the other hand it will be pushed to reduce CO2
emissions mostly deriving from the production of clinker.
The consequences of these trends are
¨ the limited ability to comply with specific requirements by pure OPC type cements, requiring
clinkers of specific composition, which are not suitable in the production of other types of binders
(example – low-alkali, low C3A, low-heat clinkers and cements)
¨ the increased versatility in providing different performing cements, produced with the same
clinker, but with different type and content of additions.
The production of composite cements is therefore going to gain increasing importance in the next years,
as well as the drafting of new standards where blended cement properties are adequately considered and
specified.
Rather than talking about cements, it will be necessary in the next years to consider binding agents and
concrete mixes, in which Portland cement clinker will still be the principal active ingredient. Already today,
concretes are being produced in which the clinker represents only the minor part of the binding agent, the
rest of the constituents such as fly ash, silica fume, ground slag, limestone filler, etc. being added directly
at the concrete batching plant.
If we want to maintain the same quality of concrete and assure the future of our industry, we must
increase drastically the proportion of additions in cement and master the production of binders with a
maximised content of clinker substitutes. The possibilities for substitution are numerous and the optimum
cement design will derive from the optimisation of
¨ clinker composition and production
¨ optimum gypsum content
¨ mic type and content
¨ grinding process
¨ use of chemical admixtures.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The production of composite cements is based on technical, economical and environmental reasons.
The use of ground granulated blastfurnace slag cements as well as pozzolanic cements has long been
confined to those applications where resistance to chemical attack and lower heat of hydration were
considered more important than strength.
Later on, their production has been seen as an advantageous way to find a use for waste materials from
certain industrial processes or as a way to save on energy.
Also the Portland limestone cement, largely used in the past only in specialised fields, has proved to have
useful properties like other more known cements.
All these historical reasons have, however, been swept away by years of laboratory and field research
which have shown that blended cements are interchangeable with Portland cements in the overwhelming
majority of building applications.
Only in special cases some type and classes of cement are specifically recommended. Typically, Portland
cement is preferred whenever a rapid hardening is required, whereas blended cements, with high content
of complementary hydraulic constituents, perform best in aggressive environment conditions.
The real degree of replacement for these types of substitute materials will vary as a function of their
individual reactivity. They can be mixed with other types of possible additions (triple blends or multiple
blends or ‘cocktail’ cements), the clinker (or the activator) proportion depending on the quantity of CaO
needed for the activation of the additions.
6. LITERATURE REFERENCES
1) Lea’s Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, 4th Edition - edited by P.C. Hewlett - Arnold
2) Mineral Admixtures ic Cement and Concrete, vol. 4 - Sarkar, Ghosh - abi New Delhi
3) Fly Ash in Concrete, 2nd edition - Malhotra, Rameziananpour - Canmet Canada
4) Proceedings of the 9th Int. Congress on the Chemistry of Cement, vol. 1 - New Delhi

C05 - Optimised Cement Design

OPTIMISED CEMENT DESIGN

1. INTRODUCTION
2. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR CEMENT DESIGN
2.1 Product requirements
2.2 Available cement components
2.3 Production facilities
2.4 Economy
3. INFLUENCE OF CEMENT COMPONENTS ON CEMENT PROPERTIES
3.1 General
3.2 Clinker
3.2.1 Water requirement of standard paste and consistency of concrete
1.1.2 Rate of stiffening and setting time of standard paste and slump loss of concrete
1.1.3 Heat of hydration
1.1.4 Strength of mortar and concrete
1.1.5 Sulphate resistance
1.1.6 Other properties
1.2 Mineral components
1.3 Gypsum
1.4 Chemical admixtures
2. OPTIMUM PROPORTIONING OF THE CEMENT COMPONENTS
2.1 General
2.2 Clinker and mineral components
2.3 Gypsum
2.4 Chemical admixtures
3. CEMENT GRINDING
3.1 General
3.2 Description of fineness
3.2.1 Specific surface area
3.2.2 Particle size distribution
3.3 Particle size distribution in the different grinding systems
3.4 Grinding of Portland cements
3.4.1 Influence of Blaine fineness
3.4.2 Influence of particle size distribution
3.5 Grinding of blended cements
3.5.1 General
3.5.2 Compound grinding
3.5.3 Separate grinding
3.6 Temperature and moisture conditions
4. LITERATURE

1. INTRODUCTION
The process of cement design consists of the following interrelated steps:
1) selection of the most convenient set of components
2) determination of the relative proportions of the components
3) definition of the fineness and grain size distribution of cement (compound grinding) or the cement
components (separate grinding)
The objective of the cement design is to achieve the specified or desired performance of the cement at
the minimum possible cost.
The procedures applied in practice for cement design are usually based on analytical tools (models to
predict cement performance), experiments (trials on laboratory and industrial scale) and on experience.
The better the knowledge of the relationships between cement components, proportioning and processing
and the cement properties, the easier it is to arrive at the optimum solution.
The optimisation of the cement design requires nowadays more attention than in earlier times. The main
reasons for this development are:
¨ increase in number of cement components (use of mineral components and chemical admixtures
in the cement)
¨ use of new grinding technologies (roller press, vertical mill, Horomill) having an effect on the
resulting grain size distribution and grinding temperature
¨ extension of product and application range
The object of the present paper is to describe the basic considerations influencing the cement design and
to give an overview on the influence of the cement components, their proportioning and cement grinding
on the properties of cement.
2. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR CEMENT DESIGN
2.1 Product requirements
The cement design will strongly depend on the performance requirements to be fulfilled by the cement.
These requirements, which are determined by the respective standards and by the market, may comprise
specifications on.
¨ proportioning of cement components and chemical composition
¨ workability (water demand, setting), volume stability and strength
¨ special properties:
· heat of hydration
· sulphate resistance
· alkali-aggregate reactivity
· shrinkage, etc.
Besides the above specifications, there may be further requirements with regard to the handling of the
cement (i.e. temperature, flowability and storage stability).
In the future, also certain requirements with respect to energy consumption and emissions (in particular
CO2) during the cement production may be imposed.
2.2 Available cement components
The flexibility in cement design will be obviously controlled to a large extent by the available cement
components. The most important aspects of the cement components (clinker, mineral components and
gypsum) in this respect are:
¨ available quantities
¨ quality / uniformity and
¨ costs
The cement plants usually count with one "normal" type of clinker, whose characteristics are pre-
determined by the raw material situation and by the burning and cooling conditions in the kiln.
Occasionally, also special clinkers are produced for certain cement types, but with the increased use of
mineral components in the cement, which allow to obtain special properties with "normal" clinker, less and
less of such clinkers will be applied in the future.
The availability of the mineral components varies from country to country. The main industrial by-products
used for cement production - blast furnace slag and fly ashes - are principally available world-wide in
great quantities (see Table 1); however, only part of it complies with the necessary quality requirements
for an application in the cement. Among the natural mineral components, limestone of suitable quality
should be available at all cement plants, whereas the natural pozzolans are less wide-spread.
Table 1: Estimated production of fly ashes and blast furnace slags (Mio t/a)

Blast furnace slag (1994)

Fly ash (1992)
Western Europe 36 61
Eastern Europe (+ former USSR) 28 95
North America 20 51
Latin America 11 3
Africa 3 24
Asia 78 125
Australia 3 7
World 178 366

Natural gypsum deposits are scarce in some countries. In such cases, alternative materials like natural
anhydrite and limestone or by-product gypsum from other industries have to be considered.
The different type of chemical admixtures, which can be added at the cement grinding stage, can in
principle be purchased anywhere in the world.
2.3 Production facilities
The available production facilities (in particular the cement grinding installations) put certain constraints
on the cement design. Such constraints may lead to limitations with respect to:
¨ clinker factor
¨ fineness range of cements
¨ feasible number of products
¨ type of cement grinding (compound or separate)
Moreover, the cement design will be influenced decisively by the type of cement mill used for grinding. For
instance, with the new grinding technologies, adjustments have to be made to account for the differences
in grain size distribution and grinding temperature compared to the traditional systems.
2.4 Economy
The production costs of cement basically consist of the costs of the materials entering the cement mill and
the grinding costs. From the two factors, the material costs generate by far the greatest part of the
production costs.
The most expensive material in the cement is usually the clinker. The minimisation of the clinker content
in the cement is therefore the single most important factor in reducing the production cost, provided that
mineral components of suitable quality are available at convenient prices.
The principal ways to reduce the clinker factor in the cement are:
¨ adjustment of the fineness and grain size distribution of the cement and its components
¨ use of high quality clinker
¨ use of chemical admixtures already in the cement
The possible clinker reduction is of course limited by the factors discussed in the previous chapters.
3. INFLUENCE OF CEMENT COMPONENTS ON CEMENT PROPERTIES
3.1 General
Due to the great variety of factors involved, it is difficult to describe precisely the relationship between the
cement components and the cement properties. The available models for the prediction of cement
performance usually only reflect the general trends.
The effects on the cement properties are best understood for the clinker and gypsum. Least knowledge is
available in case of the mineral components and the chemical admixtures, so that virtually the only way to
assess their influence is to carry out performance tests.
3.2 Clinker
The composition of clinker gives some indications on the properties of cement to be expected, as it
influences the rate of hydration reaction and thus the setting and hardening rate of cement The
composition of clinkers control the quantity and rate of heat evolved during hydration and the resistance
of cement to sulphate attack; therefore, limiting values are specified.
In this section, the influence of composition of clinker on the following properties of cement shall be
discussed:
¨ water requirement of standard paste and consistency of concrete
¨ stiffening rate and setting time of standard paste and slump loss of concrete
¨ heat of hydration
¨ strength of mortar and concrete
¨ sulphate resistance
¨ other properties of concrete
A summary on the relationship between clinker composition and the principal cement properties
workability (water demand, setting) and strength is given in Table 2.
Table 2:Effect of clinker composition on water requirement and setting time of standard paste and
compressive strength of ISO mortar (general trends)

Clinker Water req. Setting time Strength

early final
C3S -- -- ä ä
C2S -- -- æ ä
C3A ä æ ä æ
C4AF -- -- æ ä
K2O ä -- ä æ
Na2O ä -- ä æ
SO3 -- ä ä æ
P2O5 -- ä æ --

ä increasing
æ decreasing
-- no effect
3.2.1 Water requirement of standard paste and consistency of concrete
The water requirement of the standard paste of normal consistency depends primarily on the aluminate
and alkali content of clinker and on the fineness of cement. From a multiple regression analysis carried
out at HMC on 48 different ordinary Portland cements, the following relation between the water
requirement and cement composition was derived:

W.r. % = 17.4 + 0.15 a + 0.26 b + 0.12 c

a = particle size fraction 10 to 30 mm in wt %
b = C3A content in wt % (Bogue’s formula)
c = total alkali content in wt %

The relation between the water requirement of standard paste and the composition of cement cannot be
applied to concrete, as there is a rather weak relationship between the water requirement of paste and
water/cement ratio of concrete (see Figure 1)
Figure 1: Water requirement of cement and w/c-ratio of concrete
Po - Water reducing admixture (Pozzolith)
Me - Superplasticizer (Melment)
Lu 2 ... Ho 2 - various OPC
Gm, Du, etc. - various Group plants

The effect of cement on the consistency or water requirement of concrete is rather small compared to
other factors, such as sand, admixtures and temperature. An exception is concrete with a very short
mixing time, where cement with false set may seriously impair the consistency of concrete.
3.2.2 Rate of stiffening and setting time of standard paste and slump loss of concrete
The stiffening rate or the „Vicat“ setting time of the standard paste is significantly influenced by the
composition of clinker. The sulphates and phosphates of clinker usually delay, whereas aluminate shorten
the setting time of cement.
The relation between the stiffening rate or setting time of standard paste and the stiffening rate -
expressed as slump loss - of concrete is, just as for the water requirement, rather poor. Therefore, it is
difficult to estimate the stiffening rate of concrete on the basis of composition or fineness of cement.
3.2.3 Heat of hydration
The effect of the clinker composition on heat of hydration has already been discussed in detail in the
paper on cement hydration. The principal way to control the heat evolution of the clinker is the adjustment
of the C3S and C3A content.
3.2.4 Strength of mortar and concrete
The rate of strength development of mortar or concrete depends on the type (or composition) of cement.
The general tendency of cements with a slow rate of hardening is to have a slightly higher ultimate
strength.
The ASTM type IV cement, with low content of C3S, has the lowest early strength, but develops the
highest ultimate strength (see Figure 2). This agrees with the influence of individual clinker components
on the rate of strength development measured on pure clinker minerals (see Figure 3).
Figure 2: Strength development of concrete made with different cement types

Figure 3: Compressive strength of cement compounds

The two calcium silicates develop the highest strength, but at different rates. The aluminate develops little
strength, despite a high rate of hydration.
The rate of strength development of mortar or concrete depends on the clinker composition as follows:
a) Calcium silicates. The different rates of hydration of C3S and C2S affect the rate of hardening in a
significant manner: A convenient rough rule assumes that C3S contributes the most to the strength
development during the first four weeks and C2S afterwards. In general, somewhat higher ultimate
strengths are reached by cements with lower calcium content, i.e. rich in C2S. This observation
corresponds with the assumption that the strength of cement depends on the specific surface of its
hydration products. C2S produces more colloidal CSH gel and less of the crystalline Ca(OH) 2 than the
C3S.
b) Aluminates and ferrites. The influence of the other two major components on the strength
development is still controversial. Presumably, the C3A contributes to the strength of the cement paste
during a period of one to three days. In general, both aluminate and ferrite contribute to the strength of
cement to a minor extent, but significantly influence the hydration process of the silicates and thus have
an indirect effect on the rate of hardening.
c) Of the minor components, the alkali sulphates exert the greatest influence on the rate of
hardening. The alkali sulphate - mostly present as easily soluble potassium sulphate or calcium-
potassium sulphate with a molar ratio of 2:1 to 1:2 - accelerates the rate of hardening, improving the early
strength and decreasing the 28 day and ultimate strength (see Figure 4). Of the other minor components,
fluorine accelerates, whereas the phosphorous compound delays the rate of hardening.
d) Clinker characteristics other than chemical composition. Particularly the burning and cooling
conditions influence the rate of hardening of a particular clinker composition. Frequently, clinkers of the
same chemical composition have different strengths and clinkers of different chemical composition have
the same strength. A simple experiment proves that the very same clinker composition may have rates of
hardening which vary considerably. Reburning of a clinker in a laboratory furnace changes the rate of
hardening, but does not affect the chemical composition of clinker (see Figure 5).

Figure 4: Effect of soluble K2O on the compressive strength of ISO mortar

Figure 5: Model of strength development of mortar and concrete made with two clinkers of same
chemical composition and different activity

A = Clinker of high activity

B = Clinker of low activity
Maturity@ Degree of hydration

A general guide on the necessary amount of the main clinker phases to achieve optimum strength
development is given in Table 3. The most essential point is to have a high C3S content (in the order of
60%) and to adjust the C3A content.
Table 3: "Ideal" composition of the clinker for optimum strength development

Clinker phase
"Ideal" content (%)
C3S 55 - 65
C2S 15 - 25
C3A 7 - 10
C4AF 7 - 10

The influence of the clinker composition on the standard mortar strength is noticeably reduced in
concrete. Depending on the quality of cement, sand and aggregate, the proportioning of concrete or
mortar components, curing temperature, specimen dimension, the rate of hardening in mortar and in
various concrete compositions is quite different.
Moreover, the use of admixtures in concrete - which is common practice today - makes the relation even
more complicated. Due to different hardening rates of mortar and concrete, the relation between concrete
and mortar strength at various ages varies and depends on the above mentioned factors. Concluding, the
cement properties, as demonstrated through standardised testing methods, do not show their effect in the
same way in concrete.
3.2.5 Sulphate resistance
The sulphate resistance of concrete depends primarily on the C3A content of clinker. The ferrite phases
(C4AF) affect the sulphate resistance to a much lesser degree. The higher the C3A content of clinker, the
more susceptible the concrete is to sulphate corrosion (see Figure 6).
Figure 6: Sulphate resistance of cement measured on ISO mortar specimen (55 OPC)
Influence of C3A content on the loss of Young’s modulus of elasticity E (determined from ultrasonic pulse
velocity measurements)

E28 after 28 days of regular curing = 100%

E180 after 28 days of regular curing and 180 days of
exposure to 10% sodium sulphate solution

The rate of sulphate corrosion depends - apart from the C3A content of clinker - on factors other than
cement:
¨ composition of concrete, particularly the water/cement ratio
¨ age of concrete at the time of the first exposure to sulphates
¨ type and concentration of sulphate solution
¨ duration and mode of sulphate exposure
3.2.6 Other properties
The other properties of concrete, such as
¨ freeze - thaw - resistance
¨ permeability
¨ cracking
¨ shrinkage and creep
are only slightly influenced by the composition of clinker and quality of cement. Other influencing factors,
such as air content, w/c-ratio, curing conditions, are decisive.
The cement exerts only an indirect influence on these properties by its effect on the water requirement
and rate of hardening.
3.3 Mineral components
(see also paper on blended cements)
The effect of the mineral components on cement performance can be related mainly to their activity. The
three main classes of materials in this respect are latent hydraulic (e.g. blast furnace slag), pozzolanic
(e.g. fly ash and natural pozzolans) and inert (e.g. limestone).
In case of the active mineral components (latent hydraulic and pozzolanic), the general effects with
respect to cement properties are as follows:
¨ lower water requirement (except for natural pozzolans)
¨ delay in setting times
¨ lower heat of hydration
¨ lower early strength
¨ higher long term strength
¨ lower permeability
¨ improved resistance to sulphate and other chemical attacks
¨ lower sensitivity for alkali-aggregate reaction
The actual influence on the cement properties will of course still depend on the individual nature of each
material. A more detailed comparison on the effects of the main active mineral components blast furnace
slag, fly ash and natural pozzolan (at same dosage) is made in Table 4.
Table 4: Effect of main active mineral components on cement properties (general trends)

Blast furnace slag

Fly ash (class F) Natural pozzolan
Water requirement 0 æ ä
Setting time ä ää ää
Heat of hydration æ ææ ææ
Early strength æ ææ ææ
Final strength ä ä ä
Sulphate resistance ä ää ää
Permeability (chloride) æ ææ ææ
Alkali-aggregate reactivity æ ææ ææ
Shrinkage 0 0 ä

ä increase
æ decrease
O neutral effect
The inert mineral components like limestone do exert similar influences as the active materials in terms of
water requirement, setting and heat of hydration, but they will not improve the final strength and durability
characteristics of the cement.
Other cement properties than the above mentioned are generally not affected to a great extent by the
addition of mineral components.
3.4 Gypsum
(see also paper on cement hydration)
The main function of the gypsum in cement is to regulate the cement setting, but the gypsum also
influences other cement properties such as grindability, flowability and storage stability, volume stability
and strength.
The use of anhydrite instead of gypsum helps to reduce the risk of false setting and to improve the
storage stability and flowability of the cement at high grinding temperature (see also chapter 5.6). In case
of highly reactive clinkers, proper set retardation may, however, be a problem and blends with gypsum
have to be used.
The substitution of natural gypsum by by-product gypsum may sometimes cause problems with setting
and strength development due to potential presence of impurities in such type of materials.
3.5 Chemical admixtures
The chemical admixtures, which can be added at the cement mill, are divided into the two following main
groups:
¨ grinding aids having mainly a positive effect on the grinding energy
¨ performance modifiers influencing significantly the cement quality, in particular water requirement
and strength development
The first group of admixtures (typically organic compounds based on alcohol and amines) do as
mentioned not really change the engineering properties of cement. The action of the grinding aids is
based on the reduction of the adhesive forces between the cement particles. They may, however,
facilitate the handling of the cement due to the resulting improvement in flowability.
The performance modifiers are of similar nature as the products used in the concrete mix. Such
admixtures are generally based on accelerators and water reducers and thus improve the workability and
strength development of the cement.
Needless to say that the use of chemical admixtures is only worthwile if there is a real benefit with regard
to the economy or performance of the cement to be produced.
4. OPTIMUM PROPORTIONING OF THE CEMENT COMPONENTS
4.1 General
The proportioning will be discussed here mainly from the point of view of cement performance. The
economic aspects, which are of course of primary importance for the proportioning (see chapter 2.5), will
not be dealt with, as they greatly depend on the specific circumstances.
For a given cement performance, the proportioning is basically controlled by the quality of the available
cement components and the selected fineness of the cement and its components. Further limitations are
set by the standards, which specify the permitted contents for the different cement components.
4.2 Clinker and mineral components
Portland cements
In case of the Portland cements, the flexibility in proportioning of clinker and mineral components is
obviously limited. According to the European Norm, up to 5% of mineral component can be added to the
cement, whereas ASTM does virtually not allow the addition of mineral components besides clinker and
gypsum. The focus in the optimisation of the cement properties lies therefore in the determination of the
proper gypsum dosage (see chapter 4.3).
Blended cements
The most critical point of the blended cements in terms of cement performance is the decrease in early
strength. The dosage of mineral components in general purpose applications, where a similar strength
development as for the Portland cement has to be achieved, is therefore limited.
The possible dosages in such applications are the highest for the latent hydraulic mineral components
and go gradually down for the pozzolanic and inert materials. Typical proportioning limits for the main
mineral components in the cement are:
¨ blast furnace slag: 30 - 40%
¨ fly ash (class F): 15 - 30%
¨ natural pozzolan: 15 - 30%
¨ limestone. 10 - 20%
For blended cements used in special applications related to low heat evolution and durability, the early
strength development is not of primary importance and the dosages of the mineral components can be
higher. Some guide values on the proportioning in these applications are given in Table 5. It has, however,
to be mentioned that always specific tests should be carried to verify the compliance with the application
requirements.
Table 5: Guide values for proportioning of mineral components in cements for special applications

Blast furnace slag Fly ash

(class F) Natural pozzolan
Low heat of hydration > 50% > 30% > 30%
Suphate resistance > 70% >30% > 30%
Low chloride permeability* > 60% > 40% > 40%
Avoidance alkali-aggregate reaction > 40% > 25% > 15%

*provided the w/c-ration in concrete is sufficiently low

The actual proportioning of the mineral components in all applications will obviously also depend on the
selected cement fineness and on the permitted contents specified in the respective standards.
4.3 Gypsum
(see also paper on cement hydration)
Portland cements
In Portland cements, the gypsum dosage has to be adjusted to the reactivity of the clinker (i.e. C3A and
alkali content) and the cement fineness to ensure proper set retardation. Further adjustments may be
necessary depending on the obtained grain size distribution and the grinding temperature in the cement
mill.
It is usually assumed that the gypsum dosage for proper set retardation is more or less equivalent to the
one required for best strength development and volume stability of the cement. A practical method to find
the optimum gypsum content is described in the ASTM standard C 563 ("Standard test method for
optimum SO3 in Portland cement"). It is well possible that the SO3 content at the optimum gypsum
content would even be above the maximum value given by the standards.
In case that the Portland cement shows false setting tendency and problems with flowability and storage
stability, the gypsum content should be lowered or part of the gypsum should be replaced by natural
anhydrite. Replacement levels of up to 60% are possible for all type of clinkers without having any
problems with set retardation.
Blended cements
In case of blended cements, the situation gets much more complex and there exists no clear procedure
on how to adjust the gypsum dosage. Studies at HMC have indeed shown that the optimum gypsum
content has to be evaluated for each individual cement type. Nevertheless, the findings indicated that the
optimisation of the gypsum content in blended cement can be a very effective means for the improvement
of the cement quality.
Special attention in the determination of the optimum gypsum content has to be given to cements, which
contain limestone filler. In such cements, it may be possible to reduce the gypsum content, since
limestone acts also as a set retarder.
4.4 Chemical admixtures
Grinding aids are added at the cement mill at dosages, which are generally below 500 g/t. The
determination of the optimum dosage for a specific grinding aid depends mainly on the cement fineness
and the characteristics of the cement mill.
The dosage of the performance modifiers will essentially be determined by the objective for their use. The
main purpose of such admixtures is generally to achieve a desired cement performance or to maintain the
cement quality at a lower clinker content.
5. CEMENT GRINDING
5.1 General
The cement components have to be ground to fine particles, in order to attain the required cementitious
properties. The fineness after grinding is usually characterised by the specific surface area or by the
particle size distribution (PSD). The type of cement mill used can have a considerable effect on the PSD.
During the grinding process with the traditional systems (ball mills), only a small portion of the introduced
energy is consumed for the comminution of the cement particles. A large quantity of heat is set free and
the temperature of ground cement increases appreciably. In the modern grinding systems, less heat is
produced, resulting in lower cement temperature during grinding.
Both, the fineness and the temperature of grinding are principal factors in determining the cement
properties.
5.2 Description of fineness
5.2.1 Specific surface area
The specific surface area of cement is usually determined by the Blaine method. The Blaine value is
calculated from the air permeability of a cement sample compacted under defined conditions. The
resistance to air flow of a bed of compacted cement depends on its specific surface. The Blaine specific
surface is not identical with the true specific surface of the cement, but it gives a relative value which
suffices for practical purposes.
An absolute measurement of the specific surface can be obtained by the nitrogen (or water vapour)
absorption method - BET. In this method, the "internal“ area is also accessible to the nitrogen molecules
and the measured value of the specific surface is therefore considerably higher than that determined by
the air permeability method:

Method Blaine Nitrogen Absorption (BET)

Cement A 2’600 cm2/g 7’900 cm2/g
Cement B 4’150 cm2/g 10’000 cm2/g

The Blaine value can sometimes be misleading, especially in the case of outdoor stored clinker, blended
cements - consisting of a more easily grindable component - and clinkers containing underburnt material
which is easier to grind. The properties of such cements can often be poorer compared to other ground to
the same specific surface.
5.2.2 Particle size distribution
Cements of the same specific surface may have different PSD and different properties. Thus, the specific
surface is not the only fineness criterion determining the properties of a particular cement composition.
The determination of the PSD can be carried out by the following methods:
¨ mechanical sieving (residues on sieves of a definite size (e.g. 32, 45 and 60 mm))
¨ laser and sedigraph (residues over the whole range of particles sizes)
The mechanical sieving is usually applied in the cement plants. Due to the limitations in sieve sizes, this
method does not allow to measure the whole range of particle sizes.
The overall particle size distribution of cement is commonly analysed by means of the theoretical
distribution according to Rosin-Rammler-Sperling (RRS), which is described be the following formula:

ln [ln (100/Rd)] = n [ln (d) - ln (d')]

being:
Rd = % of particles with diameter greater than d (residue)
d = particle size in µm
d' = characteristic diameter in µm (36.8% of the particles greater than d')
n = slope of RRS straight line

The data obtained in the particle size analysis is accordingly plotted in a so-called RRS-diagram (see
Figure 7), having a double logarithmic ordinate (y-axis) and a logarithmic abscissa (x-axis). After linear
regression of the particle size distribution, the slope n of the straight line and the characteristic diameter d'
(at 36.8% residue) can be calculated.
The slope n and diameter d' are the significant values for the particle size distribution. The first
characterises the degree of distribution (wide-narrow), whereas the second one states its location and is
an indicator for the overall fineness. High n values results from a narrow PSD and low d' values from a
high overall fineness.
Differences in the PSD of cement can also be seen in the relation between the traditionally measured
Blaine values and sieve residues. At same sieve residue, the Blaine tends to be lower with higher n
values (see also Figure 8).
Figure 7: Particle size distribution of cement in RRS-diagram

Figure 8: Correlation between Blaine and residue 32 µm for different n values (data FLS)

5.3 Particle size distribution in the different grinding systems

The grinding in the modern cement mills goes together with a narrower PSD of the produced cements.
Due to the more efficient grinding process, less under- and over-size particles are produced, which
obviously leads to a shorter particle range and to higher steepness of the PSD.
The steepness n as expressed by the RRS-distribution ranges from 0.8 for an open circuit ball mill up to
1.2 for the newest grinding systems like vertical mill. Typical n values of cements ground in various
industrial mill systems are indicated in Table 6.
The characteristic diameter d' of commercial cements produced in the different grinding systems varies
typically between 10 and 30 µm. For identical specific surface, the d' values are lower in the systems
which give a narrower PSD, that means that the overall fineness of the cement at same Blaine will be
higher. At same d', the Blaine will be lower when the PSD gets narrower.
Table 6:Typical n values for PSD of cements ground in various industrial mill systems

Mill type
Steepness n of RRS-distribution
Ball mill (open circuit) 0.8 - 0.9
Ball mill (closed circuit) 0.9 - 1.0
Ball mill (high efficiency separator) 1.0 - 1.1
Vertical mill, roller press, Horomill 1.1 - 1.2

As mentioned before, the different PSD of the various grinding systems are also reflected in the
relationship between Blaine and sieve residues (e.g. on 45 µm), which are the usual fineness measures
applied in practice. The corresponding trends observed in the modern grinding systems compared to the
traditional ball mills are as follows:
¨ lower Blaine at same sieve residue or
¨ lower sieve residue at same Blaine
It is important to mention that, in view of certain quality problems experienced with a too narrow PSD, the
actual tendency for the new grinding systems is to adjust the PSD to a somewhat wider distribution.
5.4 Grinding of Portland cements
5.4.1 Influence of Blaine fineness
Since the hydration starts on the surface of the cement particles, it is the specific surface area of Portland
cement that largely determines the rate of hydration and thus the setting and hardening rate. To achieve a
faster hydration and strength development, rapid-hardening cements are ground finer than ordinary
Portland cement. It is common practice to produce cement of various strength classes from one clinker by
altering the fineness to which it is ground. The Blaine value of cement varies between 2’500 cm2/g for
ordinary Portland cement (type I, ASTM) and 5’000 cm2/g for high early strength cement (type III, ASTM).
The rate of hydration is slowed down by the presence of cement gel and if a large quantity of gel is
formed rapidly, because of a large cement surface, the inhibiting action of the gel soon takes place. For
this reason, extra fine grinding is efficient only for the early strength up to 7 days. Moreover, the rate at
which the strength of concrete increases is substantially lower than that of mortar (see Figure 9).
Considering the energy consumption for grinding, the fine grinding is often not economically feasible. In
those cases, where high early strength is not required, fine grinding is of little value (see Figure 10). A
large number of concrete applications are unable to exploit the effects of fine grinding.
The relations between the Blaine fineness of cement and concrete properties can be summarised as
follows:
1) Increasing the fineness of cement, reduces the amount of bleeding in concrete (see Figure 11).
2) Increasing the fineness of cement above 3000, increases somewhat the water requirement of
concrete. Compared to the influences other than cement on the water requirement of concrete, the
influence of cement fineness is considerably smaller.
3) The strength of concrete is influenced by the fineness of cement. The early compressive strength
increases with an increase in cement fineness. The difference in compressive strength due to the
difference in fineness of cement, is considerably smaller at 28 days and at later age (see Figure 9).
4) The fineness of cement influences the drying shrinkage of concrete. When the water content is
increased because of fineness, the drying shrinkage is increased.
Figure 9: Effect of cement fineness on strength of mortar and concrete

Figure 10: Relative specific energy consumption and compressive strength development
Figure 11: Effect of cement fineness on bleeding of concrete (non air-entrained concrete, w/c-ratio =
0.57)

5.4.2 Influence of particle size distribution

The influence of the fineness on the cement properties can be described more precisely, when taking into
account the PSD of the Portland cement. The PSD is of particular importance with respect to workability
and strength development.
The workability of Portland cement and concrete may impair when the PSD becomes narrower (at
constant specific surface). On one hand, the water requirement for a certain consistency tends to
increase and, on the other hand, the faster conversion of aluminate at narrow PSD may lead to early
stiffening problems.
The mentioned stiffening problems may especially occur if clinkers of high reactivity (high C3A and alkali
content) are ground together with the gypsum at low temperatures (little formation of easily soluble
sulphates), as it is the case in the modern grinding systems. With such clinkers, the proper adjustment of
the wideness of the PSD and/or of the calcium sulphate carrier is therefore important.
The effect of the PSD of Portland cement on strength development is not always clear. The general
trends can be summarised in the following way:
¨ The most valuable particles for early strength are the ones between 0 - 8 µm. The Blaine value is
thus a good indicator in this respect, as it is proportional to the portion in this fraction.
¨ The 28 day strength is mainly controlled by the amount of particles in the range between 2 - 24
µm, which is proportional to steepness n of the PSD.
The increase in the steepness n at a given Blaine is accordingly an effective means in improving the
strength potential at 28 days as illustrated in Figure 12. The positive effects of higher n values are,
however, less pronounced on concrete.
Figure 12: 2 day and 28 day compressive strength of Portland cement, as a function of the specific
surface area and the slope of the RRS-distribution of the cement

5.5 Grinding of blended cements

5.5.1 General
The properties of blended cements are decisively influenced by the fineness of the cement and its
components respectively. Blended cements must generally be ground to a higher overall fineness than
Portland cements to maintain a similar strength development.
The grinding behaviour of the different components in blended cements may vary quite significantly as
illustrated in Figure 13. At constant fineness, the softer materials like limestone and natural pozzolan yield
a wider PSD than the clinker and blast furnace slag. Despite its worse grindability, the grain size
distribution of blast furnace slag does, however, not differ too much from the one of clinker. The
mentioned differences in grindability are of great significance in the grinding of blended cements.
Figure 13: Steepness of the RRS-distribution of ground blast furnace slag, clinker, pozzolan and
limestone at same characteristic diameter d' in function of the grindability index

The question to which fineness the components of blended cements shall be ground to obtain optimum
cement properties is often debated. The general concept of HMC is that the hydraulic potential of the
clinker should be used as much as possible by grinding it to a sufficiently high fineness. The mineral
components may be ground coarser, but latent hydraulic and pozzolanic materials must still have a
sufficient fineness to be suitably activated to provide good final strength.
5.5.2 Compound grinding
The compound grinding of clinker, gypsum and mineral component(s) is still the most common practice
for the production of blended cements. The combined grinding with mineral components softer than the
clinker like limestone will widen the grain size distribution of the resulting blended cement, whereas the
mixture of clinker with a harder material like blast furnace slag will give a somewhat steeper PSD than the
ground clinker alone. The different PSD can be explained by the fact that for compound grinding, the
harder material is enriched in the coarser fraction and the softer material in the finer fractions of the
cement.
In compound grinding, the different cement components can accordingly not be ground individually or
independently from each other. For a given grinding system, the fineness of the components is pre-
determined by their respective grindabilities; it is thus not possible to adjust freely their fineness. The
inevitable enrichments of certain components in the fine or coarse fraction of the blended cement are,
however, reduced with the modern grinding technologies.
This lack of flexibility in compound grinding may limit the optimisation of the properties of blended
cements. With soft mineral components, the clinker will always remain rather coarse, in particular at
higher replacement levels, so that its hydraulic potential can not be fully exploited. On the other hand,
there might be an overgrinding of the mineral component like in the case of the natural pozzolans leading
to an increase in water demand.
In case of slag cement, the clinker will get indeed finer and contribute as desired to the strength
development. The slag may, however, not be adequately refined and activated.
5.5.3 Separate grinding
Separate grinding of blended cements gives more flexibility in the design and optimisation of the cement
quality than compound grinding, since it permits free choice of the fineness of the cement components.
Nevertheless, the opinions on the real benefits of separate grinding are still controversial.
In the following, the experience with separate grinding for the most relevant blended cements containing
blast furnace slag, fly ash, natural pozzolan and limestone is discussed.
5.5.3.1 Slag cements
The studies on separate grinding of slag cement revealed that the fineness of the clinker and slag
influence the cement quality in the following way:
¨ the clinker fineness is mainly related to early strength. In cements with low slag content (<30%),
the clinker fineness will also have an impact on final strength
¨ the slag fineness determines mainly the final strength (at very high fineness, also significant
contribution to early strength possible). For good workability of the cements, the PSD of the slag should
not be too narrow.
In separate grinding, it is thus in principle possible to fine tune the strength curve according to the above
relationships. When the grinding energy is kept constant, the observed improvements compared to
intergrinding do, however, not seem to be too significant.
An interesting advantage for separate grinding may be in some cases the activation of the slags through
very fine grinding. Recent studies have shown that at Blaine finesses higher than 4000, there is a
considerable potential to improve the strength development at all ages (see also Figure 14).
Figure 14: Influence of Blaine fineness of slag on compressive strength of ASTM mortar for cement
with 40% slag

5.5.3.2 Fly ash cements

The separate grinding of fly ash cement as such has hardly been investigated. It appears that at constant
grinding energy separate grinding gives certain possibilities to fine tune the final strength development of
the fly ash cement.
Presently the most appropriate solution to produce fly ash cements is to add the fly ash to the separator
of the grinding system. The example in Figure 15 of a cement containing 16% fly ash demonstrates that in
terms of quality and consumption of grinding energy, this seems to be the best solution, also compared to
intergrinding.
Figure 15: Influence of treatment undergone by the fly ash on the strength of cement with 16% fly
ash

5.5.3.3 Pozzolanic cements

Separate grinding of cements with natural pozzolan gives a somewhat higher early strength and lower
final strength than intergrinding at constant energy input. This relationship seems quite logical as in
intergrinding the clinker responsible for the early strength remains rather coarse and the pozzolan
contributing to the final strength is refined.
The studies on separate grinding of pozzolanic cements carried out at Holcim showed a certain potential
to increase the clinker factor at same cement quality, though at the expense of a higher grinding energy. A
typical increase might be in the order of 5% as it is illustrated by the comparison of intergrinding and
separate grinding for a pozzolanic cement from Mexico in Table 7.
Table 7:Comparison of intergrinding and separate grinding for pozzolanic cement from Mexico

Physical and mechanical properties Compound grinding (ball mill) Separate grinding
(ball mill and vertical mill)
Cement
Pozzolan (%) 20 25
Blaine (cm2/g) 4170 4120
n (-) 1.0 x)
R 45 µm (%) 3.3 7.5
Paste ASTM
Water demand (%) 28.3 27.0
Setting time (min.)
- initial 160 145
- final 225 175
Mortar ASTM
w/c-ratio 0.52 0.53
Compressive strength (MPa)
- at 1 day 11.0 11.6
- at 3 days 20.9 20.7
- at 7 days 27.8 26.0
- at 28 days 35.0 34.8

x) Pozzolan: n = 0.95 R 45 µm = 20.9% Blaine = 2170 cm2/g

Clinker/gypsum:n = 0.95 R 45 µm = 3.1% Blaine = 4300 cm2/g
5.5.3.4 Limestone cements
Studies on separately ground limestone showed that the limestone fineness as such has virtually no
influence on the strength development. The PSD of the limestone powder can, however, play a role with
regard to the workability characteristics of the limestone cement: a wide distribution is in this respect more
favourable than a narrow one.
In combined grinding with clinker, the limestone is automatically ground to the favourable wide PSD. This
quite advantageous behaviour in intergrinding, at least at lower limestone dosages (up to 20%) may also
explain the fact that separate grinding of limestone cement to improve cement quality has usually not
been applied in practice.
5.6 Temperature and moisture conditions
The grinding of cement influences the properties of cement not only through an increase in fineness, but
also through the reactions taking place in the cement mill. Depending on the temperature and moisture
conditions prevailing in the mill, dehydration and hydration occur which influence the grinding process,
flowability, lump formation in silos, setting and hardening of cement.
Due to the heat liberated during the grinding process, the temperature in the traditional ball mills rises to
temperatures above 100°C. In the modern grinding systems, the grinding temperatures are significantly
lower (down to 50 - 60°C). In a particular mill, the exit temperature of cement can vary in a wide range, in
function of the inlet temperature of clinker, cooling conditions and fineness of grinding.
The effect of the grinding temperature on the cement properties is mainly related to the dehydration of
gypsum. With increasing temperature, gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O) gets unstable and transforms to
hemihydrate and anyhdrite III under the release of water. The dehydration of the gypsum will not only
depend on the temperature, but also on the time the gypsum is exposed to this temperature (see Figure
16). Another factor of less importance for gypsum dehydration is the humidity in the mill atmosphere (see
Figure 17).
Figure 16: Influence of temperature on the dehydration of gypsum

Figure 17: Influence of humidity on the gypsum dehydration.

According to the degree of dehydration, the gypsum will exert a different influence on the cement
properties (see also paper on cement hydration). If great part of the gypsum is converted to the more
easily soluble hemihydrate and anhydrite III, there may be some problems with false setting in case a
clinker of low reactivity is used. On the other hand, a too low degree of dehydration may lead to flash
setting tendency with reactive clinkers.
The dehydration of the gypsum may also have an impact on the storage stability of the cement. If the
cement enters the silo with a high temperature (80 - 90°C), further water can be released form the still not
dehydrated gypsum and lead to the hydration of the cement. These hydration reactions can cause lump
formation and affect the strength of the cement (see Figures 18 and 19). Clinkers with high C3A and alkali
content are particularly subject to hydration reactions during storage.
Figure 18: Lump formation in a storage sensitive cement after one week storage at various
temperatures

Figure 19: Compressive strength of a storage sensitive cement after one week Storage at various
temperatures

Some measures to ensure the storage stability of the cement are:

¨ low cement temperature in the silo
¨ short storage time
¨ reduction of gypsum content in the cement
¨ substitution of gypsum by natural anhydrite
The storage stability is usually less problematic with the new grinding technologies,where the
temperatures of the cement coming from the miss is generaly low. The cement temperatures in ball mills
can be lowered by cooling the cement during the grinding process (e.g. water injection) or by installing a
cement cooler after the mill. For the cooling by means of water injection, the temperature in the mill
should always be kept above 100°C. Otherwise, prehydration of the cement and strength losses may
occur.
6. LITERATURE
Cement components and cement properties
Gebauer, J., Kristmann, M., The influence of the composition of industrial clinker on cement and concrete
properties, World Cement Technology, March 1979, pp. 46 - 51
Wolter, H., Production, properties and applications of Portland slag cements and blast furnace cements,
Concrete Workshop, Queensland Cement Ltd., 1994
Malhotra, V.M., Ramezanianpour, A.A., Fly ash in concrete, Second edition,CANMET, Ontario, 1994, 307
pp.
Massazza, F., Pozzolana and pozzolanic cements, in: Lea's Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, Fourth
Edition, Arnold, 1998, pp. 471 - 631
Cochet, G, Sorrentino, F., Limestone filled cements: properties and uses, in: Progress in Cement and
Concrete, Volume 4, Mineral admixtures in cement and concrete, ABI, New Delhi, 1993, pp. 266 - 295
Grinding and cement properties
Bapat, J.D., Higher qualities from modern finish grinding processes, International Cement Review,
January 1998, pp. 54 - 56
Montani, S., Influence of grinding on the properties of blended cements, 34th Technical Meeting, Davos,
1996, PT 96/14'096/E
Albeck, J., Kirchner, G., Influence of process technology on the production of market-orientated cements,
Cement-Lime-Gypsum, No. 10, 1993, pp. 615 - 626
Gebauer, J:, Cement grinding and quality problems, 32nd Technical Meeting, Montreux, 1992, VA
92/5972/E
Schiller, B., Ellerbrock, H.-G., The grinding and the properties of cements with several main constituents,
Cement-Lime-Gypsum, No. 7, 1992, pp. 325 - 334
Ellerbrock, H.-G., Deckers, R., Mill temperature and cement properties, dto., No. 1, 1988, pp. 1 - 12
Sprung, S., Kuhlmann, K., Ellerbrock, H.-G., Particle size distribution and properties of cement, dto., Part
I: No. 4, 1985, pp. 169 - 178, Part II: No. 9, 1985, pp. 528 - 534
Sprung, S., Influence of process technology on cement properties, dto., No. 10, 1985, pp. 577 - 585
C06 - Cement Standards

Cement Standards

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Importance of Standards
1.2 Development of Standards
2. CEMENT STANDARDS
2.1 Product Standards
2.2 Significance of Specifications
2.3 Testing Methods
3. INTERNATIONAL CEMENT STANDARDS
3.1 The ASTM Standards
3.2 THE EUROPEAN STANDARD ENV 197-1
3.3 THE AUSTRALIAN STANDARD AS 3972-1991
3.4 Conclusion
4. STANDARDS FOR MINERAL COMPONENTS
5. CONCRETE STANDARDS
5.1 Purpose
5.2 Content of the Standards and Specifications
5.2.1 Quality of the Concrete Components
5.2.2 Quality of Fresh Concrete
5.2.3 Strength of Hardened Concrete
5.2.4 Durability of Concrete
5.3 The European Standard ENV 206
5.3.1 Cement Content and Durability
5.3.2 Chloride Content
5.3.3 Alkali Aggregate Reaction
5.3.4 Maintenance
5.4 Referenced documents
5.4.1 Relevant ASTM Standards for Concrete Components
5.4.2 Relevant EN Standards for Concrete Components

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Importance of Standards
In many of our daily activities we are unconsciously confronted with standards.
When we go to see a football game at 3.30 p.m. we seldom realize that if it really begins at the scheduled
time it is simply because we have standardized our time according to fixed rules. Then, it is up to us to
decide buying an expensive Swiss watch in case we look for a reliable product, proven to keep its
conformity to the time standard long enough.
Many other less trivial examples could be reported to witness to what extent our life is defined and
conditioned by standards of any type (mainly moral...).
We need standards because they are the way we have to fix generally valid and accepted rules to
measure and compare things with one another and so define the relationship between “producer” and
“consumer”.
Producing according to an official standard means then putting on the market a product of well defined,
measurable and recognizable characteristics.
This will positively affect the producer’s position with respect to own customers in terms of reliability,
confidence and commercial relationship and will protect him against unfair competition and undue
complaints.
The consumer is then assured that by using a standardized product he can rely on a market-conforming,
well defined and reasonably constant quality product, that will reflect in a consistent and cost-effective
production.
The designer and contractor will be provided with confidence about the essential material characteristics
they need to design and execute the desired structures.
It is therefore of vital importance that cement and concrete producers be aware of the expected
developments of own standards and, if needed, take the necessary actions to influence development in
the desired direction, be it through either direct or own association’s involvement.
1.2 Development of Standards
Developing a standard is not an easy deal. From previous comments, it should be clear that a product
standard involves both the producer’ and the consumer’s interests and this is not an ideal starting point to
find rapidly an overall agreement on the standard objectives.
On the other hand, standards can meet easy and widespread acceptance only when all parts involved
participated in its development.
Standards shall then be a common elaborate of
· the producer
· the seller
· the consumer
· the designer
· the official testing institute
· the universities or research laboratories
· the government.
They should also be conceived (and periodically revised) taking into account
· the present technical situation of the industry
· the need of progress for the country
· an effective environmental compatibility (energy saving and by-products recycling)
· all technical improvements and economic changes that took place from the last edition
· modified market exigences and demands
· last but not least, the effort to pull down trade barriers in large State federations.
2. CEMENT STANDARDS
2.1 Product Standards
Product standards, which we are mostly interested in, are usually meant to define
¨ the quality of a product, in terms of composition, performance and application (i.e. the European
ENV 197-1 standard on common cements)
¨ the common rules for uniformly testing and assessing the prescribed product quality (i.e. the
associated EN 196 series of testing methods)
¨ the conditions for the use of the product in particular applications (i.e. recommendations for
durability of concrete structures, a.s.o.).
They include classification, composition, specification and compliance criteria. As regards specification,
that is a statement of one or a set of requirements the material shall comply with, they can be
prescriptive- or performance oriented.
The prescriptive specification defines a product according to its composition, the performance
specification defines a product according to its function in application, thus products of different
composition can comply.
It is rather difficult to say which is better. On one hand a performance standard is supposed to be tightly
related to the product’s field performance and should better represent its ability to fulfill the customer’s
expectations and needs. On the other hand, assessing particular properties can involve use of
complicated and time consuming testing methods; sometimes even the correlation between lab testing
and field performance is still to be demonstrated. Then, in many cases, an easy prescriptive standard (i.e.
maximum C3A for sulfate resistance) is preferred.
We should not forget anyway, that some of the specifications for cement rely on performance testing,
such as setting time and strength.
In the case of cement, product specifications take into account
¨ production aspects, as regards raw materials availability, plant design, environmental needs
¨ application aspects, as regards experience of use, available technology, needs of differentiation,
customer expectations
¨ marketing aspects, as regards cost effectiveness of products, principles for fair competition,
appropriate price/quality differentiation
¨ quality aspects, by setting minimum and/or maximum acceptable values for most of the
standardized properties, as a protection against dangerous behaviour of non-conforming products.
Some of the most recent international standards (e.g. ENV 197-1 on common cements) now include also
a chapter on conformity evaluation.
This is a very innovative and clever approach to product standardization, since it introduces statistical
tools to evaluate quality, not simply in terms of fulfilling absolute limit values, that are still considered as
threshold values for conformity, but mainly taking into account the characteristic values, that include
calculation of mean value and standard deviation of the measured property. An example will be given in
the following pages.
After highlighting the merits of standards, we cannot help mentioning their main drawback. Product
standards are capable to depict the present situation and technology only, without being able to forecast,
and open paths for, technical development. This sometimes reflects in a serious hurdle to innovation,
since a real new product will hardly find a corresponding standard to be referred to.
This is a strong argument for those people who are in favour of performance standards, that hinder
technical progress much less than prescriptive ones.
Standardization bodies should therefore find the right balance and make their mind more progress-
oriented, so to walk aside innovation and not run after it.
2.2 Significance of Specifications
We have seen that a specification is a requirement the product shall comply with. But why are these
requirements specified?
The main concern in a cement standard is that the binder has to be used in constructions where safety,
comfort and durability must be safeguarded. Additionally, special applications need special cement
properties that have to be adequately described in specifications.
In the following, a series of examples indicate properties that are specified for cements and also the
inconveniences they must prevent; as mentioned, requirements can be related either to cement
composition or to performance.
· minimum setting time - to prevent early or flash setting of cement, that would excessively shorten
the life time of the fresh and workable blend;
· soundness (Le Chatelier or autoclave test) - maximum expansion is specified to prevent the risk
of cracking in hardened structures;
· maximum SO3 content - same as above;
· maximum C3A content - to limit reactivity to sulfate attack and heat development of cement;
· maximum C3S content - to limit reactivity to pure water attack and heat development of cement;
· maximum heat of hydration - to prevent excessive heat development;
· compressive strength - to guarantee a minimum strength development in properly designed
concretes and cementitious blends;
and so on.
2.3 Testing Methods
Product standards usually deal with the characteristics of a product, making reference to the proper
testing methods to be used for the assessment of these characteristics.
Standards about testing methods aim at defining uniform conditions under which the product is tested.
They fix the product’s testing conditions, in the case of cement if the measurement of the property will be
carried out on
· powder
· paste
· mortar
· concrete;
they define
· scope of testing
· referenced documents
· testing apparatus
· reactants
· calibration of apparatus
· testing procedure
· calculation of results
· reporting
· precision and bias of the method.
As for product specifications, the purpose is to have a common tool to evaluate the product and
reproduce the results obtained by different testers with reasonably narrow deviation. So, a product with a
wide (even transnational) market distribution can be checked in different places with sufficient confidence
on the accuracy and reliability of results.
This is clearly assuming a growing importance in the view of free trade activities, but the most practical
advantage for a plant technologist is to use the same language and the same criteria to identify products
and properties.
Drafting testing methods is usually easier than for product specifications, because it does not involve
commercial and political issues, nevertheless some main principles should be observed. A testing method
should be
¨ reliable (repeatable and reproducible) and meaningful
¨ able to allow easy correlations between results and product characteristics and/or properties
¨ easy to be implemented in any official as well as plant laboratory
¨ as far as possible not hazardous to workers or environment.
Most of the main testing methods for cement are well established standards. If a new property needs to
be measured, then a working group is usually formed and a draft test is issued; the following round-robin
testing will prove the effectiveness of the method to transform it into an official standard.
3. INTERNATIONAL CEMENT STANDARDS
Standards are usually issued on a National basis by the local standardization institute.
Such institutes are ASTM for USA, BSI for UK, DIN for Germany, AFNOR for France, and so on.
Recent formation of large State federations (i.e. the European Community) have brought to a centralized
management of standardization, to make it compatible with the free trade of products among countries.
The European Committee for standards (CEN) has then rapidly become the main technical reference for
all member and affiliated countries in Europe and also in some other areas of the world.
In the context of international standardization of testing methods, even ISO, the International Standards
Organization, has simply and directly adopted some of the new documents developed by CEN technical
Committees.
As a consequence, the trend all over the world is towards a reduction of the number of standards to a
selected minimum, even maintaining some national peculiarities. Therefore we are going to mention here
the cement standards that gained worldwide recognition and application, the ASTM and the EN
specifications, as well as the Australian standard, an example of a very simple and effective way to draft a
technical specification for cement.
People that are interested in a complete compilation of the world cement standards can consult the
publication “Cement Standards of the World”, issued by Cembureau, Brussels.
3.1 The ASTM Standards
ASTM standards are widely adopted not only in the United States of America, but also in many other
countries of Latin America, as well as Asia and Africa.
In the following pages, the specifications contained in the relevant ASTM cement standards are reported
¨ C 150 - “Standard Specification for Portland Cement”
¨ C 595M - “Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements”
¨ C 1157M - “Standard Performance Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements”.
a) Cements defined by C 150 are divided in five different types.
· Type I For use in general concrete construction
· Type II For use when exposed to moderate sulfate action, or where
moderate heat of hydration is required
· Type III For use when high early strength is required
· Type IV For use when low heat of hydration is required
· Type V For use when high sulfate resistance is required
(Types I to III can also be produced as air-entrained cements, when air entrainment is desired; in this
case they bear the suffix “-A”).
Table 1 ASTM C150 - Standard Specification for Portland Cement

Cement type ® I IA II II A III III A IV V

SiO2, min % - 20.0 - - -
Al2O3, max % - 6.0 - - -
Fe2O3, max % - 6.0 - 6.5 -
MgO, max % 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
SO3, max %
when C3A<8%3.0 3.0 3.5 2.3 2.3
when C3A>8%3.5 not applicable 4.5 n.ap. n.ap.
Loss on ignition 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.5 3.0
Insoluble resid. 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75
C3S, max % - - - 35 -
C2S, min % - - - 40 -
C3A, max % - 8 - 7 5
C4AF+C3A, max % - - - - 25
% air in mortar
min - 16 - 16 - 16 - -
max 12 22 12 22 12 22 12 12
Fineness, m²/g
turbidimeter 160 160 160 160 - - 160 160
air permeability 280 280 280 280 - - 280 280
Autoclave exp. 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80
Compr. strength
MPa 1 day - - - - 12.0 10.0 - -
3 days 12.0 10.0 10.0 8.0 24.0 19.0 - 8.0
7 days 19.0 16.0 17.0 14.0 - - 7.0 15.0
28 days - - - - - - 17.0 21.0
Gillmore setting minutes init.set
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
final set 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600
Vicat setting minutes init.set
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
final set 375 375 375 375 375 375 375 375

For special applications, additional chemical and physical requirements are set, e.g.
· Limits on C3A content for cement types III and III A for moderate (<8%) and high (<5%) sulfate
resistance
· limits on the total silicate content (<58%) for types II and II A and heat of hydration for types II, II
A, IV and V for low heat cement
· equivalent Na2O content (<0.6%) for prevention of alkali-aggregate reaction
· 28-day strength when not specified in the main table.
a) b) Provisions for blended cements in C 595 are as follows
· Type IS - Portland Blast-Furnace Slag Cement (slag content 25¸70%)
· Type IP - Portland-Pozzolan Cement (pozzolan content 15¸40%)
· Type P - Portland-Pozzolan Cement with low early strength
· Type S - Slag Cement (slag content > 70%)
· Type I(PM) - Pozzolan-modified Portland Cement (pozzolan content < 15%)
· Type I(SM) - Slag-modified Portland Cement (slag content < 25%)
these types can be MS (moderate sulfate resistent), A (air entrained) or MH (moderate heat of hydration).
Table 2a ASTM C595M - Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cement - Composition

Cement type Clinker

+ gypsum BF slag Pozzolan
/ fly ash
IS (ev. MS, A, MH) 30 - 75 25 - 70
S (ev. A) < 30 > 70
IP (ev. MS, A, MH) 60 - 85 * 15 - 40
P (ev. MS, A, MH) 60 - 85 * 15 - 40
I (PM) (ev. MS, A, MH) > 85 * < 15
I (SM) (ev. MS, A, MH) > 75 < 25

* These cements can be produced by blending pozzolan either with ordinary Portland cement or with an
IS type cement.
Table 2b ASTM C595M - Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cement - Chemical Requirements

Cement type ® I(SM), I(SM)-A,

IS, IS-A S. S-A I(PM), I(PM)-A, P, PA, IP, IP-A
MgO, max % - - 6.0
SO3 , max % 3.0 4.0 4.0
Sulfide sulfur, max % 2.0 2.0 -
Insoluble resid., max % 1.0 1.0 -
Loss on ignit., max % 3.0 4.0 5.0
Water sol. alkali, max % - 0.03 -

Table 2c ASTM C595M - Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cement - Physical Requirements

Cement type
® I(SM) I(PM) IS, IP same with air en. IS(MS)IP(MS) same with air
en. S SA P PA
Autoclave exp. 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80
A. contraction 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20
Vicat setting
minutes initial 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45
hours final 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
% air of mortar 12 19±3 12 19±3 12 19±3 12 19±3
Compr.strength
min. MPA 3 d 13.0 10.0 11.0 9.0 - - - -
7d 20.0 16.0 18.0 14.0 5.0 4.0 11.0 9.0
28 d 25.0 20.0 25.0 20.0 11.0 9.0 21.0 18.0
Heat of hydrat.
kJ/kg max 7d 290 290 290 290 - - 250 250
28 d 330 330 330 330 - - 290 290
Water req. % - - - - - - 64 56
Drying shrink. - - - - - - 0.15 0.15
Mortar expans.
max % 14 d 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
8 weeks 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06
Sulfate resist.
max exp.180 d - - 0.10 0.10 - - - -

a) c) An interesting example of a performance oriented standard is ASTM C 1157M. Here blended

cement are classified according to their performance, with no restrictions on the composition of the
cement or its constituents.
The specified cement types are based on specific requirements for general use (GU), high early strength
(HE), resistance to sulfate attack (MS and HS), heat of hydration (MH and LH), low reactivity with alkali-
reactive aggregates (R).
Table 3 ASTM C1157M - Performance Spec. for Blended Cement

Cement type ® GU HE MS HS MH LH
Autoclave length change, max % 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80
Vicat setting time, minutes
initial 45 45 45 45 45 45
final 420 420 420 420 420 420
% air of mortar to be specified on documents to customer
Compressive strength, min MPa
1 day - 10.0 - - - -
3 days 10.0 17.0 10.0 5.0 5.0 -
7 days 17.0 - 17.0 10.0 10.0 5.0
28 days - - - 17.0 - 17.0
Heat of hydration, max kJ/kg
7 days - - - - 290 250
28 days - - - - - 290
Mortar bar exp. 14 days, max % 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020
Sulfate exp., max % 6 months - - 0.10 0.05 - -
1 year - - - 0.10 - -
Option R, low ASR reactivity
expansion 14 days, max % 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020
expansion 56 days, max % 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060

Optional physical requirements

Early stiffening, final penetration
min % 50 50 50 50 50 50
Compressive strength, min. MPa
28 days 28.0 - 28.0 - 22.0 -

3.2 THE EUROPEAN STANDARD ENV 197-1

This standard was issued in the early 90’s after some 25 years of drafting, with the aim at including in one
and only specification all the cements produced all over Europe. It is clear that the extremely variable
climatic, industrial and economic conditions of the continent were the main reason of the huge diversity of
binders produced and consequently of the very tough job for the members of CEN to reach a reasonable
compromise among member countries.
The ENV 197-1 standard is divided in nine chapters, the most important are
¨ chapter 4 “Constituents”, dealing with cement components; here some main characteristics of the
materials to be used in cement production are set
¨ chapter 5 “Cement types, composition and designation”, where the official names and
abbreviations are described for every type of cement, according to its composition
¨ chapter 6, 7, 8 “Mechanical-, Phisical-, Chemical requirements” setting limits for the main cement
properties
¨ chapter 9 “Conformity Criteria”, dealing with the procedures to apply for the autocontrol testing of
cement and the subsequent evaluation of its conformity to the specifications.
Description of cement components (constituents) in Chapter 4 is very accurate, complete and rigorous,
including additional specifications (Table 5) that define the main component characteristics in order to
assure their performance in cement.
The ENV 197-1 standard recognizes and legitimates the use of some constituents that have a long
tradition of use in many countries, but at the same time are not available in other areas (i.e. natural
pozzolan, fly ash, burnt shale). There is absolute freedom, with the exception of Portland cement clinker
as the only obligatory constituent, in the choice of materials to produce cements according to ENV 197-1,
provided they comply with the requirements of Chapter 4.
This freedom is reflected in Chapter 5 (Table 4), where cement compositions are reported. As many as 25
different types of cements can be produced, using one or more of the indicated constituents.
It is worthwile noting that the relative amounts are in mass-% on the cement nucleus, that is without
considering gypsum (since its amount in cement can vary according to purity and optimum gypsum
content). Then, for each type of cement the industrial composition shall be calculated with the actual
gypsum content.
Mechanical, physical and chemical requirements are listed in Table 6 and 7. A significant difference in the
strength classification is the subdivision of every main strength class into two subclasses, to differentiate
rapid hardening cement from those with normal strength development. This makes the theoretical number
of producible cements as high as 150 (25 types x 6 classes)!
Additionally, the upper limit for 28 day strength is also set. This is somewhat a marketing besides
technical requirement, it has the advantage to force all producers to keep cement strengths (and quality)
within a certain interval and at the same time protects against unfair competition. The drawback is, for
some blended cements (high slag content, mainly), the serious difficulty to comply with both the minimum
2-day and the maximum 28-day strength limit, that is often exceeded.
The last chapter introduces a new criterion to evaluate conformity of cement, based on a continuous
statistical control (autocontrol).
Cements must fulfill
· conformity criteria on single absolute values
· statistical conformity criteria (according to variables or attributes) on characteristic limits.
This means that for the main parameters, cement must conform to a minimum (or maximum) limit value,
as it was previously provided by the standards, and also to a characteristic limit. All results over a six- or
twelve month period are evaluated according to the mean value and standard deviation and calculated to
yield a consumer’s risk lower than 5% (that is the risk that a defective lot is accepted as conforming the
standard) for lower strength limits and 10% for the upper one.
To make it simple, let’s consider the conformity for 28 day strength. According to ENV 197-1, the following
equation shall apply
x - kA s ³ L (lower limit) as well as x + kA s ³ U (upper limit)
where L is the lower (resp. upper) strength limit at 28 days, s is the calculated standard deviation, kA is
the acceptability constant (depending on the number of tested samples).
Now if a cement of mean 28 day strength = 38.0 MPa is produced with s = 2.0 and tested over 110
samples/year (kA = 1.93 for L and 1.53 for U), the conformity equation for a 32.5 MPa characteristic value
will yield a result of
x - kA s = 38.0 - 2.0 x 1.93 = 34.1 MPa, which is higher than 32.5 as well as
x + kA s = 41.1 MPa which is lower than 52.5 then the cement is conforming the standard. But a value of
s = 3.2 will yield
x - kA s = 38.0 - 3.2 x 1.93 = 31.8 which is lower than 32.5; in this case the cement does not fulfill the
standard specification set for minimum late strength.
The following graphs will help to visualize the situation. The first one shows that a “good” cement, with low
strength variability (s = 2) fulfill the requirements with an average 28-day strength of 36.4 MPa, while the
other refers to a “bad” cement (s = 4) and the necessary average strength to fulfill specs is 40.2 MPa (3.8
MPa higher!).
This approach is quite interesting and innovative, because it comes clear from the proposed example,
that a consistent production, with low deviation, can allow for the production of a complying cement with
lower mean strength values, that cannot be sufficient if the deviation is higher, thus forcing to raise the
average strength to higher and more costly levels.
Figure 1 Conformity of a “good” cement (s = 2)

Figure 2 Conformity of a “bad” cement (s = 4)

Table 4 The ENV 197-1 specification on common cements - Cement types and composition

Cement
type Designation Abbrev. Clinker GGBF slag Micro silica Natural pozzol. Industr. pozzol.
Silic. fly ash Calcar. fly ash Burnt shale Limest. Other constit.
I Portland Cement I 95-100 - - - - - - -
 - 0-5
Portland Slag II/A-S 80-94 6-20 - - - - - - -
0-5
Cement II/B-S 65-79 21-35 - - - - - - - 0-5
Portland MS Cem II/A-D 90-94 - 6-10 - - - - -
- 0-5
II/A-P 80-94 - - 6-20 - - - - - 0-5
Portland Pozzol. II/B-P 65-79 - - 21-35 - - - -
- 0-5
Cement II/A-Q 80-94 - - - 6-20 - - - - 0-5
II/B-Q 65-79 - - - 21-35 - - - - 0-5
II II/A-V 80-94 - - - - 6-20 - - - 0-5
Portland Fly Ash II/B-V 65-79 - - - - 21-35 - -
- 0-5
Cement II/A-W 80-94 - - - - - 6-20 - - 0-5
II/B-W 65-79 - - - - - 21-35 - - 0-5
Portland Burnt II/A-T 80-94 - - - - - - 6-20 -
0-5
Shale Cement II/B-T 65-79 - - - - - - 21-35 -
0-5
Portland Limest. II/A-L 80-94 - - - - - - -
6-20 0-5
Cement II/B-L 65-79 - - - - - - - 21-35 0-5
Portland Compos II/A-M 80-94 <--------------------------------------------- 6-20
------------------------------------------------->
Cement II/B-M 65-79 <--------------------------------------------- 21-35
----------------------------------------------->
III/A 35-64 36-65 - - - - - - - 0-5
III Slag Cement III/B 20-34 66-80 - - - - - - -
0-5
III/C 5-19 81-95 - - - - - - - 0-5
IV Pozzolanic IV/A 65-89 - <-------------- 11-35 ---------------> - - -
0-5
Cement IV/B 45-64 - <-------------- 36-55 ---------------> - - - 0-5
V Composite V/A 40-64 18-30 - <--------- 18-30 ----------> - - -
0-5
Cement V/B 20-39 31-50 - <--------- 31-50 ---------> - - - 0-5

Table 5 ENV 197-1 - Requirements for cement constituents

Type of constituent Property Conformity Limit

Clinker sum of silicates C3S + C2S > 2/3 of total
ratio CaO / SiO2 > 2.0 %
MgO content < 5.0 %
Blast Furnace Slag glass content > 2/3 of total
CaO + MgO + SiO2 > 2/3 of total
CaO + MgO / SiO2 > 1.0
Fly ash loss on ignition < 5.0 %
Siliceous fly ashreactive CaO < 5.0 %
reactive SiO2 > 25 %
Calcareous fly ash reactive SiO2 > 5 %
28 d strength of ground material > 10 MPa
expansion on a 30% blend < 10 mm
Pozzolans reactive SiO2 > 25 %
Burnt shale 28 d strength of ground material > 25 MPa
expansion on a 30% blend < 10 mm
Limestone CaCO3 content > 75 %
clay content (methilene blue test) < 1.2 %
total organic carbon (TOC) < 0.2 %

Table 6 ENV 197-1 - Mechanical and Physical Requirements

Strength Compressive strength (N/mm² - MPa) Initial Expans.

class Early strength Standard strength setting (mm)
2 days 7 days 28 days time(min)
32,5 - > 16 > 32,5 < 52,5
32,5 R > 10 - > 60
42,5 > 10 - > 42,5 < 62,5 < 10
42,5 R > 20 -
52,5 > 20 - > 52,5 - > 45
52,5 R > 30 -

Table 7 ENV 197-1 - Chemical Requirements

Property Test refer. Cement type Strength class Requirement

Loss on ignit. EN 196-2 CEM I
CEM III All < 5.0 %
Insol. residue EN 196-2 CEM I
CEM III All < 5.0 %
CEM I
CEM II 32,5 - 32,5 R
42,5 < 3.5 %
Sulfates SO3 EN 196-2 CEM IV
CEM V 42,5 R
52,5 - 52,5 R
< 4.0 %
CEM III All
Chlorides EN 196-21 All All < 0.10 %
Pozzolanicity EN 196-5 CEM IV All positive test

After drafting for common cements, CEN is also preparing new specifications for “special cements”, such
as sulfate resisting and low heat cements. The drafts are in an advanced stage and are likely to be
distributed for approval by member States in 1998.
3.3 THE AUSTRALIAN STANDARD AS 3972-1991
This is a good example of how a standard can be drafted in a simple, clear and effective way.
It consists of two pages only, where reference documents, materials and cements are listed and defined,
as well as requirements, properties and dispatching conditions.
All one need to know is contained in this astonishingly essential document.
Cement types are defined as follows
· type GP - general purpose Portland cement
· type GB - general purpose blended cement
while special purpose cements are
· type HE - high early strength cement
· type LH - low heat cement
· type SR - sulfate resisting cement.
A blended cement should contain more than 5 % of mineral addition (fly ash, BF slag, or both).
Specified properties are compiled in Table 8.
Table 8 AS 3972-1991 - Portland and blended cements

Property
Type Setting time Exp. SO3 Compr. strength Heat hydrat. C3A
min. max. max max minimum MPa max. J/g max
 min h mm % 3d 7d 28 d 7d 28 d %
GP 45 10 5 3.5 - 25 40 - - -
GB 45 10 5 3.5 - 15 30 - - -
HE 45 10 5 3.5 20 30 - - - -
LH 45 10 5 3.5 - 10 30 280 320 -
SR 45 10 5 3.5 - 20 30 - - 5.0

Additional properties such as

· loss on ignition
· fineness or fineness index
· nature and proportion of materials in the cement
· major oxide composition of the cement
· chloride content, if exceeding 0.05 %
can be provided by the manufacturer upon specific request from the purchaser.
3.4 Conclusion
The importance of standards in our technical life and the present situation for cement have been
highlighted. The expected trend for cement standards is represented in table 9.
Table 9 World trends in cement standards

Object Past/present situation Trend

Number of standardized cements Few Increasing number of common and special cements
Mineral components or additions in cement Not allowed in OPC, limited use of blended cements
Allowed in OPC, increased number of blended cements
Strength Compressive and flexural Only compressive str.
Compr. strength limit Minimum strength requir. Min. and max. stength
Age of tests 1, 2, 3, 7, 28 days 2 and 28 days
Standard mortar constant consistency, constant W/C ratioconstant W/C ratio
W/C ratio different in each country 0.5
Setting time initial and final settiong t. initial setting time

4. STANDARDS FOR MINERAL COMPONENTS

Mineral components or additions have always been used in the production of building materials.
In ancient Greece and Rome blends of burnt lime and pozzolan were used for brickworking and building
purposes.
Nowadays the use of mineral additions has improved in quantity and quality.
On one hand the available mineral components are quite extensively evaluated and utilized in cement
manufacture, for production, cost-effectiveness and environmental purposes, on the other hand the
advancement in technology of high performance concrete, in terms of ultra-high early strengths but also
high durability, have benefited by the availability of these materials.
Then the more sophisticated uses of mineral components require adequate standards to describe their
properties and performance in cement and concrete.
As a matter of fact, mineral components (and other mineral additions) can be mainly used as
¨ cement constituents, in the production of blended or Portland modified cements
¨ raw materials in concrete production, as value added products which impart additional
characteristics to the cementitious conglomerate.
Recent standardization has covered both of these aspects, and more is expected in the future.
Requirements set forth by standards dealing with cement production (see as an example Table 7 in
previous chapter) are usually enclosed in the standard itself; they consider aspects of the chemical
composition of mineral components and put sometimes also limits with respect to the hydraulic activity,
the main responsibility on the effectiveness of the addition being left on the cement producer’s shoulders
since he has to comply with the final product requirements.
Standards on materials to be used as main concrete constituents are separate documents. They deal
about the same parameters as for cement production, but they are mainly focussed on the impact that
these characteristics will have on concrete.
Some examples related to mineral components are reported
¨ ASTM C 311 “Sampling and Testing Fly Ash or Natural Pozzolans for Use as a Mineral Admixture
in Portland-Cement Concrete”
¨ EN 450 “Fly Ash for Concrete”
¨ ASTM C 989 “Specification for Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag for Use in Concrete and
Mortar
¨ ASTM C 1240 “Specification for Silica Fume for Use in Hydraulic Cement Concrete and Mortar.
5. CONCRETE STANDARDS
5.1 Purpose
The purpose of the concrete standards and specifications is to regulate the relations between the different
parties involved in the activity of concrete construction.
Besides the interest to regulate the interaction between the different parties, there is a supreme interest of
the society to ensure that the constructions are stable, aesthetic and durable. A typical example are the
antiseismic codes, which, although they lead to more costly structures, prevent enormous losses of
human lives and goods in case of earthquakes compared to structures built in a normal way.
Similarly to cement standards, the responsibility for the emission of the concrete standards varies a lot
from country to country. For instance in Germany and Great Britain, this is the responsibility of the
national standard entity (DIN and British Standards respectively), whereas in the United States and
Switzerland, it is the task of a professional organisation (ACI (American Concrete Institute) and SIA
(Society of Engineers and Architects) respectively). In other countries like Italy, it can also be the
responsibility of the government through the Ministry of public works.
5.2 Content of the Standards and Specifications
It will be referred here exclusively to the aspects of concrete technology within the wider field of codes,
standards and specifications, with a special emphasis on the corresponding prescriptions in use in the
United States (ASTM, ACI) and in Europe (ENV 206).
5.2.1 Quality of the Concrete Components
In general, the concrete standards make reference to the respective standards for each of the ingredients
(cement, aggregates, water, mineral and chemical admixtures). That is to say it is simply indicated that
the components must satisfy the quality requirements established in the mentioned standards. The
relevant ASTM and EN standards for the concrete components cement, admixtures and aggregates are
listed in the annex.
5.2.2 Quality of Fresh Concrete
The following properties of the fresh concrete are specified:
· consistency/workability (always)
· air content (when air is intentionally entrained)
· temperature (in extreme climates)
· density (for light weight or heavy concrete)
· stiffening rate (in extreme climates or for slip forming)
In general, the constructor specifies the consistency of the concrete adequate for the structural element to
be concreted and for the available means of placing and compacting. The concrete producer has to
deliver a material which complies with this consistency within a certain tolerance. For instance the ASTM
standard C 94 for ready-mix concrete prescribes:

Specified Slump Tolerance

< 50 mm ± 15 mm
50-100 mm ± 25 mm
> 100 mm ± 40 mm

With respect to the content of intentionally entrained air, the ACI recommends percentages which depend
on the severity of exposure of the concrete and the maximum aggregate size. A higher severity and a
lower maximum aggregate size correspond to higher percentages of air. The ASTM standard C 94
establishes a tolerance of ± 1.5% for the specified air content.
5.2.3 Strength of Hardened Concrete
The strength is the most important characteristic to be specified for the hardened concrete. In the past, it
was common to specify the mean strength of the concrete, so that, if the average of the results of the
specimens was equal or greater than the specified values, the strength requirement was considered as
fulfilled. Based on this criterion, the following two series were equivalent, since both presented the same
average (30 MPa):
 Series "A": 32, 28, 34, 29, 28, 30, 32, 28, 29, 30
Series "B": 40, 27, 48, 30, 15, 30, 36, 20, 28, 26
At simple view, it results that the series "A" is better than "B", because its values are more uniform (s = 2
MPa against s = 9 of the series "B"). That is to say, although both comply with the specified mean
strength, a structure built with concrete "A" will be safer from the structural point of view than if it is built
with concrete "B", as the latter presents a strength result which is only the half of the specified value.
As already mentioned for cement, standards and specifications take into account the variability of
concrete and apply the criterion of fractiles to specify the concrete strength. The specified strength
corresponds to a fractile related to a certain probability, which means that the designer of the structure
accepts that a certain percentage of the produced concrete is "defective". The allowed percentage of
"defectives" varies according to the country (it has to be mentioned that the percentage has not
necessarily to be related to the safety of the structures):

Percentage p Country
2% Switzerland
5% Europe
10 % United States
20 % United States (massive concrete)

Assuming that the distribution of strength values follows the law of Gauss, the fractile xP is calculated as
xP = xM - zP . s
where zP is a function of the percentage of "defectives" p. We can see that the mean xM as well as the
standard deviation s participate in this criterion, which explains its universal acceptation.
This principle has now to be applied for the design of the concrete mixes. If we have specified a certain
strength that we will denote f'C (which corresponds to the fractile xP for a certain percentage of
"defectives"), we have to design our mix with a certain margin taking into account the expected variability
sE in the production process. That is to say we have to design the mix for a certain mean design strength
f'D which will be equal to:
f'D = f'C + margin = f'C + zP. sE
It is evident that the producer which elaborates the concrete in a more uniform manner (lower sE) will be
able to design his mix for a lower strength and therefore more economically.
5.2.4 Durability of Concrete
The traditional criterion to guarantee the durability of the structures against attack of the environment has
been the establishment of limits with respect to concrete composition. For instance ENV 206 and ACI
code 318 for reinforced concrete establish limits regarding the w/c-ratio of the concrete in function of the
exposure condition to which the structure will be submitted, trying to control concrete permeability to
improve its durability against aggressive agents.
The fundamental problem of such type of specification is that it is often omitted at the moment of ordering
the concrete and anyway its interpretation is unclear (are they mean values, absolute maximums,
fractiles?). Moreover, its compliance is very difficult to verify in practice (how is the w/c-ratio of a concrete
determined?). The same criticism can be made with respect to the project of the European Standards,
where, apart from the maximum w/c-ratio, also a minimum cement content is specified.
A more practical criteria is the one established in the Australian Standards, where, instead of fixing limits
for the concrete composition, a minimum strength is specified according to the type of exposure to which
the structure will be submitted. The advantage of this criterion is that it is more easy to interpret and to
verify its compliance in practice.
5.3 The European Standard ENV 206
Most discussions on concrete standards are concentrated on the issue of concrete durability, and in this
context the specifications on cement content, water cement ratio, chloride content and alkali aggregate
reaction.
The durability aspects are here discussed in connection with the new ENV 206 draft „Concrete.
Performance, production, placing and compliance criteria“, which was issued as a prestandard in 1989.
The development of this standard has a similar history to the EN cement standard; the CEN Committee
TC 94 started work in 1981, and the present draft is far from being the final version. Nevertheless, it is a
good review of the present state of knowledge on the topic, comprising a consensus of expert opinions in
Europe.
ENV 206 should cover concrete in general; for all types of concrete - site, precast and ready mixed
concrete, plain, reinforced and prestressed concrete. For special purposes, however, additional
specifications may be needed, and for these reference is made to the individual national standards. The
standard also makes reference to other European standards as regards types of cements, aggregates,
mineral and chemical admixtures.
5.3.1 Cement Content and Durability
The minimum cement content in steel reinforced concrete is specified according to environmental
conditions and type of concrete structure; it varies between 260 to 300 kg/m3, as shown in tables 10 and
11.
Table 10 Exposure Classes related to Environmental Conditions

Exposure Class Examples of Environmental Conditions

1 Dry environment interior of dwellings or offices 1)
2 Humid
environment a
without frost - interior of buildings where humidity is high (e.g. laundries)
- exterior components
- components in non-aggressive soil and/or water
b
with frost - exterior components exposed to frost
- components in non-aggressive soil and/or water and exposed to frost
- interior components where the humidity is high and exposed to frost
3 Humid environment with frost and de-icing agents interior and exterior components
exposed to frost and de-icing agents
4 Seawater environment a
without frost - components completely or partially submerged in seawater or in the splash zone
- components in saturated salt air (coastal area)
b
with frost - components partially submerged in seawater or in the splash zone and exposed
to frost
- components in saturated salt air and exposed to frost
The following classes may occur alone or in combination with the above classes:
5 Aggressive chemical environment 2) a - slightly aggressive chemical
environment (gas, liquid or solid)
- aggressive industrial atmosphere
b moderately aggressive chemical environment (gas liquid or solid)
c highly aggressive chemical environment (gas, liquid or solid)

1) This exposure class is valid only as long as during construction the structure or some of its
components is not exposed to more severe conditions over a prolonged period of time
2) Chemically aggressive environments are classified in ISO 9690. The following equivalent
exposure conditions may be used:
* Exposure class 5a: ISO classification A1G, A1L, A1S
* Exposure class 5b: ISO classification A2G, A2L, A2S
* Exposure class 5c: ISO classification A3G, A3L, A3S
Table 11 Durability Requirements related to Environmental Exposure

Requirements Exposure Class according to Table 2

1 2a 2b 3 4a 4b 5a 5b 5c1)
Max. w/c ratio for 2)
- plain concrete - 0.70
- reinforced concrete 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.55 0.50 0.55 0.50 0.45
- prestressed concrete 0.60 0.60
Min. cement content 2) in kg/m3 for

- plain concrete 150 200 200 200

- reinforced concrete 260 280 280 300 300 300 280 300 300
- prestressed concrete 300 300 300 300
Min. air content of fresh concrete in % for nominal max aggregate size of 3) 4)
4) 4)
- 32 mm - - 4 4 - 4 - - -
- 16 mm - - 5 5 - 5 - - -
- 8 mm - - 6 6 - 6 - - -
Frost resistant aggregates 6) - - yes yes - yes - - -
Impermeable concrete according to clause 7.3.1.5 - - yes yes yes yes
yes yes yes
Types of cement for plain and reinforced concrete according to EN 197
sulfate resisting cement 5) for sulfate contents
> 500 mg/kg in water
> 3000 mg/kg in soil
These values of w/c ratio and cement content are based on cement where there is long
experience in many countries. However at the time of drafting this pre-standard experience with some
conditions in some countries. Therefore during the life of this pre-standard, particularly for exposure
classes 2b, 3, 4b the choice of the type of cement and its composition should follow the national standard
or regulations valid in the place of use of the concrete. Alternatively the suitability for use of the cements
may be proved by testing the concrete under the intended conditions of use.

Additionally cement CEI may be used generally for prestressed concrete. Other types of cement may be
used if experience with these types is available and the application is allowed by the national standards or
regulations valid in the place of use of the concrete.

1) In addition, the concrete shall be protected against direct contact with the aggressive media by
coatings unless for particular cases such protection is considered unnecessary.
2) For minimum cement content and maximum water/cement ratio laid down in this standard only
cement listed in clause 4.1 shall be taken into account. When pozzolanic or latent hydraulic additions are
added to the mix, national standards or regulations, valid in the place of use of the concrete, may state if
and how the minimum or maximum values respectively are allowed to be modified.
3) With a spacing factor of the entrained air void system < 0.20 mm measured on the hardened
concrete.
4) In cases where the degree of saturation is high for prolonged periods of time. Other values or
measures may apply if the concrete is tested and documented to have adequate frost resistance
according to the national standards or regulations valid in the place of use of the concrete.
5) The sulphate resistance of the cement shall be judged on the basis of national standards or
regulations valid in the place of use of the concrete.
6) Assessed against the national standards or regulations valid in the place of use of the concrete.
These requirements reflect the generally accepted opinion that the durability of steel reinforced concrete
is governed mainly by its porosity and thus strongly affected by the w/c ratio and cement content.
An important feature of the standard is the differentiation of the cement content according to the severity
of its exposure. This allows the concrete producer to use their skills and knowledge in order to design
concrete mixes more economically. A prerequisite of this differentiation is, of course, that information on
the different conditions to which the specific concrete job is subjected is available.
The prescription of cement content and w/c ratio has some problems: It is difficult to determine both of
them in fresh and hardened concrete for control purposes. Furthermore, concrete durability depends not
only on cement content as a w/c ratio, it is affected as well by the care taken in its transport, placing,
compacting and curing. Therefore, it is indispensable that the quality of concrete in the construction after
placing and curing is tested. We know that the porosity of a concrete governs nearly all aspects of
durability. Therefore, investigations are under way to introduce a test method enabling the measurement
of the porosity of the concrete from specimens taken from the hardened concrete structure. It consists of
measuring the amount of gas which flows through the pore system of the concrete specimen in a unity of
time. By so measuring the porosity, not only is care taken by the concrete producer, but also that of the
contractor placing, compacting and curing the concrete is checked.
An alternative way of testing the porosity and additional aspects of the concrete micro-structure is the
microscopical examination of very small specimens. It is very useful for a qualitative inspection of
concrete quality, however, it seems difficult to apply this method for a quantitative assessment in the
framework of a standard.
5.3.2 Chloride Content
The maximum chloride content in concrete permitted in plain, reinforced and prestressed concrete is
shown in table 12.
Table 12 Maximum Chloride Content of Concrete

Concrete C1- by Mass of Cement

Plain concrete 1%
Reinforced concrete 0.4%
Prestressed concrete 0.2%

The relatively high content of chloride permitted in steel reinforced concrete, reflects the results of recent
investigation, which show that no corrosion of steel is expected at a chloride content of 0.4% by mass of
cement. Similar soft limits are prescribed in the ACI standards as shown in table 13.
Table 13 Chloride Content in Concrete, ACI 318-83

Maximum water-soluble chloride ion concentrations in hardened

concrete at an age of 28 days contributed from the ingredients
including water, aggregates, cementitious materials and admixtures
Type of Member Limit
(by mass
of concrete)
Prestressed concrete 0.06
Reinforced concrete exposed to chloride in service 0.15
Reinforced concrete that will be dry or protected from moisture in service 1.00
Other reinforced concrete construction 0.30

5.3.3 Alkali Aggregate Reaction

To prevent deterioration of concrete due to alkali aggregate reaction, it is recommended to apply one or
more of the following measures:
¨ Limit the total alkali content of the concrete mix
¨ Use a cement with a low effective alkali content
¨ Change the aggregates
¨ Limit the degree of saturation of the concrete e.g. by impermeable membranes
Unfortunately no mention is made of the effective measures of using blended cements or mineral
admixtures.
5.3.4 Maintenance
Finally, the author would like to point out one serious deficiency of concrete standards; it is the lack of
specifications on maintenance of concrete. This is becoming recognized as a gap and attempts are being
made to bridge it. Of course this means turning away from the opinion the cement producers have
frequently promoted in the past, that concrete need no maintenance whatsoever.
5.4 Referenced documents
5.4.1 Relevant ASTM Standards for Concrete Components
5.4.1.1 Cement
C 150 Specification for Portland Cement
C 595 Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements
C 1157 Performance Specifications for blended Hydraulic Cements
5.4.1.2 Admixtures
C 260 Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete
C 494 Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
C 618 Specification for Fly Ash and raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as Mineral Admixture in
Portland Cement Concrete
5.4.1.3 Aggregate
C 33 Specification for Concrete Aggregates
C 330 Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for Structural Concrete
C 331 Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for Concrete Masonry Units
C 332 Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for Insulating Concrete
C 637 Specification for Aggregates for Radiation-Shielding Concrete
5.4.2 Relevant EN Standards for Concrete Components
5.4.2.1 Cement
ENV 197-1 Common Cement
ENV 197-X Low-heat Cement
ENV 197-Y Sulfate resisting Cement
5.4.2.2 Admixtures
EN 480 Admixtures for Concrete, Mortar and Grout. Test Methods
EN 934 Admixtures for Concrete, Mortar and Grout
5.4.2.3 Aggregates
EN 932 Tests for General Properties of Aggregates
EN 933 Tests for Geometrical Properties of Aggregates
EN 1097 Tests for Mechanical and Physical Properties of Aggregates
EN 1367 Tests for Thermal and Weathering Properties of Aggregates
EN 1744 Tests for Chemical Properties of Aggregates

C07 - Concrete as a Building Material

CONCRETE AS A BUILDING MATERIAL

1. FUNDAMENTALS OF CONCRETE
1.1 Definition of Concrete
1.2 Constituents
1.2.1 Cement
1.2.2 Aggregates
1.2.3 Water
1.2.4 Cement Paste
1.3 Proportions
1.3.1 Water/Cement Ratio
2. PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
2.1 Properties of Fresh Concrete
2.1.1 Workability and Consistency
2.1.2 Consolidation
2.1.3 Unit Weight
2.2 Properties of Hardened Concrete
2.2.1 Strength
2.2.2 Volume Changes
2.2.3 Watertightness
2.2.4 Durability
3. STEPS IN CONCRETING
4. VERSATILITY OF CONCRETE
5. CONCRETE TERMINOLOGY
6. LITERATURE
7. REVIEWING QUESTIONS

1. FUNDAMENTALS OF CONCRETE
1.1 Definition of Concrete
Concrete is basically a mixture of two parts: mineral aggregates and cement paste.

The paste (cement + water) binds the aggregates (sand + gravel or crushed rock) forming a rocklike mass
after hardening as a result of the chemical reaction of cement and water (called hydration).
In a properly proportioned, well mixed and placed concrete, each aggregate particle is completely coated
with paste. In a good concrete the paste not only coats the surface of the particles, but completely fills the
space between the aggregate particles.
Sometimes, materials other than cement, water and aggregates are added (in small quantities) to the
concrete during mixing in order to modify one or several properties in the fresh or hardened state. These
materials are called admixtures.
The characteristics, performance and serviceability of concrete are a function of the physical and
chemical properties of the ingredients, the manner in which they are proportioned and how they interact
with each other. Properties of each of the mixture ingredients are therefore significant to the quality of the
finished product.
1.2 Constituents
1.2.1 Cement
Cement is a „hydraulic“ binder because it reacts with water in air or under water to form a hard, strong
mass. By this reaction heat is evolved. A number of calcium silicates, calcium aluminates and related
compounds are able to react in this way, and are the active components of commercial hydraulic
cements.
1.2.2 Aggregates
Aggregates are generally divided into two groups: fine and coarse. Fine aggregates consist of natural or
manufactured sand with particle sizes up to 5 mm. Coarse aggregates are those with particles larger than
5 mm. The maximum admissible grain size of the coarse aggregate in concrete depends usually upon the
building process and design of the structural parts of the concrete construction. In most countries the
maximum grain size of the aggregate for reinforced concrete ranges from 25 to 40 mm.
Since aggregates make up about 60 to 75% of the concrete volume, their selection is important.
Aggregates should consist of particles with adequate strength and resistance to exposure conditions and
should not contain materials that will cause deterioration of the concrete. A continuous gradation of
particle sizes is desired for efficient use of the cement paste. In this text, it is assumed that suitable
aggregates are being used.
A concrete that contains only fine aggregates (sand) with a particle size of up to 5 mm is called mortar.
1.2.3 Water
Water has two functions in the concrete mixture: first, it is essential for the hydration process of the
cement; second, it converts cement into a paste and thus acts as lubricant making the concrete workable.
1.2.4 Cement Paste
Cement paste (the mix of cement and water) ordinarily constitutes about 15 to 27% of the total weight of
concrete (Fig. 1). The quality of the concrete depends to a great extent upon the quality of the paste.
Fig. 1 Proportions of Concrete Constituent Materials (by weight)

1.3 Proportions
The proportions of the constituents in concrete can be varied in a certain range. A mix with a cement
content below 10% is called lean mix (see Fig. 1 above).
1.3.1 Water/Cement Ratio
Most desirable properties of fresh and hardened concrete are influenced by the water/cement ratio, i.e.
the ratio of the amount of water to the amount of cement used in the mix. This relationship is expressed in
terms of the ratio of the weight of water (w) to the weight of cement (c):

The less water is used (lower w/c ratio), the better the quality of the hardened concrete - provided that it
can be mixed and compacted properly. Some of the advantages of reducing the w/c ratio are:
¨ Increased compressive and flexural strength
¨ Increased watertightness, lower porosity
¨ Better bond between concrete and reinforcement
¨ Less volume change due to wetting and drying (drying shrinkage)
¨ Increased resistance to weathering (better durability)
¨ Lower water absorption capacity
2. PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
The properties of concrete depend very much on the concrete age. Roughly three stages can be
distinguished:
fresh concrete
workable mass
¯
intermediate stages
(sometimes called „green“ and „young“ concrete)
¯
hardened concrete
artificial stone which has reached the properties required for a specific construction
The transition from fresh to hardened concrete is a continuous process during which the hydration of
cement paste takes place.
Probably the five most important potential properties of concrete are:
¨ Workability
¨ Durability
¨ Resistance to compressive stress (compressive strength)
¨ Ability to protect reinforced steel against corrosion
¨ Versatility
The first property, the workability, allows the fresh concrete to be placed and compacted into forms of any
reasonable shape; the durability, ensures a long life for the hardened mass, the third, fourth and fifth
property form the basis of modern designs combining the compressive strength of concrete with the
tensile strength of steel.
2.1 Properties of Fresh Concrete
2.1.1 Workability and Consistency
The term workability describes the ease of handling, placing and finishing fresh or „plastic“ concrete.
Although subjective by definition, workability has a profound effect on placement, pumpability, segregation
and bleeding of the concrete mixture and, therefore, directly influences economy, strength and durability
of the hardened concrete. Workability encompasses a large number of fresh concrete properties. Usually,
only one, namely consistency, is measured and the results are used as indication of the workability.
Consistency expresses the ability of the fresh concrete to flow. The mix must be of such a consistency
that it will e.g. flow and fill spaces around reinforcing steel or can be pumped. If concrete has the right
consistency, it will not crumble or become too stiff to be workable but will flow firmly. For uniform
consistency and good workability, the concrete should be as homogeneous as possible.
The use of suitable chemical admixtures called plasticizers or water reducers can help modify the flow
properties of concrete and lead to improved plasticity and flowability at the same W/C ratio or to reduced
W/C ratio to obtain the same workability.
2.1.2 Consolidation
Vibration sets into motion the particles in the fresh concrete, reducing friction between them, and giving
the mixture the mobile qualities of a thick fluid. Mechanical vibration permits use of a stiff mixture with a
lower water content.
2.1.3 Unit Weight
Concrete that is normally used in pavements, buildings, and other structures has a unit weight in the
range of 2200 to 2400 kg/m3. The unit weight of concrete varies, depending on the relative density of the
aggregate, the amount of air that is entrapped or purposely entrained, and the water and cement
contents.
2.2 Properties of Hardened Concrete
2.2.1 Strength
Compressive strength, i.e. resistance to compressive stresses, is certainly a primary characteristic of a
good concrete on which the design of most structures (e.g. buildings, bridges, silos, tunnels, etc.) is
based. Flexural or beam strength of concrete is essential for highway and airport pavements.
The strength of concrete is most often measured and specified on the basis of compressive strength.
Principal factors affecting the compressive (as well as flexural and tensile) strength are type and size of
the aggregate as well as the contents of cement and water in the mixture. The strength generally
increases as the water/cement ratio is decreased. With time the strength continues to increase as long as
unhydrated cement is present, provided that the concrete remains saturated with water.
2.2.2 Volume Changes
Hardened concrete changes volume slightly due to changes in temperature, moisture content and
sustained stress. These volume or length changes may range from about 0.01 to 0.08%. Thermal volume
changes of hardened concrete are approximately the same as those of steel.
Concrete kept continually moist will expand slightly. When permitted to dry, concrete will shrink. The
shrinkage depends upon several factors such as amounts of mixing water and aggregate, properties of
the aggregate, size of the specimen, relative humidity and temperature of the environment, method of
curing, degree of hydration, and time.
Concrete under stress will deform elastically. Sustained stress will result in additional deformation called
creep.
2.2.3 Watertightness
Where concrete is exposed to weather or in water-retaining structures, it should be watertight. To achieve
this impermeability, the paste itself must be watertight and the concrete must be free from cracks and
honeycombing. The factors which determine the watertightness of concrete are low w/c ratio, length of
curing period, and adequate consolidation.
2.2.4 Durability
The durability of concrete is defined as the ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion or
process of deterioration caused by nature or man. Durable concrete will retain its original form, quality
and serviceability if exposed to the environment.
There are different types of aggression to concrete:
¨ Freezing and thawing (and deicing chemicals)
¨ Different types of chemical attack (industrial and natural)
¨ Abrasion and erosion
¨ Sea water
¨ Fire
¨ Low temperatures
¨ Nuclear radiation
¨ Natural and man-caused disasters (earthquakes, hurricanes, explosions, etc.)
From the material point of view, the overall durability of concrete is mostly a function of the cement paste
and aggregate properties. Both of these materials must be of adequate quality to ensure acceptable
performance, particularly if the concrete will be exposed to severe climatic conditions or different chemical
attacks.
As in a kitchen, where the quality of the ingredients used in a recipe is of much concern to a cook, but
utmost importance is to be given to the ability to prepare the meal as it should to really make it of
satisfaction to everybody, also in concrete adequate concreting, curing and structure design are, of
course, more important factors than the ingredients themselves. Any high quality material will fail in a poor
concrete. The right way to influence durability is to produce well designed, properly mixed, placed and
compacted concrete. High strength, low porosity, good watertightness yield excellent durability.
3. STEPS IN CONCRETING
The potential qualities of concrete will only be realized if the entire concreting process is carried out
properly. The manufacture of concrete comprises:
¨ Selection of materials
¨ Proportioning of materials (mix design)
¨ Mixing of concrete
¨ Transporting and placing of mix
¨ Compaction in place
¨ Curing, prevention of drying out
¨ Removal of formwork
¨ Quality control and testing
Quality of concrete depends on the following elements:
Table 1 Elements of Quality Concrete

STRENGTH ECONOMY
Quality paste Effective use of materials
- proper cement and water content - large maximum size aggregate
- appropriate cement type - proper aggregate grading
Quality aggregate - proper cement content
- sound particle - accurate yield
- suitable grading and particle shape - proper slump
Quality processing Ease of handling
- proper proportioning - workable mix
- efficient mixing - homogeneous concrete
- sufficient vibration - adequate vibration
- adequate curing Effective operation
- dependable equipment
- effective methods, plant layout and organization
- automatic control

DURABILITY
Resistance to weathering Resistance to wear-mechanical abrasion
- freezing and thawing - wear-resistant aggregate
- wetting and drying - proper cement and water content
- temperature variations - high strength
- suitable aggregate (well graded, structurally stable, large max. size) -
adequate curing
- optimum entrained air - dense concrete
- proper cement and water content - special surface finish
- adequate consistency Resistance to adverse chemical reactions
- homogeneous concrete, workable mix, thorough mixing, proper handling, sufficient compacting
- proper cement type and content
- adequate curing, favorable temperature, min. loss of moisture - homogeneous
concrete
- adequate curing
- stable aggregate
- suitable admixtures

4. VERSATILITY OF CONCRETE
Concrete is the most widely used building material in the world today. We find concrete in all kind of
industrial, public and residential buildings, in underground structures, in transportation structuressuch as
railroads, bridges, pavements and tunnels, in water and sewage treatment systems, power and offshore
stations, dams, a.s.o.
The world production of concrete lies around 2 tons/year per every human being. The reasons for the
wide usage of concrete are not difficult to find -
· the raw materials are in plentiful supply and available almost everywhere
· energy requirement for production is low
· costs are little if compared to other building materials
· a wide range of production and application technologies is available
· its great versatility covers a wide range of performance requirements.
Concrete competes with all major building materials - timber, steel, aluminium, asphalt, rock, plastic,
glass, bricks, ceramics. Will concrete still have such a predominant role in the future? Is this
predominance assured for the years to come? In the following Table 1 a comparison between concrete
and its main competitive materials is reported.
Table 1 Position of concrete versus competitive materials

Application Main competitive material Position of concrete

Buildings, buildings frame steel, timber strong
Roads asphalt, soil weak
Bridges steel, timber strong
Dams soil strong
Partition walls bricks, gypsum weak
Pipelines steel, plastics balanced
Roofs tiles, steel weak
Tunnelssteel, natural stone strong
Skyscrapers steel growing
Offshore structures steel strong
Foundations masonry strong
Sanitary structures plastics, ceramics balanced
Hazardous wastes treatment steel strong

In the following Table 2 a list of the various types of concrete and the different production methods is
compiled.
Table 2 Types of concrete and production methods

Concrete types Production methods

Plain Repair mortar Ready-mixed Pumped
Reinforced Repair concrete Precast Slipforming
Prestressed Flowing fill Site-mixed Underwater
Lightweight Heat resistant Shotcrete Vacuum
High performance Chemical resistant Roller compacted Autoclaved
Fibre-reinforced Coloured Steam cured
Mass Architectural
Mortars

History proves that no single human development remains predominant forever. However, the raw
material reserves for making concrete are assured for many years to come and it is unlikely that some
other material will take over in the foreseeable medium to long term.
Moreover the full potential of concrete as a structural material has not yet been realised; its obvious
drawbacks such as low ductility, low tensile strength and low durability in some harsh environments are a
challenge to concrete technologists to find suitable solutions.
Its capacity to absorb recycled materials and solve the problem raised by the concern of excessive CO2
production will increase his competiotivity against other building materials.
For these and many other reasons, we firmly believe that concrete will keep its predominant role even in
the 21st century.
5. CONCRETE TERMINOLOGY
In the following, a list of the most commonly used terms in concrete technology is compiled.
¨ Fresh concrete - concrete after mixing; it is still workable and can be transported on site and
poured into the mould.
¨ „Green“ concrete - concrete which, after being placed and compacted, has set but only hardened
to a limited extent.
¨ „Young“ concrete - concrete in an intermediate stage between „green“ and hardened concrete;
the material properties of young concrete change rapidly (for example, the strength increases
exponentially) and are already similar to those of hardened concrete.
¨ Hardened concrete - artificial stone which after hydration of the cement with water has reached
the properties required for a specific type of structure.
¨ Mortar - a mixture of cement paste and sand (maximum grain size 5 mm).
¨ Bleeding - autogenous flow of mixing water within, or its discharge from, newly placed concrete or
mortar caused by the settling of solid materials in the mass.
¨ Curing - maintaining moisture and temperature in „green“ and „young“ concrete during a specific
period to assure satisfactory hydration and proper hardening of concrete.
¨ Water/cement ratio - the ratio of cement to aggregate by weight.
¨ Normal weight concrete - concrete having a unit weight in the order of 2000 to 2800 kg/m3 made
with aggregates of normal weight.
¨ Lightweight concrete - concrete having a substantially lower unit weight (max. 2000 kg/m3) than
that made from gravel or crushed stone.
¨ Heavyweight concrete - concrete with exceptionally high unit weight (min. 2800 kg/m3) usually
made with heavyweight aggregates (possible application: radiation shields).
¨ In situ (cast-in-place) concrete - placed directly in the structure.
¨ Precast concrete - concrete cast in a place (e.g. mould at the factory) other than the structure.
¨ Ready-mixed concrete - concrete in fresh and unhardened state for delivery to the purchaser.
¨ Lean concrete - concrete of low cement content.
¨ Rich concrete - concrete of high cement content.
¨ Plain concrete - concrete without reinforcement.
¨ Reinforced concrete - concrete containing steel reinforcement and designed on the assumption
that the two materials act together in resisting forces.
¨ Reinforcement - metal bars, wires or other slender members which are embedded in concrete in
such a manner that the metal and the concrete act together in resisting forces.
¨ Prestressed concrete - concrete into which internal stresses of such magnitude and distribution
are introduced that the tensile stresses resulting from the service loads are counteracted to a desired
degree.
¨ Admixture - ingredient of concrete other than water, aggregates and cement, added just before or
during mixing.
6. LITERATURE
¨ HMC, Technical Center, Materials Division:
Cement Handbook - Materials Technology II
HMC/TC/MA, 1980, Chapter 16 - 18
¨ Deutscher Betonverein:
Beton Handbuch
Deutscher Betonverein E.V., Wiesbaden, 1972
¨ US Dept. of the Interior:
Concrete Manual
US Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, 1975
¨ White, G.R.:
Concrete Technology
Delmar Publishers, Albany, N.Y. 12205, 1977
¨ Shirley, D.E.:
Introduction to concrete
Cement and Concrete Association, Wexham Spring, Slough SL36PL, 1975
7. REVIEWING QUESTIONS
1) What is concrete made of?
2) Explain the functions of the concrete constituents.
3) What is the composition of paste?
4) Explain the water/cement ratio and its influence upon the properties of concrete.
5) Name the most important properties of concrete.
6) Name the three stages of the concrete development.
7) Name the steps in concreting.
8) Explain the difference between concrete and mortar.

C08 - Concrete Main Components

CONCRETE MAIN COMPONENTS

by H. Wolter
Raw Materials and Product Technology
1. MAIN COMPONENTS OF CONCRETE
1.1 Definition of concrete
1.2 Cement
1.3 Aggregates
1.3.1 Aggregates from natural sources
1.3.2 Classification
1.3.3 Chemical properties
1.3.4 Physical properties
1.3.5 The grading
1.3.6 Alternative aggregates
1.4 Admixtures
1.4.1 Workability agents
1.4.2 Air-entraining agents
1.4.3 Agents affecting setting and hardening
1.4.4 Other admixtures
1.5 Mixing and curing water for concrete
1.5.1 Introduction
1.5.2 Effect of impurities
1.5.3 Effects of algae on air content and strength
1.5.4 Curing water
2. LITERATURE FOR ADMIXTURES AND MIXING WATER
3. APPENDICES
3.1 REFERENCES
3.2 Relevant ASTM Standards
3.2.1 Aggregate

1. MAIN COMPONENTS OF CONCRETE

1.1 Definition of concrete

Concrete is a composite material

that consists of aggregate (gravel + sand),

cement and water
and frequently admixtures and/ or additives.

The aggregate consists of a conglomerate of generally different large grains, mostly natural rocks. In
particular cases also of waste wood, polystyrene or metals (waste steel or other).
As binders hydraulic materials are used, generally ordinary Portland cement. In special cases asphaltic
materials or artificial resin will be applied.
Aggregates are generally designated as either fine (sand: 0.025 to app. 5 mm) or coarse (gravel: from
app. 5 to 32 mm or larger). A 'concrete' with sand only is named mortar.
The cement paste coats the particles of aggregate and fills the spaces between them. While fresh, the
cement paste also provides the lubrication that reduces the friction between the aggregate particles and
imparts workability to the fresh mix. When hardened, the paste (now called cement stone) binds together
the particles of aggregate.
The following figure shows the

SYSTEM: Binder + Water + Aggregate = Concrete

General Case
Concrete = Filler + Binder
Special Case
OPC concrete = (Gravel + Sand)
aggregate + OPC paste
Mortar = Sand + OPC paste
OPC paste = OPC + Water

1.2 Cement
The most important component of concrete, the cement, has been treated in detail in a separate chapter.
1.3 Aggregates
1.3.1 Aggregates from natural sources
Definition
Natural aggregates are a mixture of uncrushed and/or crushed rocks and minerals. It consists of particles
of different (or sometimes approx. equal) sizes and are used with a binder (cement) and water to produce
concrete or mortar [1].
General
The mineralogical, physical and chemical characteristics of rocks are determined mainly by the events of
their geological history. A knowledge of the ways in which rocks are formed, and of the various natural
processes (whereby their original characteristics are altered) may therefore lead to a better understanding
of those intrinsic properties which determine the suitability of a rock as a source of concrete aggregate.
Rock classification according to their formation:

¨ Igneous rocks
¨ Sedimentary rocks
¨ Metamorphic rocks

Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are those which are formed by the solidification of molten masses, and many of their
characteristics are determined by the rate and condition of cooling. Extruded volcanic rocks, i.e. those
which have been ejected on the earth's surface, are cooled very rapidly, so that crystallisation of the
component minerals is generally only partly effected, and the resulting rock consists of a mixture of
crystalline ingredients and glassy matter.
On the other hand rocks of the intruded igneous type, i.e. those which are formed from molten rock which
has been intruded into overlying rock masses to form sills (a tabular intrusion of the surrounding rock),
laccoliths (a concordant intrusion that has domed the overlying rocks) and dikes (rock solidification as a
tabular body in a vertical fissure) etc. have been allowed to cool slowly, so that all the several compounds
of the rock mass have had time to become thoroughly crystallised [8, 9].
The igneous rocks are the primary rocks and from these all the other rocks are ultimately derived. The
mineral constituents of igneous rocks have been classified as follows:
Table 1:Minerals of igneous rocks

Feldapatic silicates Free silica

Orthoclase Quartz
Plagioclase Tridymite
Leucite Opal
Ferromagnesian silicates Accessory minerals
Pyroxene Magnetite
Amphibole Ilmenite
Biotite Haematite
Olivine Apatite

Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are derived from the chemical or mechanical breakdown of older rocks. The fragments
resulting from such disintegration accumulate in deposits, for the most part under water, and the particles
may be cemented together by the deposition of other siliceous, calcareous, argillaceous or ferruginous
materials to form a dense mass.
Chemical precipitates are crystalline, but by far the greater proportion of sedimentary rocks are made up
of fragments of all sizes of earlier rocks. As in the case of sand or gravel beds, the fragments may lie
loosely together, or may be firmly cemented as a compact material.
The fragments of the older rocks may be sharply angular, but as they are often transported by wind or by
water or by glacier for considerable distances, attrition may cause them to become smoothly rounded in
their passage to the final deposit.
As a result of their mode of deposition, the structure of sedimentary rocks is almost invariably stratified,
and is essentially different from that of igneous rocks. Glacial deposits or coral reefs are not stratified and
in this respect differs from other rocks of this class.
Due to the geological and climatological changes, sudden radical changes often occur in the nature of the
material being deposited. For this reason limestone are frequently interbedded with shale, sandstone with
siltstones and quartzite with dolomite [3].
Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks are those resulting from the alteration in place of pre-existing sedimentary or igneous
rocks. Such alteration is brought about by the application of high temperatures and/ or pressures to the
rock mass.
A large group of rocks in this class is characterised by foliated structure, which is not to be confused with
the stratification of sedimentary rocks nor with the flow banding of some lava, but which is the result of the
segregation of one or more of the constituents minerals and their reorientation in form of parallel plates.
Metamorphic rocks vary greatly both in structure (the attitude and relative position of the rock masses of
an area) and in texture (the general appearance of a rock, e.g. the size, shape, and arrangement of the
constituent elements). Where the rock has been formed under high temperature and pressure, an
equigranular texture and a massive internal structure results and lend great strength and toughness to the
rock. Such rocks include many hornfelses and quartzites.
1.3.2 Classification
From the petrologic view of point the aggregates, whether crushed or naturally reduced in size, can be
divided into several groups of rocks having common characteristics. The group classification does not
imply suitability of any aggregate for concrete-making: unsuitable material can be found in any group,
although some groups tend to have a better record than others.
Table 2:Classification of natural aggregates according to rock type [4].

Basalt Group Flint Group Gabbro Group

Andesite Chert Basic Diorite
Basalt Flint Basic Gneiss
Basic Porphyrites Hornstone Gabbro
Dolerites Hornblende-rock
Spilite Norite
Serpentine
Granite group Gritstone group Hornfels group
Gneiss Arkose Contact-altered rocks
Granite Greywacke (all kinds except marble)
Granulite Grit
Pegmatite Sandstone
Syenite Tuff

Pophyry Group Limestone group Quartzite group

Aplite Dolomite Ganister
Felsite Limestone Quartzitic sandstone
Granophyre Marble Re-crystallized quartzite
Porphyry
Rhyolite
Trachyte

Schist group
Phyllite
Schist
Slate
All severely shared rocks
Figure 1: Classification according other parameters:

1.3.3 Chemical properties

While it is desirable that the aggregate should as far as possible be chemically inert, many natural
aggregates contain substances which are deleterious in concrete. Substances considered chemically
deleterious may be broadly classified into five groups:
Group 1:
Substances soluble in water, which may be leached out of the aggregate thereby weakening it or
promoting efflorescence in the concrete, e.g. common salt.
Group 2:
Soluble substances, or substances which become soluble in the cement matrix, which may interfere with
the normal hydration of the cement, e.g. humid acid.
Group 3:
Substances which react with the cement destroying its properties, e.g. sodium sulphate.
Group 4:
Substances which may react with the alkali constituents of the cement, e.g. opal (AAR, Alkali-Aggregate
Reaction).
Group 5:
Substances which may cause corrosion of reinforcing steel, e.g. common salt.
1.3.4 Physical properties
Perhaps the most important concept developed from research is that the aggregate must be studied not
only in its relation to the hardened cement paste, i.e. as a component of concrete, but in relation to the
environment of the concrete during its service life. With this concept in mind, the physical properties of
natural stone aggregates may be considered in terms of following factors:
Table 3:Properties of rocks

Various properties Strength Properties

Rock Type Relative
density
[kg/m3] Water Absorption [Vol. %] Compres-sion str.
[MPa] 10%-Crushing value [kN] Modulus of rupture [MPa] Modulus of elasticity [GPa]
Shear
strength
[MPa]
Andesite 2,7 - 2,9 0,4 - 0,5 500 - 540 450 -- 80 - 110--
Basalt 2,8 - 3,0 0,1 - 0,3 190 - 470 340 14 - 24 49 - 98 --
Dolerite 2,8 - 3,1 0,1 - 0,7 160 - 375 180 - 340 14 -24 60 - 105 --
Dolomite 2,7 - 2,9 0,1 - 0,3 200 - 380 130 - 180 -- 100 - 130
--
Felsite -- 0,2 - 1,5 360 - 450 230 - 380 -- 70 - 90 --
Granite 2,6 - 2,8 0,2 - ,5 70 - 325 120 - 220 0 - 20 14 - 70 14 - 30
Hornfels 2,6 - 2,8 -- -- 140 - 260 -- -- --
Limestone 2,6 - 2,9 0,2 - 0,6 20 - 240 180 4 - 15 21 - 71 8 - 21
Marble 2,6 - 2,9 0,2 - 0,6 20 - 240 -- 4 - 24 48 - 96 9 - 45
Quartzite 2,6 - 2,8 0,2 - 0,6 105 - 480 160 - 280 12 - 24 64 - 86 --
Rhyolite 2,6 - 2,8 -- 180 - 530 210 - 290 -- -- --
Sandstone 2,5 - 2,7 0,2 - 0,9 10 - 255 50 - 280 3 - 14 14 - 55 2 - 21
Syenite 2,6 - 2,7 0,4 - 1.5 95 - 445 -- -- 55 - 72 --
Strength
The compressive strength of cubical specimens of natural stone from which acceptable aggregate is
derived, normally varies from about 70 to 400 MPa, while individual results as high as 540 MPa have
been recorded [5].
With a wide range there appears to be only a poor correlation between the compressive strength of the
aggregate and the flexural or compressive strength of the concrete.
As an index of overall quality the "10 % fines aggregate crushing value" or 10 % FACT value of coarse
aggregates is useful (BS 812). However, it must be repeated that the usefulness of these tests is confined
to a general assessment of quality and to the establishment of acceptance limits. New researches by
Davis and Alexander have, however, shown a relationship between the aggregate type and the properties
of concrete [6].
Elasticity
The modulus of Elasticity of concrete depends to a considerable degree on that of the aggregate from
which it is made. The flexural strength of concrete is also depending on this property of the aggregate,
and the use of an aggregate having a high elastic modulus will usually result in a concrete of high flexural
strength, other factors being equal [7].
The drying shrinkage of concrete is reduced by the use of aggregate having a high elastic modulus. Low
shrinkage, induced by the use of rigid aggregates may be undesirable as the restraint provided by the
aggregate increases the cracking tendency of the paste, thereby reducing the durability of the concrete.
It would appear on balance that the reduction in durability resulting from the use of aggregate of high
elastic modulus would in most cases more than offset any advantages which may be gained thereby.
Porosity
Many authorities consider that the size, abundance and continuity of pores in a rock particle are its most
important physical properties. It is considered that the size and nature of the pores affect the physical
strength of the aggregate, and control water absorption and permeability, thereby determining the
durability of the aggregate in regard to freezing and thawing, and its resistance to chemical attack.
It has been previously pointed out that the strength of the aggregate over a wide range cannot be
considered as an important factor. Furthermore, in tropic countries a high resistance of freezing and
thawing is not often an important quality of concrete. This property should, however, be considered where
impermeability or high resistance of chemical attack are important features of the construction. Sandstone
and shale show an average porosity of 18 to 19 %, some limestone types 8 % and quality rocks 1 to 3 %.
Individual results may be much higher [3].
Thermal expansion
In recent years it has come to be appreciated that the deterioration of concrete structures may be
significantly affected by differences between the coefficients of thermal expansion of aggregate and the
cement matrix in which it is embedded. In particular, the use of an aggregate of very low coefficient of
expansion may lead to disintegration of the concrete. As the temperature of concrete, made with such an
aggregate is lowered, the cement paste tends to contract more than the aggregate, with the result that
tensile stresses are set up in the former, which may result in cracking.
Bond characteristics
Perhaps one of the most important attributes of a concrete aggregate is its capacity for bonding strongly
with cement paste. This factor has a significant influence on the flexural strength [7].
In a wider field the word "surface texture" should be replaced by "bond characteristics". The latter term
embraces not only surface texture, but the extent to which cement paste can penetrate into pores are
surface depressions, the angularity of planes of fracture, the friable of the surface, and the presence or
absence of loosely bonded or friable coatings.
The effect of bond characteristics, while sufficiently significant in the medium strength range of mixes,
becomes much more pronounced in the case of high-strength concretes.
Particle shape and surface texture
The shape of aggregate particles in both sand and stone, is one of the most significant factors affecting
the behaviour of a concrete mix. Concrete water demand and water requirement on the design of
concrete mixes, are strongly influenced by the shape of aggregate. Spherical, cubical or chunky shapes
produce concrete having lower water demand than particles that are elongated or flaky.
Surface texture of the grains also affects water demand, although to a lesser extent than shape. Rough
textures increase water demand due to greater surface area and to increase friction and mechanical
interlock of the particles.
It seems that the shape and surface texture of aggregate influence considerably the strength of concrete.
The flexural strength is more affected than the compressive strength Some data of Kaplan's research [7]
are reproduced in the following table, but this gives more than an indication of the type of influence.
Table 4:Effect of aggregate properties

Relative effect of aggregate properties

Property of concrete Shape Surface Texture Modulus of Elasticity
Flexural strength 31 % 26 % 43 %
Compressive strength 22 % 44 % 34 %

Thermal properties
Thermal properties which may be of significance are:

· specific heat (or heat capacity)

· thermal conductivity
· thermal diffusivity

All these properties are significant in the design of radiation shielding for nuclear power plants and in
estimating loads on air-conditioning plant for buildings.
Resistance to abrasion
This is of significance in the choice of aggregate for pavements, industrial floors, channels, conveying
abrasive materials and for certain type of silos.
Soundness
The sulphate soundness test (ASTM, C 88 and SABS 1083) is not highly significant but provides a rough
indication of the durability of an aggregate when subjected to expected environmental conditions. There is
no evidence available to suggest that the mechanism of disruption of the test can be directly correlated
with performance of an aggregate when subjected to these conditions. For this reason it is important that
when an aggregate is to be evaluated on the basis of this test, it should be done by comparison with an
aggregate of similar mineralogical composition and geological history and which has proved to be
satisfactory in practice.
1.3.5 The grading
The grading of an aggregate refers to the distribution of particles of various sizes, and is determined by
passing a representative sample through a series of standard sieves. Concrete aggregates are divided
into two categories of fine aggregate or sand and coarse aggregate or stone. The boundary between
these two is the 4 mm sieve but a fine aggregate may contain a small proportion of oversized particles
and coarse aggregates may have some undersized material and still comply with the definition.
The German standard DIN 1045 sieves for fine and coarse aggregates are:

0.25 - 0.50 - 1.0 - 2.0 - 4.0

8.0 - 16.0 - 31.5 - 63.0 - mm

The sizes of the openings in the consecutive sieves are related by a constant ratio, the clear opening of
each sieve size being twice or nearly twice that of the next smaller size.
Fineness modulus
The grading analysis provides data from which the fineness or coarseness of aggregate can be judged.
The measure of fineness or coarseness is expressed in terms of an index known as the fineness modulus
or FM. This is defined as an empirical factor obtained by adding the total percentages of material retained
on each of the standard sieve sizes, except this amount smaller than 0,25 mm, and dividing the sum by
100. An example is given in the following table:
Table 5:Determination of fineness modulus

Sieve size
[mm] Mass retained on sieve [g] Mass retained on sieve [wt-%] Total retained on sieve [wt-%]*
Total passing on sieve [wt-%]
31,5 <1,0 0,0 0,0 100,0
16,0 1980,0 38,0 38,0 62,0
8,0 1250,9 24,0 62,0 38,0
4,0 781,9 15,0 77,0 23,0
2,0 469,1 9,0 86,0 14,0
1,0 312,7 6,0 92,0 8,0
0,5 156,4 3,0 95,0 5,0
0,25 156,4 3,0 98,0 2,0
< 0,25 104,2 2,0 (100,0) 0,0
Total 5212,0 100,0 548,0 ---
Fineness Modulus FM 5,48

The FM is an index of the material, that is, a measure of the average particle size based on purely
empirical classification. But the index in itself does not describe the grading. The FM indicates whether a
material is fine, medium or coarse. A very fine aggregate grading with a maximum grain size of 31,5 mm
is one having a modulus of 3,30 or less but in general run up to about 4.0. Medium aggregates are those
with FM from 4.0 to 5.0 while coarse aggregates have higher fineness modulus (> 5.5).
Grading of sand
While the grading of a sand has a relatively minor effect on water demand, it has a major influence on the
workability, cohesiveness and bleeding properties of concrete in its plastic state. Experience gained over
many years has shown that the proportions of sand passing the 0.090, 0.125 and 0.25-mm sieves have
the greatest effect on the properties of the mix while the contribution on the remaining fractions is less
significant. Real values are shown in the following table:
Table 6:A guide to sand grading

Sieve Size [mm] Percentage passing

Suggested outer limits Preferred limits *)
4,0 80 - 100 90 - 100
2,8 68 - 100 80 - 100
2,0 55 - 100 75 - 95
1,4 43 - 92 70 - 85
1,0 32 - 85 55 - 70
0,5 16 - 65 40 - 60
0,25 5 - 43 20 - 40
0,125 2 - 22 10 - 20
0,09 0 - 11 3 - 6

*) limits are suggested for pump concrete and for concrete used in sliding formwork
The dramatic increase in surface area as the particle size decrease is illustrated by a few examples. The
effect of grading on concrete behaviour is not constant but depends on the cement content and
workability of the mix. Generally it may be accepted that a lower cement content calls for a finer grading
of the aggregates: in other words, the leaner the mix, the higher should be the proportion of fineness (the
total sum of sand < 0,1 mm plus cement should be approx. 350 kg per m3 concrete).
Table 7:Specific surface of various materials

MATERIAL Specific Surface [m2/kg]

32-mm concrete aggregate 0,07
Average grading (B32) of aggregates 2,7
Average concrete sand 3,5
Silt 35
Ordinary Portland cement 300
Kaolinite 5'000

Blending of sands
The grading of sand has a more pronounced effect on workability than has that of the coarse aggregate.
While sand from a single source may not meet the grading requirements, it is often possible to overcome
this difficulty by using a combination of sands.
In the following table the grading is tabulated for the mixture of aggregates of 67 % of the crusher sand
and 33 % of the pit sand:
Table 8:Grading of mixture of two sands

Sieve size [mm] Percent passing

Crusher Sand
A Pit Sand
B Mixture
67 % A + 33 % B
4,0 82 100 88
2,0 56 100 71
1,0 45 100 63
0,5 33 97 54
0,25 19 58 32
0,125 7 31 15
0,090 3 18 8
FM 3.58 1.14 2.77

A comparison of concrete with crushed aggregates and concrete with rounded aggregates is shown in the
following table:
Table 9:Properties of fresh concrete with crushed aggregates

Fresh concrete
Crushed aggregate has in comparison with rounded aggregate:
· Better stability of stiff concrete after immediate demoulding
· Comparing flowing properties during vibration
· Comparable properties of pumped concrete
· Less bleeding
· Comparable or better concrete surface
· Consistency (on DIN A flow table) less favourable

Table 10: Properties of hardened concrete with crushed aggregates

Hardened concrete
Crushed aggregate has in comparison with rounded aggregate:
· Better flexural strength
· Higher grip resistance
· Less depth of water penetration

Grading of stone
The grading of coarse material has a smaller influence on the workability of a mix than that of the sand
but haphazard grading cannot be permitted where the quality of the concrete is of importance. For this
reason the material is screened into its various size fractions and recombined to conform with specified or
suitable grading requirements. The following figure shows the grading limits according to DIN 1045.
Figure 2: Examples of particle size distribution for different gradings

Gap-graded and continuously-graded concrete

The relative merits of concrete made with gap-graded and continuously-graded stone have been much
debated [10, 11,12]. The technical advantages of each are listed below but, in comparing merits, it must
be stated that economic considerations may outweigh the technical.
Table 11: Properties of gap-graded concrete

Gap-graded concrete [2,12]

compared with continuous-graded concrete
· Less danger of particle interference.
· Grater sensivity of consistence to change in water content. This makes for more accurate control
mixing of water which in turn ensures more consistent strength results.
· Stiffer mixes are more responsive to vibration.

Table 12: Properties of continuously-graded concrete

Continuously-graded concrete
compared with gap-graded concrete
· Wetter mixes are less prone to segregation.
· Less sensitive to slight changes in water content. This is an advantage
where uniform workability is important.
· Improve pumpability especially at higher pressure.
· Improve flexural strength due to the increased surface area of graded stone.

1.3.6 Alternative aggregates

Aggregates from natural sources make up the bulk of the aggregates used in concrete. However, there
are a number of alternative materials which can be used as aggregate and concrete technologists should
be encouraged to explore their potential performance and economy for use in concrete.
Materials used for a greater or lesser extent of natural aggregate are:
¨ Metallurgical slag
Metallurgical slags that have been found suitable for use in concrete include blastfurnace,
ferromanganese, ferro-silicon-manganite, phosphate, chrome, copper and platinum slag [14].
¨ Clinker
Well-burnt furnace residues from furnaces fired with pulverised fuel (BS 1165).
¨ Expanded Clays (shale and slate)
When certain clays or shale are rapidly heated to the point of incipient in fusion, the material softens,
becomes plastic and tends to entrap gases which are generated within its mass. Trade names are:
Haydite, Cel Seal, Aglite, Gravelite. Leca and Güllät.
¨ Sintered fly ash
In one of the manufacturing processes of low-density aggregate from fly ash, the ash is first palletised and
then formed noodles are sintered at 1'000 to 1'200 °C.
¨ Burnt-clay bricks
Burnt-clay aggregate made by crushing broken bricks is being used more and more to some extent in
cast-in-situ concrete, but mainly for making precast concrete panels and concrete masonry units.
¨ Colliery Spoil
In the UK in 1972, two plants were operating on colliery waste and producing an aggregate known as
Aglite. It is an expanded low-density aggregate.
¨ Exfoliated Vermiculite
Vermiculite is the geological name given for a group of micaceous minerals. It has the unique property
that when heated to ground 1'200 °C, the flakes expanded (exfoliated) up to 15 times their original
volume.
¨ Perlite
Perlite and certain other volcanic glasses expand when heated to the point of incipient fusion. Expanded
perlite is usually produced only in sand size. It has a maximum bulk density of 240 kg/m3.
¨ Glass
Waste glass is a potential aggregate for concrete and has been used in precast concrete elements.
Waste glass is susceptible to alkali-aggregate-reaction and may produce concrete with a high expansion
if used in combination with a high alkali content.
¨ Recycled concrete as aggregate
Depletion of normal aggregate sources and waste disposal problems have made concrete reclaimed from
the demolition of concrete structures an attractive proposition as aggregate. Useful data have been
published by Buck [13].
¨ Sawdust and Wood Wool
Concrete made from mixtures of Portland cement and sawdust is generally a rather unreliable material
and its properties cannot be easily predicted.
¨ Expanded polystyrene
Expanded polystyrene beads have a closed cellular structure and can easily be used to produce cellular
concrete. Expanded polystyrene beads are extremely light (density 12 to 16 kg/m3) so that they can
segregate from the mix and are hydrophobic.
¨ Remarks
Some of the alternative aggregates, such as air-cooled metallurgical slag are used merely because they
are more economical than natural aggregates and can be used without detriment. In other cases, certain
technical properties are required (e.g. low density, superior thermal insulation) and for these purposes
aggregates are often "purpose-made" for example low-density aggregates such as bloated clay and
shale, sintered fly ash and exfoliated vermiculite. Many of these materials are only used to make precast
concrete products such as concrete masonry units.
1.4 Admixtures
Admixtures are chemicals which are added in relatively small quantities to the basic constituents of
concrete. The quantity of an admixture is usually measured against the quantity of cement, expressed as
its percentage by mass.
It is convenient to make a distinction between admixtures and additives. Admixtures are used in quantities
of maximum 5 wt-% (usually 0.5 to 2.0%). Additives such as fly ash, or other pozzolanas and blast
furnace slag, are applied in quantities of more than 5% by mass of cement (usually 15 to 35%). Additives
should therefore be considered as additional constituents of the concrete mix.
Admixtures are usually categorised according to their principal uses or according to their primary effects
as follows:

· Improvement of workability of fresh concrete

· Control of setting time and early hardening
· Air-entrainment
· Other effects (stability, high cohesion, colouring, etc.)

The official definition of an admixture according to ASTM C125:

¨ An admixture is a material other than water, aggregates, hydraulic cement, and fibre
reinforcement used as an ingredient of concrete or mortar and added to the batch immediately before or
during its mixing.
This definition encompasses a wide range of materials that are utilised in modern concrete technology.
Subsections of admixtures are:
· Accelerating admixtures
Admixtures that accelerates the setting and early strength development of concrete.
· Air-entraining admixtures
Admixtures that causes the development of a system of microscopic air bubbles in concrete or mortar
during mixing.
· Retarding admixtures
Admixtures that retards the setting of concrete.
· Water-reducing admixtures
Admixtures that either increases the slump of freshly mixed mortar or concrete without, increasing the
water content, or that maintains the slump with a reduced amount of water due to factors other than air
entrainment.
1.4.1 Workability agents
Admixtures in this category are either called

· plasticizers
· superplasticizers
· water-reducing agents
· high range water-reducing agents.

The primary effect of the admixtures is an improvement of workability.

The following diagram shows the different purposes of using plasticizers in a typical concrete mix:

1 constant workability (flow); reduced w/c ratio and increased strength

2 constant w/c ratio and strength; increased workability (flow)
3 mix of both cases
Figure 3:

Admixtures in this group are all based on chemical compounds which affect the forces between solid
particles suspended in water and reduces the surface tension of water. The admixtures contain
surfactants which is being absorb on the surface of the particles. The strength of the adsorption depends
on the type of particle. In case of Portland cement the C3A compound appears to provide the strongest
attraction. The dispersing action is also enhanced by the development of a layer of adsorbed molecules of
the plasticizers which separate the particles of cement; see following figure:
Figure 4:

Flocculated particles of cement before the addition of a super-plasticizer The negative charges of the
'tails' of the molecules of the admixture adsorbed on to the cement particles generate repulsive forces and
disperse the particles

The superplasticizers are broadly classified into four groups, namely:

· SMF: Sulphonated Melamine-Formaldehyde condensate

· SNF: Sulphonated Naphthalene-Formaldehyde condensate
· MLS: Modified Ligno Sulphonates
· Others: Polyacrylates, sulphonic-acid-esters, carbohydrate esters etc. A very new
invention is based on derivatives of maleic acid and vinyl monomers.

Variations exist in each of these classes and some formulations may content a second ingredient.
Ordinary plasticizers
Ordinary plasticizers are mainly based on lignosulphonate salts - a minority use salts of hydroxy-
carboxylic acid. Calcium lignosulphonate and the better water soluble sodium lignosulphonate normally
used as admixtures for concrete. The lignosulphonate molecules are in the form of polymers with
molecular weights varying from approx. 20 to 30'000.
Dosage of lignosulphonate type plasticizers varies between 0.2 to 0.6% of the cement in the mix. The
effectiveness of the lignosulphonate plasticizers depends on the composition of the particular Portland
cement used. Cements with high content of C3A are likely to require increase dosage of admixtures. The
lignosulphonate admixtures appear to be less effective for cements with moderate high cement content
than for mixes with low cement contents, below approx. 270 kg/m3.
Lignosulphonate based plasticizers have the tendency to produce significant side effects, namely:

(1) Air-entrainment
The additional percentage of entrained air which can be generated by normal doses varies between 0.5 to
2.5 vol-% (slump approx. 6 cm, cement content approx. 300 kg/m3).
(2) Retardation
The lignosulphonates themselves interfere with the hydration of cement and cause some retardation. This
effect is more pronounced when the calcium lignosulphonate admixture is used. High dosages of such
admixtures can lead to unacceptable retardation.

The hydroxy-carbolic plasticizers (mostly sodium salts of citric, tatratic, gluconic, and maleic acid) are not
very common, and hydroxylated polymers are rarely found in concrete construction practice.
Overdosing the concrete with an ordinary plasticizer increases workability. The increase in non-linear and
the effect varies with the cement content and the initial workability (slump) of the mix. The following
graphic shows the increase of slump as a function of the dosage of an ordinary Portland cement:
Figure 5:
Influence of the dosage rate of an ordinary lignosulphonate plasticizer on slump
Superplasticizers
Superplasticizers are based mainly on two types of polymers, namely the salts of formaldehyde
naphthalene sulphonate and formaldehyde melamine sulphonate. The term superplasticizer indicates the
much greater potential for increasing workability of concrete without undesirable side effects when
compared to ordinary plasticizers.
The chemical composition of the superplasticizers differ from that of the ordinary plasticizers in that they
do not delay the setting times and hardening of fresh concrete. On the contrary, some acceleration of the
setting and hardening is usually observed. It is not entirely clear if the acceleration is due simply to a
better dispersion of the cement particles or if other processes are also involved.
The accelerating effect of the superplasticizers appears to be primarily responsible for the relatively short
periods of effectiveness of the admixture. Small additions of purified lignosulphonates are sometimes
added to the admixture to moderate the rapid early loss of workability.
The periods of effectiveness of the superplasticizers have been quoted to vary between 15 minutes to 40
minutes. The period of effectiveness of the superplasticizer is usually measured as the time it takes for
the workability of the mix to decrease to the level of the initial slump before the admixtures had been
added.
It has been common practice in the ready-mixed concrete industry to delay the first dose of the
superplasticizing admixture until the time the concrete reaches the delivery point. It is then possible to re-
mix the concrete more than once, each time adding another dose of the superplasticizer and thus
maintaining or even increasing workability without detrimental effect on the properties of hardened
concrete.
The chemical nature of the superplasticizer determines its effectiveness in increasing the workability
(slump, flow table spread, etc.). For e.g. to obtain a slump of about 25 cm from an initial value of 5 cm, it
may be necessary to add 0.6% SMF or MLS-based superplasticizer whereas this could be accomplished
with only 0.4% SNF-based admixture. In the following diagram the loss of workability is shown in a control
concrete (containing no admixtures) compared with that containing MLS (Modified Ligno Sulphonate),
SMF (Sulphonated Melamine-Formaldehyde) and SNF (Sulphonated Naphthalene-Formaldehyde):
Figure 6:

Effect of MLS, SMF and SNF on loss of flow table spread

1.4.2 Air-entraining agents
The air-entraining admixtures are invariably organic substances which helps to generate microscopic
bubbles of air in the fresh concrete. The majority of the commercially available ones are based on
neutralised wood resins (vinsol) in which salts of abietic and pimeric acids are usual active chemical
ingredients. A few air-entrained admixtures are based on the salts of fatty acids or other organic chemical
compounds. It is also possible to use some types of the lignosulphonate based admixtures in higher
dosages to produce simultaneous improvement of workability and generation of air-entrainment.
The technique of air-entrainment was originally developed in the USA primarily to increase the resistance
of concrete to freezing and thawing and to the scaling effects produced by de-icing salts (mostly sodium
or calcium chloride). The entrainment of air in concrete has been defined as the introduction into fresh
concrete of air in controlled amounts and in the form of properly-sized bubbles (preferably within the size
range 0.05 to 0.3 mm diameter).
The entrained air in concrete should be clearly distinguished from accidentally entrapped air. The two
differ in magnitude, amount, and properties of the air bubbles:
¨ Entrained air
This air is intentionally incorporated by means of chemical admixtures, usually between 3 to 7% by
volume and a maximum size of about 0.5 mm; entrained air produces discrete cavities in the cement
paste so that no channels for the passage of water are formed and the permeability of the concrete is not
increased. The voids never become filled with the products of hydration of cement as gel can form only in
water.
¨ Entrapped air
Accidentally incorporated air is called entrapped air. This air usually forms very much larger bubbles,
some as large as the familiar pockmarks on the surface of the concrete. The amount is in general
between 0.5 to 1.5% by volume.
The air-entrained admixtures contain surfactants which are adsorbed on to the surfaces of the cement
grains. As the microscopic bubbles form during mixing of the concrete, they stabilise in their small sizes
and are attracted to the layers of surfactant on the cement particles. A simplified diagram of the cement-
water-air structure is shown in the following:
Figure 7:

A simplified structure of the cement - water - aggregate - entrained air system

in an air-entrained concrete mix
Air entraining agents should be added as solution, dissolved in the mixing of the concrete. If other
admixtures are also used, the air entraining agent should be added separately rather than mixed with the
other admixtures, because sometimes there are reactions between materials that result in a decrease in
the effectiveness of the air entraining agents.
The usual dosage rate of these materials is between 0.3 to 1.0 ml (density £ 1.1 g/cm3) per kg of
cement. This rate is roughly equivalent to 0.01%, solid admixtures substance to cement. The dosage rate
can vary according to the composition of the mix.
Air entraining agents can be used with cements other than Portland. When used with blended cements, a
larger amount of agent may be required to obtain the desired air content of the concrete.
1.4.3 Agents affecting setting and hardening
Accelerators
Accelerators have their primary application in cold weather concreting where they may be used to permit
earlier starting of finishing operations. They reduce the time required for curing, and permit earlier
removal of forms or loading of the concrete. Accelerators cannot be used as antifreeze agents since, at
the allowable dosages, the freezing point will be lowered less than 2 °C.
Accelerating admixtures can be divided in three groups:

(1) Soluble inorganic salts

Most soluble inorganic salts will accelerate the setting and hardening of concrete to some degree; calcium
salts generally being the most effective. Calcium chloride is the most popular choice because it gives
more acceleration at a particular rate of addition than other accelerators and is also reasonably
inexpensive. Admittedly it is very corrosive (as all water soluble chlorides) against the reinforcement of the
concrete and therefore in many countries forbidden or limited at a particular level.
Soluble carbonates, aluminates, fluorides, and ferric salts have quick-setting proper-ties. Sodium
carbonate and sodium aluminate are the most common ingredients of shotcreting admixture formulations
used to promote quick setting. Calcium fluoroalu-minate can be used as admixtures to obtain rapid-
hardening characteristics.
(2) Soluble organic compounds
A variety of organic compound have accelerating properties (although many more act as retarders), but
triethanolamine, calcium formiate, and calcium acetate account for most commercial uses. They are
commonly used in formulations of water-reducing admixtures to offset their retarding action.
Although triethanolamine is listed as an accelerator, recent research shows that its reaction with Portland
cement is rather complex. It can cause retarding or flash set-ting, depending on the amount used.
(3) Miscellaneous solid materials
Solid materials are not often used for accelerating. Addition of calcium aluminate ce-ments cause
Portland cements to set rapidly, but strength development is poor. Con-crete can be "seeded" by adding
fully hydrated cement that has been finely ground during mixing to cause more rapid hydration. Finely
divided carbonates (calcium or magnesium), silicate minerals, and silicas are reported to decrease setting
time.

Retarders
Retarders can be used whenever it is desirable to set off the effects of high temperatures which decrease
setting times. Prolonging the plasticity of fresh concrete can be used to advantage in placing mass
concrete. Successive lifts can be blended together by vibration, with the elimination of cold joints that
would occur if the first lift were to harden before the next were placed.
Retarders can also be used to resist cracking due to form deflection that can occur when horizontal slabs
are placed in sections. Concrete that has set but has acquired little strength is liable to microcrack when
subsequent pouring alters the amount of form deflection. If the plastic period is prolonged, the concrete
can adjust to form deflection without cracking.
The composition of retarders can be divided into several categories, based on their chemical composition:

Lignosulphonic acids and their salts (1)

Hydroxycarboxylic acids and their salts (2)
Sugar and their derivatives (3)
Inorganic salts (4)

It will be noted that categories (1) and (2) also possess water-reducing properties, and these admixtures
can be classified under both groups. Lignosulphonate-based admixtures are prepared from pulp and
paper industrial wastes, and studies have indicated that most of the retarding properties of these
admixtures may be due to compounds that belong to category (2) or (3). Some inorganic salts (borates,
phosphates, and zinc and lead salts) can act as retarders but are not used commercially.
The influence of an admixture on air entrainment should be considered, particularly if the admixture also
has water-reducing properties. Retarders may also increase the rate of loss of workability in fresh
concrete (slump loss), even when abnormal setting behaviour does not occur.
Whenever a retarding admixture is used, some reduction in the 1-day strength of the concrete should be
anticipated. Within 7 days, the strength should approach that of an unretarded concrete unless an
overdose has been used (see following diagram):
Figure 8:

Effect of retarders and accelerators on strength development of concrete

Retarding admixtures have been reported to increase ultimate compressive strength and, to a lesser
extent, flexural strength. Although set-controlling admixtures are reported to increase drying shrinkage
and creep, the effects depend on changes in mix design, time of hydration, and time of drying or loading.
1.4.4 Other admixtures
There are many other types of admixtures that are commercially available. The consumption of these
various materials added together is less than the amount used of any single type so far mentioned. Some
brief discussion of the more important kinds is warranted, however.
Bonding (or polymer) admixtures
Polymer latex emulsions are used to improve the bonding properties of concrete. This can be bonding
between old and new concrete in repair work, or bonding between concrete and other materials, such as
steel.
The brittle nature of concrete is an inherent property of the material and one that is overcome by the use
of reinforcing materials. The very high porosity of concrete is also a disadvantage. Several approaches
have been taken to improve concrete properties, resulting in quite different materials. Three different
kinds of materials are often used:

PIC: Polymer-impregnated concrete

PIC involves filling the capillary pores of hardened concrete with a polymer
LMC: Latex-modified concrete
LMC is made by incorporating a polymer latex with fresh concrete, which im-proves the tensile properties
of concrete.

Corrosion inhibitors
The incorporation of compounds that will prevent or reduce corrosion has been suggested for concretes
in which corrosion of reinforcement can be a problem. Generally, these will be salts that contain an
oxidizable ion, such as nitrites, thiosulphates, benzoates, stannous salts, and ferrous salts.
It is however, doubtful whether the use of inhibitors is really warranted, since they are not considered to
provide protection in the presence of chloride ion, which is precisely the situation in which protection is
desired.
Dampproofing admixtures
The term 'dampproofing' implies prevention of water penetration into dry concrete or the transmission of
water through concrete. No admixture can actually prevent such movement of water, although it may
reduce the rate at which it occurs.
Certain formulations based on salts of fatty acids (soaps) or petroleum products (mineral oils and asphalt
emulsion) may give the concrete a water-repellent effect. Such materials have been used to prevent the
penetration of rain into porous concrete blocks but are not likely to affect the performance of dense, well-
cured concrete.
Expansive Cements
One of the major disadvantages of Portland cement concrete is its high drying shrinkage and its
susceptibility to tensile strength when volume contraction is wholly or partially restrained.
The development of expansive cements dates back about 60 years. Commercial production began in the
US in the late 1960s, although total production remains quite small, about 500'000 tons annually. A
standard specification, ASTM C845-90, covers expansive cements.
All three variants of present-day expansive cements (Type K, M, and S) are based on the formation of
ettringite (hydrated calcium sulphoaluminate) in considerable quantities during the first few days of
hydration. The material from which ettringite is formed differ substantially in each cement, but all require a
source of calcium aluminate and sulphate ions. Expansion has also been achieved by using clinker with
high content of free lime as admixture to cause expansion of a superplasticized concrete mix.
Successful use of expansive cements depends upon proper control of the expansion of the cement during
hydration and is sensitive to a number of variables, for example:
Reinforcement -- Mix design -- Handling and curing
Grouting admixtures
Cement-based grout used for speciality applications such as cementing oil well contain different
admixtures. Flocculating admixtures, thickeners, and mineral admixtures are used to prevent bleeding
and segregation and to increase cohesion and retention of water during pumping. Retarders are
commonly used to extend pumping times.
1.5 Mixing and curing water for concrete
1.5.1 Introduction
The quality of water is important because poor-quality water may affect the time of setting, strength
development, or cause staining. Almost all natural water, fresh water, and water treated for municipal use
are satisfactory as mixing water for concrete if they have no pronounced odour or taste.
Because of this, very little attention is usually given to the water used in concrete, a practice that is in
contrast to the frequent checking of admixture, cement, and aggregate components of the concrete
mixture.
1.5.2 Effect of impurities
A popular criterion as to the suitability of water for mixing concrete is the classical expression:

If water is fit to drink

it is all right for making concrete

This does not appear to be the best basis for evaluation, since water containing small amounts of sugar
or citrate flavouring would be suitable for drinking but not mixing concrete, and, conversely water suitable
for making concrete may not necessarily be fit for drinking.
The most extensive series of tests on the subject "Impurities in mixing water" was conducted by Abrams
(ACI Proceedings, Vol 20, 1924, 442-486). Approximately 6000 mortar and concrete specimens
representing 68 different water samples were tested in this investigation. Among the water tested were
sea and alkali water, bog water, mine and mineral water, and water containing sewage and solutions of
salt. Tests with fresh and distilled water were included for comparative purposes. Some of the more
significant conclusions based on these data are as follows:
The time of setting of Portland cement mixtures containing impure mixing water was about the same as
those observed with clean fresh water with only few exceptions. In most instances, the water giving low
relative compressive strength of concrete caused slow setting.
¨ Non of the waters caused unsoundness of the neat Portland cement paste when tested over
boiling water.
¨ In spite of the wide variation in the origin and type of water used, most of the samples gave good
results in concrete due to the fact that the quantities of injurious impurities present were quite small.
¨ The quality of mixing water is best measured by the ratio of the 28-day concrete or mortar
strength to that of similar mixtures made with pure water. Water giving strength ratios that are below 85%
should be considered unsatisfactory.
¨ Neither odour nor colour is an indication of quality of water for mixing concrete. Water that was
most unpromising in appearance gave good results. Distilled waters gave concrete strength essentially
the same as other fresh waters.
¨ Based on a minimum strength-ratio of 85% as compared to that observed with pure water,
following samples were found to be unsuitable for mixing concrete:
· acid water
· lime soak water from tannery waste
· carbonated mineral water discharged from galvanising plants
· water containing over 3% sodium chloride or sulphate
· water containing sugar or similar compounds

The concentration of total dissolved solids in these waters was over 6'000 ppm except for the highly
carbonated water that contained 2'100 ppm total solids. Very few natural waters other than sea water,
contain more than 5'000 ppm of dissolved solids.
¨ Based on the minimum strength-ratio of 85%, the following waters were found to be suitable for
mixing concrete:
· bog and marsh water
· waters with a maximum concentration of 1% sulphate
· sea water (but nor for reinforced concrete)
· alkali water with a maximum of 0.15% Na2SO4 or NaCl
· water from coal and gypsum mines
· waste water from slaughterhouses, breweries, gas plants,
and paint and soap factories.
1.5.3 Effects of algae on air content and strength
A rather extensive series of laboratory tests showed that the use of water containing algae had the
unusual effect of entraining considerable quantities of air in concrete mixtures with an accompanying
decrease in strength. The data in the following table were based on tests with 19-mm maximum-size
aggregate concrete having a w/c ratio of 0.5 and a slump of 4.0 to 7.5 cm, with a constant ratio of coarse
to fine aggregate:
Table 13:

Algae in mixing water [%] Air in concrete [%] Compr. strength at 28 days [MPa]
none (control mix) 2.2 33.3
0.03 2.6 33.4
0.09 6.0 27.9
0.15 7.9 22.8
0.23 10.6 17.8

In addition to the detrimental effect of strength, one of the important aspects of these data is that
considerable quantities of air can be entrained in concrete by the use of mixing water containing algae.
1.5.4 Curing water
There are two primary considerations with regard to the suitability of water for curing concrete:
¨ One is the possibility that it might contain impurities that would cause staining, and the other
¨ that it might contain aggressive impurities that would be capable of attacking or causing
deterioration of concrete. The latter possibility is unlikely, especially if water satisfactory for use in mixing
concrete is employed.
In some instances the staining or discoloration of the surface of concrete from curing water would not be
objectionable.
The most common cause of staining is usually a relatively high concentration of iron or organic matter in
the water; however, relatively low concentrations of these impurities may cause staining, especially if the
concrete is subjected to prolonged wetting by run off of curing water from portions of the structure.
Test data show that there is no consistent relationship between dissolved iron content and degree of
staining. In some cases, 0.08 ppm of iron resulted in only a slight discoloration and in other cases, waters
with 0.06 ppm of iron gave a moderate rust-coloured stain, while 0.04 ppm produced considerable
brownish-black stain.
2. LITERATURE FOR ADMIXTURES AND MIXING WATER
¨ P. Klinger, J. Lamond: Concrete and Concrete-Making Materials; ASTM, STP 169C, Aug. 1994
¨ P. Bartos: Fresh Concrete, Properties and Tests; Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1992
¨ K. Wesche: Baustoffe für tragende Bauteile, Teil 2: Beton, Mauerwerk; Bauverlag, Wiesbaden,
1992
¨ A. Neville: Properties of Concrete; Longman Scientific & Technical, New York, 1991
¨ B. Addis: Fulton's Concrete Technology: Portland Cement Institute, Midland, South Africa, 1986
¨ S. Mindess: Concrete; Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1981
3. APPENDICES
3.1 REFERENCES

[1] DIN 4226 (1983): Zuschlagstoff für Beton: Deutsches lnstitut für Normung e.v.; Beuth Verlag
GmbH, Berlin
[2] B. Addis et al.: Fulton's Concrete Technology, chapter 3, PCI, Midland, South Africa, 1986; (All
extracts mainly from this paper)
[3] R. Rhoades et al.: Petrographic and mineralogic characteristics of aggregates; ASTM symp. on
Mineral Aggregates, Philadelphia, 1948, p. 20 - 48
[4] British Standard 812 (1967): Mineral, Aggregates, Sand & Fillers, Brit. Stand. House, 2 Park
Street, London, W1Y 4AA
[5] J. Phemister et al.: Roadstone, geol. aspects and phys. tests; London, Dept. of Sc. and And.
Res. Road Spec. Report No. 3,1946
[6] D. Davis, M. Alexander Properties of aggregate in concrete; Hippor Quarries Techn. Publ. (1992),
94 Rivonia Road, Sandton 2199, South Africa
[7] M. Kaplan: The flexural and compressive strength of concrete as affected by the properties of
coarse aggregates; Proc. America Concrete Institute v. 55, May 1959, p. 1193 ff
[8] L. Roberts et al.: Dictionary of Geological Terms; American Geological institute, Anchor Books,
New York (1983)
[9] Webster's New World Dictionary of Amedcan English, Third College Edition, Cleveland, USA
(1988)
[10] L. Mercer et al.: The law of grading for concrete aggregates; Melbourne, Techn. Coll. Press, 1951,
Research Bull. no. 1
[11] V. Barnher Gap-graded concrete; London Cement & Concrete Association, 1952, C & CA Library
Translation no. 42
[12] H. Schäffer Beton mit Ausfallkörnungen; Betonwerk + Fertigteil-Technik, Heft 6/1979
[13] A. D. Buck: Recycled concrete as source of aggregate; Proc. American Concrete Institute, v. 74,
1977, p. 212-219
[14] F. Rossouw: Report on the suitability of some metallurgical slags as aggregate for concrete;
Pretoria, NBRI, 1981, NBRI Special Report Bou 56, p. 1 - 25

3.2 Relevant ASTM Standards

3.2.1 Aggregate

C 33-90Specification for Concrete Aggregates

C 40-84Test for Organic Impurities in Sands for Concrete
C 70-79Test for Surface Moisture in Fine Aggregate
C 88-90Test for Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulphate or Magnesium Sulphate
C 123-90 Test for Lightweight Pieces in Aggregates
C 131-89 Test for Resistance to Degradation of Small-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and
impact the Los Angeles Machine
C 227-87 Test method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Cement-Aggregate Combinations (Mortar-
Bar Method)
C 289-87 Test method for Potential Reactivity of Aggregates (Chemical Method)
C 294-86 Descriptive Nomenclature of Constituents of Natural Mineral Aggregates
C 330-89 Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for Structural Concrete
C331-89 Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for Concrete Masonry Units
C 332-87 Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for Insulating Concrete
C 586-86 Test method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Carbonate Rocks for Concrete Aggregates
(Rock Cylinder Method)
C 637-84 Specification for Aggregates for Radiation-Shielding Concrete
C 638-84 Descriptive Nomenclature of Constituents of Aggregates for Radiation Shielding Concrete
E 11-87 Specification for Wire Cloth Sieves for Testing Purposes

C09 - Fresh and Hardened Concrete

FRESH AND HARDENED CONCRETE

By Horst Wolter, Product Development and Application, HMC
1. GENERAL
2. DEFINITION
2.1 Defintion of concrete
2.2 Composition of concrete
2.3 Green and young concrete, workability and resistance to loading of concrete
2.4 Strength of concrete
3. FRESH CONCRETE
3.1 Workability
3.2 Influence on the Workability
3.2.1 Effect of water
3.2.2 Effect of solid constituents
3.2.3 Effects of admixtures
3.2.4 Effect of temperature
3.3 Other properties of fresh concrete
3.3.1 Bulk density (unit weight)
3.3.2 Air content
3.4 From fresh to hardened concrete - Stages of development of concrete
3.5 Properties of ‘Green’ and ‘Young’ Concrete
4. HARDENED CONCRETE
4.1 General
4.2 Strength
4.3 Deformation under load: modulus of elasticity and creep
4.4 Density (weight of volume unit)
4.5 The durability of concrete
4.5.1 Volume changes
4.5.2 Volume changes due to physical stress
4.5.3 Volume changes due to alterations of the substance
4.6 Thermal properties
4.7 Aesthetic properties
4.8 Acoustic properties
5. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
5.1 Influence of the constituents
5.1.1 Aggregates
5.1.2 Water
5.1.3 Cement
5.2 Influence of mix proportions
5.2.1 Water / Cement ratio
5.2.2 Cement content
5.2.3 Aggregate/Cement ratio
5.3 Influence of handling
5.4 Influences of curing
5.4.1 Moisture
5.4.2 Temperature
5.5 Influences of testing methods
6. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
7. CONCLUSIONS

1. GENERAL

The properties of a building material are of great importance with respect to the function for which the
building was intended. Besides the required load capacity and durability, which are the main conditions, a
building must protect against cold, heat, rain, wind, etc. A comfortable and pleasant living atmosphere
should be created, which cannot be achieved simply by the design of the building or the application of the
specific material, but by the favorable combination of several materials. The correct choice of material,
however, can only be made if everybody involved with the construction has good knowledge of the
material properties.
The properties of building materials such as bricks and steel will remain unchanged throughout the
building process, while the final properties of concrete will only become established after placing. Cement
is only an intermediate product of a building material.
New developments in concrete technology and building technique, based on many years of research,
have made it possible to build such constructions as the 550 m tall TV tower in Toronto, prestressed
concrete bridges with a span of up to 240 m and drilling platforms in the ocean. Flowing concrete has
changed the method of placing. So far, concrete has been able, in most cases, to compete with other
building materials.
All of these constructions and techniques have been made possible by the improvement of cement quality
and on the methods of its application. Should further material requirements arise, would it be possible to
adapt the concrete properties? Can the cement manufacturer contribute? He should at least make an
attempt to meet any new requirements, because each successful concrete construction will favorably
affect the cement production.
On the other hand, the cement manufacturer must be able to defend himself if defects in concrete are
unjustly attributed to the cement. He can only be persuasive if he has thorough knowledge of concrete
properties and concrete technology.
2. DEFINITION
2.1 Defintion of concrete
ACI has defined concrete as follows:
Concrete is a composite material
consisting essentially of a binding medium,
within which particles or fragments of aggregate are embedded.
In Portland cement concrete, the binder is a mixture of Portland cement and water.

2.2 Composition of concrete

Fig. 1: Range of Proportions of materials used in concrete (by weight)
Stages of concrete

The properties of concrete depend very much on its age. Roughly three stages can be distinguished.

Fresh concrete
(a workable mass)
ò
Transition
through intermediate stages
(sometimes called ‘green’ or ‘young’ concrete)
ò
Hardened concrete
(an artificial stone which has reached the required properties for a specific structure)
The transition from fresh to hardened concrete is a continuous process during which it changes from a
workable mass to an artificial stone. The performance of the concrete at certain ages has a great
influence on its applicability, and, therefore, it is of interest to know the concrete properties not only when
placed (fresh) or used (hardened), but sometimes also during the entire development.
2.3 Green and young concrete, workability and resistance to loading of concrete
The concrete is called ‘green’ as soon as it is compacted in the framework until its solidification by setting.
When the concrete turns solid, it is called ‘young’ until it reaches a certain degree of strength permitting
the removal of the form.
For the practical behaviour of concrete in service, its mechanical properties are decisive. Its resistance to
loading is essential in the hardened stage. It is, however, insignificant in fresh concrete where the
workability is of main concern.
Workability is not well defined and, therefore, not directly measurable, because it includes a certain
number of fresh properties. As an example, two definitions of workability from the same country (USA)
follow:
¨ WORKABILITY is that property of freshly mixed concrete or mortar which determines the ease
and homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed and compacted and finished. (ACI definition)
¨ WORKABILITY is that property of concrete which determines the effort required to manipulate a
freshly mixed quantity of concrete with minimum loss of homogeneity. (ASTM definition)
Resistance to loading is the ability of the hardened concrete to bear the service load (dead and live load);
(dead load = constant load in structures due to the mass of the members, the supported structure and
permanent attachments or accessories; live load = any load that is not permanently applied to the
structure).
Resistance to loading can be specified and measured exactly for different types of loads. Usually, it is
expressed as strength.
2.4 Strength of concrete
Strength is defined as maximum resistance to load that a member or structure is capable to develop
before failure occurs. It is measured with reference to the cross section of the structure member.

where: F = applied load

A = cross section on which the load is applied

We distinguish different types of strength according to the type of load exerted:

Compressive, tensile, flexural splitting, shear, torsion adhesive, and impact strength.
The loading resistance of various structural members results from the combination of different types of
strength, according to the actual stresses, and from concrete quality.
3. FRESH CONCRETE
Fresh Concrete is the product that is obtained immediately after mixing the components.
3.1 Workability
The homogenized concrete mix, after it is taken from the mixer, must be suited to be transported to the
destination point and to be placed into the moulds or formwork. The fresh concrete must completely fill
the mould, even if the shape of the elements is very complicated and the interstices between the
reinforcement are very small. A good compaction must be achieved and through all these steps the mix
must remain homogeneous without segregation.
The ability of fresh concrete to meet all these requirements is called workability which includes a number
of more or less defined properties (see following figure).
Fig. 2: Properties of fresh concrete related to workability

The workability influences not only all operations of placing and consolidating fresh concrete but also to a
large extent, the quality of the hardened concrete. A dense concrete must contain a high amount of solid
matter and very few voids filled with water, vapor or air. Very important concrete properties depend on the
density.
Fig. 3: Effect of the workability on fresh and hardened concrete properties

The workability requirements vary from one country to another. They depend on the level of the building
industry, on the quality requirements and on the quality of the available materials. Furthermore, tradition,
economical and subjective factors influence the technical demands.
To characterize the workability of concrete mixes, the following terms are usually used in Central Europe:
Terms for workability:
very stiff
stiff
plastic
soft (wet)
flowing (liquid)
However, those terms are not clearly defined. In England for instance, completely different terms are
used:
¨ Low, medium, and high consistency.
3.2 Influence on the Workability
The workability of concrete is influenced in various ways by its solid and liquid components and
environmental conditions.
3.2.1 Effect of water
The workability is related to the water content that is available for the lubrication of a mix. By increasing
the water content in the mix up to a certain limit, the workability of the mix can be improved, i.e. the mix
will be more wet. If the water content exceeds a certain amount, there is the danger of segregation.
The water content of the mix is expressed in liters or kilograms of water per cubic meter of concrete
(pound per cubic yard).
3.2.2 Effect of solid constituents
Solid matter (aggregate + cement) shows a double effect on the workability:
¨ The shape of the solid grains influences the mobility of concrete in the following manner:
· Coarse particles impede the mobility by their angularity and friction;
· The fine grains, on the other hand, improve it because they act almost like ball-bearings between
the coarse grains. This action is distinctly noticeable when lime or fly ash are added to concrete: their
spherical particles improve concrete consistency.
¨ By absorption of the surface, eventually also by chemical bond, part of the mixing water is fixed.
Only the remaining ‘mobile’ part influences concrete consistency.
The effect of aggregate properties on workability is considerable.

Note:
Grain size distribution, angularity and surface texture of the aggregates significantly affect concrete
consistency.
The effect of cement properties on workability is very small

The effect must be attributed to the water requirement of cement which can be determined with standard
methods on the cement paste. The chemical-mineralogical composition has a stronger influence on the
water requirement than fineness and grain size distribution. Grain size distribution shows only little
variation in industrial cements.
If the amount of cement added to a concrete mix is increased at a constant water content, a stiffening
action is the result because more water is absorbed. If, however, both cement and water are increased,
so that the w/c ratio remains unchanged, the lubricating action of the additional cement paste increases
the fluidity.
Thus, the workability of a given aggregate mix can be improved in two ways: by increasing the water
content only, or by increasing the dosage of both, water and cement. In the first case the quality of
hardened concrete will be inferior; in the second case the quality is maintained but at higher costs.
3.2.3 Effects of admixtures
Some admixtures such as plastifiers, water reducers and superplastifiers, can modify the concrete
consistency even if added in small quantities (see chapter ‘Concrete Main Components’, paragraph 3.).
3.2.4 Effect of temperature
Increased temperature of the concrete and surrounding air contributes towards a stiffer consistency.
Fig. 4: Effect of temperature on the consistency (slump)

The consistency in the above mentioned figure was tested immediately after the mixing of the concretes
according to the same mix design. Only the temperature of the materials (cement + aggregate + water)
and the ambient temperature were changed.
3.3 Other properties of fresh concrete
3.3.1 Bulk density (unit weight)
The unit weight of fresh concrete gives some indication about the final void content which is responsible
for final concrete properties. It is also a measure of the yield; i.e. it indicates the concrete volume
produced with a specific amount of cement. The bulk density is determined by weighing a defined
concrete volume. It depends very much on the water and less on the cement dosage. After compaction,
the unit weight of ordinary concrete should be higher than 2300 kg/m3.
3.3.2 Air content
Ordinary concrete which is well compacted, has an air content of about 0.5 to 1.5%. The measuring of the
air content is important if entrained air is used. Air-entrained concrete is produced by using either an air-
entrained cement or an air-entraining admixture during the mixing of concrete. Air-entrained concrete
contains 3 to 7 Vol. % pores. - Entrained air improves the workability of fresh concrete.
3.4 From fresh to hardened concrete - Stages of development of concrete
‘Green’ and ‘young’ concrete are the terms for specific intermediary stages during the transition of
concrete from a workable, more or less plastic mass, to an artificial stone.
With the development of modern concrete technology and building methods, the properties of concrete at
these intermediate stages have become important as well. The continuous development of hardened
concrete is a sequence of periods of:
Concrete is a process:
Stiffening ® Setting ® Hardening
These periods are characterized by different growth rates of the various mechanical properties of the
concrete (see following figure).
Fig. 5: Stages of development of concrete

Stiffening
of concrete is a change in the workability (sometimes also called slump loss) and begins immediately
after mixing, sometimes even during mixing.
This can have unfavourable consequences if fresh concrete is not placed properly after mixing, or,
especially if ready mix concrete is used, in precast manufacturing, or on large building sites and placing
has to be delayed.
Concrete should be placed as soon as possible after mixing, but often there may be a time lapse of up to
one hour or even more between mixing and placing. In these cases, too rapid stiffening can impede
placing.
The time during which concrete is still workable - at the right consistency - is very important for
transporting and placing.
This time depends on the purpose for which concrete is used and on the method of placing.
Setting
is the beginning of the hydration process and is indicated by the transition from the plastic to the solid
state within a relatively short period of time.
The resistance against deformation during setting increases rapidly, strength less rapidly.
Note:
The time of setting of concrete is not identical with that of cement measured on paste according to
standards.
The reason is that the setting of concrete is influenced not only by the setting behavior of the cement, but
also by varying cement and water contents, by temperature and type of construction.
Until setting, deformations of concrete are almost totally irreversible; the elastic part of deformations
becomes predominant only after setting.
Hardening
is the subsequent improvement of mechanical properties of concrete after setting. Soon after setting, the
strength begins to increase more rapidly than the elasticity (Young-modulus). The rate of increase
reaches its maximum between 5 and 20 hours after the addition of water.
3.5 Properties of ‘Green’ and ‘Young’ Concrete
Green concrete:
The mechanical properties of green concrete are important in practice, especially in the precast industry,
where blocks, tubes and other concrete products are moulded by pressing. The moulded pieces have to
be removed from the press as soon as possible in order to make room for the next series. However, this
is only possible if the cohesion of the concrete is high enough, even before setting, to bear its own weight
without deformation. Sometimes the moulded pieces (e.g. blocks) are stored in several layers. In this
case, the strength after demoulding will have to be higher, so as to carry the whole load.
Young concrete:
Since young concrete at early age very often has to support a mechanical stress, it must have a minimum
strength. Thus, the strength at this stage (after some hours) is decisive in the precast industry, where it
determines the intervals at which precast elements can be demoulded, transported and piled up. It is also
important in other building processes, for instance with prestressed concrete. The strength requirements
vary according to the size and shape of the concrete element and the building method.
Early strength:
The compressive strength during the first few hours after placing is called early strength.
It must reach approx. 10 to 20 MPa for demoulding in reinforced concrete and
35 MPa for the release of the prestressing wires in the pretensioned, prestressed concrete.
4. HARDENED CONCRETE
4.1 General
Hardened concrete is the final building material as it is obtained after stiffening, setting and hardening of
fresh concrete. Hardening, however, continues for many years, slowing down after a certain strength has
been reached. Therefore, it is generally accepted to consider the properties of hardened concrete at the
age of 28 days as characteristic. They are commonly used for the design of concrete structures.
Hardened concrete must meet various requirements and maintain its properties during a very long time.
Most important are the load-bearing properties and the durability of concrete.
The resistance to loading of concrete depends on its strength. But a building can never be loaded to the
strength limit. Structural members are designed in such a way that the calculated stresses in concrete do
not exceed certain permissible working values. According to the function of the building, other special
requirements may be of importance.
A large variety of concrete properties can be obtained by the choice of the components and the mix
design. However, the nature of concrete, the availability of the materials and economical considerations
limit these possibilities.
4.2 Strength
According to the type and direction of load and stress, various types of strength react in concrete:
¨ Compressive strength:
Compressive strength is the most important characteristic of hardened concrete. High compressive
strength is, in most cases, accompanied also by an improvement of the other properties. compressive
strength determinations show the best reproducibility. Therefore, compressive strength is considered as a
general measure of concrete quality.
The compressive strength of commonly used concrete after 28 days is in the range of 10 to 70 N/mm2.
The low values (~ 10 to 20 N/mm2) are used for plain concrete, the medium values (~ 20 to 45 N/mm2)
for reinforced concrete and the high values (~ 50 to 70 N/mm2) for prestressed concrete and precast
elements.
¨ Tensile strength:
Tensile strength is relatively low and amount to only approx. 1/10 of the compressive strength of hardened
concrete. Because the tensile strength is low, it is practically not taken into consideration for structural
design. Tensile stresses in the construction are carried by steel reinforcements.
¨ Flexural strength:
It is difficult to determine the tensile strength of concrete and therefore bending or flexural strength is
measured.
¨ Impact strength;
Impact strength plays a significant role in special applications, e.g. for piles to be driven into the ground.
4.3 Deformation under load: modulus of elasticity and creep
Even momentary loads cause deformation of concrete. If they exceed certain limits, there is a risk of
cracking.
Note:
Concrete is a plastic-elastic material
Its deformation is always composed of the two components: elastic and plastic.
The elastic deformation disappears when the load is removed, the plastic deformation remains.

In hardened concrete, the main part of deformation is elastic.

A quantitative measure of elasticity is the ratio between stress and corresponding strain. This ratio is
termed modulus of elasticity E (Young modulus = initial tangent modulus).

The modulus of elasticity may be measured in tension, compression or shear. The modulus in tension is
usually equal to the modulus in compression and is frequently referred to as Young Modulus of elasticity
(Table).
Table 1: Modulus of Elasticity of Different Building Materials

MaterialModulus of elasticity [GPa]

Steel 200 to 230
Aluminium 74
Copper 130
Natural stone 12 to 80
Concrete 20 to 50
Mortar 5 to 20
Timber 6 to 15

Due to the fact that concrete is neither ideally plastic nor ideally elastic material, the manner in which its
modulus of elasticity is defined is somewhat arbitrary. Various forms of the modulus, which are used, are
illustrated on the stress-strain curve in following diagram:
Fig. 6: Typical stress-strain curve for concrete

It also has to be distinguished between the ‘dynamic E-modulus’ and the ‘static E-modulus’. The dynamic
E-modulus is applied when concrete is exposed to oscillation. It can be calculated, for instance, from the
rate of propagation of ultrasonic impulses and is a measure for the progression of deformation resistance.
Using certain formulas, the compressive strength can be estimated from these results.
Creep:
Plastic deformation becomes more pronounced with longtime loading. The irreversible deformation by
longtime loading is called creep.
Definition of plastic deformation:
The modulus of deformation is the ratio between the applied load and the irreversible deformation,
expressed as function of time.
The creep is strongly influenced by the stress/strength ratio. With higher stress/strength ratio the creep
increases. It also depends on other factors, such as temperature, humidity, etc. Creep attains approx.
1.5‰ per 1 MPa load during 1 year. Besides being a disadvantage, creep is also useful because it
diminishes internal stresses. On the other hand, it reduces the effect of prestressing.
The deformability of concrete has certain limits:
¨ If the stress grows beyond these limits, the concrete cracks or breaks.
¨ Strength and resistance against deformation dictate the limits:
· The higher the strength and the lower the resistance against deformation, the higher the limits of
deformation.
Deformation limit:
Where: s = strength, E = Young modulus
Fig. 7: Time-dependent deformations in concrete subjected to a sustained load

The deformability of hardened concrete is in the range of about 1‰. Another characteristic of the
deformability is the ratio of the transverse strain to the longitudinal compression or of the transverse
contraction to the longitudinal strain.

Poisson’s ration =
While the modulus of elasticity indicates only the alteration of size in one direction, the Poisson’s ratio
indicates to what extent the load modifies the shape and the volume of the concrete (compressibility). It
decreases with time and is about 0.2 in hardened concrete.
Poisson’s ratio and modulus of elasticity describe completely the deformation behavior of a material.
4.4 Density (weight of volume unit)
The dry density of the dry solid mass and the bulk density of the concrete have to be distinguished.
Density:
The density (specific gravity) - the weight per unit volume of a dry and pore-free substance (mass) -
depends above all on the mix design as the density of cement (r = 3.0 to 3.15 g/cm3), aggregate (r = 2.6
to 2.7 g/cm3) and water ((r = 1.0 g/cm3) vary little. The specific gravity of concrete is in the order of 2.3 to
2.5 g/cm3.
Bulk density:
The bulk density (unit weight) - the weight of concrete per unit volume including voids - (about 2.2 to 2.4
t/m3 for ordinary concrete) depends on the compaction of the concrete.
The ratio

indicates the amount of voids in the bulk volume which are filled with water or air.
Voids weaken all mechanical properties of concrete and are, furthermore, decisive for the impermeability
and thus the durability of concrete. Therefore, it is most important to compact the concrete as firmly as
possible. Well compacted concrete contains not more than 1 to 2% voids of its volume.
4.5 The durability of concrete
It is essential that concrete keeps its shape and size and does not suffer any deterioration of its
substance which could also cause volume changes (soundness).
As was shown in previous chapters, the mechanical properties of concrete generally continue to improve
with time. Concrete resists moisture and putrefaction as well as high temperatures (between 200 and
300°C). It does not burn. These are very important advantages that concrete has over other building
materials.
In this paragraph, some factors influencing the durability are discussed.
Fig. 8: Durability of concrete

4.5.1 Volume changes

Concrete is always subject to changes of volume which can be detrimental if they exceed certain limits.
4.5.2 Volume changes due to physical stress
There are several types of stress which may cause volume changes:
¨ Temperature Changes
Temperature changes cause expansion and contraction in concrete as in all other materials. These
changes are in the same order of magnitude as in steel (approx. 10-5 for 1°C). If these volume changes
are impeded, high stresses result, causing cracks.
Changes due to the freezing - thawing cycle are very hazardous. At freezing temperatures, the water
volume in concrete increases by about 9%. Due to this expansion and thermal stress, concrete can
disrupt. The risk is heightened if de-icing agents (salts) are employed, because of additional complicated,
detrimental effects. The best way to avoid this reaction is to created voids allowing the water to expand.
This is done by enlarging pore volume by about 3 to 7 Vol.% with the aid of air-entraining agents (air-
entrained concrete), (see chapter ‘Concrete Main Components’, paragraph 3.4).
¨ Moisture Changes:
Moisture changes - desiccation or absorption of water in hardened concrete - cause shrinkage or
swelling. These changes continue until an equilibrium of moisture with the surroundings is reached which
usually takes several years. Maximum final shrinkage (determined as a change in length) of the hardened
concrete is 0.2 to 0.65 mm/m, maximum swelling through storage in water at 20°C, 0.1 to 0.3 mm/m
depending on atmospheric conditions.
Fig. 9: Moisture movements in concrete - swelling and shrinkage
Much higher and also more dangerous is shrinkage before the setting of concrete - plastic shrinkage. At
intensive desiccation it can reach several per mill (‰). If a lot of water is allowed to evaporate during the
critical period, namely when concrete has only low strength and is not prevented from shrinking, e.g.
through reinforcement, plastic shrinkage-cracks may result.
To avoid the early shrinkage-cracks, concrete must be protected against desiccation. This can be
achieved by covering the concrete with burlap or plastic sheets or by spraying it with water.
4.5.3 Volume changes due to alterations of the substance
Chemical alterations of a substance result in volume changes, causing stresses and possibly cracks.
In concrete mainly the cement stone or the reinforcement (corrosion) are attacked while aggregates are
generally more resistant.
The volume of cement stone decreases during hydration because the volume of the hydration product is
about 3 to 11% smaller than the original volume of cement and water. This chemical shrinkage has to be
distinguished from drying shrinkage. Chemical shrinkage enlarges the gel pores and generally does not
cause cracks.
A higher risk for concrete is the expansion of the cement stone caused by the reaction of free lime,
periclase and sulfate. These compositions produce unsoundness.
Subsequent reactions between cement and reactive aggregates in hardened concrete can have a
deteriorating effect on concrete, especially if alkalis in the cement react with reactive silica in the
aggregates.
From the external chemical attacks the most important reactions are those with CO2 in the air, with acids,
sulfates and ammonium salts.
Table 2 shows the most important detrimental influences.
Table 2a: Effect on Concrete by Various Chemical Agents: ACIDS

Acid type Effect on Concrete

Acetic Disintegrates slowly
Acid waters Natural acid waters may erode surface mortar, but usually action then stops
Carbolic Disintegrates slowly
Humic Depends on humus material, but may
cause slow disintegration
Hydrochloride Disintegrates
Hydrofluoric Disintegrates
Lactic Disintegrates slowly
Muriatic Disintegrates
Oxalic None
Phosphoric Attacks surface slowly
Sulfuric Disintegrates
Sulfurous Disintegrates
Tannic Disintegrates slowly

Table 2b: Effect on Concrete by Various Chemical Agents:

SALTS and ALKALIES

Salts and Alkalies (solution) Effect on concrete

Carbonates of
- Ammonia
- Potassium
- Sodium None
Chlorides of
- Calcium
- Potassium
- Sodium
- Strontium None unless concrete is alternately wet
and dry with the solution
Chlorides of
- Ammonia
- Copper
- Iron
- Magnesium
- Mercury
- Zinc Disintegrates slowly
Fluorides None except ammonium fluoride
Hydroxides of
- Ammonia
- Calcium
- Potassium
- Sodium None
Nitrates of Ammonium Disintegrates
Nitrates of
- Calcium
- Potassium
- Sodium None
Potassium permanganate None
Silicates None
Sulfates of Ammonia Disintegrates
Sulfates of
- Aluminium
- Calcium
- Cobalt
- Copper
- Iron
- Manganese
- Nickel
- Potassium
- Sodium
- Zinc Disintegrates; however, concrete products
cured in high pressure steam are highly
resistant to sulfates

Table 2c: Effect on Concrete by Various Chemical Agents:

PETROLEUM and OILS

Petroleum Effect on concrete

Heavy oilst
- below 35 deg Baume None
Light oilst
- above 35 deg Baume None - Require impervious concrete to
prevent loss from penetration, and surface
treatments are generally used
Benzine
Gasoline
Kerosene
Naphtha
High octane gasoline None - Require impervious concrete to
prevent loss from penetration, and surface
treatments are generally used.

Table 2d: Effect on Concrete by Various Chemical Agents:

COAL TAR SESTILLATES
Tar derivatives Effect on concrete
Alizarin
Anthracene
Benzol
Cumol None

Steel reinforcement corrodes when it is attacked by moisture or acids. This not only diminishes the
strength of the steel bars, but also damages the concrete due to an increase in volume of the corrosion
products. Well compacted concrete, as an alkaline medium with pH-values above 9.5, protects steel
against corrosion.
Impermeability (or low permeability) of concrete to water, other liquids and gases is very important for the
protection of the steel reinforcement as well as for some concrete structures. In most cases, a well
compacted concrete has a sufficient impermeability.
To protect concrete against specific attacks of aggressive water, chemicals and gases, a special surface
treatment with chemically resistant coating is necessary. In some cases, a special concrete with special
cements or of a special composition is required.
Table 3: How can we improve the durability of concrete?

ò ò
Low water/cement ratio Air-entrainment
Special cements Blended cements
High cement content ò
Maximum compaction Surface treatment
ò ò
Effective curing (Autoclave curing) Suitable aggregates
ò ò
Dry concrete Prestressing
ò
Impermeable concrete

Table 4: How can we improve the impermeability of concrete?

ò ò
Waterproof membrane Plastic, workable mix with low water/cement ratio
ò Increased cement content
Watertight aggregates and joints Air-entrainment
ò ò
No cracks and segregation Thorough mixing
Uniformity Proper placing
ò Reduced water at top lifts
Expansive cement ò
ò Effective curing
Prestressing ò
Surface treatment

4.6 Thermal properties

¨ Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity is the ability of hardened concrete to transmit heat. It is usually measured in W/mK
or kcal/mh°C. For ordinary concrete the values lie within the range of 1.30 to 2.10 W/mK (1.10 to 1.80
kcal/mh°C).
¨ Specific heat
Specific heat is the measure of heat capacity and is defined as the amount of heat necessary to change
the temperature of 1 kg concrete by 1°C. It varies between 0.84 to 1.17 kJ/kgK (0.20 to 0.28 kcal/kg°C).
¨ Coefficient of thermal expansion
Coefficient of thermal expansion indicates either a change in volume, or usually a change in length in
relation to temperature changes. The very similar coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete and steel is
one of the reasons for practical utilization of steel as reinforcement in concrete. Standards and building
codes of most countries prescribe the same value for steel and concrete (10-5/°C).
Resistance to high temperature
Concrete, if properly designed, placed and cured, performs remarkably well with regard to fire, heat and
blast resistance (‘Concrete does not burn’).
Temperatures below 250°C scarcely affect the concrete strength, but is subjected to about 300°C, there
are marked signs of strength loss (Table 4a). The strength loss is considerably lower, if the aggregate
does not contain silica, but is composed e.g. of limestone, basic igneous rock, and particularly of crushed
brick and blast furnace slag. Low conductivity of concrete (lightweight concrete) as well as special cement
(high-alumina) improves the fire resistance.
Table 5: Loss of compressive strength of ordinary concrete under continuous expoure to high
temperatures

Temperature (°C) <150 250 to 320 430 to 500 600 to 650 >820
Reduction in
compressive
strength (%) negligible 15-25 40-50 75-85 disinte-
grated

4.7 Aesthetic properties

In constructions where it is intentionally left exposed (without stucco), concrete should be appealing to the
eye, i.e. color and texture should be decorative.
4.8 Acoustic properties
Sound protection is an important factor in many types of buildings due to their design. The concrete as a
relatively heavy material (r = 2.2 to 2.4 g/cm3) has generally favorable acoustic properties.
Generally it can be distinguished between:
¨ Sound insulation (sound conductivity) and
¨ Sound absorption.
Sound insulation:
For sound insulation two types of measurements and technical values are important for the building
design:
¨ Sound transmission loss (STL) is defined as the number of decibels (dB) by which the level of
airborne sound intensity is decreased when transmitted within the structure. STL of concrete walls and
slabs is directly proportional to their thickness.
¨ Sound impact loss: the impact noise (i.e. by footsteps on the floor, appliances mounted on the
wall) and their level at different distances from the origin is measured. The values are expressed also in
dB.
Sound absorption:
The coefficient of sound absorption indicates the difference between the reverberation time and frequency
of an empty standardized room and the same room after it has been furnished with a certain amount of
absorptive material.
5. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
The concrete properties are the result of a combination of many factors. Some can be attributed to the
material itself, but just as important are the external influences. As has been mentioned previously, the
most important and most characteristic property of concrete is its compressive strength after 28 days
which can also serve as an indication for other properties. Therefore, this paragraph will be mainly
concerned with concrete strength.
The main factors influencing the strength are (see also Fig. 10):
Strength influencing factors:
¨ Properties of the constituents
¨ Mix proportions (mix design, formula)
¨ Way of handling fresh concrete
¨ Conditions under which the concrete hardens
Fig. 10: Factors influencing the strength of concrete

One and the same concrete may show various values when tested with different methods. Thus, the
method of testing can influence the test results but not the actual properties of concrete.
The following figure gives an indication of the range in which strength values can vary; it shows the
results of tests carried out on specimens of the most common cements produced in ready-mix plants
which are affiliated with Holcim.
Fig. 11: Compressive strength after 28 days of samples of 44 Ready-Mix Plants

5.1 Influence of the constituents

5.1.1 Aggregates
Aggregates represent the largest part of concrete in volume (60 to 75%) as well as in weight.
Compressive strength of natural aggregates in normal weight concrete exceeds 2 to 3 times the strength
of cement stone. Thus, it is the strength of the cement stone or the bond that limits the concrete strength,
the cement stone being the weaker constituent.
Aggregates of various origin - if they are clean and free of deleterious substances - develop practically
equal concrete strength if used with the same cement and mix formula (see following figure).
Fig. 12: Effect of aggregate on compressive strength concrete with 350 kg/m3 cement and w/c ratio of
0.55

Note:
The strength of aggregates does not have a influence on the compressive strength of ordinary concrete if
they meet basic quality requirements.

The concrete made of various aggregates with equal strength show very different consistencies This is
obviously due to the grading, angularity and surface roughness of the aggregates, requiring various
amounts of water to obtain concretes of the same workability. The water requirement is mostly influenced
by the amount and properties of sand (fine aggregates). Grading, the maximum size and shape of the
aggregates determine the volume of voids in a compacted aggregate mix as well. The percentage of void
volume (varying between 20 to 40%) indicates the volume of cement paste (cement plus water) required
to obtain a good concrete mix.

Note:
Grading and shape of the aggregates determine the required amount of water and cement and thus
strongly influence the strength of concretes of equal consistency.

Other properties of aggregates such as: porosity, unsoundness or lack of chemical resistance affect the
concrete durability.
5.1.2 Water
Water represents the second largest portion of the volume of fresh concrete. The quality of water only
exerts influence on concrete strength if it contains deleterious impurities.
The required water content of a concrete mix depends on the other constituents (cement, aggregate,
admixture).
5.1.3 Cement
Cement has a primary and direct effect on concrete strength by its material properties:

Composition î ì Water requirement

= Cement properties è Stiffening and hardening
Fineness ì î Final strength

The water requirement of cement measured on paste of normal consistency has only little influence on
the water requirement of concrete (Fig. 13), much less than the aggregate.
Table 6: Water requirement of standard cement paste and concretes of different Consistency

OPC Cement A OPC Cement B OPC Cement C

Consist-
ency Water
Require-
ment
(%) Vebe
Consist-
ency
(sec) Water
Require-
ment
(%) Vebe
Consist-
ency
(sec) Water
Require-
ment
(%) Vebe
Consist-
ency
(sec)
Ref.: Standard cement paste 24 -- 29 -- 29.75 --
Concrete: stiff 52 14.8 53.5 15.0
Stiff-plastic 53.5 10.0 55 10.5
Plastic 55 5.0 57.5 4.5 58 5.6

Concluding from the strength test results on standard cement mortar, only a rough estimate of the
concrete strength can be made.
With increasing standard mortar strength, concrete strength (with the same formula and aggregate mix)
generally tends to increase slightly, especially after 28 days (see diagram below). The correlation
between strength of concrete and mortar is poor; the ratio of both varies strongly with each individual
cement. Cements with higher mortar strength can have even lower concrete strength.
Fig. 13: Relation between concrete and standard mortar strength
(determined in Concrete Laboratory of the TC-MD on 37 OPC)

Note:
It is not possible to deduce from the standard mortar strength of various cements the strength of
concretes of equal composition.

Important statement:
The hardening rate of concrete is much faster than that of standard mortar, as can be seen in the
following figure. This is of utmost practical importance because on the job site under normal conditions (t
= 15 to 25°C) the concrete reaches a certain percentage of its final strength much sooner than standard
mortar.

Fig. 14: Maturity Percentage of Mortar and Concrete

Due too different rates of hardening, the effect of cement properties on early
strength is much stronger than on final strength. Finer grinding results in only slightly higher final strength
but considerably higher early strength. With different cement compositions (above all blended cements) a
concrete showing lower initial strength may have the same or even higher final strength than a concrete
with higher initial strength. For more information regarding the influence of the cement properties, see
paper ‘Cement’.
The influence of admixtures has already been described in paper ‘Concrete Main Components’.
5.2 Influence of mix proportions
5.2.1 Water / Cement ratio
As already mentioned, the concrete strength depends essentially on the strength of the cement stone,
and is only partially determined by the cement strength as measured on standard mortar. There must be
other factors as well. The strength of mortar made with a given cement depends on its compaction, i.e. on
the part of volume occupied by solid material and by voids (gel pores and capillaries).
The water requirement of cement for complete hydration is about 25%; another 15% is contained in the
gel pores. If concrete contains less than 40% water, cement does not hydrate completely. Furthermore,
since an extremely dry concrete cannot be compacted adequately, a deficiency of water causes inferior
strength. For reasons regarding the workability, however, the concrete usually contains more water than
the cement requires.
The following figure shows how the compaction of mortar depends on the ratio of the water content to the
cement content:
Figure 15: Structure of fresh cement mortar

This weight proportion is usually termed water/cement ratio (w/c ratio). While
standard mortar has always the same prescribed w/c ratio, the water content of concrete varies according
to the desired consistency and the water requirement of the aggregate and of the cement to obtain this
consistency. The next two diagrams show the effect of the w/c ratio on the concrete strength.
Fig. 16: Relation between compressive strength and water/cement ratio of concrete

Important statement:
For the best concrete quality it is important to choose the lowest possible w/c ratio that still enables the
concrete to be perfectly compacted.
In the concrete standards of different countries the maximum permissible w/c ratio for different types of
structure is fixed (see tables later: Requirements for concrete acc. to DIN).
One of the most common causes of poor quality of concrete is the addition of too much water. Following
figure shows how an inaccurate measurement of the quantity of mixing water or an uneven moisture
content of aggregates may impair the strength of concrete. The moisture content of the aggregates must
be deduced from the amount of water to be added.
Fig. 17: Influence of change in water content on compressive strength

Bolomey’s Equitation
Various formula have been proposed to predict concrete strength on the basis of mortar strength and w/c
ratio e.g. by Féret, Abrams, Bolomey, etc. The formula which is the simplest and most frequently applied,
is the Bolomey’s equation considering the reciprocal value of the w/c ratio, the cement/water ratio:

Bolomey’s Equation:

where: cconcrete = (predicted) concrete strength

ccement = (observed) mortar strength
a, b = constants depending on the mortar and concrete
testing method, age and curing specimen,
aggregate quality; cement content and cement
characteristics not included in the ccement etc.

Based on the coefficient of correlation of 0.918 it can be assumed that effects other than the
cement/water ratio and mortar strength have a negligible influence on the 28 day concrete strength (see
following figure). To predict the early strength, the equation is less suitable since the relation between
mortar and concrete strength is influenced also by the faster hardening rate of concrete in comparison to
mortar.
Fig. 18: Relation between calculated and observed concrete strength

The calculated concrete strength is only obtained, however, if the concrete is perfectly compacted
(porosity < 1%).
5.2.2 Cement content
The content of cement or cement paste in concrete must be sufficient to envelop the aggregate grains in
order to reduce their friction, to glue them, to fill the voids between them and also to protect the
reinforcement against corrosion. Thus, an insufficient amount of cement impairs the workability and
compaction of concrete and as a consequence, its strength and durability.

Note:
The cement dosage should not be below a certain minimum (usually between 250 to 350 kg/m3
depending on the purpose of the construction) in order to guarantee impermeability and durability, even
though less cement would be sufficient for the needed strength.

After all voids are filled, a surplus of cement paste does not increase the concrete strength any further
since cement stone has a lower strength than aggregate (Fig. 20a). By increasing the cement content
above an optimum, the ratio between compressive strength and cement content decreases (see figure). If
the cement content in concrete is sufficient for full compaction, the strength of fully compacted concrete is
given by the strength of the cement stone. It depends only on its w/c ratio and on the standard cement
strength.
Fig. 19: Utilization of cement in concrete at constant workability

5.2.3 Aggregate/Cement ratio

The optimum ‘aggregate/cement’ ratio is not only considered from a technical but also from an
economical point of view since aggregate is stronger and cheaper than cement. Thus, the grading of
aggregate is most important, not only for workability but also for the minimum volume of voids. It makes it
possible to obtain the required strength with less cement.
5.3 Influence of handling
It is most important that the consistency of concrete permits full compaction with the tools that are
available on the job site. The need for compaction becomes apparent in the following figure:
Fig. 20: Relation between strength and compaction

Another prerequisite for the optimum utilization of the material properties is the homogeneity of the mix.
To maintain uniformity within one batch and between several batches, accurate weighing, thorough mixing
and careful transporting and placing is necessary. These measures also prevent segregation.
5.4 Influences of curing
5.4.1 Moisture
After placing, the subsequent conditions strongly influence the development of the concrete properties. As
for the hydration of cement water is required, loss of moisture must be prevented or even additional
moisture supplied. The next figure shows how concrete strength is impaired by the lack of moisture,
especially during the first 3 days.
Fig. 21: Strength of concrete increase as long as moisture is present forhydration of cement

Concrete that hardens submerged in water has the highest strength. Once it is hardened, dry concrete
has higher strength than moist concrete.
5.4.2 Temperature
Higher temperatures accelerate setting and hardening of concrete, like other chemical processes(see
following figures). Seasonal and even daily temperature fluctuations alter the hardening characteristics of
concrete.
Fig. 22: Effect of temperatures on the compressive strength of concrete at various ages (T ³ 20 °C)

Fig. 23: Effect of temperatures on the compressive strength of concrete at various ages (T £ 20 °C)

Note:
¨ The temperature during the first 24 hours approximately strongly affects the initial strength
development of concrete and it predetermines the later hardening and even the final strength. Thus, it is
futile to maintain high curing temperatures after the first 24 hours.
¨ Concrete cured at low temperature achieves a slightly higher final strength than the concrete
cured at 30 °C or more and vice-versa.
Accelerated hardening obviously creates structures of hydration products that are less favorable for later
hardening.
The effects of temperature depend not only on external curing conditions, but also on the temperature
within the concrete created by accumulation of hydration heat.
The development of concrete temperature depends on cement properties, the composition of concrete
and the size and shape of the concrete element. This fact is illustrated the following figure which
compares the temperatures of mortar and concrete and of prisms and cubes. If concrete is protected
against heat-losses and ‘autocuring’ takes place; some mass-concrete, the internal temperature of which
may rise up to 90 °C, has to be cooled to prevent cracks caused by internal stress.
Figure 24: Temperature of mortar and concrete specimen

It is important to note that sooner or later the temperature or curing effects may activate the potential for
hardening of various cements; the potential as such, however, cannot be increased by these measures.
5.5 Influences of testing methods
The influence of the testing method can sometimes be decisive for the final test result.
Specimen size, moluding, curing and testing procedure are some of the influencing factors. The above
mentioned figure demonstrates how test results of temperature evolution measurements depend on
specimen size and concrete composition. The differences between results on test specimens and
concrete in construction can be very significant. Thus, results of specimen tests are never identical to
those obtained from tests on concrete in situ. They merely give some indications. (See separate paper:
‘Testing’.)
6. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
In paragraph before the most important influences on concrete strength were discussed. The sum of other
important characteristics of concrete in use, expressed as durability, may be related to strength in a
general way, but it also affected by factors not significantly associated with strength.
Concrete must be able to endure those exposures which may deprive it of its serviceability - freezing and
thawing; becoming wet and dry; heating and cooling; chemical attack by de-icing agents, sea water, salts
and other substances.
Resistance to some of these may be enhanced by the application of certain ingredients or measures:
¨ Alkali-Aggregate Reaction:
Low alkali cement, pozzolans or selected aggregate to prevent harmful expansion due to the alkali-
aggregate reaction which occurs in some areas when concrete is exposed to a moist environment.
¨ Sulphates:
Sulfate resisting cement or pozzolanas for concrete exposed to sea water or sulfate-bearing soils.
¨ Abrasion:
Aggregate with a minimum of soft particles where resistance to surface abrasion is required.
¨ Aggressive agents:
Use of a low water/cement ratio will prolong the life of concrete in practically every exposure-condition by
reducing the penetration of aggressive liquids and gases. The water permeability also depends on the w/c
ratio.
¨ Freezing and thawing:
Resistance to severe weathering, particularly to freezing and thawing, and to salts used to remove ice, is
greatly improved by the incorporation of a proper distribution of entrained air.
7. CONCLUSIONS
There are many factors which influence the properties of hardened concrete. The next figure summarizes
the effect of these various factors.
Fig. 25 Factors Influencing the Properties of Concrete

Literature: Revised (1998) HMC version by:

¨ H. Bucher
¨ T. Dratva
¨ J. Gebauer
¨ S. Kral
¨ W. Schrämli, et al.
¨ Supplementary Literature (Books):
¨
w P. Hewlett, LEA's Chemistry of Cement & Concrete, 1997
w J. Skalny, S. Mindess, Materials Science of Concrete II, 1997
w ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, 1996
w A.M. Neville, Properties of Concrete, 1996
w Behavior of Fresh Concrete During Vibration / Aci, 1993
w P.K. Mehta, P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Structure, Properties and Materials (Prentice Hall
International Series in Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics), 1992
w P. Bartos, Fresh Concrete. Properties and Tests, 1992
¨ A.M. Neville, Hardened concrete: physical and mechanical aspects.

C10 - Concrete Mix Design

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

1. GENERAL
2. BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 Costs
2.2 Workability
2.3 Strength and durability
3. SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONCRETE MIXES
4. PROCESS OF MIX DESIGN FOR NORMAL-WEIGHT CONCRETE
5. EXAMPLE OF MIX DESIGN CALCULATION
6. CONCLUDING REMARKS
7. LITERATURE

1. GENERAL
Mix design is a process that consists of two interrelated steps:
(1) Selection of the suitable ingredients (cement, aggregate, water and admixture) of concrete and
(2) Determination of their relative quantities to produce as economically as possible concrete of
appropriate workability, strength and durability
Although many concrete properties are important, most design procedures are aimed at achieving a
specified compressive strength at a given workability; it is assumed that if this is done, the other
properties will also be satisfactory. An exception represent the resistance to freeze-thaw and other
durability problems (for instance sulphate resistance), which require special attention in the mix design.
2. BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 Costs
The cost of concreting is made up of material costs, plant and labour expenses. Except for some special
concretes, the costs of labour and equipment are, however, to a large extent independent of the type and
quality of concrete produced. It is therefore the material costs that are most important in determining the
relative costs of different mix designs. Since cement is much more expensive than aggregate (see Table
1), it is clear that minimising the cement content is the most important single factor in reducing concrete
costs (see also Figure 1).
Table 1: Prices of concrete constituents in Switzerland per ton (approx.)

Concrete constituent
Price (CHF)
OPC cement silo 110.--
OPC cement bag 125.--
Sand fraction 0/4 mm 20.20
Gravel fraction 4/8 mm 16.90
Gravel fraction 8/16 mm 12.--
Gravel fraction 16/32 mm 9.40

To economise on material costs, the proportioning should minimise the cement content without scarifying
concrete quality. Since the quality depends primarily upon the w/c ratio, the water content should be
reduced to lower the cement content. Some of the steps to minimise water and cement contents are to
use:
¨ the stiffest practicable mixture
¨ the largest possible maximum size of aggregate
¨ the optimum ratio of fine and coarse aggregates
The cement reduction is, however, often restricted by specifications stating the minimum cement content
(see Table 2).
Table 2:Minimum cement content in concrete for different national standards (kg/m3)

Type of concrete Germany

DIN 1045 Switzerland
SIA 162France*
NF P-18-305 USA England
Plain concrete ³ 100 -- -- -- --
Reinforced/pre-stressed concrete 280 (OPC 25)
240 (OPC 35)
300 for class 250 and higher:
(250 + B)/D1/5
none
none

* B = compr. strength in bar; D = max. aggregate size

Figure 1: Costs of concrete: material costs

It should be noted here that in addition to cost, there are other benefits by using a low cement content;
shrinkage will in general be reduced and there will be less heat of hydration. However, if the cement
contents are too low, they will diminish the early strength and durability of concrete and will make
uniformity of the concrete a more critical consideration.
Besides the cement reduction as such, there is also an interesting potential to reduce costs through the
replacement of cement by mineral components (e.g. fly ash or ground blast furnace slag). Prerequisite is
of course that mineral components of good quality are available at the concrete plant at convenient
prices.
To determine the most economical mix proportions, the relative costs of fine and coarse aggregates
should also be taken into consideration. Since admixtures to reduce the water requirement will increase
material costs, it should be assessed in each case whether their use is justified by the savings in labour
costs and cement cost eventually.
The economy of a particular mix design should also be related to the degree of quality control that can be
expected on a job. At least on small jobs, it may be cheaper to overdesign the concrete than to provide
extensive quality control that would be required with a more cost-efficient concrete.
2.2 Workability
Clearly, a properly designed mix must be capable of being placed and compacted properly with the
equipment available. Finishability must be adequate, and segregation and bleeding should be minimised.
As a general rule, the concrete should be supplied at the minimum workability that will permit adequate
placement. The water requirement for workability depends mostly on the characteristics of the aggregate
rather than of those of the cement. Where necessary, workability should be improved by increasing the
mortar content rather than by simply adding more water or more fine material. Thus, co-operation
between the mix designer and the contractor is essential to ensure a good concrete mix. In some cases, a
less economical mix may be the best solution.
2.3 Strength and durability
In general, concrete specifications will require a minimum compressive strength. They may also impose
limitations on the permissible w/c-ratios and minimum cement contents. It is important to ensure that
these requirements are not mutually incompatible. It is not necessarily the 28 day strength that is most
important; strength at other ages may control the design.
Specifications may also require that the concrete meet certain durability requirements, such as resistance
to freezing and thawing, or chemical attack. These considerations may provide further limitations on the
w/c-ratio or cement content and in addition may require the use of admixtures.
3. SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONCRETE MIXES
There are three systems that can be applied to specify structural concrete. These differ with respect to the
basis of specification, responsibility for the mix design and the parameter by which the concrete is judged
for compliance, as indicated in Table 3.
Table 3:Types of concrete mixes and their method of specification

Type of mix
Designed mix Codified mix Prescribed mix
Design stage Basis of specification Strength Mix Proportions Mix Proportions
Strength classes all £ 25 N/mm2 all
Responsibility for mix design Producer National code or specification Purchaser
Pro-duction stage Permitted materials Any materials complying with National Standards
Restricted range of materials complying with Nat. Standards any
Strength testing for information Basis of mix Not usually necessary Desirable especially for
higher strength classes
Compli-ance stage Basic parameters of concrete for compliance testing Strength Mix
proportions Mix proportions

Designed mixes
The mix should be designed to have an adequate margin of strength between the specified characteristic
strength or the designed mean strength based on the standard deviation obtained through experience. If
there are no previous data, or if there are less than 30 results obtained under equal conditions (same
plant, source of materials, and supervision), the proposed minimum value for standard deviation as per
curve A (Figure 2) should be considered.
Figure 2: Proposed minimum values for the standard deviation

If there are between 30 and 100 results, the standard deviation should be the value obtained but not less
than that given by curve B, i.e. for characteristic strength equal to or greater than 20 N/mm2, the minimum
standard deviation is 4 N/mm2. For more than 100 results curve C gives the minimum standard deviation.
These values of standard deviation will be used for the calculation of characteristic strength.
Designed mixes are the most common types of mixes used in concrete practice.
Codified mixes
Codified mixes are recommended in National Standards or Codes and are based on the characteristics of
the cement and aggregates available in each country. The adequacy of the structure is generally assured
since the cement content will usually be greater than that of the corresponding designed mixes.
Codified mixes are restricted to the lower strength classes of concrete and may be made only with
restricted types of materials. They are sometimes used as approximate guidelines for designed mixes.
Prescribed mixes
Prescribed mixes are applied when the purchaser wishes to specify the mix proportions to be used. There
are a number of circumstances which call for such mixes; for example, if the purchaser knows that with
local materials certain mix proportions will produce concrete of the required proportions, or if he requests
the use of specific mixes because he wants a concrete with special characteristics (high or low density,
etc.). Since the purchaser designs the mix, it is also his responsibility to ensure that the strength and
other requirements for the safety of the construction are met.
4. PROCESS OF MIX DESIGN FOR NORMAL-WEIGHT CONCRETE
Before a concrete mix can be designed and proportioned, certain points of information should be known:
1) Size and shape of structural members
2) Spacing and diameter of reinforcement
3) Required strength
4) Exposure conditions (requirements for durability and chemical attack)
5) Placing and compaction methods
6) Basic material quality data on cement and aggregate
It is up to the design engineer and the architect to provide the information for points 1), 2) and 3). The
information for points 5) and 6) can be obtained from the contractor firm and material supplier. As to point
4), the requirements for exposure conditions are normally specified in the standards.
The basic factors that have to be considered in determining the mix proportions are represented
schematically in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Basic factors in the process of mix design

The American Concrete Institute ACI recommends a maximum permissible w/c ratio for different types of
structures and degree of exposure. The European Norm EN 206 for concrete describes as well the
maximum permissible w/c ratio, minimum cement content, the minimum air content and range of
aggregate grading for the different exposure conditions.
It should be explained that a design in the strict sense of the word is not possible: many of the material
properties and effects in the concreting process cannot be truly assessed quantitatively, so that we are
really making no more than an intelligent guess at the optimum combinations of the ingredients on the
basis of the relationships established empirically. Therefore, we not only have to calculate or estimate the
proportions of the available materials, but must also make trial mixes. Properties of trial mixes are
checked and adjustments in the proportioning are made until a fully satisfactory mix is attained.
Trial mixes are usually relatively small batches made with laboratory precision so that a certain security
factor should be calculated when using laboratory results on large job-site batches.
The calculation of material quantities for mix design of ordinary normal-weight concrete is based on the
absolute volume of the ingredients:
Volumes in 1m3 compacted fresh concrete:

C = cement content in kg/m3

A = aggregate content in kg/m3
W = water content in kg/m3
P = air pores;
in compacted non-air-entrained concrete:10 ¸ 20 dm3/m3;
in air-entrained concrete: 30 ¸ 70 dm3/m3
dc = bulk density of cement kg/dm3
dA = bulk density of aggregate kg/dm3
dw = bulk density of water = 1.0 kg/dm3

Guide values for the above bulk densities are given in Table 4
Table 4:Guide values for bulk densities d in kg/dm3
Cements
Aggregates
Portland cement 3.05 - 3.15 kg/dm3 Sand, gravel 2.6 - 2.65 kg/dm3
Blast furnace slag cement 3.0 kg/dm3 Limestone 2.7 kg/dm3
Pozzolanic cement 2.9 kg/dm3 Basalt 2.9 kg/dm3
Volcanic gravel + sand 2.1 - 2.4 kg/dm3
Lightweight aggregate
for structural lightweight
concrete 0.4 ¸ 1.9 kg/dm3

There are various methods to calculate a concrete mix. The difference between those methods is not to
be attributed to the basic factors but rather to the mode of calculation and adjustment applied. As
example, three methods to calculate the mix design of normal weight concrete are compared in Table 5.
Here, only the general principle of the mix design procedure shall be briefly presented (see also example
of mix design in the next chapter):
First of all, the maximum permissible w/c-ratio for the required concrete strength has to be fixed; this
value can be taken from the relationship w/c-ratio - concrete strength in function of the strength class of
the cement.
Then, the required water content w (mixing water plus surface humidity of aggregate) has to be defined.
The water content w can be estimated based on the needed consistency and the aggregate grading and
modulus respectively.
Table 5:Example of methods to calculate a concrete mix

Country & Standard (Code)

Step No. United States
ACI England
Dep. of Environment W. Germany
DIN
1. workability = slump mean strength (w/c-ratio) cement quality
2. max. size of aggregate water content (workability) consistency
3. mixing water + (air content) cement content grading of aggregate
4. w/c ratio aggregate content water content
5. cement content fine/coarse aggregate concrete strength
6. coarse aggregate content trial mixes w/c ratio
7. fine aggregate content cement content
8. adjustment for aggregate moisture weight of ingredients
9. trial batch adjustments trial mix
For details
consult: ACI 211.1-91, ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, American Concrete Institute, USA A.
Neville: Properties of concrete. Chapter 14. Mix Design., Longman, 1995 K. Walz: Herstellung von Beton
nach DIN 1045. Beton-Verlag GmbH, Düsseldorf, 1971.

The necessary cement content c in the concrete mix can accordingly be calculated with the w/c-ratio and
the water content w by means of the following formula:
c = w/(w/c)
Knowing the cement and water content, we can calculate the required amount of aggregate using the
equation on the absolute volume of the ingredients (assumption on air pores p). Thus, the weight of oven
dry aggregate A for 1 m3 of concrete is:
A = dA (1000 - c/dc - w - p)
If humid aggregate is used, then the amount of surface humidity during concrete preparation has to be
determined and to be included for the proportioning of the mixing water and the aggregate. The mixing
water is calculated by subtracting the content on surface humidity from the water content w. For the
proportioning of the aggregate, the amount A calculated according to the above equation has to be
increased by the content of surface humidity.
If plasticising concrete admixtures (e.g. water reducers or air entrainer) are added to the concrete, the
water content w for a given consistency is reduced. The fine air pores produced by the addition of air
entrainer improve also indeed the workability, but they reduce at the same time the concrete strength; in
case of air entrained concrete, the real water content has therefore to be adjusted for both the plasticising
and strength reducing effect of the air entrainer.

5. EXAMPLE OF MIX DESIGN CALCULATION

For illustration, a mix design shall be calculated here with the aid of Table 6 and Figures 4 to 6 from DIN
standard 1045.
In our example, the concrete requirements shall be as follows::
¨ consistency: compaction factor 1.20
¨ strength class: B 35
¨ exposure condition: interior of building (thus no further limitations on w/c-ratio and cement
content)
¨ max aggregate size: 32 mm
¨ aggregate grading: between sieve curves A and B (see Figure 6)
The available concrete components are:
¨ cement class Z 35 (density 3.10 kg/dm3)
¨ aggregates:
sand 0/2 mm (density 2.52 kg/dm3)
natural aggregate 2/8 mm (density 2.62 kg/dm3)
natural aggregate 8/32 mm (density 2.72 kg/dm3)
with the following grading:

Passing sieves (%) 0.25mm 0.5 mm 1 mm 2 mm 4 mm 8 mm 16 mm 32 mm

sand 6 50 80 97 100 100 100 100
aggr. 2/8mm 3 8 10 10 55 95 100 100
aggr. 8/32 mm 2 2 3 3 4 6 50 100

The average compressive strength tested on three cubes in one trial batch for the concrete strength class
B 35 should be at least 45 N/mm2 (see Table 6). Accordingly, the water/cement-ratio can be estimated
from Figure 4; it amounts to 0.47.
Aiming at a grading of the aggregate mixture between A and B sieve curves, the estimated amount of
aggregate fractions is:
¨ sand: 25 vol.%
¨ 2/8 mm: 23 vol. %
¨ 8/32 mm: 52 vol. %
The resulting grading of the aggregate mixture is thus:

Passing sieves (%) 0.25 mm 0.5 mm 1 mm 2 mm 4 mm 8 mm 16 mm 32 mm

3 15 24 28 39 49 74 100

With the corresponding grading modulus 4.68 and the concrete compacting factor of 1.20, the water
content w estimated from Figure 5 is 153 kg/m3.
The calculated cement content c is therefore:
153 : 0.47 = 325 kg/m3 of concrete
The volume proportion of the oven dry aggregate mixture in 1 m3 of concrete can then be calculated by
means of the absolute volume of the ingredients (assuming an air content P of 15 dm3):
A = 1000 - (c/3.10 - w - P) = 1000 - (325/3.10 - 153 - 15) = 727 dm3
consisting of:
727 x 0.25 x 2.62 = 476 kg of sand
727 x 0.23 x 2.62 = 438 kg of fraction 2/8 mm
727 x 0.52 x 2.72 = 1028 kg of fraction 8/32 mm
That means 1942 kg of aggregate mix in 1 m3 of concrete.
The mix design is thus:
aggregate 1942 kg/m3
 cement 325 kg/m3
water 153 kg/m3
resulting in 2420 kg/m3 of fresh compacted concrete.
Table 6:Requirements for concrete in preliminary test

Group of concrete
Strength class Required compr. strength
(N/mm2)1), 2) Required consistency values2)
BI B5
B 10
B 15
B 25 ³ 11
³ 20
³ 25
³ 35 K 1: v = 1.30...1.26
K 2: v = 1.15...1.11
a = 39...40 cm
K3: v = 1.06...1.04
a = 48...50 cm
B II B 35
B 45
B 55 40 + m3)
50 + m3)
60 + m3) according to requirements of the site, incl. margin

1) average compressive strength of three cubes of one batch

2) site-mixed and ready-mixed concrete, not for concrete in concrete works
3) choose margin m according to experience, otherwise m ³ 5 MPa are to be used

Figure 4: Relationship strength versus w/c ratio

Figure 5: Relationship between consistency, grading modulus and water content of concrete

Correction of water content:

- by using crushed aggregate + 5 ¸ 10%

- by using plasticisers - 5%
- by using air-entraining agents - 1% per 1% of air content

Figure 6: Standard grading curves

6. CONCLUDING REMARKS
There are several well established methods to calculate concrete mixes. Given the variability of the
properties of ingredients and the difficulty in describing them, the results of these calculations are,
however, really only guesses. On the other hand, such methods are concerned basically with the
technical aspects of mix design without proper consideration of the economical side of the problem.
The establishment of a proper concrete mix design will always involve the preparation and testing of trial
mixes and consecutive adjustments. The experience and knowledge on the influence of the various
factors upon the properties of concrete can of course help to improve the first guess and limit the number
of trial mixes to be tested.
To facilitate the selection of the optimum concrete mix design (also from the economic point of view),
more and more computer based tools are used nowadays in practice. Such tools do not replace
experience, but allow to explore more quickly the different alternatives and to arrive faster at the optimum
solution.
7. LITERATURE
ACI 211.1-91, Standard practice for selecting proportions for normal, heavyweight, and mass concrete, in:
ACI Manual of Concrete Practice 1996, Part 1, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, USA, 38
pp.
Neville, A.M., Selection of concrete mix proportions (mix design), in: Properties of Concrete, Longman,
England, 1995, pp. 724 - 772
Day, K.W., Concrete mix design, quality control and specifications, E & F.N. Spon, London, 1995, 350 pp.
Kosmataka, S.H, and Panarese, W.C., Design and control of concrete mixtures, PCA, Skokie, 1994, 205
pp.
Daly, D.D., Concrete mix design, in: Fulton's Concrete Technology, PCI, Midrand, 1994, pp. 209 - 217
Torrent, R., and Honerkamp, M., Computer aided optimised concrete mix-design, 33rd Technical
Meeting/10th Aggregate and Ready-Mixed Concrete Conference, Basle, 1994, HMC Report MA
94/3157/E
Bai, Y., and Amirkhanian, S.N., Knowledge-based expert system for concrete mix design, Journal of
Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 120, No. 2, 1994, pp. 357 - 373
Foo, H.C., and Akhras, G., Expert systems and design of concrete mixtures, Concrete International, July
1993, pp. 42 – 46

C11 - Concrete Production Process

CONCRETE PRODUCTION PRACTICES

1. GENERAL
2. BATCHING OF MATERIALS
3. MIXING
3.1 Types of mixers
3.2 Uniformity of mixing
3.3 Mixing time
4. HANDLING, TRANSPORTING, PLACING
5. COMPACTING
5.1 Internal vibrator
5.2 External vibrator
5.3 Vibrating table
5.4 Surface vibrator
6. CURING OF CONCRETE
6.1 Length of curing period
6.2 Curing methods
6.3 Curing Compounds
6.4 Steam curing
7. HOT WEATHER CONCRETING
8. COLD WEATHER CONCRETING
9. READY-MIXED CONCRETE
10. PUMPED CONCRETE
11. SPECIAL CONCRETING PROCESSES
12. LITERATURE
12.1 Concrete Technology
12.2 Concrete practice
12.3 Testing of Concrete

1. GENERAL
Characteristics and properties of fresh and hardened concrete depend to a great extent upon mix design
and quality of the constituent materials.
However, the importance of mixing, transporting, placing and curing techniques should not be neglected.
Improved production practices and techniques will then contribute considerably to achieving a good
concrete. Each stage of concrete production is important and has an influence on the final concrete
serviceability.
2. BATCHING OF MATERIALS
To produce concrete of uniform quality, the ingredients must be measured accurately for each batch. Most
new specifications require that batching be done by weight rather than by volume because of the
inaccuracies in measuring solid materials (especially damp sand) by volume. The weight system for
batching provides greater accuracy, simplicity and flexibility. Flexibility is necessary because changes in
the aggregate moisture content require frequent adjustments in batch quantities of water and aggregates.
Water can be measured accurately by either volume or weight.
ACI specifications generally require that materials be measured within this percentage of accuracy:

cement ± 1%
aggregates ± 2%
water ± 1%
admixtures ± 3%

The ERMCO (European Ready Mixed Concrete Organisation) Code of good practice for Ready-Mixed
Concrete gives recommendations for batching tolerance as listed in Table 1.
Table 1: Accuracy of batching acc. ERMCO

MaterialTolerance
Cement ± 3%
Coarse aggregate ± 3%
Fine aggregate ± 3%
Admixtures ± 5%
Water ± 3%

Equipment should be capable of measuring quantities within these tolerances for the smallest batch
regularly used, as well as for larger batches.
The accuracy of batching equipment should be checked periodically and adjusted when necessary.
Admixture dispensers should be checked daily since errors in admixture batching, particularly overdosing,
can lead to serious problems in both fresh and hardened concrete.
3. MIXING
The objective of mixing is:
¨ to coat the surface of all aggregate particles with cement paste
¨ to blend all the ingredients of concrete into a uniform mass
¨ to maintain uniformity of concrete at the discharging from the mixer
All concrete should be mixed thoroughly until it is uniform in appearance, with all ingredients evenly
distributed. Mixers should not be loaded above their rated capacities and should be operated at
approximately the speeds for which they were designed. If the blades of the mixer become worn or
coated with hardened concrete, the mixing action will be less efficient. Badly worn blades should be
replaced and hardened concrete should be removed periodically, preferably after each day’s run of
concrete.
3.1 Types of mixers
The method of discharging is one of the criteria for the classification of concrete mixers.
Tilting Mixer: Mixing chamber (drum) it tilted for discharging (see Figure 1).
Figure 1: Tilting mixer

Drum (non-tilting) mixer: The axis of the mixer is always in a horizontal position, and discharge is effected
by inserting a chute into the drum or by reversing the direction of rotation of the drum, as applied in the
truck mixer used in the ready-mixed concrete production (see Figure 2).
Figure 2: Drum (non-tilting) mixer
Pan mixer: consists of a circular pan rotating about its axis, with one or two stars of paddles rotating about
a vertical axis not coincident with the axis of the pan (see Figure 3).
Figure 3: Pan mixer

The capacity of tilting and drum mixers is usually large (up to 6 m3), whereas the pan mixer is smaller (up
to 2 m3) and is particularly efficient for stiff and cohesive mixes often used in precast concrete industry.
Bowl-and-stirrer Mixer (cake mixer): works according to the same principle as the pan mixer and is
sometimes used for mixing of mortar.
3.2 Uniformity of mixing
The efficiency of the mixer can be determined by the variability of the mix discharged into a number of
samples without interrupting the flow of concrete.
The values given in Table 2 are the highest acceptable values for a ‘satisfactory’ mixer.
Table 2:Variability of concrete in a ‘satisfactory’ mixer

Compressive strength 4 - 6%
Percentage of coarse aggregate 6 - 8%
Percentage of fine aggregate or cement 5 - 8%

3.3 Mixing time

The mixing time varies with the type of mixer and, strictly speaking, it is not the mixing time but the
number of revolutions of the mixer that is the criterion of adequate mixing. Generally about 50 revolutions
are sufficient.
4. HANDLING, TRANSPORTING, PLACING
Each step in handling, transporting and placing concrete should be carefully controlled to maintain
uniformity within the batch and from batch to batch so that the completed work is consistent throughout. It
is essential to avoid separation of the coarse aggregate from the mortar or of water from the other
ingredients.
Concrete is handled and transported by many methods. These include the use of chutes, buggies
operated over runways, buckets handled by cranes or cabinways, small railroad cars, trucks, pumping
through pipelines, and pneumatically forcing the concrete or dry concrete materials through hoses.
Preparation prior to placing includes compacting, trimming and moistening the subgrade; erecting the
forms; and setting the reinforcing steel. A moist subgrade is especially important in hot weather to prevent
extraction of water from the concrete.
Forms should be clean, tight, adequately braced, and constructed of materials that will impart the desired
texture to the finished concrete. Sawdust, nails and other debris should be removed before concrete is
placed. Wood forms should be moistened before placing concrete; otherwise they will absorb water from
the concrete and swell. Forms also should be treated with a releasing agent such as oil or lacquer to
facilitate their removal. For architectural concrete, lacquer or emulsified stearates are used since they are
non-staining.
Reinforcing steel should be clean and free of loose rust or mill scale at the time concrete is placed. Any
coatings of hardened mortar should be removed from the steel.
5. COMPACTING
The process of compacting concrete consists essentially of the elimination of air voids.
The oldest means of achieving this is by ramming or punning the surface of concrete. The most common
method for compacting is by vibration. The use of vibration makes it possible to work with drier mixes, so
that concrete with a lower water/cement ratio and a lower cement content can be manufactured. Whether
or not vibrators can be employed is determined by the consistency of the mix. Mixes which are very wet
should not be vibrated as separation may result. Each type of vibrator requires a different consistency.
Various types of vibrators have been developed (see also Figure 4):
Figure 4: Various types of vibrators

5.1 Internal vibrator

Of the several types of vibrators this is perhaps the most common one. It consists essentially of a poker,
housing an eccentric shaft driven through a flexible drive from a motor. The poker is immersed in concrete
and thus applies approximately harmonic forces to it; hence, the alternative names of poker- or immersion
vibrator.
The frequency of vibration varies up to 12’000 cycles of vibration per minute.
The poker is easily moved from place to place, and is applied at 50 to 70 cm centers for 5 to 30 sec.,
depending on the consistency of the mix.
5.2 External vibrator
This type of vibrator is rigidly clamped to the formwork resting on an elastic support, so that both the form
and the concrete are vibrated. As a result, a considerable proportion of the work done is used in vibrating
the formwork, which also has to be strong and tight so as to prevent distortion and leakage of grout.
The principle of an external vibrator is the same as that of an internal one, but the frequency is usually
between 3000 and 6000 cycles.
5.3 Vibrating table
This can be considered as a case of formwork clamped to the vibrator instead of the other way round, but
the principle of vibrating the concrete and formwork together is unaltered.
The source of vibration, too, is similar. Generally a rapidly rotating eccentric weight makes the table
vibrate with a circular motion. With two shafts rotating in opposite directions the horizontal component of
vibration can be neutralized so that the table is subjected to a simple harmonic motion in the vertical
direction only.
5.4 Surface vibrator
A surface vibrator applies vibration through a flat plate direct to the top surface of the concrete. In this
manner the concrete is restrained in all directions so that the tendency to segregate is limited; for this
reason a more intense vibration can be used.
6. CURING OF CONCRETE
Properties of concrete such as resistance to freezing and thawing, strength, watertightness, wear
resistance, and volume stability improve with age as long as conditions are favorable for continued
hydration of the cement. The improvement is rapid at early ages but continues more slowly for an
indefinite period. Two conditions for such improvement in quality are required:
¨ the presence of moisture
¨ a favorable temperature
Excessive evaporation of water from newly placed concrete can significantly retard the cement hydration
process at an early age. Loss of water also causes concrete to shrink, thus creating tensile stresses at
the drying surface. It these stresses develop before the concrete has attained adequate strength, surface
cracking may result. All exposed surfaces, including exposed edges and joints, must be protected against
moisture evaporation.
Hydration proceeds at a much slower rate when the concrete temperature is low; from a practical
standpoint there is little chemical action between cement and water when the concrete temperature is
near or below freezing. It follows that concrete should be protected so that moisture is not lost during the
early hardening period and the concrete temperature is kept favorable for hydration.
6.1 Length of curing period
Since all the desirable properties of concrete are improved by curing, the curing period should be as long
as practicable in all cases.
The length of time that concrete should be protected against loss of moisture is dependent upon the type
of cement, mix proportions, required strength, size and shape of the concrete mass, weather and future
exposure conditions. This period may be a month or longer for lean concrete mixtures used in structures
such as dams; conversely, it may be only a few days for richer mixes, especially if Type III of high-early-
strength cement is used. Steam-curing periods are normally much shorter.
For must structural uses, the curing period for cast-in-place concrete is usually 3 days to 2 weeks,
depending on such conditions as temperature, cement type, mix proportions, etc. More extended curing
periods are desirable for bridge decks and other slabs exposed to weather and chemical attack.
6.2 Curing methods
There are different methods to cure concrete:
1) Methods that supply additional moisture to the surface of the concrete during the early hardening
period. These include sprinkling and using wet coverings. Such methods afford some cooling through
evaporation, which is beneficial in hot weather.
2) Methods that prevent loss of moisture from the concrete by sealing the surface. This may be
done by means of waterproof paper, plastic sheets, liquid membrane-forming compounds, and forms left
in place.
3) Methods that accelerate strength gain by supplying heat and moisture to the concrete. This is
usually accomplished with live steam or heating coils.
Sprinkling (see Figure 5)
Continuous sprinkling with water is an excellent method of curing . If sprinkling is done at intervals, care
must be taken to prevent the concrete from drying between application of water. A disadvantage of
sprinkling may be its cost. The method requires an adequate supply of water and careful supervision.
Figure 5: Sprinkling

Wet coverings
Burlap, cotton mats, or other moisture-retaining fabrics are used for curing. Treated burlaps that reflect
light and are resistant to rot and fire are available. Coverings should be placed as soon as the concrete
has hardened sufficiently to prevent surface damage. Care should be taken to cover the entire surface,
including the edges of slabs such as pavements and sidewalks. The coverings should be kept
continuously moist so that a film of water remains on the concrete surface throughout the curing period.
Waterproof paper (see Figure 6)
Waterproof curing paper is an efficient means of curing horizontal surfaces and structural concrete of
relatively simple shapes. One important advantage of this method is that periodic additions of water are
not required.
Figure 6: Waterproof paper

Plastic sheets (see Figure 7)

Certain plastic sheet materials (polyethylene films) are used to cure concrete. They are lightweight,
effective moisture barriers and easily applied to simple as well as complex shapes.
In some cases, the use of thin plastic sheets for curing may discolor the hardened concrete. This may be
especially true when the concrete surface has been steel-troweled to a hard finish. When such
discoloration is objectionable, some other curing method is advisable.
Figure 7: Plastic sheets

6.3 Curing Compounds

Liquid membrane-forming curing compounds retard or prevent evaporation of moisture from the concrete.
They are suitable not only for curing fresh concrete, but also for further curing of concrete after removal of
forms or after initial moist curing.
The concrete surface should be moist when the coating is applied. Normally only one smooth, even coat
is applied, but two coat may be necessary to ensure complete coverage. A second coat, when used,
should be applied at right angles to the first.
Curing compounds used in hot weather should be white colored.
Curing compounds are applied by hand-operated or power-driven spray equipment (see Figure8)
immediately after the disappearance of the water sheen and the final finishing of the concrete.
Figure 8: Curing compounds

6.4 Steam curing

Of the methods in Group 3, accelerating the strength development, the most common is steam curing. It
can be used to advantage where early strength gain in concrete is important or where additional heat is
required to accomplish hydration, as in cold-weather concreting.
Two methods of steam curing for early strength gain are used today:
¨ curing in live steam and atmospheric pressure (for enclosed cast-in-place structures and
manufactured precast concrete units)
¨ curing in high-pressure steam autoclaves (for small manufactured units).
A steam-curing cycle consists of:
1) an initial delay prior to steaming
2) a period for increasing temperature
3) a period for holding the maximum temperature constant
4) a period for decreasing temperature
A typical atmospheric steam-curing cycle is shown in Fig. 11, chapter ‘Concrete Categories’, paragraph
3.6.
Steam curing at atmospheric pressure is generally done in a steam chamber or other enclosure to
minimize moisture and heat losses.
High-pressure steam curing in autoclaves takes advantage of temperatures in the range of 160 to 190°C
and corresponding pressures. Hydration is greatly accelerated and the elevated temperatures and
pressures may produce additional beneficial chemical reactions between the aggregates and/or
cementitious materials that do not occur under normal steam curing.
7. HOT WEATHER CONCRETING
Hot weather for concreting is defined as any combination of high air temperature, low relative humidity
and wind velocity, tending to impair the quality of fresh or hardened concrete or otherwise resulting in
abnormal properties. Hot weather can adversely affect the properties and serviceability of concrete.
Concrete mixed, placed and cured at elevated temperatures normally develops higher early strength than
concrete produced at normal temperatures, but the 28 day or later strength is generally lower (Figure 9).
Figure 9: Influence of curing temperatures on strength at day and 28 days

Plastic shrinkage cracking is usually associated with hot weather concreting. High concrete temperature,
high air temperature, high wind velocity and low humidity, or combinations thereof, cause rapid
evaporation which significantly increases the probability that plastic shrinkage cracking will occur.
As shown in Figure 10, the amount of mixing water required to make a concrete of a certain consistency,
increases considerably as the temperature of fresh concrete increases.
Figure 10: Water requirement of a concrete mix increases with an increase in temperature

For the common, non-massive types of structure a maximum concrete temperature of 32°C is
recommended by ACI as a reasonable upper limit. For the massive types of construction a temperature of
16°C or even lower would be desirable.
The most practical method of maintaining low concrete temperatures is to control the temperature of the
materials.
The equation given below shows that, for concrete of conventional properties, a reduction of the concrete
temperature by 1°C requires reducing either the cement temperature by about 8°C or the water
temperature by about 4°C or the aggregate temperature by about 2°C.
Equation:

T = temperature of freshly mixed concrete (deg. C)

Ta, Tc, Tw, Twa = temperature of aggregate, cement, mixing water
and water on aggregate respectively (deg. C)
Wa, Wc, Ww, Wwa = weight of aggregate, cement, added mixing water
and water on aggregate, respectively (kg)

Of the materials contained in concrete, water is the easiest to cool. It can be cooled by refrigeration or by
adding ice which is used as part of the mixing water, provided that it is completely melted by the time
mixing is completed.
Cement temperature has only a minor effect on the temperature of the freshly mixed concrete because of
the low specific heat of cement and the relatively small amount of cement contained in the mix. Fresh hot
cement from the plant can cause difficulties.
Aggregates have a pronounced effect on the fresh concrete temperature because they represent 60 to
80% of the total weight of concrete. Aggregate stockpiles should be shaded from the sun and kept moist
by sprinkling. Before concrete is placed, the forms, the reinforcing steel, and the subgrade should be
cooled by sprinkling as well.
Transporting and placing of concrete should be done as quickly as practicable. During extremely hot
periods improved results may be obtained by restricting the placing of concrete to the early morning or
evening hours.
In order to prevent concrete from drying out, curing should be started as soon as the concrete surface is
finished. In special cases of concreting during hot weather a retarding admixture may be used to delay
the setting time.
8. COLD WEATHER CONCRETING
Concreting in cold weather requires special precautions. Concrete sets slowly in cold weather and
development of strength is delayed. At low temperatures (at +5°C or lower during placing and the early
curing period), one or more of these recognized protective measures should be used:
¨ Heating the area where concrete is placed
· The presence of ice and the possibility of ice formation during concreting must be avoided.
Temperature of the concrete forms should be raised to above freezing, as well as that of adjacent
concrete and subgrade, through the use of heated enclosures.
¨ Heating the water and concrete materials
· In cold weather, freshly placed concrete should be at least 10°C and not more than 32°C when
poured in the forms. In addition to heating water, it may be necessary to heat aggregates.
¨ Use of chemical accelerators
· During low temperatures, the use of chemical accelerators can speed up the set of concrete.
Calcium chloride is the most commonly used and may be used up to 2% by weight of cement.
¨ Calcium chloride or admixtures containing soluble chlorides must not be used:
· in reinforced and prestressed concrete
· in concrete containing embedded aluminium
· in lightweight insulating concrete place over metal decks
· in concrete that will be in contact with soils, or water containing sulfates
¨ Maintaining concrete temperatures
· Concrete slabs lose heat and moisture rapidly in cold weather. They need protection against wind
and cold. A heated enclosure or insulation should be provided to keep concrete temperature above 10°C.
The following Time-Temperature Chart shows minimum periods in which concrete temperatures should be
maintained:

20°C 10°C
plain concrete 3 days 7 days
plain concrete with
calcium chloride2 day 3 days

· Note: After the periods shown above, concrete temperature should be maintained above 5°C for
at least four days. Concrete should not be allowed to dry out.
¨ Special provisions for curing
· Cold weather air acts like a sponge to draw moisture from concrete in both its fresh and hardened
state. This rapid drying-out process must be avoided. Curing and protection from start to finish should be
continuous and uninterrupted until the concrete attains its designed strength. At the end of the curing
period (see Time-Temperature Chart above), protection should be removed in such a way that the
temperature of the concrete will not drop faster than 5°C in 24 hours.
The following figure 11 illustrates the precautions that should be taken for cold weather concreting.
Figure 11:

9. READY-MIXED CONCRETE
If, instead of being batched and mixed on the job site, concrete is delivered ready for placing from a
central plant, it is referred to as ready-mixed concrete.
This type of concrete is used extensively in many countries as it offers numerous advantages as
compared to the job-site-mixed concrete (Table 3).
Table 3:Production of ready-mixed concrete in W. Europe (from ERMCO Annual Report 1976/77 and
1995/96)

Country Cement consumption

in ready-mixed
concrete in % of total
cement consumption Ready-mixed concrete
production in mio m3
1976/77 1995/96 1976/77 1995/96
Austria 19.5 44.0 4.3 8.6
Belgium 30.9 39.0 6.34 9.1
W. Germany 44.6 55.0 49.8 68.3
Finland 57.7 40.0 3.4 1.6
France 26.3 40.6 25.2 29.7
Great Britain 42.1 50.0 24.8 22.3
Italy 23.1 43.8 31.7 54.0
Spain 19.0 36.6 15.6 36.2
Holland 36.4 52.0 6.8 8.0
Sweden 48.4 61.7 5.2 2.4
Switzerland 40.7 57.0 5.6 9.0
USA 60.0 71.5 130.0 192.0

Ready-mix concrete plants use precision scales to weigh the ingredients as the producer is responsible
for delivering concrete of the required quality.
There are three types of mixing:
¨ Transit mixed concrete is mixed completely in a truck mixer. The batching of ingredients is carried
out in a dry-batch plant.
¨ Central mixed concrete is batched and mixed completely in a stationary batching and mixing plant
(premix-plant) and is delivered in a special dump truck (tipper) without mixing or agitating, or in a truck
mixer at agitating speed.
¨ Shrink-mixed concrete is mixed partially in a stationary mixer and then completed in a truck mixer.
Because of the many advantages offered by ready-mixed concrete, this industry has shown a
phenomenal growth in recent years. These advantages can be summarized as follows:
¨ Use of modern precision batching equipment assures an accurately proportioned mix and allows
the use and modification of different mix designs.
¨ Thorough mixing of each batch helps to produce uniform concrete.
¨ More efficient operation on the job site (no space problems with respect to storage of ingredients,
etc.).
¨ Delivery at the time required.
¨ Delivery in the exact quantity desired, thus eliminating waste.
¨ Equipment on the building site not necessary.
¨ Possibility to use different chemical admixtures.
¨ Possibility to use special concretes.
¨ Clear and easy base for delivery contracts; no problems with estimates of concrete cost.
The basis for the purchase of ready-mixed concrete is the concrete volume (m3, cubic yard) and required
concrete quality. To attain the desired concrete quality, different types of concrete mixes (mix design) can
be used (see also paper on "Concrete Mix Design"):
¨ Designed mix (performance mix): concrete is designed by the ready-mix producer and should
fulfill all requirements as stated by the purchaser.
¨ Codified mix: mix proportions are established in a National Code and are usually suitable for a
restricted range of concrete strength classes and applications (for example in CEB-Code only for mixes
with strength £ 25 N/mm2).
¨ Prescribed mix: the purchaser is responsible for designing the concrete mix and specifies the mix
proportions and the materials to be used by the ready-mix producer.
In recent years the ready-mixed concrete industry has gained considerable influence on the development
of concrete standards and specifications. Several new developments in the concrete technology have
been introduced by the ready-mixed concrete industry, e.g.
¨ flowing concrete
¨ ready-mixed mortar
¨ developments of new accelerated testing methods, etc.
10. PUMPED CONCRETE
Pumped concrete may be defined as concrete conveyed by pressure through either a rigid pipe or flexible
hose and discharged directly into the desired area.
Pressure is applied by (see Figures 12 to 14):
¨ Piston pumps
¨ Pneumatic pumps (compressed air)
¨ Squeeze pressure pumps
Figure 12: Schematic drawings of the various pump types -
piston type concrete pump

Inlet valve opens while outlet valve is closed and concrete is drawn into cylinder by gravity and piston
suction. As piston moves forward inlet valve closes, outlet valve opens, and concrete is pushed into pump
line.
Figure 13: Pneumatic type concrete pump

Compressor builds up air pressure in tank, which forces concrete in placer through the line.
Figure 14: Squeeze Pressure Type Concrete Pump

Pumping may be used for most concrete constructions, but it is especially useful where space for
construction equipment is limited.
Very often the ready-mixed concrete companies include a pumping division. The portion of pumped
concrete as compared to the total ready-mixed concrete production in various countries is shown in Table
4.
Table 4:Pumped concrete in proportion to the total ready-mixed concrete production (1996)
(Ready-mix concrete companies affiliated with the Holcim Group)

Country No. of Plants Pumped concrete in % of the total production

Belgium 55 30
France 116 7
Switzerland 18 15
W. Germany 38 49
Greece 3 74
Colombia 29 37
Costa Rica 13 33
Mexico 62 32
Brazil 40 30
Ecuador 7 70
South Africa 38 16

The concrete pumps can be:

¨ Truck-mounted or
¨ Stationary
Ease of operation, safety and economy is required of a good pump. Today the most widely used diameter
of a pipe for pumping is 125 mm; the usual maximum grain size is 32 mm, the minimum cement content
about 300 kg and the consistency should be plastic (slump 7 to 12 cm).
Pumping jobs over heights of more than 200 m and with volumes of up to 110 m3/hour are quite common
in today’s concrete practice.
11. SPECIAL CONCRETING PROCESSES
The various special concreting processes will not be discussed in detail. However, some of them are
briefly explained in the following:
¨ Vacuum-processed concrete: concrete from which, after compaction and before hardening, water
is extracted by a vacuum process. The w/c ratio is thus reduced so that concrete with higher strength,
higher density, lower permeability and better durability can be obtained.
¨ Preplaced-aggregate concrete: concrete produced by placing coarse aggregate into a mould and
later injecting a cement-sand grout, usually with admixtures to fill the voids.
¨ Dry-packed concrete: concrete mixture sufficiently dry to be consolidated by heavy ramming.
¨ Spun concrete: concrete compacted by centrifugal action, e.g. in the manufacture of pipes
(centrifugal process, roller-suspension process).
¨ Tremie concrete: concrete placed under water through a pipe or tube.
¨ Shotcrete: mortar or concrete conveyed through a hose and projected at high velocity onto a
surface; also known as air-blown mortar, pneumatically applied mortar or concrete, sprayed mortar and
gunned concrete (gunite).
12. LITERATURE
12.1 Concrete Technology
1) A.M. Neville - Properties of Concrete, 4th Edition - Longman Group Ltd.
2) Lea’s Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, 4th Edition - Arnold Ed.
3) Ghosh - Cement and Concrete Science and Technology - abi Books Private Ltd.
12.2 Concrete practice
1) W.H. Taylor - Concrete Technology and Practice
2) Ramachandran - Concrete Admixtures Handbook - Noyes Publications
3) ACI Manual of Concrete Practice - aci Publications
4) Properties of Fresh Concrete, Proceedings of the Rilem Colloquium - Chapman & Hall
12.3 Testing of Concrete
1) Bartos - Fresh Concrete, Properties and Tests - Elsevier Ed.
2) Concrete Test Methods.
RILEM, Secrétariat Général, 12 rue Brancion, 75737 Paris CEDEX 15
1)
2)

C12 - Concrete Categories

CONCRETE CATEGORIES
By Horst Wolter, Product Development and Application, HMC
1. CLASSIFICATION OF CONCRETE
2. PLAIN CONCRETE
3. REINFORCED CONCRETE
3.1 Introduction
3.2 How Reinforcement Works?
3.3 Placement of Reinforcement
4. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
4.1 Overview
4.2 Pre-tensioning Method
4.3 Post-tensioning Method
4.4 Application and Uses of Pre-stressed Concrete
5. PRECAST CONCRETE
5.1 Purpose of Precast Concrete
5.2 Advantages of Precast Concrete
5.3 Precast Concrete Products
5.4 Size and Handling of Precast Elements
5.5 Requirements to Precast Concrete
5.6 Curing
6. LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
6.1 Purpose of Lightweight Concrete
6.2 Types of Lightweight Concrete
6.2.1 „No Fines Lightweight Concrete“
6.2.2 Concrete with Lightweight Aggregates
6.2.3 Cellular (aerated) Concrete
6.3 Concrete with Lightweight Aggregates
6.4 Aerated (foamed) Concrete
6.5 Gas Concrete
7. HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE (HPC)
7.1 High Strength Concrete
8. SHOTCRETE
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 DRY MIX AND WET MIX SYSTEMS
8.2.1 Dry Mix
8.2.2 Wet Mix
8.2.3 System Advantages
8.3 Shotcrete and Rebound
8.4 Strength and other Properties
8.5 Uses of Shotcrete
8.6 Summary: Shotcrete
9. ROLLER COMPACTED CONCRETE (RCC)
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 WHAT IS RCC AND WHAT ARE ITS ADVANTAGES ?
9.3 DIFFERENT RCC CONCEPTS
9.4 SUITABLE MATERIALS FOR RCC
9.4.1 Binders
9.4.2 Aggregates
9.4.3 Water
9.4.4 Chemical Admixtures
10. FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE
10.1 Different Types of Fibres
10.1.1 Steel-fibre Reinforced Concrete
10.1.2 Polypropylene Fibre-reinforced (PFR) Cement-mortar and Concrete
10.1.2.1 Properties of fresh PFR concrete
10.1.2.2 Properties of hardened PFR concrete
10.1.2.3 Durability of PFR concrete
10.1.2.4 Applications of PFR mortar and concrete
10.1.3 Glass-fibre Reinforced Concrete (GFR)
10.1.3.1 Properties of hardened GFR concrete
10.1.3.2 Applications of GFR concrete
10.1.4 Asbestos Fibres
10.1.5 Carbon Fibres
10.1.6 Organic Fibres
10.1.7 Vegetable Fibres, and General Remarks
11. OTHER SPECIAL CONCRETES
11.1 Heavy-weight Concrete
11.2 Heat Resistant or Refractory Concrete
11.3 White and Coloured Concrete
11.4 Sand-Lime Concrete (Lime siliceous blocks)
11.5 Polymers in Concrete
11.5.1 General
11.5.1.1Advantages of polymers are:
11.5.1.2Drawbacks of polymers:
11.5.2 Polymer Cement Concrete (PCC)
11.5.3 Polymer-Impregnated Concrete (PIC)
12. MORTAR
12.1 Overview
12.1.1 Definition of mortar:
12.1.2 Application of mortar
12.2 Cementitious materials for mortar preparation
12.3 Aggregates for mortar preparation
12.4 Admixtures
12.5 Packaged, Dry Combined Materials for Mortar (Dry Mortar)
12.6 Ready-Mixed Mortar

1. CLASSIFICATION OF CONCRETE
Concrete, for example, can be classified according to the production method or to the type. The following
table gives an overview about the main categories:
Production methods and types of concrete

Production methods Concrete types

Ready-mixed concrete Plain concrete
Site mixed concrete Reinforced concrete
Shotcrete Pre-stressed concrete
Roller compacted concrete Lightweight concrete
Pumped concrete High performance concrete
Slipforming Fibre reinforced concrete
Underwater concrete Mass concrete
Vacuum concrete Mortars
Steam curing concrete Repair mortar
Autoclaved concrete Flowing fill
Heat resistant concrete
Concrete for aggressive environment
Coloured concrete

2. PLAIN CONCRETE
Plain concrete containing no steel reinforcing bars or wire, or containing not more than two tenth of
percent of reinforcing to reduce shrinkage and temperature cracking.
3. REINFORCED CONCRETE
3.1 Introduction
Concrete is a brittle material and has therefore as all such materials a high compressive but a poor tensile
strength. The compressive strength of concrete is about 10 times greater than the tensile strength. When,
however, a reinforcement is used, the tensile strength is equal or greater than its compressive strength,
that means, the steel is carrying the tensile stress and the concrete takes up the compressive strain; the
most concrete structures are reinforced.
Fig. 1: Compressive and tensile strength of concrete

Reinforcement is the term used to describe the steel bars and small or large welded wire fabric positioned
in concrete to increase its tensile stress. Many materials have been tried as reinforcement in concrete.
Steel is universal accepted and used. Reasons for practical utilisation of steel as reinforcement in
concrete are as follows:
¨ Steel has a high tensile strength
¨ Very similar coefficient of thermal expansion of both materials (concrete and steel)
¨ Concrete protects steel against corrosion
¨ Satisfactory bond between both concrete and steel
3.2 How Reinforcement Works?
Concrete can be subjected to a number of tensile forces including a straight tensile pull, bending, and
forces resulting from temperature and moisture changes. Concrete is often subjected to a straight tensile
pull as in round structures such as water tanks and farm silos.
Pressures within the tank tend to push the two halves apart. Reinforcing steel in the wall holds the tank
halves together. The steel must be around the entire tank wall since the outward pressures act in all
directions. For round, structures, the reinforcing steel is usually placed near the centre of the wall cross
section. In concrete beams only part of the beam contains tensile forces. Therefore, the location of the
reinforcement is just as critical as the amount used to resist the bending loads; the reinforcement is
placed near the lower side.
Fig. 2: Location of compressive and tensional forces in a simple beam
3.3 Placement of Reinforcement
The size, location and spacing of the reinforcement are designed in advance by engineers and are an
important part of the design of the whole reinforced concrete structure. All reinforcement should be placed
so that it is protected by an adequate coverage of concrete.
Concrete cover of reinforcement, as specified in the standards are between 10 to 50 mm. (for different
types of structure and environmental conditions). In recent years, great strides have been made in
reinforced concrete technology. Reinforcing bars are constantly being improved. The deformed bars used
today bond to the concrete much more firmly than those used years ago. This improvement was achieved
by changing the shape of the deformity or lugs. A recent development is high-strength steel reinforcing
bars. When high-strength steel is used, the amount of reinforcing steel can be reduced.
4. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
4.1 Overview
One of the disadvantage of ordinary reinforced concrete is that a reinforced concrete member develops
cracks on the tension side before the reinforcement is stressed to its design load. The maximum possible
elongation of concrete is about 0.01 to 0.02 %, whereas the elongation of the reinforcement when
stressed to 150 MPa is about 0.06%. The crack widths are proportional to the steel stress and, in the
case of plain rods, to the diameter of the reinforcing elements.
In prestressed concrete, large and carefully located compressive forces are introduced into high-strength
concrete for increased flexural resistance or load-carrying capacity. A permanent state of induced
compression is thus established and this transforms concrete into an elastic material which will carry
forces that would otherwise cause critical tension or cracking.
4.2 Pre-tensioning Method
Tendons of high-tensile wire are tensioned between end grips or anchorages before the concrete is cast.
The tension is usually applied by a single-strand hydraulic jack. After the concrete has hardened, the
tension is released and prestress is transferred by bond from the tendons to the concrete. The method is
very suitable for mass production with good factory control.
Fig. 3: Pre-tensioning of concrete

How it works:
¨ Steel is first tensioned between fixed abutments
¨ Concrete is then cast in moulds around the steel
¨ Steel is released from the abutments as soon as the concrete achieves sufficient strength
¨ The force is transferred through bond of the concrete
This method is mainly suitable for factory production where larger numbers of similar or identical units are
required.
4.3 Post-tensioning Method
In the post-tensioning method the concrete is usually cast with sheathed or pneumatic-core formed ducts
and is allowed to harden. It is then prestressed by tendons which are located usually within the ducts or
otherwise outside. When the tendons are within the ducts, the cables are fixed by pressing grout into the
ducts and thus anchoring the steel to the concrete.
Fig. 4: Post-tensioning of concrete

How it works:
¨ Tendons are placed inside the structure, usually surrounded by metal sheathing to ensure free
movements with relation to the structure, after the concrete has been cast.
¨ As soon as the concrete attains sufficient strength, tendons are stressed and their ends are
anchored against the concrete to transfer the pre-stressing forces onto the structure.
Construction procedure:
¨ Cast beam with duct inside
¨ Thread pre-stressing cable
¨ Tension cable with hydraulic jack(s)
¨ Lock cable at anchorage and crop cable
¨ Grout cable duct
¨ Concrete over anchorage block

Fig. 5: Equipment: Post-tensioning

4.4 Application and Uses of Pre-stressed Concrete

Typical prestressed concrete products are:
¨ Bridge girder beams and segments
¨ Complete frames for precast building construction
¨ Dams, pipes, tanks
¨ Floor beams, reinforcing elements, joist and box sections
¨ Floor, road and aerodrome slabs
¨ Bearing piles
¨ Rail sleepers
¨ Telephone and electric power-transmission poles
5. PRECAST CONCRETE
5.1 Purpose of Precast Concrete
It has always been common practice to place concrete directly after mixing into its permanent, final
position in the form of a structure, paving or other construction. By this classical way of concreting, the so
called „cast-in-place“ or „cast-in-site“ concrete is obtained. Today, however, attempts are made to
rationalise building-construction, due to shortage of man-power and rise of wages, as well as to
increasing requirements on quality and uniformity of concrete. Therefore, several processes are
transferred from site to stationary installations or special plants. These processes include the preparation
of aggregate, the pure batching of concrete ingredients and the mixing of fresh concrete.
A further possibility of rationalising is the precast concrete - the delivery of hardened concrete
construction parts to the construction site.
Formwork and reinforcement are more and more standardised and whole systems are manufactured in
mass production in a factory.
Precast concrete means:
Concrete that is cast in a mould in a factory or on site or elsewhere. When sufficiently strong, the precast
elements are delivered to the construction site, where they are erected in their final (service) positions.
Precast concrete is produced, if a stationary plant supplies various building-sites or if temporary
production installations were placed on a large building-site. In other words, if concrete up to the
hardened stage is manufactured at a place away from the final position in the building, we are dealing
with a precast concrete. Precast concrete may be plain concrete or reinforced or prestressed.
5.2 Advantages of Precast Concrete
The main benefits of precast concrete are:
¨ Speeding the on-site processes of construction, replacement of manual masonry work by
mechanical assembling;
¨ Continuity of processes regardless of weather and seasonal conditions;
¨ Better utilisation of skills, through centralisation and intensification of activities, and use of less
skilled labour through training and specialisation;
¨ A high degree of sophistication concerning concrete composition and material utilisation and
possibilities of closer control of all manufacturing activities and qualities of materials and products;
¨ Maximum accuracy of mould, re-use of moulds and equipment and the best use of techniques of
prestressing;
¨ Most economical method of placing and compacting.
Of course, apart from these advantages there are also some disadvantages, e.g. difficulties arising from
the transport of large elements. The individual design of buildings is limited and high investment costs of
stationary installations are required.
Therefore, it has to be decided, in each case, according to the type of building and elements, and based
on economical and aesthetic aspects, whether cast-in-place or precast concrete should be chosen.
The application of precast concrete has increased considerably in proportion to the entire concrete
consumption over the past decades; but not as much as that of ready-mixed concrete.
5.3 Precast Concrete Products
Since many decades concrete products have been manufactured in mass production in small workshops,
medium size or large factories, e.g. blocks, bricks, roofing tiles, steps, paving slabs, kerbs, piles, posts,
well rings, manhole covers, sewer and drain pipes, cable and heating ducts, floor tiles, architectural cast
stone and other ornamental concrete. Centrifuged reinforced or prestressed pipes are manufactured with
diameters of up to 2 m.
To produce special effects on the surface of the concrete elements, special aggregates are used. Thus,
Terrazzo is coloured marble or similar material embedded in cement paste and polished to a smooth
finish as decor for walls and floors.
Granolithic concrete is a hard-wearing surface on floors, the aggregate being crushed granite or other
hard stone.
5.4 Size and Handling of Precast Elements
A variety of types and sizes of precast structural units is manufactured for various types of buildings. Their
mode of transportation and assembling varies as well. There are posts, beams, slabs of up to 30 m
length, bridge-segments weighing up to 90 t walls and even three-dimensional cells.
Precast elements can be manufactured with decorative finishes or even water, sewage, heating, air-
conditioning or electrical installations. Thus, all-equipped and finished rooms (bath-room units, kitchens,
elevator-shafts etc.) can be supplied to the building site.
The manufacturing process is basically the same as for cast-in-place concrete: Mix design including
possible additions, dosing, mixing, placing in moulds, compaction, possibly prestressing of reinforcement,
curing, demoulding, possibly further curing. With stationary methods of production, all processes are
carried out at the place of casting, before the products are removed. With conveyor methods, moulds and
products are moved after each operation.
A special feature of precast concrete fabrication is the necessity for the placed concrete to pass quickly
and without damage - to the next stage of production. The faster this can be achieved, the shorter the
production cycles and the more efficient the utilisation of costly moulds and production installations.

5.5 Requirements to Precast Concrete

Note:
Precasting puts heavy demands on concrete properties
Precast elements are subjected to excessive stresses due to repeated transportation and storage.
Stresses during demoulding, transport and assembling can be higher than later-on during loading at
service.
Depending on the application in question, „green“ strength, demoulding time, the ability to withstand
transportation and stacking or prestressing can be decisive. These various criteria cannot be brought to a
common denominator, but empirical correlation to compressive strength do exist. So, in practice, the
problem is usually solved by specifying mandatory threshold ratings for compressive strength.
Note:
The initial strength development is of vital importance
for precast concrete.
Acceleration of hardening by optimising the concrete mix is subject to limitations, but it is possible in many
cases to achieve sufficient early strength by using rapid-hardening cements. With a suitable brand of
cement, demoulding times can be reduced by up to 16 hours, whereas prestressing can already be
applied after 48 hours.
In some cases it is justified, from a technical and economical point of view, to accelerate hardening by
special curing.
5.6 Curing
Various methods to accelerate hardening of precast concrete are used. However, many of these methods
are cost intensive. Heat treatment in various forms is predominant. Heat can either be applied externally
on the moulds, or led directly into the concrete or generated inside the concrete. The latter is
accomplished by establishing an electric circuit through the fresh concrete.
External heat can be applied by vapour, hot water, oil bath or infrared radiation. Most common is the
curing in live steam at atmospheric pressure.
Fig. 6: Time-Temperature-Diagram of a typical live steam concrete curing

The steam-curing must have an optimum cycle adapted to the element to be produced. This cycles
consists of:
¨ An initial delay prior to steaming (at least 2 hours)
¨ Increasing temperature (by not more than 20 °C per hour)
¨ Maintaining a constant maximum temperature (60 to 80 °C)
¨ Decreasing temperature (by not more than 20 °C per hour)
By high pressure steam-curing in autoclaves at 160 to 190 °C and corresponding pressures of about 5 to
12 bars, the 28-day strength is reached within 24 hours. This hydrothermal treatment produces reactions
between silica of the aggregates and lime of the cement that do not occur with normal or steam curing at
atmospheric pressure. A chemical bond between cement and aggregate improves, of course, the
concrete properties. Steam-curing in an autoclave is not any more expensive than steam-curing at
atmospheric pressure. The investment costs, however, are significantly higher. In an autoclave, the sizes
of the produced elements are limited. Therefore, the hydrothermal process is only rarely applied for
products of ordinary concrete. It is, however, used for the manufacture of lime-siliceous wall blocks and
gas concrete.
Generally, all Portland cements are suitable for precasting with or without heat-treatment. The relative
increase of initial strength by heat is usually higher for cements producing low heat (e.g. slag cements).
High alumina cements are not suited for heat treatment.
6. LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
6.1 Purpose of Lightweight Concrete
Lightweight concrete instead of normal weight concrete is mostly used, if an especially good thermal
insulation of walls and roof is required. Due to the shortage of energy, this insulating concrete continually
gains in importance.
Lightweight concrete is also used to reduce the weight of constructions, e.g. bridges. This load bearing
concrete is called structural lightweight concrete.
Both of these purposes can be attained by one and the same material - by a structural and insulating
concrete. This type of application replaces the use of a combination of different materials with different
properties such as:
¨ Load-bearing skeletons with insulating panels, and
¨ Thermal insulating coats on ordinary concrete or
¨ Sandwich panels.
According to its purpose, different bulk weights of the concrete are chosen:
Table: Bulk density of lightweight concrete

Concrete application Bulk density,

kg/m3
Insulating concrete 300 - 800
Structural concrete 1400 - 1900
Combined application 800 - 1400

For the latter two purposes reinforced or even prestressed concrete can be used. By decreasing the bulk
weight, the thermal insulating capacity increases, strength, however, diminishes.
Fig. 7: Relation of strength and bulk density of different concrete types

Physical properties lightweight aggregate

Aggregate type Particle shape,

surface texture Density
[kg/m3] Bulk density
[kg/m3] 24 h- water absorp.
[wt-%] Concrete Compr. strength
[MPa] Concrete Unit weight
[kg/m3]
Aggregates for high strength lightweight concrete, > 15 MPa
Expanded clay Rounded and slight rounded part. Coarse:
600 to 1600
Fine:
1300 to 1800 300 to 600
5 to 30 10 to 60 1000 to 1700
Exp. shale and slate Angular slightly rounded, smooth surface Coarse:
800 to 1400
Fine:
1600 to 1900 400 to 1200 5 to 15 20 to 50 1300 to 1600
Fly ash
Similar to exp. clay 1300 to 2100 600 to 1100 20 30 to 60 15000 to 1600
Foamed blast furnace slag rough and open pored 1000 to 2200 400 to 1100 10 to 15
10 to 45 1800 to 2000
Sintered colliery waste Angular open pored 1000 to 1900 500 to 1000 15 10 to 40
1400 to 1600
Aggregates for medium strength lightweight concrete, 3.5 - 15 MPa
Pumice Rounded, rather smooth surface550 to 1650 350 to 650 50 5 to 15 1200 to 1600
Aggregates for high strength lightweight concrete, 0.5 - 3.5 MPa
Perlite Rounded shape, rough surface 100 to 400 40 to 200 --- 1.2 to 3.0 400 to
500
Vermiculite
Cubical 100 to 400 60 to 200 --- 1.2 to 3.0 300 to 700

6.2 Types of Lightweight Concrete

The best and least expensive thermal insulation is achieved with occluded air which does not contribute
to heat convection; just like animal fur and human hair, where not the hair itself is the insulating medium
but the air trapped in between. All types of lightweight concrete contain air voids, but the manner of
incorporation varies.
6.2.1 „No Fines Lightweight Concrete“
The simplest way to obtain a lightweight concrete is one that would be the greatest mistake for ordinary
concrete:
Only coarse aggregates, i.e. only one particle size fraction with 35 - 50 % voids, is used. Just enough
cement paste to bind the grains of the aggregates but not to completely fill the voids, is added.
Fig. 8: View of ‘no fineness aggregate’ lightweight concrete (water draining concrete)

6.2.2 Concrete with Lightweight Aggregates

The voids are inside the aggregates
Fig. 9: View of lightweight concrete with lightweight aggregates

6.2.3 Cellular (aerated) Concrete

¨ The pores are within the cement paste or mortar.
¨ They are produced during mixing by foaming agents. The product is called aerated or foamed
concrete.
¨ Another method is the generation of gas after casting by a chemical reaction within the
unhardened mix. This type of concrete is called gas concrete.
„No fines concrete“ can also be produced with lightweight aggregate. On the other hand, lightweight
aggregate can be combined with aerated mortar. In both cases, lower bulk weights are obtained than in
the ordinary lightweight aggregate concrete (800 to 1600 kg/m3 with compressive strengths from 1.5 to
15 MPa).
When lightweight concrete is used, the differences in moisture content, desiccation and shrinkage in
relation to ordinary concrete must be considered. According to the pore structure, the absorption capacity
and frost resistance of the lightweight concrete may be higher or lower than those of ordinary concrete. In
lightweight concrete the steel reinforcement is less protected against corrosion and therefore very often
has to be covered by a protective coating.
Fig. 10: View of cellular concrete
6.3 Concrete with Lightweight Aggregates
Porous aggregates are sometimes found as natural rocks, mostly of volcanic origin; they can also be
produced artificially from natural raw materials, industrial by-products or wastes. Even organic substances
in the form of natural products, waste-products, refined or synthesised fillers are used in lightweight
concrete.
Artificial lightweight aggregates have different trade names, even for similar products.
These aggregates are usually crushed and screened as well .The bulk weight of finer particle size
fractions generally is higher than that of coarser fractions. Often, coarse lightweight aggregate is used
together with normal sand.
Fig. 11: Lightweight aggregates

Concrete manufacture with lightweight aggregate is principally subject to the same rules as ordinary
aggregates; however, for mix designs, placing and compaction some particularities must be observed.
Especially the absorption of mixing water by porous aggregates and the fast stiffening of concrete must
be taken into account when dosing water. Therefore, it is recommended to saturate the aggregates with
water before dosage. Very light aggregates tend to float on top of the concrete mix, resulting in
segregation. This can be prevented by the addition of admixtures.
Due to these particularities in mixing and placing, lightweight aggregates are preferably used in precast
concrete rather than in cast-in-place. It is applied in the manufacture of bricks, wall panels, floor and roof
slabs.
It should be mentioned that sometimes natural products, such a straw, hemp, flax, bamboo, wood
shavings and sawdust are used in lightweight concrete manufacture. Insulating panels and blocks
(Durisol) are industrially manufactured with wood-wool, sawdust and shavings together with cement.
In extremely light concretes small spheres of expanded Polystyrene („Styropor“) replace the mineral
lightweight aggregates. The bulk weight of Styropor can be as low as 15 kg/m3.
6.4 Aerated (foamed) Concrete
The simplest way to obtain a high pore content is to use concrete mixes with a high water content.
Through quick hardening by vapour and desiccation, voids are created. A higher pore volume (up to 30%)
is attained by foaming agents (hydrolysed proteins or resin soaps). Either a separately produced foam is
injected into the concrete mix by pressure, or the foam is produced in the quick rotating concrete mixer by
the direct addition of a foaming agent. The concrete mix must contain only fine aggregates; generally, a
cement mortar with sand up to 3 mm. This procedure can easily be carried out on site and is used e.g. for
roof insulation. It is, however, not widely applied as it is very difficult to regulate the pore content and the
mechanical properties. The relations between bulk weight and compressive strength is recorded in the
following figure:
Fig. 12: Relation of strength to density to foamed concrete

Aerated concrete (up to 30 vol.-% pore content) has to be distinguished from air-entraining concrete
which, due to its 3 to 5 vol.-% pore content, is used for structural purposes demanding high frost/thaw
resistance.
6.5 Gas Concrete
The voids are developed within the unhardened mix, usually by hydrogen generated by the action of lime
on fine Aluminium powder used as an admixture (0.2% of cement weight). Only occasionally used is
oxygen from peroxides or acetylene from carbide.
Cement and sand (type „Siporex“) or quick lime with various siliceous components (type „Ytong“ with
ground shale or fly ash) are applied as basic materials. In some procedures a combination of cement and
lime in various proportions is used („Durox“, „Calsilox“, „Hebel“). In order for the mass to be bloated by
gas, the components must be very fine (to compare with the rising of bread). Therefore, in gas concrete a
mortar is used and not a concrete mix with coarse aggregates. It is important that the generating of gas is
synchronised with the stiffening of the mass, so that the gas cannot escape and the cake expands without
collapsing when gas generation has stopped. Before hardening, the demoulded blocks are cut with wires
into blocks or slabs of desired sizes.
Curing generally (always when lime is applied) takes place in autoclaves. By a chemical bond during the
hydrothermal process, the aggregates are incorporated into the binding material. This fact, together with
the regular pore structure create a good relation between strength and bulk density, for example:
Note:
At bulk densities of 800 kg/m3 equal compressive strengths as for lightweight concretes with bulk
densities of more than 1200 kg/m3 are reached.
With gas concrete mainly wall blocks, reinforced roof slabs and wall panels, even with a precast surface
coating, are produced.
7. HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE (HPC)
This is a term usually used to describe concretes made with carefully selected high quality ingredients,
optimised mixture designs, and which are batched, mixed, placed, compacted and cured to the highest
industry standards. Typically such concretes will have a low water/cementing materials ratio of 0.40 or
less, and generally much less. Most HPCs have water/cementing materials ratios in the range of 0.25 to
0.35 with 0.30 generally die optimum value. The achievement of such low water/cementing materials
ratios depends on the use of large quantities of superplasticizers, the use of which leads to high
workability, another common characteristic of mixes.
Because of the formulations used, HPC almost always has a higher strength than normal concrete.
However, strength is not always the prime required property, and HPC is valuable where any of the
following properties are required:
¨ High strength
¨ Very-high strength
¨ High early strength
¨ Abrasion resistance
¨ Low permeability
¨ Low gas and water absorption
¨ Low diffusion coefficient
¨ High resistivity
¨ Resistance to chemical attack
¨ High modulus of elasticity
¨ High resistance to freezing and thawing damage
¨ Volume stability
¨ Inhibition of bacterial or mould growth
In 1993 the ACI Committee on High-Performance Concrete proposed the following Definition of High
Performance Concrete:
High Performance Concrete:
Concrete meeting special performance requirements which cannot always be achieved routinely using
only conventional constituents and normal mixing, placing and curing practices.
These requirements may involve enhancements of the following:
¨ Ease of placement and compaction without segregation
¨ Long-term mechanical properties
¨ Early-age strength
¨ Toughness
¨ Volume stability
¨ Service life in severe environments
7.1 High Strength Concrete
The definition of high strength changes from time to time. According, to the American Concrete Institute,
high strength is defined as that over 41 MPa compressive strength. This value was adopted by ACI in
1984 but is not yet hard and fast, because ACI recognises that the definition of high-strength varies on a
geographical basis. Prof. J. Francis Young of the University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana has
developed a strength classification system that, though not yet adopted by a recognised authority, is a
helpful tool for describing high-strength concretes (see following table).
Strength classification of concrete

Parameter Conventional concrete High-strength concrete Very high strength concrete Ultra
high-strength concrete
Strength, MPa <50 50 - 100 100 - 150 >150
Water/cement ratio >0.45 0.30 - 0.45 0.25 - 0.35 <0.25
Chemical admixtures not necessary WRA/RWR *) HRWR **) HRWR **)
Mineral admixtures not necessary Fly ash Silica fume Silica fume
Permeab. coeff. (water), cm/s >10-10 10-11 10-12 <10-13
Freeze-thaw protection needs air entrainment needs air entrainment needs air entrainment no
freezable water

*) WRA = Water Reducing Admixture; **) HRWR = High Range Water Reducer
Compositions of typical HPC mixtures can be seen in the following table:
Typical HPC mixtures

Component Mix 1 Mix 2 Mix 3

Water, kg/m3 195 135 130
Cement, kg/m3 505 500 513
Fly ash, kg/m3 60 --- ---
Silica fume, kg/m3 --- 30 43
Coarse aggregate, kg/m3 1030 1100 1080
Fine aggregate, kg/m3 630 700 685
Water reducer, ml/m3 975 --- ---
Retarding agent, L/m3 --- 1.8 --
Superplasticizer, L/m3 14 15.7
w/c ratio 0.35 0.27 0.25
Strength at 28 d, MPa 65 93 119
Strength at 91 d, MPa 79 107 145

8. SHOTCRETE
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Shotcrete is the name given to mortar or concrete conveyed through a hose and pneumatically projected
at high velocity onto a backup surface. The force of the jet impacting on the surface compacts the
material so that it can support itself without sagging or sloughing, even on a vertical face or overhead.
Other names are also used for some types of shotcrete, e.g. gunite, but only sprayed concrete is
sufficiently general and is indeed the preferred term in the European Union terminology.
The properties of shotcrete are no different from the properties of conventionally placed mortar or
concrete of similar proportions: it is the method of placing that bestows on shotcrete significant
advantages in many applications. At the same time, considerable skill and experience are required in the
application of shotcrete so that its quality depends to a large extent on the performance of the operators
involved, especially in control of the actual placing by the nozzle.
Because shotcrete is pneumatically projected on a backup surface and then gradually built up, only one
side of formwork or a substrate is needed. This represents economy, especially when account is taken of
the absence of form ties, etc. On the other hand, the cement content of shotcrete is high. Also, the
necessary equipment and mode of placing are more expensive than in the case of conventional concrete.
For these reasons, shotcrete is used primarily in certain types of construction: thin, lightly reinforced
sections, such as roofs, especially shell or folded plate, tunnel linings, and prestressed tanks. Shotcrete
is also used in repair of deteriorated concrete, in stabilising rock slopes, in encasing steel for fireproofing,
and as a thin overlay on concrete, masonry or steel. If shotcrete is applied to a surface covered by
running water, an accelerator producing flash set, such as washing soda, is used. This adversely affects
strength but makes repair work possible. Generally, shotcrete is applied in a thickness up to 100 mm.
There are two basic processes by which shotcrete is applied. In the dry mix process (which is the more
common of the two, in many parts of the world) cement and damp aggregate are intimately mixed and fed
into a mechanical feeder or gun. The mixture is then transferred by a feed wheel or distributor (at a known
rate) into a stream of compressed air in a hose, and carried up to the delivery nozzle. The nozzle is fitted
inside with a perforated manifold through which water is introduced under pressure and intimately mixed
with the other ingredients. The mixture is then projected at high velocity onto the surface to be shotcreted.
8.2 DRY MIX AND WET MIX SYSTEMS
8.2.1 Dry Mix
Two distinct methods of spraying concrete exist, namely the dry mix and wet mix systems. In the dry mix
system, a mixture of cement, sand and large aggregate, if used, but with no added water, is fed into a
special mechanical feeder - the gun - and metered into a high pressure delivery hose. The material is
then carried on a stream of compressed air through the hose to a special nozzle which is equipped with a
water injection system operated by a valve which is under the direct control of the nozzleman. The
function of the nozzle is to convert the incoming stream of dry mixed material into concrete of the correct
consistency and project it at a specified point, some distance away, where it will impact on a surface and
stick there.
The original dry mix concrete spraying system has been developed over the years to a high degree of
efficiency but several other types of gun are now in use. Their mechanisms are different but the basic
principle is the same. This is to feed dry mix into a chamber where high pressure air blasts it down a
hose.
8.2.2 Wet Mix
In the wet mix concrete spraying system all the materials, including water, are thoroughly mixed before
being introduced into a pump. This can be a simple, non-mechanical device such as a CEM pump or any
one of a number of mechanical pumps, usually of the smaller variety, currently available. By such means
the concrete is pumped or squeezed along the delivery hoses. It is, of course, travelling at a relatively low
velocity but the nozzle converts the pumped concrete into shotcrete by the introduction of compressed air
- not water as in the dry mix system - which blows the concrete at high velocity onto the surface to be
coated.
8.2.3 System Advantages
Each system possesses certain advantages. The wet mix system would appear to diminish the reliance
on operator technique at the nozzle as the water is added at the mixer as in ordinary concreting practice.
However, very strict control is required to ensure that the mix possesses the required characteristics
pumpable but not too pumpable! Certainly the wet mix system produces less dust and rebound and
therefore finds favour in tunnels where its high output and ability to produce a more recognisable large
aggregate concrete are of advantage. But it would appear that the lead that has been built up by the dry
mix system will ensure that its popularity is maintained.
8.3 Shotcrete and Rebound
Rebound consists mainly of sand and aggregate - with a small cement content - which does not adhere to
the surface of application, the reinforcement or the fresh concrete layer itself, but which bounces back out
of the placing area or otherwise becomes detached from the surface. Rebound percentages can be
anything from 5% to 50% depending on various factors. It is expensive and wasteful and rather
unpleasant for the nozzleman. Moreover, there is always the danger that instead of falling clear the
rebound may become lodged particularly in the corners of the work and behind the reinforcement. Should
rebound remain trapped in the finished work this results in zones of weakness.
8.4 Strength and other Properties
Properly applied shotcrete is a versatile structural material, possessing great durability, and is capable of
excellent bond with concrete, masonry, steel and other materials. A mix designed for placing by traditional
methods can show up to 30% increase in strength if applied as gunite and one rarely hears of any
shotcrete strengths below 30 MPa while strengths in excess of 70 MPa have frequently been obtained.
Such strengths are obtained partly by virtue of the low water/cement ratio which falls within the range 0.35
to 0.40 by weight, which is lower than most values for conventional concrete mixes and partly by the
packing action as each particle is impacted into the material already in place.
This same action, in part, explains the high bond strength of shotcrete to other material faces which
should be presented in a clean, roughened and damp state. If, for example, concrete was sprayed onto
such a face, it should be impossible to pull the hardened shotcrete away without pulling the face of the
original concrete away with it. The compressive strength and bond strength of shotcrete are two of its
more important characteristics.
Other properties include flexural-tensile strength at 4 to 5 MPa drying shrinkage in the range 0.05 to
0.10% density generally 2240 kg/m3 to 2320 kg/m3 and superior resistance to acid attack and abrasion.
Shotcrete has performed well in permeability tests and one test at least has indicated that a 50 mm thick
gunite specimen would show no water percolation at all up to 700 kN/m2. A very valuable property of
shotcrete from the practical point of view is its ability to support itself in thickness of up to 50 mm at a time
in the overhead position and, of course, to a much greater thickness on a vertical surface without the use
of a face shutter. Thus, thickness can be reduced with consequent savings and alternative methods of
approaching certain types of work considered.
8.5 Uses of Shotcrete
Ever since its introduction, shotcrete has been used for repair works. Structural repairs are often needed
following fire damage, impact or abrasion including erosion of marine structures, or due to poor concrete
in the original construction, incorrect positioning of reinforcement causing lack of cover, design faults,
chloride attack or simply old age.
Cosmetic or superficial repairs are sometimes required because of poor finishing of the original
construction, honeycombing of the concrete, incorrect alignment due, for instance, to shutter slips, or
wear and tear, while refractory repairs often form part of maintenance programmes in industrial
installations to the linings of furnaces, reactors or chimney stacks which are subject to chemical attack
and very high temperatures.
A shotcrete repair carried out correctly will produce a high strength material with a complete bond to the
original structure provided by a compact and portable plant which can be operated at a convenient point
some way away from the area to be repaired.
It should be stressed that the preparation of the works is of paramount importance. Failure can normally
be traced back to insufficient cutting out of unsound concrete or insufficient cleaning of existing
steelworks both of which will lead to a failure of the bond between the shotcrete and the parent surface or
reinforcement.
Many brick and masonry arch structures such as bridges and viaducts were constructed 100 years ago or
even more. It is a tribute to their designers and builders that they have lasted so long but time does leave
its mark and the loading imposed upon them today are often far in excess of their design loadings. Such
structures can be strengthened by spraying a new concrete arch underneath the original arch with
minimal access requirements and no shuttering.
In original construction, perhaps the best known use of shotcrete is in the building of swimming pool
shells where the flexibility of the medium is reflected in freedom of design. The techniques developed for
building pools have more recently been adapted for the construction of skateboard parks with some
success.
Some excellent examples of imaginatively designed thin section shell roofs also exist and pre-shot gunite
elements have been produced ranging from thin sewer-lining segments to large curved capping pieces for
North Sea Oil structures.
The construction of houses and even small schools is now being developed using reinforced shotcrete
each side of a lightweight insulating layer.
As a protective coating, shotcrete has many uses. When an excavation is opened up, weathering of the
newly exposed face quickly takes place. On an embankment surface deterioration can be a long term
problem while in a steep sided cutting the falling of even small pieces of rock can cause serious danger to
those working below. A relatively thin coating of lightly reinforced shotcrete can seal the surface and
protect it particularly if the treatment is carried out at an early stage. Many steel pipelines, particularly for
North Sea gas and oil are coated with shotcrete for protection and negative buoyancy where they cross
rivers on their journey across the country. The portable nature of the plant makes it ideal to carry out
such work on the riverbank and circular encasements are completed without shuttering.
It is said that if we have space for a man and a hose, we can place concrete no matter what the problems
of access. Small amounts of concrete are often needed to fill pockets, for example, after completion of
surrounding structures and this can be done without recourse to buckets and ropes and without the need
for shutters or letterboxes. With the dry mix system, concrete can be blown through hoses in excess of
100 metres horizontally or vertically.
8.6 Summary: Shotcrete
The production of shotcrete relies to a great extent on the skill of the operators and there is a greater
inherent variability than with in-situ concrete. The design should allow for this.
As far as quality control is concerned, the short answer is to find a good contractor and a good
specification and make sure that the contractor keeps to the specification.
The process has been with us a long time. The machinery and techniques have evolved, the product
exhibits certain very interesting and useful characteristics and, with proper use and control can be made
to serve the contractor, the engineer, the client and ultimately the industry of which we are all a part.
9. ROLLER COMPACTED CONCRETE (RCC)
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC), rather than a new material is a new technique for building in concrete,
which has proved very suitable for dam and road construction. Its relevant to the cement industry must be
made clear from the beginning: It opens up excellent prospects to compete advantageously with
traditional non-cementitious 'foes': earth and rockfill dams and asphalt pavements.
By the end of the '60s it was ascertained in the USA that less than 10% of the newly built dams were
concrete dams. The implication for their future was clear: Either they were constructed more rapidly and
economically or they ran the risk of becoming a species under threat of extinction. This challenge
generated a more systematic search for a solution, the result of which is RCC.
9.2 WHAT IS RCC AND WHAT ARE ITS ADVANTAGES ?
Basically, the technique of building dams with RCC consists of placing concrete - of dry consistency - in
layers 0.30 to1.00 m thick, which are subsequently compacted by several passes of heavy vibrating
rollers. This process can be carried out without interruption along the entire length of the dam and, thus,
the traditional system of erecting dams in blocks, separated by joints, is substituted by one in which the
elevation of the structure is achieved uniformly. This results in a simpler RCC construction layout, with
associated reductions in materials and labour costs. Even more important is that the rate at which
concrete is placed and compacted is much higher than for conventional concrete dams, coming close to
those achieved for earth-fill dams. As an example, in Upper Stillwater Dam (USA), RCC production peaks
of 8400 m3/day were attained. Building dams in RCC brings about huge savings to the civil engineering
construction, the cost of which may become only one third of that necessary in the case of the traditional
concrete dams techniques. Even more important, a project in RCC may result more economical that the
alternative earth-fill dam.
9.3 DIFFERENT RCC CONCEPTS
As a consequence of its evolution, three different concepts of RCC have emerged:
¨ Lean RCC, developed by the US Army Corps of Engineers
¨ Moderate in Paste RCC or 'Rolled concrete dam (RCD)' according to Japanese practice and
designation
¨ Rich in Paste RCC developed in the UK and adopted by the US Bureau of Reclamation
9.4 SUITABLE MATERIALS FOR RCC
9.4.1 Binders
Binders used in the construction of RCC dams are mainly based on Portland cement, be it pure or
blended with additions. When pure Portland cement is used as the only binder, it is preferred to use
cements of low or moderate heat of hydration (ASTM Types IV and II).
There is a preference for blended binders containing fly ash due to its beneficial effect on workability, the
fly ash content being high, generally over 40% of the total The preferred addition for RCC is the low Ca0
fly ash (ASTM Type F); it can be mentioned that, for this application, fly ash of substandard quality can be
used. To a smaller degree, blast furnace slag and natural pozzolans have also been used.
In different projects the fly ash has been incorporated into the mix in various ways: as part of the cement,
as a separate concrete ingredient or a combination of both (this solution has been used in Santa Eugenia
Dam in Spain).
A very important property of a binder to be used in RCC dam construction is extremely low heat of
hydration. For instance, for a dam project in Colombia, a binder having a heat of hydration 40 cal/g at 7
days was specified, a limit which is considerably stricter than the 60 cal/g specified as a maximum for
ASTM Type IV, Low Heat cement. This explains the convenience of adding large amounts of fly ash into
the binder to keep the heat generation low.
9.4.2 Aggregates
Aggregates that fulfil the typical quality requirements for conventional concrete will be adequate for RCC.
Of course the deleterious effects of the Alkali-Aggregate reaction should be avoided, its likelihood being
low when moderate to high pozzolanic materials are included in the binder.
A special requirement is that the strength of the coarse aggregate must be sufficient to withstand the
heavy compaction pressures exerted on the material by the rollers.
Regarding the grading the following applies:
¨ The preferred maximum size seems to be around 80 mm, although larger aggregates (up to 150
mm) and smaller (about 40 mm) have also been used.
¨ The grading curve for RCC differs from that of conventional concretes, particularly in the fine
fraction. In particular, for Lean RCC a high proportion of material below 0.075 mm (between 4 and 10%) is
recommended.
Some experts claim that the uniformity of the grading is not as vital for RCC as it is for conventional
concrete and that the aggregates could be stored directly as a single fraction or eventually as only two
fractions (see cases of Monkville and Saco de Olinda dams in the following table). That table shows that,
in general, the aggregates should be stored in between 3 to 5 different fractions depending on the
maximum size.
Some examples of aggregates for RCC for dams

Dam (country) Max. size, mm No. of fract. Fraction size, mm

Ohkawa (Japan) 80 4 0-5, 5-20, 20-40, 40-80
Shin-Nakano (Japan) 50 4 0-5, 5-20, 20-40, 40-80
Shin-Nakano (Japan) 150 5 0-5, 5-20, 20-40, 40-80, 80-150
Castilblanco (Spain) 50 4 0-5, 5-12.5, 12.5-25, 25-50
Morales (Spain) 80 4 0-5, 5-20, 20-40, 40-80
Morales (Spain) 40 3 0-5, 5-20, 20-40
Erizana (Spain 100 4 10-6, 6-20, 20-50, 50-100
Monkville (USA 76 2 0-25, 25-76
VVillow Creek (USA) 76 3 0-20, 20-38, 38-76
Upper-Stillwater (USA) 38 3 0-4.8, 4.8-19, 19-38
Saco de Nova Olinda (Brazil) 76 2 0-30, 30-70

9.4.3 Water
The specifications for the quality of mixing and curing water for RCC are the same as for conventional
concrete. Regarding quantity, the water content of RCC mixes ranges normally between 90 and 120
kg/m3; sometimes these low values create problems if the aggregates are wet, since they may carry more
water than is strictly necessary to prepare the mix (e.g. Pangue Project, Chile).
9.4.4 Chemical Admixtures
Due to the very dry consistency and high amount of fineness, the use of chemical admixtures has proved
problematic for Lean RCC mixes.
For the other two types of RCC the chances of successful use of chemical admixtures are higher. For
instance, air-entraining and water-reducing agents are introduced into all Japanese RCC mixtures. A
water-reducing and retarding agent, at a relatively high dosage (0.9 to 1.3%), was used for Elk Creek
Dam with good results.
10. FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE
In recent years, numerous attempts have been made to reinforce concrete by incorporating randomly
distributed fibres, when fibre-reinforced plastic materials have already widely been used. For such
reinforcements four groups of fibres may be considered: steel, plastic, glass and (in former times)
asbestos fibres. Other special fibres, such as carbon, are far too expensive for concrete.
For reinforcing materials the important factor is the Young’s modulus (= initial tangent modulus) of the
fibres. If it is smaller than that of concrete, the fibre does not help to increase the tensile strength of the
concrete. The various materials referred to possess the following values of Young’s modulus:
Table: Young’s modulus of fibres

Fibre type Young’s modulus [GPa]

Concrete 30
Polypropylene fibres £5
PVA fibres 30
Glass fibres 70
Steel fibres 210
Asbestos fibres 150

10.1 Different Types of Fibres

The most commonly used man-made fibres have been steel and polypropylene, principally in concrete,
and glass, principally in cement mortar for thin section applications. Properties of some of the commonly
used fibres are given in the following table:
Physical properties of various types of fibres and matrices

MaterialSpec. gravity, g/cm3 Young’s modulus, GPa Tensile strength, MPa Elong. at breaking point,
%
Acrylic 1.10 2.1 210 - 420 25 - 45
Asbestos (Chrysotile) 2.55 150 200 - 1800 2-3
Carbon, high modulus 1.9 380 1800 0.5
Carbon, high strength 1.9 230 2600 1.0
Cellulose 1.5 10 - 40 500 ---
Cotton 1.5 5 420 - 700 3 - 10
Glass (Cem-FIL filament) 2.7 80 1050 - 3870 1.5 - 3.5
Nylon 1.1 4.2 780 - 850 16 - 20
Polyester 1.4 8.5 750 - 880 11 - 13
Polyethylene, high modulus 0.96 15 - 40 300 - 700 3 - 10
Polypropylene 0.91 3 - 15 560 - 780 8
Rayon 1.50 7.3 420 - 630 10 - 25
Steel 7.86 200 280 - 420 3.5
OPC paste 2.0 - 2.2 10 - 20 2 - 6 0.01 - 0.05
OPC concrete 2.30 20 - 35 1 - 4 0.005 - 0.015

10.1.1 Steel-fibre Reinforced Concrete

A number of steel-fibre types are available as reinforcement. Round steel fibres, the commonly used
type, are produced by cutting round wires into short lengths. The typical diameters lie in the range of 0.25
to 0.75 mm. Steel fibres having a rectangular cross-section are produced by slitting the sheets about 0.25
mm thick. For improving the mechanical bond between the fibre and matrix, indented, crimped, machined
and hook-ended fibres are normally produced. The aspect ratio (= length/diameter) of fibres which have
been employed vary from about 30 to 250.
Fibres made from mild steel drawn wire with a diameter from 0.3 to 0.5 mm have been practically used.
Round steel fibres are produced by cutting or chopping the wire; flat sheet fibre having a typical cross-
section ranging from 0.15 to 0.40 mm in thickness and 0.25 to 0.90 mm in width are produced by slitting
(shearing) flat sheets. Deformed fibres which are loosely bonded with water soluble glue in the form of a
bundle are also available. Since individual fibres tend to cluster together, their uniform distribution in the
matrix is often difficult. This may be avoided by adding fibre bundles which separate during the mixing
process.
10.1.2 Polypropylene Fibre-reinforced (PFR) Cement-mortar and Concrete
Polypropylene is one of the cheapest and abundantly available polymers. Polypropylene-fibres are
resistant to most chemicals and it would be the cementitious matrix which would deteriorate first under
aggressive chemical attack. Its melting point is high (about 165 °C), so that a working temperature as high
as 100 °C may be sustained for short periods without detriment to the fibre properties.
Polypropylene short fibres in small volume fractions between 0.5 to 1.0% have been commercially used in
concrete to achieve considerable improvement in impact strength of the hardened concrete. The have low
modulus of elasticity. Polypropylene fibres are available in two forms: monofilaments produced from
spinnerets, and film fibres produced by extrusions. The film fibres are commonly used and are obtained
from fibrillated film twisted into twine and chopped, usually into 25 - 50 mm lengths for use in concrete.
The fibrillated film may also be opened to produce continuous networks for use in thin sheet manufacture.
Fibrillated film may also be woven to produce flat meshes which may be used as thin cement sheet
reinforcement.
Polypropylene fibres being hydrophobic can be easily mixed as they do not need lengthy contact during
mixing and only need to be evenly dispersed in the mix. These are therefore added shortly before the end
of mixing the normal constituents. Prolonged mixing may lead to undesirable shredding of fibres. There is
no physico-chemical bond between fibre and the matrix, only a mechanical bond is formed as cement
paste penetrates the mesh structure between individual fabrics of chopped length or continuous network.
10.1.2.1 Properties of fresh PFR concrete
¨ The compacting factor test has been reported to be most suitable. The inclusion of polypropylene
fibres reduces the workability considerably, e.g., a normal concrete mix of medium workability (C.F. about
1.14) may reduce to a low workability mix (C.F. about 1.33) following the addition of 1% of chopped 35
mm polypropylene fibres. Polypropylene monofilaments can be used in small volume fractions of about
0.1 to 0.2% to alter rheological properties of the material, e.g., highly air-entrained concretes can be
stabilised by fibres.
10.1.2.2 Properties of hardened PFR concrete
¨ The tensile strength of concrete is essentially unaltered by the presence of a small volume of
short polypropylene fibres. Although the change in flexural strength of polypropylene reinforced-concrete
is marginal; the post-cracking behaviour has shown its ability to continue to absorb energy as fibres-
pullout. The energy absorbing capacity has been found to increase with the length of fibres, e.g. the 75
mm polypropylene fibres may result in an energy absorption comparable to that of the less efficient of
steel fibres, and at a considerably lower cost.
10.1.2.3 Durability of PFR concrete
¨ Polypropylene may deteriorate under attack from ultra violet radiation or by thermal oxidation
process. The cement matrix appears to prevent the former. To combat thermal oxidation, sophisticated
stabilisers have been developed to delay degradation and enhance durability.
10.1.2.4 Applications of PFR mortar and concrete
¨ Cladding panels:
Inclusion of polypropylene fibres instead of steel mesh reinforcement may allow reduction in panel
thickness.
¨ Shotcreting:
Surface coatings of polypropylene reinforced-mortar may be provided by shotcreting using normal
equipment. The fibres of about 20 mm length enable smooth Transport of the dry mix through air hoses
and nozzles. Water is then added at the gun orifice. Shotcreting can be advantageously used in wet
environments where polypropylene fibres can eliminate the need for steel (corrodable) mesh on which
spray of mortar is required.
¨ Polypropylene concrete:
That type of concrete can be advantageously used in the energy dissipating blocks.
The potential market for polypropylene reinforced-cement is, principally, as a substitute for asbestos-
cement roofing and cladding panels.
10.1.3 Glass-fibre Reinforced Concrete (GFR)
Glass fibres are made up from 200 to 400 individual filaments which are lightly bonded to make up a
strand. These strands can be chopped into various lengths or combined to make cloth, mat or tape. Using
the conventional mixing technique for normal concrete, it is not possible to mix more than about 2% (by
volume) of fibres of up to a length of 25 mm.
The major application of glass fibre has been in reinforcing the cement or mortar matrices used in
production of thin-sheet products. The commonly used varieties of glass-fibres are E-glass used in the
reinforcement of plastics, and AR-glass. E-glass have inadequate resistance to alkalis present in Portland
cements whereas AR-glass have improved alkali-resistant characteristics. Sometimes polymers are also
added in the mixes to improve some physical properties such as moisture movement.
The process of manufacture of glass-fibre cement products may involve spraying, premixing or
incorporation of continuous roving. In the spray-suction process, the glass-fibre strand is chopped into
lengths between 10 to 50 mm and blown in spray simultaneously with the mortar slurry on to a mould or
flat bed followed by suction to remove excess water. On the other hand in the technique involving
premixing short strands (about 25 mm in length) are mixed into mortar paste or slurry before further
processing by casting into open moulds, pumping into closed moulds, etc. Care must be taken to avoid
fibre tangling and matting together, and to minimise the fibre damage during mixing.
In the process incorporating continuous roving, the rovings are impregnated with cement slurry by
passing them through a cement bath before they are wound on to an appropriate mandrel. Additional
slurry and chopped fibres on to the mandrel and compaction can be achieved by the application of roller
pressure combined with suction.
10.1.3.1 Properties of hardened GFR concrete
The behaviour of glass-fibre cement sheets under tensile force is typified by multiple cracking of the
matrix. Longer fibres improve the ultimate failure stress. In wet environments, significant reduction in
strength takes place. The material may become brittle on ageing.
One of the most important improvements in the property achieved by glass fibre is the spectacular
improvement in impact strength. With the addition of for example 5% glass fibres, an improvement in the
impact strength of up to 1500% can be registered as compared to plain concrete. With a 2% fibre content
(up to 25 mm in length), the flexural strength is almost doubled. The second important improvement is in
the resistance to thermal shock. Ductility also improves with an increase in strength and modulus of
rupture.
The flexural strength of water stored and weathered specimens reduces with time and nearly equals that
of the matrix alone. The reduction in energy absorption is similar to that in flexural strength. The long-term
durability of glass fibre-reinforced cement can be improved by the addition of 15% polymer to the mortar
matrix. The increase in matrix cost is balanced by the use of cheaper E-glass fibres.
10.1.3.2 Applications of GFR concrete
The glass fibre-reinforced cement finds its use in formwork systems, ducting, roofing elements, sewer
lining, swimming pools, fire-stop partitioning, tanks and drainage elements, etc. Sometimes it is used in
combination with polymer impregnated in situ concrete.
10.1.4 Asbestos Fibres
The naturally available inexpensive mineral fibre, asbestos, has been successfully combined with
Portland cement paste to form a widely used product called asbestos cement. Asbestos fibres have
thermal, mechanical and chemical resistance making them suitable for sheet products, pipes, tiles and
corrugated roofing elements. Asbestos-cement products contain about 8 to 16% (by volume) of asbestos-
fibres. The flexural strength of asbestos cement board is approximately two to four times that of
unreinforced matrix. However, due to relatively short length (10 mm), the fibres have low impact strength.
There are health hazards associated with the use of asbestos cement. In the near future, it is likely that
cellulose, PP, PVA or glass fibre-reinforce concrete will replace asbestos completely.
10.1.5 Carbon Fibres
Carbon-fibres form the most recent and probably the most spectacular addition to the range of fibres
available for commercial use. Carbon fibres come under the high E-type fibres. These are expensive.
Their strength and stiffness characteristics have been found to be superior even to those of steel. But
they are more vulnerable to damage than even glass fibres, and hence are generally treated with resin
coating.
10.1.6 Organic Fibres
Organic fibres, such as polypropylene or natural fibres may be chemically more inert than either steel or
glass fibres. They are also cheaper, especially if natural. The polypropylene-fibre concrete has been
described earlier. A large volume of vegetable fibres (7%, 50 mm length) may be used to obtain a multiple
cracking composite. The problem of mixing and uniform dispersion may be solved by adding a
superplasticizer.
10.1.7 Vegetable Fibres, and General Remarks
The commonly used fibres are jute, coir and bamboo. They possess good tensile strength in their natural
dry state. Their tensile strengths do not suffer significantly even after being immersed in 10% solution of
sodium hydroxide for up to 28 days. However, long-term durability is doubtful.
In contrast to glass fibres, steel, asbestos and polypropylene fibres are chemically stable in a cement
paste matrix. The high alkalinity of cement paste protects steel from being corroded. The corrosion of
steel fibres can however become a problem when the matrix has cracked.
Irrespective of the type, size and shape of fibres to be used in a mix, the fundamental requirement of
fibre-reinforced concrete is that all the individual fibres should be uniformly distributed throughout the
matrix. The mix should have sufficient paste content to coat the fibres and aggregate, so that the
ingredients can be placed and compacted in the final position without any segregation.
The mix proportions generally depend on the intended applications of the composite. The prime
considerations are uniform dispersion of fibres, adequate workability for placing and compaction with the
available equipment. The workability of fibre-reinforced concrete is influenced by maximum size of
aggregate, volume fraction, geometry and aspect ratio of fibres.
As the size of aggregate increases, it becomes more difficult to achieve uniform fibre dispersion, since the
fibres are bunched into mortar fraction which can move freely past the aggregate during compaction.
To obtain a better dispersion the coarse aggregate content is kept lower than a normal mix and the
maximum size of aggregate is preferably limited to 10 mm. The mortar matrix (consisting of particles less
than 4 mm) should be around 70%, and aggregate/cement ratio as low as 3 : 1. A fine-to-coarse
aggregate ratio of 1 : 1 is often a good starting point for a mix trial. Water/cement ratio between 0.4 and
0.6, cement-content of 250 to 450 kg/m3 are recommended for providing adequate paste content to coat
large surface of fibres. Beyond a certain optimum content of fibres the workability of the composite
decreases rapidly.
11. OTHER SPECIAL CONCRETES
11.1 Heavy-weight Concrete
Concrete with high density is required for instance for ballasting, for precast concrete used for
construction in water sound proofing, and above all for radiation-shields of reactors, laboratories,
protective rooms, etc. As absorption of radiation depends upon the concrete mass, the walls can be
thinner when the concrete is heavier. Bulk densities from 2750 up to 5000 kg/m3 can be reached.
Heavy concrete, of course, has to be as compact as possible, but high densities can only be obtained by
using heavy aggregates. They are selected according to the purpose of their application and, in the case
of radiation shields, also on the kind of radiation. Natural as well as artificial aggregates can be used; slag
cements and high-alumina cements are preferred in some cases.
The following table gives an overview of fields of application for heavy concrete (medicine, research,
technique industry):
Aggregates for preparation of radiation stable concrete

Source of radiation Type of radiation Applicable types of aggregate

Radio nuclides Gamma-rays Aggregates with high density:
Baryte, slag from heavy metals, Ilmenite, Ferro-silicon, Magnetite, Ferro-phosphorous, Hematite,
granulated steel
X-ray apparatusX-rays Aggregates with high atomic number:
Baryte, slag from heavy metals
Cyclotron Electron-rays Aggregates with crystal water:
Ilmenite, Serpentine
Gamma-rays Aggregates with high absorption capacity:
Colemanite, Boron-ferrite, Bor-calcite, Bor-carbide
Neutrons
Atom reactor Gamma-rays Neutrons ,
Neutrons

11.2 Heat Resistant or Refractory Concrete

Heat resistant or refractory concrete is usually meant by concrete consisting of a high-alumina cement
and a special refractory aggregate. Properly chosen cement and aggregate will enable the concrete to
withstand temperatures up to 18000 °C. Such concretes are also used for cement kiln linings.
11.3 White and Coloured Concrete
White and coloured concrete for architectural purposes can be produced with white cement, „warm-tone“
cement or a cement to which a colouring material has been added. Similar effects can be obtained by
adding a pigment when mixing the concrete (maximum 10%, mostly 3 to 5%, of cement weight). Usually
mineral pigments will be used (iron oxides, chrome oxides, cobalt spinels) but carbon black is possible,
too..
11.4 Sand-Lime Concrete (Lime siliceous blocks)
Sand-lime concrete - as the name indicates is made of sand and lime in an autoclave process.
During the hydrothermal curing under pressure in the autoclave, the quartz of the sand reacts with lime
forming calcium silicate hydrate, quite similar to those formed by hydration of Portland cement. As lime
contains more calcium than cement, a lower quantity of lime is sufficient to obtain a similar effect.
The calcium silicate hydrate is the strength bearing phase:
¨ Hydrothermal reaction:
Ca0 + SiO2 + H2O ® CaO ž SiO2 ž H2O
The raw materials are quartz sand (>60% Si02) and quick lime (> 80% active Ca0); quick lime can be
substituted by lime hydrate. The sand can be used unground or partly or entirely ground. Grinding can be
done separately or together with the lime. To regulate the activity of the lime, retarders such as gypsum
are added. The amount of water required for a definite consistency depends mainly upon the specific
surface of the quick lime. The mix is immediately moulded and compacted. After a so-called aging time,
steam-curing is performed in autoclaves at a pressure of 12 to 16 bars during 2 to 6 hours. Sand and
lime quality as well as compacting and curing are responsible for the strength of the final product.
Sand-lime is mostly used in the form of bricks as wall-forming materials replacing clay or concrete bricks.
Large precast elements are fabricated too; in this case, more attention is paid to the composition and the
preparation of the raw mix.
The bulk weight of sand-lime bricks is 1500 to 2100 kg/m3 the compressive strength is from 15 up to 60
MPa
11.5 Polymers in Concrete
11.5.1 General
Polymers (plastics) possessing special properties, which differ from those of inorganic materials, are also
used in concrete but only for special applications.
11.5.1.1Advantages of polymers are:
¨ Good chemical resistance
¨ Easily malleable and workable
¨ Air and water tight
¨ Low density
The physical properties can be varied in a wide range by the composition and admixtures. Due to certain
unfavourable characteristics, however, the application, especially in buildings, is restricted.
11.5.1.2Drawbacks of polymers:
¨ High deformation under load (creep)
¨ Low heat resistance
¨ High price
Plastics as compared to cement of the same weight are about 100 times more expensive or 30 times
more by volume.
In the following, the application as a binding material in concrete and mortar is treated. Whereas
admixtures are used in quantities of a tenth per mil (0.1‰) up to a few percents of the cement weight, 5 to
30 % of the cement weight are added in this case, so that polymers form a significant part of the concrete
matrix.
11.5.2 Polymer Cement Concrete (PCC)
Polymer Cement Concrete is manufactured by adding a monomer emulsion during the mixing of ordinary
fresh concrete. The polymerisation of this monomer is initiated after mixing.
The monomer of a plastic material is the basic molecule which is in a liquid state. By polymerisation,
some thousands of molecules are bonded together in a chain or network, thus forming a solid plastic-
material.
¨ The main advantages of PCC are:
· Improved workability
· Improved impact strength
· Improved flexural strength
· Reduced shrinkage
(as a result of a lower water/cement ratio)
· Lower Young-modulus
· Higher Deformation limit (up to five times)
· Better toughness
· Less danger of cracking
· Better bond to old concrete (e.g. for repairs)
¨ The disadvantages are:
· High material cost
(about five times that of ordinary concrete)
· Worse creep characteristics
· Long-time performance not yet completely determined
11.5.3 Polymer-Impregnated Concrete (PIC)
Polymer Impregnated Concrete is formed by impregnating the air voids in a normally hardened concrete
with a monomer, and subsequently polymerising by heating or exposure to radiation. The polymer content
of PIC depends on the volume of air voids in the original concrete and lies between 3 and 7% by volume.
The following characteristics are claimed to have been improved as compared to the original concrete.
¨ Improved properties of polymer-impregnated concrete:
· Compressive strength increases: 3 to 4 times
· Tensile strength increases: 4 times
· Young’s modulus increases: 2 times
· Water permeability and water absorption becomes negligible
· Higher resistance to frost/thaw cycles
· Higher resistance to chemical attacks

12. MORTAR
12.1 Overview
12.1.1 Definition of mortar:
¨ Mortar is a mixture of:
· Cementitious material
· Fine aggregate (sand)
· Water
· Admixtures (sometimes),
12.1.2 Application of mortar
¨ The most important types of mortar are:
· Masonry mortar
· Plastering mortar for exterior of structure
· Plastering mortar for interior of structure
12.2 Cementitious materials for mortar preparation
¨ Portland cement
¨ Portland blast-furnace slag cement
¨ Portland pozzolan cement
¨ Masonry cement
¨ Quicklime
¨ Hydraulic lime
¨ Hydrated lime
¨ Gypsum
The combination of different cementitious materials is very often used in mortar practice.
12.3 Aggregates for mortar preparation
Natural or crushed sand is used as aggregate in mortar. The maximum grain size of aggregate varies with
the type of mortar; generally it lies between 1 to 4 mm. The aggregate surface should be free of injurious
amounts of organic impurities and friable particles.
12.4 Admixtures
The following admixtures are used for mortar preparation:
¨ Water-reducers
¨ Plasticizers
¨ Grouting admixtures
¨ Bonding admixtures
¨ Colouring admixtures
Just as for concrete, there are specified requirements for the storage, measurement and mixing of
mortars.
In the following table are summarised typical mortar mixes used in Switzerland
Mortar mixes and their properties (plastic consistency)

Type of mortar Cementitious material, kg/m3 Sand (dry), kg/m3 Compressive strength, MPa
OPC Hydraulic lime at 7 days at 28 days
Cement mortar 300 to 450 --- 1500 to 1620 10 to 20 14 to 30
Combined lime-cement mortar 100 to 150 200 to 300 1440 to 1620 1.8 to 3.2 3.0 to
5.5
Hydraulic lime mortar --- 300 to 400 1490 to 1570 0.4 to 0.7 0.8 to 1.4

12.5 Packaged, Dry Combined Materials for Mortar (Dry Mortar)

As the name indicates, „Packaged, dry combined materials for mortar“ are combinations of cementing
materials and aggregates which require only mixing water to be ready for use. The packages - in sacks or
bulk (for order of large quantities) - are generally available at a production plant or building material
supply stores. Several types of mortars, especially for rendering, are on the market. The plastics are
sometimes added to the cementitious materials to improve the bond strength between structure surface
and rendering.
12.6 Ready-Mixed Mortar
Ready-mixed mortar is a product of the ready-mix concrete industry. The development was started in
Europe around 1975 - to compensate for the loss of input in the ready-mix concrete business.
Ready-mixed mortar is a trowel-ready and immediately applicable wet mortar; it is produced in the ready-
mix concrete plant and transported to the building site in trucks commonly used in ready-mix business.
Ready-mixed mortar is a cement mortar with chemical admixtures. The components are usually:
¨ Portland cement
¨ Sand (fraction 0 to 2 mm)
¨ Water
¨ Admixtures: air-entraining agent and retarder, sometimes a stabiliser is added; the admixtures
have following functions:
· Air-entraining agent: to obtain the necessary workability and trowel flow through introduction of 20
- 25 % of air bubbles into mortar mix
· Retarder: to keep the mortar workable during approx. 30 to 40 hours (up to 2 working days)
The mortar is discharged on the job site into containers with known capacity (0.25, 0.33, 1.0 m3) and
keeps its workability during the 30 - 40 hours. After the ready-mixed mortar is used (as laying mortar for
brick-work and block-work), the normal hydration begins.
In some countries (Germany, Belgium) the production of ready-mixed mortar represented about 8 - 15%
of the total of all the ready-mix concrete companies.
LITERATURE
¨ Proceedings of the Symposium on Sprayed Concrete held in London on 15th April 1980; The
Construction Press Ltd, Lancaster, England
¨ Steven H. Kosmatka et al.: Design and control of concrete mixtures; CPCA, Ottawa, 1995
¨ A.M. Neville: Properties of concrete; Longman Group Limited, 1995
¨ M.L. Gambhir: Concrete Technology; Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi,
1995
¨ B.J. Addis et al.: Fultons Concrete Technology; Portland Cement Institute, Midrand, South Africa,
1986
¨ Cement Handbook, Material Technology II, HMC, Holderbank; update 1980, and HMC reports.

Process Technology

B04 - PT I

C01 - Quarrying

Quarrying
R.Playle
VA 94/4197/E (Revision 2/98)
1. INTRODUCTION
2. GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY
2.1 Rock Hardness
2.2 Influence of Rock Characteristics
2.3 Influence on the Blasting Process
2.4 Topography
3. DRILLING
3.1 Drilling Methods
3.1.1 Rotary Drilling
3.1.2 Percussion Drilling
3.2 Comparison of Drill System
3.2.1 Top Hammer
3.2.2 Down the Hole
3.2.3 Rotary
3.3 Drilling Parameters
3.3.1 Capital
3.3.2 Nature of the Rock
3.3.3 Fragmentation Size Distribution
3.3.4 Monthly tonnage requirements
3.3.5 Cap Rock
3.3.6 Vibration and Airblast
3.4 Drilling Definitions and Equations
3.4.1 Borehole Diameter
3.4.2 Burden
3.4.3 Spacing
3.4.4 Bench Height
3.4.5 Subdrill
3.4.6 Vertical and Inclined Holes
3.4.7 Drill Hole Deviation or Wander
3.4.8 Collaring
3.5 Drilling Patterns
3.5.1 Square
3.5.2 Rectangular
3.5.3 Staggered
4. BLASTING
4.1 History of Explosives
4.2 Breaking Process
4.3 Explosive Properties
4.3.1 Velocity of Detonation
4.3.2 Density
4.3.3 Detonation Pressure
4.3.4 Energy
4.3.5 Strength
4.3.6 Sensitivity
4.4 The Process of Detonation
4.5 Efficiency of Explosives
4.5.1 Coupling Ratio
4.5.2 Diameter
4.5.3 Priming
4.5.4 Stemming
4.6 Explosive Selection
4.7 Powder Factor
4.8 Energy Factor
5. INITIATION SYSTEMS
5.1 Electric Detonators
5.1.1 Detonators
5.1.2 Circuit Wiring
5.1.3 Power Source
5.2 Detonating Cord
5.3 Blasting Cap
5.4 Nonel
5.5 Delay Blasting
5.6 Blasting Patterns
6. EFFECTS OF BLASTING
6.1 Fragmentation
6.1.1 Terminology
6.1.2 Quality of Explosives
6.1.3 Rock Characteristics
6.1.4 Blasthole Loading
6.1.5 Drilling Accuracy
6.1.6 Timing and Pattern
6.2 Muckpile
6.2.1 Drill Hole Angle
6.2.2 Surface Timing
6.2.3 Free Face
6.2.4 Fragmentation Analysis
6.3 Ground Vibrations
6.3.1 Source of Ground Vibrations
6.3.2 Defining Peak Particle Velocity
6.3.3 Techniques to reduce Vibration Levels
6.4 Airblast
6.4.1 Atmospheric Conditions
6.4.2 Minimizing Airblast
6.5 Flyrock
7. LOADING AND MUCKING
7.1 Selection of Equipment
7.2 Non-Explosive Mining
7.2.1 Continuos Mining Systems
7.2.2 Semi-Continuos
7.3 Haul Road
7.3.1 Loaders
7.3.2 Trucks as Haulers
7.3.3 Rolling Resistance
7.3.4 Grade Resistance
7.3.5 Effective Grade
7.3.6 Cost Relationship
7.4 In Pit Crushing
8. Contracting out the Quarry Operation
9. RECLAMATION
9.1 Restoration to Agricultural Land
9.2 Forestry
9.3 Recreational
9.4 Nature Conservation
9.5 Urban Uses
10. THE FUTURE
10.1 Drilling
10.2 Explosives
10.3 Accessories
10.4 Controls
10.5 Planning
11. REFERENCES

1. INTRODUCTION
In the cement industry quarrying is the mining method for the production of raw materials in the process of
making cement. Quarrying describes the surface mining of rock whereas ‘open pit’ mining describes the
surface mining of minerals. Discontinuous mining systems such as scraping, ripping and dozing and
blasting are commonly practiced in limestone quarries. Continuous mechanized mining systems, with
bucket wheel or chain excavators, are used where the deposits are consistent and soft such as chalk.
Quarrying is the breaking of the rock in a safe and economic way and transporting the result to a plant for
further reduction in size. Figure 1 graphically sketches the sequence of events required to bring quarry
into operation.
This involves planning, purchasing of suitable equipment, drilling, blasting, loading and transport of rock in
quantities sufficient to permit the continuous operation of the cement plant. All this must be accomplished
as efficiently and safely as possible to maximize the return on investment. Finally environmental
considerations must be remembered and careful control kept on noise and dust levels. Parts of the quarry
that become worked out must be rehabilitated so that there are few scars on the landscape.
Figure 1: Quarry Operation

Blasting is the most widely used method to excavate limestone for cement production as the rock is
usually too hard to be ripped or dozed. This involves the drilling of holes in the rock, placing a
predetermined charge of explosive in each hole and detonating it. The result is a pile of broken rock which
then has to be removed to the cement plant. As it is not economic to break each piece of rock to the
required dimensions in the blasting process the rock is further reduce in size before being transported to
the cement plant storage silo. This further reduction is accomplished by means of a crusher system.
To obtain optimum results from the quarry operation the rock to be blasted has to be matched to the
explosive and the drilling parameters. Resulting fragmentation and muckpile shape, broken rock from the
blast, is dependent on all three factors.
2. GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY
There are many rock types existing in the earth’s crust and all are due to geological processes that
started about 4,5 billion years ago. By contrast man has only been in existence for a few thousand years.
2.1 Rock Hardness
Rock hardness is classified by using ‘Mohs scale of hardness’. This lists ten rocks with differing degrees
of hardness in an ascending order. The rocks used as standards, their Mohs’ hardness and basic
classification are to be found in table 1.
Limestone, with a high percentage of calcium carbonate, is one of the sedimentary rocks found in the
crust of the earth. It has an average Mohs’s hardness of about 3.3. This means that it is usually
necessary to blast limestone to free it from the surrounding rock.
Table 1 Moh’s scale of hardness

Rock Hardness UCS (MPa)

Talc 1 -10 soft
Gypsum 2 10
Calcite 3 30
Fluorite 4 medium
Apatite 5
Feldspar 6 120
Quartz 7 hard
Topaz 8 200+
Corundum 9 very hard
Diamond 10

2.2 Influence of Rock Characteristics

There are a number of theories relating to the effect that geology and in particular rock hardness has on
the breaking effect of explosives. In most cases results are based on the assumption that the ground is
homogeneous and contains no jointing bedding or planes. However these theories can be used as a
guide as to the hole burden and spacing necessary to give the required fragmentation when using a
particular explosive. They remove some of the guesswork and trial and error from the planning. To
determine these factors it is necessary to obtain certain rock properties. This can be partly accomplished
in the laboratory and partly by examination of core samples. The properties required are:

Density - specific weight

Young’s Modulus - stress to strain ratio
Poisson’s Ratio - measure of elasticity
Uniaxial Compressive Strength - static load necessary to break a sample of rock

Results from these tests can give a guide as to the best explosive and the correct drill hole diameter to
provide the most efficient drilling and blasting at the cheapest cost.
2.3 Influence on the Blasting Process
Geology, in the system of jointing and bedding planes, will dictate the bench geometry and face
orientation as well as the resulting fragmentation. Examples of the influence of dip can be seen in figure 2
which shows quarry faces with rock formations both dipping into and out of the face.
Jointing has the same effect on drilling and blasting as schistosity and bedding planes. The most
significant property of a joint is its inability to transmit tensile stress. Its tensile strength can be considered
as zero, or minute in comparison with solid rock. Stress waves are reflected from joint walls and therefore
interrupted in their travel through the rock. The visible result of this is large, blocky boulders in the
muckpile.
Figure 2 Jointing Effect on Breaking

2.4 Topography
Geography will be considered when planning a new quarry. The topography of the country will determine
the development of the quarry, pit like operations will result in flat terrain. Contour or side hill operations
would be found in hilly areas. Accessibility to the area, roads, services, and buildings will also determine
the development and infrastructure required at the quarry site. Additional problems are created when the
proposed quarry is close to a built up area. Complaints can be expected by local inhabitants, from
blasting and the noise made by machinery. The proposed area of a quarry may be limited by its proximity
to an area of natural beauty. Environmental damage to the area and the building of access roads have to
be minimized if the quarry is in a tourist area.
3. DRILLING
Bench drilling is a term for designating the method where surface holes are drilled for blasting towards a
free face. Blasted rock then has ample space in which to expand. Bench heights vary between 5,0 meters
and 30,0 meters, depending on the thickness of the formation, however the limiting factor in the height of
the bench is usually that of safety or hole diameter. Safety can be the inherent stability of the formation,
the greater the stability the higher the bench and hence the longer the drill hole. An increase in the
stability of the formation can be achieved by the use of inclined drill holes. This creates an artificial slope
at an angle of between seventy and eighty degrees. If a failure of the bench occurs the rock will tend to
roll down the incline face and not drop thus confining loose rock.
Larger hole diameters mean that longer holes can be accurately drilled. Toe position of a hole is important
if successful breaking is to occur. With hole diameters of 64 mm or less a hole drilled over 20 meters is
likely to wander from the line. Requirements of a drillhole are drawn in figure 3.
Quarry operations usually use an intermediate diameter drillhole of between 64 mm and 165 mm although
very large quarries can have hole diameters of up to 440 mm.
Figure 3 Drilling Methods

3.1 Drilling Methods

3.1.1 Rotary Drilling
Most commonly used in soft-medium rock masses that have an average Mohs’ hardness of less than
about four. This is a drilling method that was originally used for oil well holes. In rotary drilling energy is
transmitted via a drill rod which is rotated at the same time as the drill bit is forced down. The bit is rotated
continuously at between 50 and 90 revolutions per minute. Downward thrust is achieved by the weight of
the machine. This force is used to push the roller inserts, the cutting edges on the bit, into the rock which
on rotation break off small chips of the rock. The relationship between feed force and rotation rate
determines drilling efficiency. Energy losses in rods are minimal in rotary drilling. All such drilling requires
high feed pressure and slow rotation but the relationship varies with rock type. Softer rock requires lower
pressure and higher rotation speed and vice versa.
3.1.2 Percussion Drilling
Practiced where the rock is hard to very hard and abrasive, divided into:
3.1.2.1 Top Hammer Drilling
A shank adapter is hit repeatedly by a piston in the drilling machine which creates a shock wave that
travels down the drill string to the bit. Energy is discharged against the bottom of the hole and the surface
of the rock is crushed. Air traveling down the center of the drill string flushes the resulting chips out of the
hole. The whole drill string is rotated and crushes each segment of the hole face in turn. Drilling machine
and string are arranged on a feed, usually either chain or screw, and the feed force can be kept in contact
with the hole bottom by adding extra drill rods when the feed mechanism reaches the limit of its travel.
3.1.2.2 Down the Hole Hammer
The hammer and its impact mechanism operate down the hole. The piston striking directly on to the bit.
No energy is therefore lost through transmitting the shock wave down a drill string. The drill tubes carry
the compressed air for hammer and flushing.
3.1.2.3 Overburden Drilling
A new quarry operation is fortunate if the rock to be blasted is fully exposed on surface. In the majority of
cases it is overlain with soil and weathered, powdery rock called collectively overburden. This must first
be removed before the rock below can be removed. In cases where overburden is soft dozers and
rippers can accomplish the work.
Conventional methods, as described above, are not suited to these ground conditions and problems could
be experienced with stuck rods. A special drill that has casing tubes with its own ring bit, in addition to the
normal bit, are manufactured for these conditions. This specially designed drilling rig has the following
attributes:
1) Drilling will be continuous through varying ground conditions.
2) If stopped drilling can continue in loose ground easily.
3) The hole is prevented from collapsing when the bit is removed.
4) Flushing is efficient and rotation torque is high.
3.2 Comparison of Drill System
Penetration rate of a down the hole drill is, in theory, independent of hole length and therefore will be
capable of drilling longer holes with less deflection than the surface hammer. As the rotation mechanism
is down the hole these drills perform better in fractured ground than the surface drills. The rods of the
latter may jam when rock fragments fall down the hole.
Down the hole hammers, because of their mechanism, are limited in the size of hole they can drill, the
minimum being about 92 mm. For smaller diameter a surface percussion drill will be used. Rotary drilling
is the major method of blast hole drilling in large limestone quarries, where hole diameters of up to 150
mm are found. Hydraulic drilling has advantages over pneumatic in that the transmission of forces and
energy is accomplished by the use of a fluid. Fluids are virtually incompressible and only a fraction of the
energy is lost in transmission. Together with a high rotational speed this permits a higher drilling rate.
The machines used for rock drilling can be roughly grouped into the following based on their working
principles:
3.2.1 Top Hammer
¨ Hydraulic rock drills
¨ Pneumatic rock drills
3.2.2 Down the Hole
¨ Pneumatic hammer and pneumatic rotation unit
¨ Pneumatic hammer and hydraulic rotation unit
3.2.3 Rotary
¨ Small and large hole rotary cutting
¨ Large hole rotary crushing
3.3 Drilling Parameters
Determining the size and number of blastholes as well as the drill rig required to drill them is based on
many different parameters. Some of these demands are shown in figure 4.
Figure 4 Demands on Drilling

Other demands include:

3.3.1 Capital
Cost outlay required to purchase rigs.
3.3.2 Nature of the Rock
Jointing, bedding planes, a smaller hole diameter will permit better distribution of the explosive in the rock
and a better explosive efficiency. A larger hole diameter means a larger burden and more concentration of
the explosive. Although drilling costs would be lower, fewer joint bound blocks would be intersected by
drill holes resulting in excessive secondary blasting costs.
3.3.3 Fragmentation Size Distribution
Efficient drilling designs, combined with the correct choice of explosive result in better fragmentation.
Correct collaring of holes improves the whole quarry efficiency. If holes are drilled out of position or of the
incorrect length then fragmentation is going to be poorer. Too long holes will result in wander of the toe of
the hole with resulting increases in burden and spacing again resulting in poor fragmentation and overall
explosive performance.
3.3.4 Monthly tonnage requirements
Larger hole diameters are used where there is a greater tonnage requirement.
3.3.5 Cap Rock
Problems with oversize from the collar area. Smaller diameter holes require a shorter stemming length
and higher explosive column in the hole.
3.3.6 Vibration and Airblast
Smaller hole diameters imply a smaller mass of explosive per delay reducing the level of ground
vibrations.
3.4 Drilling Definitions and Equations
The relationship of the various parameters used in drilling is shown in figure 5. There are no ‘hard and
fast’ rules. They only serve as a guideline and are based on experience.
Figure 5 Drilling Technology

3.4.1 Borehole Diameter

This is important to obtain maximum fragmentation at the lowest cost. The cost of drilling, per cubic meter
blasted, decreases as the hole diameter increases. However too large a diameter can cause problems
with resulting airblast and flyrock if the bench height is too low. Excessive jointing at small intervals in the
rock can cause a fragmentation problem if a large hole diameter is selected. For best fragmentation
control the appropriate bench height to borehole diameter is 0.12 to 1 (in meters and mm). That is:

0.12 * D = H
where D = borehole diameter in mm
H = bench height in meters

3.4.2 Burden
This is considered the most critical variable in the design of surface blasts. It is defined as the distance
from a borehole to the nearest free face at the time of detonation. In planning, the burden is taken as the
distance at right angles to the free face, from the free face to the first row of blastholes. Burden is a
function of the charge diameter and therefore also depends on the drillhole diameter.

B = (25 to 35) * E
where B = burden in meters
E = explosive in hole, diameter in meters

3.4.3 Spacing
Is the distance between adjacent boreholes and is measured parallel to the free face. The optimum
spacing to burden ratio is between 1 and 1.3. Too small a ratio leads to holes not breaking out, with
resulting flyrock and ground vibration problems. Too large a ratio has the effect of increasing oversize as
the blastholes break individually to the free face.
3.4.4 Bench Height
Distance, measured vertically from one level floor of a quarry to the next up or down. For a successful
design it is important that the burden and bench height are reasonably compatible. The minimum is:

H = 2*B
where H = bench height in meters
B = Burden in meters

If the bench height is low and the burden and blasthole is large then an excessive percentage of the
borehole is taken up with stemming. Very high benches become a danger for personnel working beneath
them.
3.4.5 Subdrill
The distance drilled below the level of the bench floor necessary to be certain that, on blasting, the toe of
the holes breaks out.
3.4.6 Vertical and Inclined Holes
Drill holes are drilled either at an angle to the vertical in the direction of the free face or vertical. There are
several advantages to incline drilling as detailed in figure 6. In addition there can be a reduced explosive
cost due to increased burden. There is also less risk of backbreak and toe problems. However inclined
drilling needs closer supervision in order to achieve good results. If the hole is underburdened then flyrock
is more likely from blowouts.
Figure 6 Effect on Inclining Holes

3.4.7 Drill Hole Deviation or Wander

The drill bit and drill string can be deflected from its planned straight course after collaring. The major
causes are:
3.4.8 Collaring
The start of the hole where the drill bit is placed on a marked position and drilling commences.
3.5 Drilling Patterns
Blast holes are drilled to a pre-planned pattern which will determine:
· number of holes and drilled meters
· cubic meters of rock to be blasted
Drilling plans are either made using prepared drilling tables for certain parameters or they can be made
especially with a desired result in mind.
The most common pattern are:
3.5.1 Square
Equal burden and spacing
3.5.2 Rectangular
Burden is less than the spacing.
Easily marked out and easy to collar accurately.
Figure 7 shows these patterns.
Figure 7 Inline Drilling Patterns

3.5.3 Staggered
Spacing to burden ratio may be one is more usually greater than one. The holes in alternative rows are in
the middle of the spacings of the row in front. Figure 8 shows an example of each pattern.
Figure 8 Drilling Patterns for Staggered Holes

Ideally holes should be drilled in a triangular pattern where the spacing to burden ratio is 1,15. This
equilateral triangular pattern provides for the optimum distribution of the explosive charge, for any
particular hole diameter, throughout the rock. In this way the cost of drilling and blasting can be optimized.
The area around the hole influenced by the detonation of the explosive and the distribution of the resulting
explosive energy throughout the surrounding rock is graphically shown in figure 9 and compared to other
patterns.
Figure 9 Comparison of areas of Explosive Influence around a Blasthole

4. BLASTING
Blasting is an intermediate step in the process of quarrying. Choosing the correct explosives is one of the
most important decisions influencing the design and operation of a quarry. It cannot be taken in isolation
as other factors, such as rock type and hole diameter, also influence the choice. The major objectives of a
blast are to suitably fragment the rock and to displace it such that it is easy and safe to load out. Once a
blast has been initiated it is uncontrollable and cannot be repeated if incorrect. The greater the effort put
into the planning and preparation the better the results will be.
4.1 History of Explosives
Commercial explosives started with the invention of black powder. The first recorded mention of ‘saltpeter’
is in the 13th century in Arabia. Its first recorded use in mining was in the Royal Mines in Hungary and
from here its use spread to the tin mines of Cornwall in England in the late 17th century.
Ascanio Sobero discovered Nitroglycerin (NG) in 1846 and it was used in its raw state in blast holes with
black powder igniters. This proved to be very hazardous and Alfred Nobel, while seeking a safer way to
transport this new explosive chanced on Kieselguhr which rendered nitroglycerin less sensitive to shock,
this was the first dynamite. Dynamite was not only much more powerful than black powder but with its
higher velocity of detonation (VOD) it was more effective in breaking rock. The only real drawback was
that it was not waterproof. In 1875 Nobel found that by dissolving nitrocellulose in nitroglycerin he could
increase the water resistance of his explosive, which was called ‘blasting gelatin’. The next step in the
making of NG explosives was to replace part of the expensive nitroglycerin with low cost Ammonium
Nitrate. It has only about 70 % of the blasting strength of NG and was highly hygroscopic but research to
increase the percentage used in Dynamites continued. This resulted in a relatively cheap high
performance explosive with good waterproof characteristics still in use today.
Concurrently better and safer ways to initiate the explosive cartridges were being discovered. In 1831 a
Cornishamn invented Safety Fuse, a continuous core of black powder wrapped in jute and twine and
coated with varnish to make it waterproof. However, this fuse would not initiate Nobel’s explosives and he
solved the problem with the patenting of his Fulminate of Mercurycaps. This also showed that to
maximize the energy produced from a detonating explosive a shock wave was required. With this
combination a certain reliability in timing and detonation was introduced at the initiation of explosives.
Bridge wires and electric blasting were patented in the late 1800’s and together with detonator delays
produced superior fragmentation.
Devastating explosions in two ships in 1948, when fuel oil leaked into their cargoes of Ammonium Nitrate
(AN), led to the discovery of the cheapest of all explosives. If AN is mixed with about 6 % Fuel Oil (FO) it
becomes a powerful relatively safe explosive known as ANFO. AN is now manufactured in small prills to
give the explosive good flow characteristics.
The increase in blasthole diameter in the 1950s led to new explosives coming into existence. These were
the Watergels consisting of AN, water, a thickener and a sensitizer. Research had been conducted to
waterproof AN products and it was found that the way to increase resistance to water was to shield it
chemically. The main advantages were, a high loading density, good performance and low sensitivity.
Above all they did not contain any headache causing ingredients, a big problem with all NG based
explosives.
Emulsion explosives, developed in the 1960s, are a high performance explosive which detonates without
a sensitizer being added. They are prepared in the form of oil in water emulsions. The basic ingredients
are AN, water and fuel, the water in oil. A wide variety in water immiscible fluids permits a wide range of
products, stiff to fluid. They are extremely stable over a wide temperature range.
Explosives today are defined either as ‘poured’, ‘pumped’ or ‘cartriged’. Bulk loading of holes, from a
mobile container often mixed to form an explosive on site, is safer and cheaper than loading cartridges
into a hole. However where an exact charge per hole is necessary or small quantities required then
packaged or poured explosive is preferred.
4.2 Breaking Process
An explosive is a chemical compound or mixture ignited by either shock, impact or friction. When ignited it
decomposes rapidly as a detonation. There is a release of heat and large quantities of high pressure
gases, which expand rapidly with sufficient force to overcome confining forces such as the rock around
the drill hole. In commercial blasting the energy released by the detonation manifests itself in four ways,
these are:
¨ rock fragmentation
¨ rock displacement
¨ ground vibration
¨ airblast
4.3 Explosive Properties
Each explosive has certain different characteristics or properties. Some of the major properties are listed
below:
4.3.1 Velocity of Detonation
The speed at which a detonation wave travels through a column of explosives.
4.3.2 Density
Specific gravity, the standard being water.
4.3.3 Detonation Pressure
The pressure immediately behind the detonation front.
4.3.4 Energy
A measure of the potential of an explosive to do work.
4.3.5 Strength
The ability of an explosive to work.
4.3.6 Sensitivity
A measure of the minimum energy required to initiate the explosive.
4.4 The Process of Detonation
In a detonation the chemical reaction moves through the explosive material at a velocity greater than that
of the speed of sound through the same material. The definitive characteristic if this chemical reaction is
that it is initiated by, and supports, a supersonic shockwave proceeding through the explosive.
Deflagration of an explosive occurs when the shockwave moves too slowly to produce significant shock
energy.
Generally explosives with a lower VOD tend to release gas pressure over a longer period than those of
higher VOD. These, lower VOD explosives, have more heave, important in areas where material
movement is needed. Figure 10 shows a schematic drawing of a typical detonation.
Figure 10 Sketch of a Typical Detonation

In commercial explosives significant chemical reactions occur behind the primary reaction zone and effect
the explosive performance. This is due in part to the need to make explosives safe to handle. The
majority of products are gases at high temperature and pressure. In the order of 4000 degrees centigrade
and 20 to 100 kilobars. These gases expand rapidly and produce the shock wave in the surrounding
medium which in turn is transmitted into the rock around the borehole. Shock provides the energy for
fragmenting the rock and gas, the heave energy to move the fragmented blocks to form the muckpile.
An explosion in a drilled hole is closely followed by the shock wave passing through the rock and
stressing it, first in compression and then in tension. Tensile forces cause small radial cracks to develop
from the hole which are subsequently expanded by the explosive gases entering them.
The free rock surface starts to move forward unloading the pressure. The tension increases in the primary
cracks which expand to surface and complete the loosening of the rock.
4.5 Efficiency of Explosives
The efficiency of all explosives depends on several factors:
4.5.1 Coupling Ratio
The cross-sectional area of the drillhole filled with explosive. With pumped or pour loaded explosives this
will be 100 %. Cartridges, not being able to fill the hole completely will always have a lower ratio.
4.5.2 Diameter
The larger the diameter of the borehole, which is the primary influence on the diameter of the explosive
used, the greater the VOD of that charge. Figure 11 shows how the VOD of the common explosives is
affected by the diameter.
Figure 11 Comparison of VOD with Hole Diameter

4.5.3 Priming
Adequate priming insures that the explosives will reach its maximum VOD as soon as possible.
Inadequate priming can mean that the explosive efficiency is not fully exploited. A primer is an explosive,
either a high VOD explosive or made from PETN, that accepts initiation from a detonator or detonating
cord. It transmits this detonation to a mass of explosive contained in a drillhole. The cross section of the
primer should be such as to match the hole diameter as closely as possible and as long as necessary to
attain its maximum VOD. This will result in the detonation of the column of explosive at its highest
potential to do work.
The primer should always be at the point of greatest confinement, if possible, at the toe of the hole. The
exception is when horizontal band of harder rock is encountered in a series of drill holes. To break this
effectively the primer can be located at this point in the hole.
4.5.4 Stemming
It is the non explosive material between the top of the explosive column and the collar of the hole.
Stemming can consist of drill fines or gravel. Drill chippings are favored as they are readily available and
their cost is minimal. The stemming height in a hole is dependent on the nature of the rock and amount of
flyrock and noise that can be tolerated.
The use of effective stemming increases the amount of useful work that the explosive performs in the
hole. This has a beneficial effect on the cost of the blasting operation.
4.6 Explosive Selection
Field and economic considerations influence the type of explosives needed to produce the desired
results. Low cost, good fragmentation and adequate heave are the desired results. On the basis of cost
no explosive can compete with bulk ANFO in dry holes. It accounts for about 80 % of all explosives used
in surface blasting. Emulsion and ANFO emulsion mixes possess an increased efficiency value due to the
fact that emulsion is a highly efficient explosive. Site conditions such as water, heave required and drilling
cost can make the use of a water resistant, higher energy explosive, more attractive. The use of
cartridged explosive in surface mining is unusual as the increased handling and storage costs required to
place it into the hole makes it expensive. It has an application where a small, exact charge is needed in
order to limit vibration or flyrock. Table 2 summarizes and compares the properties of the three most
common explosive types.
Table 2 Comparison of properties

EXPLOSIVE ANFO WATERGEL NG Based

Detonator No No Yes
Sensitive
Density 0,80 1,30 1,40
Relative Energy 1,00 1,82 1.66
Gas Development 34 39 38
Waterproof No Yes Some-Yes
Bulk Loading Yes Yes No

4.7 Powder Factor

A mathematical relationship between the weight of explosives and a quantity of rock expressed in
kilograms, or grams, per ton broken. It is based on an assumption that explosive weight and explosive
energy are one and the same. Different explosives have different energy outputs and cannot be
compared to each other on this basis. To overcome this the term ‘Energy Factor’ has been introduced. In
general the powder factor is related to the income producing unit of the operation.
4.8 Energy Factor
This is defined as the amount of explosive energy, in kilojoules, in a given quantity of rock.
Energy Factor = kJ/tons
5. INITIATION SYSTEMS
An initiation system is a combination of explosives and accessories designed to convey a signal to a
column of explosives to detonate at a particular instant. The signal function may be either electric or non
electric. Common systems by which explosives are detonated are:
¨ Initiation by an electrical impulse
¨ Detonating cord
¨ Safety fuse and plain detonator
¨ Initiation by a shock wave (Nonel)
The most widely used system is the electric detonator and associated circuitry.
Electric and Nonel detonators are made in three different designs.
1) IED - instantaneous electric detonator. This has no delay element and is used, for example, to
initiate detonating cord at the start of a blast.
2) MS - IT is the same basic construction as the IED but includes a delay element. The delay
interval is measured in milliseconds (MS). Generally used for bench blasting in a quarry.
3) LP - The delay element is of a different composition which permits a long delay (LP) measured in
seconds or parts of seconds.
5.1 Electric Detonators
An electric system uses electric power with an associated circuit to convey an impulse to electric
detonators. These will fire and initiate an explosive charge. Inside the detonator the electrical energy is
converted to heat by passing the firing current through a high resistance bridgewire. The heat energy
ignites a pyrotechnic surrounding the bridgewire. The resulting flash ignites the delay element which then
burns for a designated time and in turn ignites a base charge in the toe of the detonator, this initiates the
primer. Figure 12 shows a section of an electric detonator. The electric blasting circuit consists of three
elements:
Figure 12: Section of Detonator

5.1.1 Detonators
With lead wires connected in series or parallel or a combination of each.
5.1.2 Circuit Wiring
Connects the detonator circuit to the power source. Two wires of a resistance of about 1.5 ohm per 100
meters known as the blasting cable.
5.1.3 Power Source
Commonly called a shot exploder, to provide the electrical energy to the firing circuit.
5.2 Detonating Cord
This is a flexible tube containing a center core of high velocity explosive, usually PETN (pentaerythritol
tetranitrate) that is used to, either, detonate explosives or transmit a detonation wave from cord to cord.
The core of explosive is covered with combinations of materials to protect it from misuse or water and to
give it strength. It is used in conjunction with relays to provide short firing delay intervals. Certain
detonating cords can be used down large diameter holes as their tensile connected to a lower strength
cord on surface which contain the relays. Detonating cord comes in reels of about 200 meters and can be
cut to any length. A simple knot is enough to ensure propagation of the shock across a join.
5.3 Blasting Cap
Initiated by a safety fuse, it comprises an aluminum tube loaded with two charges. A base charge of a
high explosive, PETN and a primer charge of lead azide. The primer charge changes the burning of the
safety fuse into a detonation and initiates the base charge. It is used with igniter cord, which initiates the
fuse, as an inaccurate delay system to detonate multiple small diameter hole blasts.
5.4 Nonel
In order to reduce the problems associated with electric delay systems, stray currents and earth leakage
being two of the main ones, a system of non-electric (nonel) was invented. It uses a thin transparent
plastic tube of 3 millimeters in diameter to transmit a low energy signal to a detonator at 2000 m/s. The
tube contains a thin coating of reactive material on the inside which in itself will not detonate explosives.
The signal is initiated by either a detonator or detonating cord. Various lengths of tube with a detonator
are sold as a unit.
5.5 Delay Blasting
Millisecond delay blasting was introduced to the quarries many years ago. When blasting the rock
movement time is very important, particularly in multiple row blasts. With one row of holes movement
generated by blasting is directly away from the face, in an almost horizontal direction. As the number of
rows increases so will the rock movement tend towards the vertical (flyrock). This is caused by the low
velocity of the broken impeding the movement of that behind. The time requirement between rows to
permit the rock to move in multi row blasts is 8 to 10 milliseconds per meter of drilled burden. For multiple
row blasting the optimum delay is within the period that results in good fragmentation without the
presence of cutoffs. Where the number of rows exceeds five or six an increase in the delay time is
needed to successfully break the back rows without causing flyrock.
The true burden is dependent on both the drill and delay pattern selected. Initiation sequence affects the
principal direction of rock movement. The best fragmentation is achieved when each charge is given
enough time to detach the rock surrounding it before the next charge detonates. An additional free face is
available to the next charge and the residual stresses in the rock are high enough to assist in the breaking
by the subsequent charge.
The simplest type of delay blasting is to fire a single row of holes with delays between the holes. This
system is applied to large diameter drillholes used in many quarries and results in better fragmentation
than instantaneous blasts, where no delays are used.
Blasting laws often limit the mass of explosive that can be detonated at one instant in time. This is
particularly so where ground vibrations must be kept to a minimum. For example the proximity of quarries
to built up areas.
5.6 Blasting Patterns
The length of most primary blasts, in relation to the number of rows, is such that initiation of a row will
mean that a large number of holes will be detonated simultaneously. A ‘V’ pattern reduces this number as
well as reducing the blasted burden of the holes. Change in firing direction will reduce the mass of
explosive detonating at any one instant and therefore the vibration level. The type of pattern used will also
regulate the position and height of the muckpile.
Figure 13 shows a ‘V1’ connection which can be either an open or closed chevron.
Figure 13: Timing Patterns
6. EFFECTS OF BLASTING
6.1 Fragmentation
The extent to which rock is broken into pieces by blasting.
Degree of fragmentation desired is dependent on the loading and crushing equipment and use of the
product. In the economics of blasting cheaper means coarser fragmentation but this requires larger
loading equipment to handle the oversize. Bigger machinery is designed for bigger tonnages not to load
out oversize. Every quarry manager should consider the increased cost of drilling and blasting against the
profitability of an increase in output obtained by an increase in fragmentation in order to obtain the lowest
cost per unit for the whole operation. Many factors affect fragmentation. The major ones are discussed.
6.1.1 Terminology
‘Fragmentation’ is a general and highly subjective term in which ‘good’ does not necessarily mean ‘small
pieces’. Depending on the chief requirement of the operation and the final product management will focus
on one of the following:
¨ Fines
¨ Oversize
¨ Mean Fragment Size
It is these terms that define fragmentation.
6.1.1.1 Fines
Rock particles of suitable chemical quality but too small for processing or sale. These represent an
effective loss of reserve and production. Fines incur costs in production and additional costs in storage or
disposal if not used. In a limestone quarry the fines can either be represented as increased capacity to
the plant, they need no further reduction in size by the crusher, or as the overuse of explosive energy
negating the use of the crusher.
6.1.1.2 Oversize
Rock particles too large to be handled by the available loading or crushing equipment. This causes delays
in production while being moved out of the way and increased maintenance costs to loading equipment
not designed to handle them. They generally increase working costs, the majority have to be re-broken,
and reduce the safety of both workers and equipment. It is normal practice for management to measure
the blast purely on the percentage oversize contained in the muckpile and to disregard the percentage
fines.
6.1.1.3 Mean Size
Defined as the mesh size through which 50 % of the muckpile can pass. While not as obviously critical as
the above it provides a meaningful guide to ease of digging. Being at the midpoint of the size range ‘mean
size’ is not as sensitive to small variations in the ‘oversize’. For example a 100 % increase in boulder
count may represent less than a 1 % increase in mean size.
6.1.2 Quality of Explosives
The product of strength per unit weight and charging density, known as strength per unit volume,
determines the effectiveness of different explosives in breaking rock.
6.1.3 Rock Characteristics
In jointed rocks the correct direction of blasting is important. In hard, solid and slightly fractured rock the
extent of the crushed zone around the blasthole is dependent on the charge per hole length.
6.1.4 Blasthole Loading
Proper fragmentation occurs when there is enough force in the compression wave to travel to the free
face and back. The quantity of explosives is enough to fragment the rock. If not enough stemming is
placed in the collar of the blastholes then, on detonation, gasses will escape from the holes reducing the
efficiency of the explosives.
6.1.5 Drilling Accuracy
If drilling accuracy is suspect the planned drilling parameters will have to be decreased to maintain
explosive efficiency.
6.1.6 Timing and Pattern
Better breaking has been found when using a delay interval, in milliseconds, of about ten times the drilled
burden in meters. The interval should be chosen after taking into account the burden and spacing and the
number of holes to be blasted.
The use of ‘V’ patterns will somewhat reduce block size by causing collisions of the rocks during heave. It
also results in easier to load muckpiles. In any blast the stemming area produces the most oversize as
there is usually a lower distribution of explosives than in the rest of the blast. To improve fragmentation
the quantity of explosive in the collar area can be increased in a number of ways. The column charge can
simply be increased. Smaller diameter and shorter length holes can be drilled in between the main holes
and charged with a small quantity of explosives. A separate charge can be introduced into the stemming,
known as decking.
6.2 Muckpile
This is defined as a pile of blasted rock that is to be loaded for removal. The ‘throw’ or movement of the
rock from the blast increases as the specific charge increases and may be controlled by varying it. As
blasting proceeds in multi row conditions the muckpile in front of the face will gradually lie closer to it. The
shape of the muckpile is influenced by several factors.
6.2.1 Drill Hole Angle
An inclined hole will project the rock further than a vertical hole resulting in a flatter outline of the blasted
rock.
6.2.2 Surface Timing
A closed ‘V1’ pattern will result in a steeper muckpile. As the two sides of the ‘V’ detonate the rocks collide
in the air and drop. Open ‘V’ pattern or lineblast will give a flatter outline to the resulting rock mass.
Diminishing the burden or increasing the hole size will result in the rock moving further and giving a flatter
muckpile. The type of loader used in the quarry will determine the most efficient muckpile outline. A front
end loader will find it easier to load out a flatter muckpile and a face shovel a steeper one.
6.2.3 Free Face
It is assumed that blasting cannot be effective unless a free face exists towards which movement can
take place. This is not so, the free face improves the efficiency of the breaking but does not prevent
fragmentation from occurring. Choked faces inhibit movement and cost more in explosives consumption,
but probably do not significantly affect the fragmentation. In solid ground, without a free face, high powder
factors are necessary for good fragmentation. A degree of movement is enabled through the porosity of
the rock and voids left by previously fired holes. The practice is not common as other factors mitigate
against it, namely ground vibrations, airblast and flyrock.
6.2.4 Fragmentation Analysis
The only sure method of obtaining a muckpile fragmentation analysis is to screen the whole muckpile.
Any method developed would also depend on this for an absolute correlation. This is clearly impossible
and all methods, therefore, have an unknown degree of error. This can be minimized by working on
comparisons, the error then being constant. With time and experience the error can be assessed and
almost eliminated.
6.3 Ground Vibrations
The trend towards larger holes and bigger blasts and an increased population has highlighted the
problems of ground vibrations. Areas of concern when blasting takes place are shown in figure 14.
Damage due to old age or settlement of a building is very hard to distinguish from blast damage. The
main criteria is to reduce the level of vibration to such an extent that complaints are minimal. At the same
time good public relations will ensure that people living locally will feel reasonably well disposed to the
quarry.
Figure 14: Areas of Concern

When an explosive detonates in a hole it generates an intense stress wave on both transverse and
longitudinal wave motions. This motion crushes the rock around the hole up to about one drillhole radius
and permanently distorts and cracks it for several more. Most of the energy is spent on shattering the rock
but because of the imperfect nature of the explosive, some of the energy is transmitted through the
ground as vibration in the form of elastic compression waves. This represents a transfer of energy from
one point in the rock to another. Initially there must be some displacement of the rock as certain forces act
to displace it from its equilibrium position and introduce new energy to the system.
6.3.1 Source of Ground Vibrations
If the rock does not exhibit an elastic response, energy is absorbed by it and only dampened waves come
from the blast area. If elastic response is exhibited then the action of the blast causes nearby portions of
the rock to oscillate about their rest positions, similar to a spring. Oscillatory conditions are set up and the
disturbance is transmitted from one element to the next as from the rock to a building. During wave
motion there is no bulk movement of matter. The transmission of waves is affected by distance from their
source. The rock through which they travel is never perfectly homogeneous, it contains deformities such
as joints, bedding planes and different rock types.
Total energy of a ground motion wave generated varies directly as to the mass of the charge detonated.
As it travels outward from the inception point the volume of rock affected by the compression wave
increases and the peak ground motions decrease. The ground motion wave of a column charge of
explosives, where the length to diameter ratio is greater than 6, takes the form of an expanding cylinder.
The volume of this compression cylinder varies as the square of its radius. Thus the peak level of the
ground motion is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the blast. In the majority of
quarries the detonation of a borehole takes the form of a cylindrical blast. For example a 104 mm hole
has to have a minimum single charge length of 0,625 meter for it to be a cylindrical charge.
6.3.2 Defining Peak Particle Velocity
The empirical scaling formula relating peak particle velocity (PPV) to scaled distance has been developed
from actual field results. Scaled distance, d/(W^1/2), combines the effect of total charge weight per delay,
W, on the initial shock level with increasing distance, d, from the blast. The formula contains two site
factors, K and m, which allow for the local influence of the rock on the rate of peak particle attenuation.
Geometric progression is included in the slope exponential (m) in the following equation:

V = K(d/(W^1/2)^-m
where V = Maximum PPV (mm/sec)
d = Distance from blast (m)
W = Mass of explosives per delay (kg)
K&m = Slope of graph
d/(W^1/2) = Scaled distance for a cylindrical charge

Site factors are determined from the logarithmic plot of PPV verses scaled distance. The graph is drawn
and the best line representing the data is inserted, see figure 15.
Figure 15: Qualitative Graph of Ground Vibration

Work done by the US Bureau of Mines implied that the best damage indicator is PPV as a function of
frequency below 40Hz. A number of studies have correlated levels of PPV with resulting damage and an
example of the levels is shown in table 3.
Table 3 Ground vibration levels

PPV (mm/s) Effect

300 Rock falls in unlined tunnels
200 50 % probability of major plaster damage
135 50 % probability of minor plaster damage
80 Threshold of damage
50 Limit of safe blasting > 12 Hz by USBM
25 Limit of safe blasting < 12 Hz by USBM

The intensity of seismic waves that can be tolerated by structures varies as to the method of construction.
A steel reinforced building can withstand a higher level of motion than a privately owned house built of
brick. Plaster is commonly used on the inside walls of houses. It is relatively weak when compared to
other building materials and is used as the basis for damage criteria.
6.3.3 Techniques to reduce Vibration Levels
To minimize the level of ground vibrations it is easy enough to reduce the charge per delay. This however
may not be practicable as it implies reduced production. Several other steps may be taken to reduce
levels of vibration:
6.3.3.1 Blast Design
This should give maximum relief of burden. Internal free faces in the blast can reflect compressional
waves.
6.3.3.2 Powder factor
An excessive powder factor can increase ground vibrations and may cause excessive throw of the
muckpile. Vibration levels can also be increased by an insufficient powder factor. It delays and reduces
the effect of rarefaction waves reflected from free faces.
6.3.3.3 Spacing to Burden Ratio
To be greater than one. Overburdening of holes can cause them not to break out to the free face. This
results in excessive explosive energy used as shock waves through the rock.
6.3.3.4 Accurate Drilling
Poor drilling can over or under burden the holes with the same results as for poor spacing to burden
ratios.
6.3.3.5 Sub Drill
The toe of a drill hole is the most confined area and has the most difficulty breaking out. Over drilling
increases the amount of sub drill and therefore the vibration levels.
6.3.3.6 Adequate and Accurate Delays
A long delay period between holes will guarantee that they do not detonate simultaneously. Shock waves
can be reinforced by waves from subsequent holes in a line detonating if the delay interval is insufficient,
see figure 16.
Too few delays in a blast results in a high mass per delay. Studies have shown that millisecond delays in
commercial detonators are not very accurate. This can result in close timing or, in extreme cases, an
overlap.
Figure 16: Delay Sequence and PPV

6.4 Airblast
The compressional wave in air, either from unconfined explosives or by indirect action of a confining
material subject to explosive loading, is known as airblast. Noise is that portion of the spectrum in the
range 20 to 20 000 Hz. Airblast at levels below 20 Hz is known as concussion. Large burdens, typically
found with large diameter boreholes, means that the airblast contains a considerable amount of energy at
frequencies below 20 Hz. Low frequencies can damage structures directly, but more often causes higher
frequency vibrations in windows and doors.
Table 4 Airblast

Noise (dB1) Effect

180 Conventional structures break
170 Most windows break
150 House windows may break
140 Large plate glass windows may break
136 Interim limit USBM damage to hearing
80 - 100 Loud Radio / TV

6.4.1 Atmospheric Conditions

Atmospheric conditions may affect the intensity of the noise at a distance from the site of the blast. The
speed of sound in air varies at different altitudes and temperatures. In addition the wind speed will affect
the distance that sound waves carry. Normally the air temperature decreases with altitude, the adiabatic
lapse rate, at a rate of about 2.0 degrees centigrade for 300 meters increase in altitude. An inversion, a
decrease in temperature with altitude, will cause noise to be reflected back to earth causing excessive
noise levels to be heard in unexpected areas.
As the time of day can determine weather conditions, inversions occurring more often in the morning,
blasting times should take note of this fact to minimize possible complaints. The effect of wind on noise
levels is greater during the cold months because of the higher wind speeds. This helps to prevent
inversions occurring. Figure 17 sketches the effect of varying temperatures with altitude wind on noise
levels.
Figure 17: Airblast - Effects of Temperature and Altitude

6.4.2 Minimizing Airblast

Minimizing airblast not only depends on the correct weather, a clear day with light wind, but also:
6.4.2.1 Use of Adequate Stemming
Confine the blast stemming blown from the hole results in higher noise levels.
6.4.2.2 Secondary Blasting
Not using mudblasts, breaking rocks with a lay-on charge which is covered with mud.
6.4.2.3 Sequential Blasting
Sequence of blast must proceed in a proper order. Out of sequence shots cause excessive airblast.
6.4.2.4 Time of Day
Scheduling of blasting operations when people are busy. Rush hour generates a high level of noise which
will cover blasting noises.
6.5 Flyrock
This is the undesirable throw of rock from a blast. Rocks have been thrown many hundreds of meters and
caused both material and bodily damage. It is probably the biggest cause of personnel injury and property
damage in the whole blasting operation.
Flyrock is caused by a number of factors:
1) Overloading of holes or insufficient burden
2) Poor quality stemming
3) Incorrect timing of surface delays
Regardless of the care taken with a blast flyrock is always possible and every precaution taken to prevent
damage. All blasting personnel must take cover when the blast is detonated. The direction of the blast
must be away from any structure which could be damaged.
A quarry situated close to built up areas has to prevent flyrock at all costs. Good blast design is the best
method of minimizing this hazard.
7. LOADING AND MUCKING
The methods of loading and hauling in quarries can be divided into four categories:
1) Continuous mining systems such as the bucket wheel excavator.
2) Other non-blasting systems such as ripping and bulldozing or scraping.
3) Haul road, using loaders and trucks and a ramp to exit the quarry.
4) In pit crushing in which a loader or face shovel supplies a mobile crusher.
Equipment to load and transport rock is dependent on the hardness of the rock to be quarried. Soft rock
or overburden can be removed without the need for blasting by ripping and dozing with specialized
machinery. There are both discontinuous and continuous systems for the removal of rock without blasting.
7.1 Selection of Equipment
Initially the quality and quantity of any deposit must be established to enable a decision to be made as to
the mode of operation. Seismic wave prospecting can be used to discover the hardness and extent of the
deposit. This data is compared to previous data obtained in the exploration of other deposits. For many
commonly found rocks a range of rippability values in terms of their seismic wave velocities have been
tabled with a fair degree of accuracy. Figure 18 shows a comparison of wave velocity ranges over which
different loading equipment can be expected to work.
Figure 18: Excavation Method for Seismic Velocity without any blasting to loosen rock

Depending on the planned tonnage to be excavated per year and the consistency of the deposit, both
physical and chemical, over large areas determines the equipment to be purchased. Large tonnages of
relatively soft material with a shallow deposit favor a continuous mining system. Smaller production levels
with varying quality of limestone favor a more mobile system such as a truck and shovel.
The final selection must take into account overall economics and will be based on balancing the following
against each other:
1) Capital Cost
2) Technical Suitability
3) Maintenance and Repair
4) Manufacturers Acceptability
7.2 Non-Explosive Mining
There are several systems of exploitation that do not require the use of explosives. They are generally
confined to quarries that have soft rock with a uniform quality over large volumes with few inconsistencies
permitting a continuos mining machine to advance in a systematic manner with little or no manoeuvring.
Chalk or Marly Limestone are good examples of these softer rocks that are excavated as raw materials in
the manufacture of cement. Soft rock permits the material to be exploited without it first having to be
drilled and blasted. The rapid advance of mining technology has developed machines that have
applications in harder rocks but to be cost effective require a high tonnage output. Capital cost of most
continuos mining machines are too high to warrant their use in what is essentially a small tonnage per
year operation at a cement plant.
7.2.1 Continuos Mining Systems
Excavation of raw material can be accomplished by the use of a Bucket Wheel Excavator (BWE) or
Bucket Chain Excavator (BCE), examples are sketched in figure 19, or a newly developed Surface Miner.
If considered as an alternative to conventional exploitation methods the capacity of the plant has to be
sufficient to accept the high tonnages involved, some BWE’s will move 100’000 mts per day. There also
has to be a continuos system of removing material to the plant if the machine is to have a high utilisation
time. This usually takes the form of a conveyor belt. Any alternative, such as truck or rail systems, can
quickly result in the excavator waiting for loading equipment. Non-continuos systems of transport require
detailed planning for them to be used to their fullest and minimise downtime of such a machine. Optimum
operation is normally achieved by building an excavating machine and a complete transport system
specifically for the required application.
Figure 19: Continuous Mining System

The advantage of a continuos mining system are that it reduces:

¨ dependence on diesel fuel, a primary fact if this has to be imported.
¨ labour complements; although it may be necessary to have a fleet of support vehicles such as
bulldozers, personnel carriers and cranes to service the continuos miner
¨ noise, dust and air pollution in the operation of winning rock.
¨ haul road maintenance
¨ power consumption
Development of light weight machines, for example, tyre mounted bucket wheel excavators or surface
miners which are considerably cheaper to purchase and have lower capabilities has made the use of
these machines in our industry in the future more likely.
7.2.1.1 Bucket Wheel Excavator (BWE)
Methods of BWE operation are described according to the position of the machine and how it cuts the
quarry face. Figure 20 shows typical methods of excavation with a BWE. In each method there are two
alternative cutting techniques, horizontal, or terrace cutting and vertical, or drop cutting These are used in
the selective mining of specific layers for reasons such as quality control.
Figure 20: Excavation Methods with a Bucket Wheel Excavator

Originally these excavators were designed to move easy digging materials such as sand, clay and loam.
Today they are principally found in the lignite fields of Germany and Australia moving large quantities of
overburden. However a newer generation of BWE has incorporated modifications to its design giving
better operating parameters in the digging of harder materials. It is this type of machine that may be
considered for use in the cement industry of the future. Although in extreme cases blasting can be
considered an assist to digging of rock with these machines it should not be considered as a normal
practice.
The BWE has little operating flexibility and a detailed study should be conducted before purchasing a
machine. Included in this should be detailed quarry layouts based on exploration results and the geology
of the deposit. Choice of machine in terms of output and maximum vertical digging depth has to be
carefully considered. As a rule the vertical reach of the BWE should equal the final quarry depth.
Large BWEs can compare favourable with a hydraulic or electric shovel in the following areas:
¨ instantaneous power demand
¨ weight to output ratio
¨ power consumption
¨ wider operating benches and more stable quarry slopes
¨ close control in selective mining; albeit over large areas
¨ easier and cheaper rehabilitation of overburden
¨ an ability to exploit material both above and below the working floor
Selection of a machine for a particular production rate can be more complex than for other types of
excavator. Machines of apparently equal capacity can vary in profile dimensions, weight, horsepower etc.
A complete system may include a belt wagon, hopper car, mobile stacker and a cable reel car. With all
these components the overall availability of the operation can easily fall below 50% unless the operation
is carefully planned.
Digging height and cut width will be proportional to the boom length. Efficiencies will increase with greater
digging and cut heights but have to be evaluated on the basis of the operational plan and the total
economics of the operation given the increased cost of the equipment. In some cases it will be more
efficient to use two smaller machines than one large; particularly if selective mining is considered or the
stratagraphic layer to be mined is thin. Two BWEs will permit some production if one machine breaks
down.
Additional considerations for the selection of a BWE are:
¨ type of bucket
¨ tooth design
¨ transfer feeder for material from the wheel to the belt
¨ suspension systems
¨ wheel drives
¨ boom type
A long depreciation period is necessary for a BWE to be economical. Larger machines can be considered
to have a life span of more than 30 years. Due to its tremendous digging capacity and its high initial cost
to achieve the necessary low cost per tonne necessary the machine must operate around the clock with
only stops for planned maintenance. It is not uncommon for such a machine to have planned weekly
operating hours of 132.
Operating costs are based on two rules :
¨ digging wheel costs represent 85 to 95% of the total excavator maintenance costs
¨ total repair costs amount to 5 to 8% of the total excavator costs per year.
Features that greatly increase the cost of a unit are:
¨ Efficiency Increases in the digging ladder
¨ Capability of digging below the working floor
¨ Increases in the normal wheel and bucket size
7.2.1.2 Surface Miners
This a relatively new inovation in the field of continuos miners for use in limestone quarries. It was
developed from road repair machines for the quick repair of asphalt road surfaces. Machines consist of
crawler mechanism for driving and steering mounted in a frame with a mounted drum of between 1.0 and
1.8 metres diameter and about 3 to 4 metres width fitted with rows of teeth or picks. The drum on quarry
production models is often centrally mounted. This position of the drum ensures that the machine’s
weight maintains pressure on the drum while it digs into the rock. Material is removed by means of a short
conveyor belt mounted behind the drum. This will either feed cut rock to a conveyor or load it into a haul
truck. The cutting drum rotates in an up-cutting direction, the picks chip at the rock as the drum rotates,
and has spirally welded deflection segments attached to ensure that the cut material is directed to the
extraction conveyor mounted behind the drum. The rows of picks are tungsten carbide tipped to maximise
life and they can dig a “trench” of between 250 mm and 600 mm depth. Broken material is transferred to
an on-board conveyor and removed.
Production tonnage’s depend very much on hardness of rock and the mass of the machine. The
quantities of broken rock produced vary from a low of 300 mts per hour with a small machine up to 800
mts per hour with the largest at present manufactured. Typical product of this type of machine has a high
degree of fines, -5.0 mm, with a maximum size of 120 mm. However this can be somewhat adjusted by
altering the number of picks and the rotational speed of the drum. One advantage of these machines is
that the exploitation and primary crushing are a single process; it does not require a separate primary
crusher and in certain cases no crusher is needed in the process. However in feasibility studies a
secondary crusher has always been included and if feed material to the raw mill has to be –25 mm then a
secondary and tertiary crusher will be necessary to reduce material to an acceptable size for feed to a
ball mill.
Careful planning of the quarry operation is necessary to realise the full economics of the operation. The
machine is slow; speeds of about 2.0 ks per hour while digging rock and 6.0ks when moving to and from
site can be expected. The quarry floor should be reasonably flat and level over a relatively large area to
accommodate a machine. As the exploitation operation is a continuos one material is preferably removed
from site by a conveyor belt. However haul trucks can be used. These run alongside the miner in the
same direction and are loaded on the move by the discharge conveyor on the surface miner. Figure 21
shows the building of stockpiles of limestone in a quarry where neither haul trucks or a conveyor belt
were available. The stockpiles were subsequently loaded using a front end loader.
Figure 21: An Example of Surface Miner Operation

The advantages of this type of machine are:

¨ labour costs are low, only a single person is required to operate it
¨ eliminates blasting and minimises dust, the machine is quiet in operation.
¨ produces ready crushed material
Disadvantages are:
¨ complex machine requiring considerable maintenance
¨ as a single production unit breakdowns result in a stoppage of raw material supply.
¨ requires detailed planning to operate economically and with a high percentage utilisation
¨ not really suited to haul truck loading
A Surface Miner is considerably cheaper than a BWE but can still cost in the region of USD3.00 million.
To maintain some production it would be necessary to purchase two machines if this form of mining was
considered.
7.2.2 Semi-Continuos
Other non-explosive systems of winning material find more favour due to the ability of such a system to
relocate and their relatively low capital cost per unit. Examples of these are the use of a shovel to load
material directly into a haul truck or the use of a ripper on a bulldozer to loosen the rock and a load haul
system to move material to the crusher. This enables a plant to have the operational flexibility provided by
the use of multiple mobile equipment while not having to invest in new mining systems.
7.2.2.1 Excavation by Face Shovel
The principle reason for the preference of front end loaders in our industry is that they are versatile and
highly mobile. They do not have the break-out and crowd forces of a face shovel but this is compensated
for by blasting techniques sympathetic to the loading characteristics of the machine. However in certain
cases hydraulic face shovels are used in a quarry. This occurs most often where the drill and blast
operation has had to be terminated because of environmental considerations and the rock is too hard to
be dug with a FEL. In addition manpower costs limit the number of units that can be purchased precluding
ripping and dozing.
Material is broken out of the quarry face by a hydraulic face shovel. As the limiting criteria in such a case
is breakout and crowd force these machines are often large and have a loading capacity far in excess of
the plant requirement. Because of their relative immobility it is the norm to have several of these
machines on-site. One such quarry operated four shovels, one on overburden, and three on raw material
production; each in a different layer. Material is loaded to haul trucks in the normal fashion.
7.2.2.2 Dozing and Ripping
Material is excavated by a bulldozer pulling either a single or double “pick” at the rear of the machine.
These “picks” dig into the ground and are pulled along by the bulldozer tearing out the rock to a maximum
depth of about 75 cms. Subsequently the bulldozer pushes the broken rock into piles where it is loaded
and transported to the plant. If the rock is soft enough not to require ripping the bulldozer will simply push
it into piles with the use of the dozer blade.
The selection of the most suitable equipment for a particular quarry is important as not every machine will
be capable of doing the job efficiently. It may be more cost effective to use blasting to loosen the rock
even though it may be soft enough to rip or scrape. Selection of machinery for the ripping or dozing
operation depends upon:
1) Down pressure available at the tip. The ripper must be able to maintain penetration of the rock.
2) Flywheel horsepower. Power to advance the tip.
3) Gross weight of the machine. This determines if sufficient traction horsepower is available to
permit full drawbar pull.
Various combinations of ripping and dozing are in use, the ideal case being a one pass system. In some
situations the dozer is used to physically push the ripper where the rock conditions are hard.
7.2.2.3 Scraping
Scraping involves both the loading and transporting of the rock in one machine. Conditions rarely exist
where this system can be used as the rock must be soft or loose. These machines are used in
conjunction with rippers to excavate material loosened by them. Scrapers can be used in overburden
removal where it is soft.
7.3 Haul Road
This involves building ramps up or down the side of quarries and using dump trucks and loaders to haul
rock from the blasted area to the primary crusher, usually situated outside the quarry. It is a very versatile
method of operation and is suited to any terrain, from flat ground to mountainous, and any size quarry.
This method of moving rock to the crusher is the most common in small to medium quarries. The trucks
will range in size from 20 to 80 tons. Loaders range in bucket capacities from 3 to 13 cubic meters, based
on the specific gravity of the rock to be loaded.
7.3.1 Loaders
Four types are commonly used in quarries:
¨ Electric Shovel
¨ Wheel Loader
¨ Hydraulic Excavator
¨ Tracked Loader
Electric mining shovels have been in use for many years and because they are simple machines tend to
continue working efficiently. Their main disadvantages are their large initial cost and, if electric, lack of
maneuverability. They have now nearly disappeared from the average sized quarries superseded by
hydraulic loaders and shovels.
The advantage of wheel loaders is their high mobility and with recent advances in technology in respect to
size and digability they can equal or exceed the excavating rate of face shovels. Front loading hydraulic
excavators are a recent development. With their extremely short cycle time and relatively high power they
are becoming more popular. The capacity of these loaders is quickly reduced with increasing distance
between loading point, at the muckpile, and delivery to a truck. The optimum is 10 to 20 meters and for
any distance greater than 120 meters the capacity of the loader is almost halved.
The most impressive feature of the hydraulic excavator is the high mobility of the bucket and the high
breakout force which can be transmitted to the bucket. Because of its mobility it can be employed at a
variety of locations in the quarry. A further advantage is that a hydraulic excavator will load at less cost per
ton than a wheel loader. They allow for the careful, thus reducing spillage, and quick loading of trucks
thus achieving short cycle times. This improves the efficiency of both loader and trucks and helps to keep
down cost. Drives and hydraulic assemblies are, today, designed for easy exchange which reduces
maintenance times. A higher degree of technical knowledge and cleanliness of the maintenance area are
required than for non hydraulic equipment. This has, in the past, resulted in low availability of machines
where cleanliness was not adhered to and maintenance and repairs was carried out on the quarry floor.
Although these excavators are more mobile than the electric face shovels capacity rapidly falls off with
increasing loading distance between loading and delivery.
Table 5 compares the features of the three types of loaders commonly found in quarry applications.
With the track type loader the dozer pushes the rock over an edge so that it can travel downwards
towards the crusher site, on the lower levels, by gravity. This negates the use of trucks with the need for
their associated well maintained haul roads. Narrower benches with lower stripping ratios can be planned
as well as steeper gradient roads. Today dozers are used more often to remove rock from the bottom of a
bench where it may impede subsequent blasting operations and in conjunction with loaders and trucks to
optimize the cleaning of faces.
As the tonnages per hour loaded increases the effective cost per ton decreases. This will happen when
bucket fill efficiency and swing time improves as fragmentation size decreases. Shovels, loaders and
excavators were made to load broken rock not to dig it.
Table 5 Comparison of loader characteristics

Summary of
Features
Machine Type Face Shovel Rating

Front End Loader

Hydraulic
Excavator
Mobility V Poor Good Poor
Break out Force High Low High
Long reach Yes No Yes
Versatility V Poor Good Poor
Operator fatigue Low High Low
Clean up ability Nil Good Marginal
Load over truck end Yes No Yes
Capital cost High MediumHigh
Trade in value Low High Low
Limited space operation Good Poor Good
Separation of big rocks Good Poor V Good
Operate in poor ground Yes No Yes

7.3.2 Trucks as Haulers

In quarries the haul truck is the most economic and versatile method of moving rock or overburden from
ever advancing work faces. Haul trucks range in size from 17 to over 200 tons. Those commonly found in
quarries are between 35 and 80 tons. Payloads and horsepower has risen on many models in recent
years and together with improved engine technology and fuel injection has reduced the unit cost of
hauling. To match the system the right number of trucks is required with a bed configuration and size to
make a good loading target permitting the quick and easy loading distribution. The majority of these dump
trucks are of the rigit, two axle, variety.
An articulated truck, of two or three axles, is designed to work in areas requiring high maneuverability
where the ground conditions are poor. They are generally of small capacity, 25 to 40 tons and there bed
configuration is such that they must usually be loaded over the tail. These trucks are becoming
increasingly popular in areas of selective mining where, with a backhoe as a loader, careful loading is the
norm.
7.3.2.1 Matching of Loaders to Truck
Full trucks, loaded quicker, will reduce hauling costs. Tire wear is reduced as less rock is spilled on the
roads. Easy loading will allow efficient scheduling of the trucks and less waiting time.
Possibly the main factor when selecting a loader is how many passes will it take to fill the hauler? An even
number of passes is a must to eliminate the odd half bucket at the end or to send the hauler away without
a full load. A loading cycle should be completed in two minutes. This is about the time it takes for the
crusher to consume a truckload, if it is a correct match. It allows three or four swings of the bucket to fill
the truck. A loader that takes two swings may result in damage to the truck’s suspension as the load
dropped, by the bucket, into the back will be greater than the trucks’ designed capabilities. Too many
swings means excessive time to fill the truck resulting in long waiting periods for the trucks to load. The
optimum passes to load a truck are shown in table 6.
Too many trucks to cater for a small loader gives truck overcapacity, too few will result in delays if one
truck breaks down. To cater for re-sizing of a fleet may see the need for a high lift loader. This will result in
a small decrease in the bucket size and an extra pass or two.
Table 6 Truck loading

Loading Machine No. of Passes

Excavator 3 to 4
FEL 3 to 5

Figure 22 shows a match between loaders and trucks of various sizes.

These figures maximize truck usage and results in minimal loader standing time. If at the same time the
loader has little maneuvering or waiting time the transport capacity is equal to the loading capacity. This is
the most economical level of loading and hauling.
Figure 22: Matching Loaders to Haul Trucks

Some manufactures publish payload ratings for their loaders. There are specific standards by which
payload is calculated. If unavailable then a ‘rule of thumb’ is that the payload can be estimated by
multiplying bucket volume by broken material density. An approximate figure for material density is 1800
kgs per cubic meter. This is the approximate weight of one cubic meter of broken granite or limestone.
For an 8 cu-m bucket: 8 * 1800 = 14.4 tons
7.3.3 Rolling Resistance
This is the retarding force of the ground against the wheels of a vehicle. This force must be overcome
before a vehicle can move. Many things determine the rolling resistance or the retarding force acting
against a rolling wheel. Among the most important are:
1) Internal friction
2) Tire flexing
3) Penetration of the wheel into the surface
4) Weight on wheels
These effects should amount to about 2 % of gross vehicle weight. This is the rolling resistance factor of a
truck traveling on a concrete highway. Shown in figure 23 is the rolling resistance for a 60 ton truck
traveling over various roadway surfaces. it can be seen that the resistance can increase dramatically if
the surface is not well maintained.
Rolling resistance does not however affect tracked type vehicles. This is because they carry their
roadway with them and steel is always hard and smooth. Only internal friction has any affect on these
vehicles.
Figure 23: Rolling Resistance

7.3.4 Grade Resistance

It is the force of gravity which must be overcome when going uphill. It acts against the total weight of any
vehicle. Grades are usually expressed as percent (%) slope, which is the ratio between vertical rise or fall
and the horizontal distance over which this occurs. When the grade is uphill, adverse, the effect is to
demand more power. If downhill, favorable, then it is a helping force producing additional pull to propel the
vehicle. This downhill effect is commonly called grade assistance.
7.3.5 Effective Grade
This is the total resistance expressed as the grade which would have to be negotiated to get the
equivalent resistance to motion.
Since Total Resistance = Rolling Resistance + Grade Resistance
and
1 % of grade produces a grade resistance of about = 10 kgs/t of vehicle weight
Effective Grade % = Rolling Resistance (kgs/t) / 10 + % Grade
7.3.6 Cost Relationship
From figure 24 it can be seen that as the cost of drilling and blasting increases so the cost of loading and
hauling decreases. This is mainly due to the easier loading conditions that exist when the fragmentation
of the muckpile is finer. Loading is easier, there is a smaller percentage of oversize rocks in the muckpile,
and hauling is quicker as the trucks do not have to wait at the crusher while blockages are cleared, to give
two examples. Studies have proved that over blasting of the rock, resulting in fines fragmentation, will
actually decrease the overall cost of the quarry operation.
Figure 24: Cost as a Function of Degree of Fragmentation

7.4 In Pit Crushing

Transport between the loader and the fixed crushing plant is nearly always by a discontinuous
transportation method, trucks. This can be considered a disadvantage in that either end of the transport
system is in continuous operation. As the quarry faces are always advancing the site of the crusher does
not remain optimum for long. To facilitate this an ever increasing number of trucks is required to maintain
production with associated increased costs. An answer to this problem has been to install in-pit mobile
crushers which considerably reduce the need for trucks. Rock is loaded from the muckpile to the primary
crusher and is then fed to a conveyer belt to be transported to the plant. The crusher in the quarry is
usually mobile so that it can follow the advancing faces. This is made possible by the addition of conveyor
belts when the unit is moved forward. Figure 25 sketches a typical system. Secondary and tertiary
crushing systems are, if required, on a fixed site outside the quarry. The capital investment to purchase a
mobile crusher is higher than for an average fleet of trucks. However the savings in manpower and
increased output from the loading equipment reduce the overall working costs and make the unit
justifiable.
Figure 25: Mobile Crushing System

8. CONTRACTING OUT THE QUARRY OPERATION

There is a trend to contract out the quarrying operation in our industry. It has resulted from the belief that
experience in quarrying is limited and that capital investment can be saved from not having to purchase
mobile equipment. This initially manifest itself in the contracting of the drill and blast operation where it
was found to be cost effective. Out-sourcing the entire quarry operation appears to have several
advantages.
¨ payment is for guaranteed work done
¨ it is possible to inspect the work before payment is made
¨ competition between contractors can lower the cost
¨ provides additional expertise in the day-to-day running of the operation
¨ eliminates peak vehicle requirements
It is necessary to supervise the contractor as in all operations and this can be done in a number of ways.
The most common method of recording tonnage delivered to the crusher is to send every truck load over
a weighbridge. However this is both time consuming and wasteful of the contractors resources. It is
more common to pay a contractor for the amount of clinker produced. This is a much more reliable
indicator of the tonnage moved. The requirements of the plant should be detailed and the following points
should form part of the contract:
¨ payment on the quantity of clinker produced
¨ limits on the size of material delivered to the crusher; preferably a size distribution of the incoming
raw material
¨ limits on the quality acceptable
¨ tonnage on a daily basis
¨ aspects of the companies safety policy
¨ an agreed environmental protection policy
Included in the working cost of any out-sourcing must be that cost for the owner to supervise and
manage the operation. In many cases the regulations specify the responsibilities of the owner and
specific mention is made of his duties which cannot be given to the contractor in a quarrying operation.
Due in part to this fact the long term cost of operation is usually cheaper if not contracted out.
9. RECLAMATION
Public acceptance of quarries is, in part, dependent on the creation of a suitable after use. A range of
uses is possible from lakes to development of urban housing schemes. All to often reclamation of an old
quarry is unrealistic or unfeasible.
9.1 Restoration to Agricultural Land
This is probably the most common restoration option. The techniques used are based on a complete
understanding of the soils, geology and hydrogeology of the site. The various soil horizons will be stripped
separately and stored for future use. Handling has to take into account damage to the soil that occurs
when moving it. When replaced a five year care program of cropping ensures that the restored farmland
is productive. The quarry is usually filled with overburden or imported wastes to bring it to its former
outline. The use of domestic and industrial wastes is not recommended as seepage of ground water could
lead to contamination of rivers and lakes, and also have a detrimental effect on the reclamation project.
High costs of returning worked out areas to farmland, occasionally several times the market value, has
led to it being developed for other uses.
9.2 Forestry
Restoration to woodlands is usually only possible on the worked out floor of quarries or on sites filled with
inert material. There are also problems associated with drainage due to compaction by earth moving
equipment. Artificial ridges and furrows can overcome this. Tree planting restores the balance of tree loss
caused by the demands of agriculture.
9.3 Recreational
Many wet pits have been turned into small lakes for sailing and boating. If a constant supply of oxygen
rich water is available a quarry site could be turned into a fish farm. Where the surface is dry, playing
fields or golf courses have been established. The same principles of reclamation apply as for agricultural
use. If this type of reclamation is adopted then it can be highly profitable to the owners of these worked
out quarries.
9.4 Nature Conservation
These sites tend to happen rather than be designed. Many old quarries become filled with rain water and
attract wildfowl, especially if in a remote, sparsely populated area. Once established they can become
important nature conservation areas.
9.5 Urban Uses
Many quarries came into existence because of their proximity to urban areas. With the rapid growth in
population in the last few decades they now find themselves surrounded by urban areas where once was
open country. Few problems are posed by the use of quarry floors for buildings. The rock base is stable
for foundations, only the slope angle will have to be modified. If domestic housing is proposed then a
supply of topsoil will be needed to establish gardens. Unsightly factories can be hidden from general view
by placing them in old quarries.
Building on fill is not to be recommended. Subsidence may affect buildings and there could be problems
with gases emanating from the fill. In some cases methane explosions, with gases from fill, have
occurred.
With a positive after use a quarry is much more likely to be tolerated by a community. Reclamation should
be ongoing as the quarry progresses. Even a line of trees, to shield the working from view, will assist in its
acceptability.
10. THE FUTURE
With rising costs affecting profits the need to increase productivity to minimize this means that the move
towards mechanization and the use of computers will increase. However the cost of replacing any
machinery incapable of mechanization or new computer hardware must be taken into account. The
benefits can include, reduced operating costs, maximum equipment utilization and increased safety for
workers.
Some of the areas in the quarry where increased productivity can be achieved are:
10.1 Drilling
Drilling rigs can be computerized leading to more accurate spotting of holes and more accurate drilling.
Drillholes will be accurately laid out with use of computer programs, and a disc given to a rig operator who
inserts it into an on board computer. This will line up the rig and collar the hole independently of the
operator, removing him from the error equation in the optimization of the drilling and explosive costs.
10.2 Explosives
The use of mobile manufacturing plants in the manufacture and delivery of explosives. Instead of having
to build and service magazines for the storage of explosives and accessories they will be delivered to the
blast site, from the manufacturer, at a time requested by the blaster. The composition of the explosive can
be varied to suit ground conditions on site, even within a single hole.
10.3 Accessories
Electronic detonators which contain a microchip to give extremely accurate timing. The scatter in the
actual detonation time of present delay detonators can cause either an overlap of shots of different delays
detonating at the same time. This gives rise to increased noise and ground vibration levels as well as
poor blasting results.
10.4 Controls
Computer aided survey packages to profile bench faces and to plot drillholes accurately. Actual burdens
and spacings anywhere in the length of the holes could be plotted and more accurate estimation of the
explosive required made. Monitoring, closely, the actual lengths off holes can prevent overdrill with
resulting poor quarry floors.
10.5 Planning
Traditionally planning has been divided into short term, one to three months, and long term, two to five
year, planning. Every year a week is spent updating these plans and explaining the difference between
actual and achieved. The use of computer aided planning will keep a closer control on the raw materials
production and optimize the extraction in both, quantity and quality. Planning can be updated whenever
necessary as daily results can be quickly entered.
11. REFERENCES
1) Handbook on Surface Drilling and Blasting. Tamrock Finland 1990
2) Blasters Handbook 16th Edition. Du Pont Wilmington Delaware USA
3) Explosives and Rock Blasting. Atlas Powder Company Dallas Texas USA
4) Quarry Reclamation and the Environment by S McRee. Paper contained in Quarry Management
May 1990
5) Accurate Blasthole Alignment by R Pemperton. Paper contained in Quarry Management May
1990
6) Atlas Copco Surface Drilling Catalogue. Atlas Copco (Schweiz) AG Biel-Bienne
7) The Raw Materials for Portland Cement Manufacture by H. Bucher. Holderbank Report
8) Explosives and Blasting Procedures Manual by R.A. Dick, L.R. Fletcher and D.V. D’Andrea. Us
Bureau of Mines Information Circular 1983
1)

C02 - Crushing

Crushing
R. Playle
VA 93/4017/E (Revision 3/01)
1. INTRODUCTION
2. HISTORY
3. PRINCIPLES OF CRUSHING
3.1 Crushing Stage
3.2 Feed Size
3.3 Product Size
4. TYPES OF CRUSHER
4.1 Gyratory
4.2 Cone
4.3 Jaw
4.4 Roller
4.5 Impact Crushers
5. MOBILE CRUSHING PLANTS
5.1 Mobile
5.2 Semi-Mobile
6. FACTORS AFFECTING POWER REQUIREMENTS
6.1 Raw Material
6.2 Crusher
6.3 Work Index
6.4 Typical Power Requirements
6.5 Closed Circuit Crushing
6.6 Choke or Regulated Feed
7. DRYING
8. FEED CONTROL
9. HOPPERS
10. SELECTING A CRUSHER SYSTEM
10.1 Characteristics of the Material
10.2 Capacity
10.3 Product Size
10.4 Quarry Equipment
10.5 Drilling and Blasting
10.6 Feeder Design
11. DAY TO DAY RUNNING
11.1 Operation
11.2 Maintenance
11.3 Safety
12. REFERENCES

1. INTRODUCTION
The technology of crushing is governed by the laws of physics involving mass, velocity, kinetic energy and
gravity. Crusher selection, even today, is not a science but is still mainly a matter of personnel experience
and testing. Field experience and tests conducted in a laboratory are the best method of indicating the
reaction of a material to the various forces associated with reduction. From this the selection of the most
economical crushing plant to produce the required product is made.

In general the total number of crushing stages in a comminution plant is determined by the overall
reduction ratio required. In the cement industry the abrasiveness of the rock to be crushed is the primary
determining factor of the number of reduction stages required. The plant feed originating from a quarry
usually contains large rocks and boulders. The size of the first or primary crusher is usually specified by
the total capacity required or maximum lump size of the feed.

For hard abrasive rocks, such as Dolerite, a compression type jaw or gyratory crusher is used for the
primary crushing duty. Product size of this type is normally about 80 % passing 1000 mm to 250 mm.
Normally feed to a gyratory is not pre-screened but may be necessary when using a jaw crusher to
increase throughput. For softer rocks, such as limestone, an impact crusher will give the best results.
They are designed for the crushing of non or low abrasive materials and have a high throughput and
reduction ratio with a product containing a large percentage of fines. The power consumption of these
machines is lower per ton throughput than for an equivalent size jaw or gyratory crusher. Because of their
mechanical strength they are also suitable for the crushing of hard materials, but at a very much higher
cost than for an equivalent compression crusher.

Recent developments of the coal crusher have seen its use in the reduction of soft sticky materials in our
limestone quarries. The crushing action is both compression and shearing. This results in a product that
contains few fines. MMD Mineral Sizers are perhaps the best known of these type of crushers. They can
be used as primary and secondary crusher.

Figure 1 illustrates the various common types of crushers. Reduction ratios vary between 3 to 1 and 7 to
1 for compression crushers and up to 50 to 1 for impact crushers. To obtain the maximum reduction ratios
from any crusher is not the most economic way of crushing a material as it results in hang-ups and
increased power consumption which leads to excessive costs.
Figure 1 Crusher Types

To achieve the required reduction ratio it is usual to have two or more sets of crushing stages. These are
then termed primary, secondary and tertiary stages of crushing. The type of crushers that suit a particular
operation depend on several factors. These include:
¨ The work index of the material
¨ Abrasiveness
¨ Stickiness
¨ Throughput, tons per hour etc.
¨ Size of feed
¨ Power consumption
¨ Reduction Ratios needed
2. HISTORY
Crushing machines were invented in the early 19th century. The first examples resembled stamp mills
and were not particularly effective. It was in 1858 that E.W. Blake invented the jaw crusher using the
mechanical principal of the toggle linkage. Today his invention is the standard by which all jaw crushers
are measured. For primary crushing of hard abrasive rocks it is still the best machine. Following on in
1860 the gyratory crusher came into being. However only in 1881 was a patent granted to P W Gates for
a machine which included most of the features of the modern day gyratory crushers. Initially crushers
were small as the tonnage throughput was low due to hand mining being the norm.

With the advent of face shovels which led to a great increase in production rates, the need for bigger
crushers became evident. By 1910 gyratory crushers with 1.20 meter openings were in use. The jaw
crusher had been replaced as the prime means of crushing by the gyratory but now made a comeback.
The single toggle jaw crusher was developed in larger sizes as it operated at closer settings than the
double toggle and could therefore achieve a finer product. During this period the roller crusher was born
and single roll crushers were installed at limestone plants in the USA. With the need for a finer product,
due to the advent of cyanidation in the gold mining industry, the double roll or ‘Cornish’ rolls, consisting of
double smooth-face crushing rolls were widely used. From this developed the toothed roller crusher, used
today in the cement industry for the reduction of limestone and clays, particularly with wet sticky feed
material.

Secondary crushing, at the turn of the century, was still in its infancy and need for a finer product was
achieved by the use of a small gyratory after primary crushing by a large jaw or gyratory crusher. The
earliest attempt to adapt the gyratory as a secondary crusher was the ‘short head’. This was a reduction
of the size of the crushing head in a standard machine. In the 1920’s short head gyratory crushers
designed specifically for secondary crushing were introduced.

In the 1990’s the mineral sizer MMD originally used in the coal mining industry was adapted for crushing
harder material as e.g. limestone. This crusher belongs to the roller crushers. Teeth are offset, which
allows a better gripping action (see picture 1 in chapter 4.4.4, alignment of teeth). The rolls are slow
turning. More and more applications are seen in the cement industry because of the improved strength
and the size of the machines. They have the advantage of being small in size compared to other
crushers. Applications with feed size of up to 1.5 meters are offered with a throughput of as much as
10’000 tph.
3. PRINCIPLES OF CRUSHING
The main objective of crushing is the transforming and refining of a feed to a predetermined form, usually
a limiting size, minimum and maximum, as defined by standards and directives.
3.1 Crushing Stage
Most plants consist of more than one crushing stage. Three crushing stages with different objectives can
be defined:
3.1.1 Primary
In this stage the material is prepared for further processing. The machine which performs the function of
the primary crusher is, very often, the only crusher at a plant. The term primary crusher denotes the
reduction machine which continues the process that blasting has left off.
Product from the primary crushing stage should be as homogeneous as possible with a maximum size of
about 150 mm, and a minimum amount of fines. In hard rock quarries two crushing stages are usually
required to achieve this result. One crusher if the rock is of a softer nature. Once material has passed
through the primary stage it is of a suitable size to be moved by conveyor.
3.1.2 Intermediate or Secondary
This term applies to the crushing stage which follows immediately after the primary stage, it can consist of
either a single or multiple crushers. The feed is all or part of the product of the primary crushing stage.
The choice of machine will depend largely on the nature of the feed. Where it is necessary to control the
size of the product closed circuit crushing is employed.
3.1.3 Tertiary
If a fine particle size product is required a further reduction in size of material may be needed. To achieve
this a tertiary crushing unit would be installed to produce a good quality, regular size sand.
3.2 Feed Size
Normally each manufacturer has a range of different crushing chambers for each size of crusher so that
there is a wide choice of feed opening and capacities to choose from. The reduction ratio is where the
feed size and the desired product size should be considered together. This ratio makes it easy to
calculate the number of crushing stages required in the plant to reduce the material to an acceptable size.
Figure 2 compares the feed and discharge areas of jaw and gyratory primary crushers. It is normal to take
between 80 and 90 percent of the feed opening’s minimum dimension as the largest feed material size
that can be easily accommodated by that crusher. In an optimized operation five percent of feed is usually
oversize to the crusher and is screened off by a grizzly from where secondary breaking, by mechanical
means, reduces it to manageable dimensions.
Figure 2 Comparison of Crusher Openings

3.3 Product Size

The reduction ratio, as shown in Figure 3, is based on an 80 % passing figure. That is if 80 % of the feed
passes 350 mm and 80 % of the crusher product passes 100 mm then the reduction ratio for that
operation is 3.5 to 1. It is dependent on the power rate transmitted to the material but also on its Work
Index.
Figure 3 Reduction Ratio

4. TYPES OF CRUSHER
The technical term ‘crusher’ generally refers to machines comminuting medium to hard material. Size of
material ranges from 100 mm to 1500 mm in feed to 5 mm to 300 mm in product. The terminology is by
no means definite as the term ‘mill’ is often used for roller, impact and hammer crushers.
4.1 Gyratory
This type of crusher employs a crushing head in the form of a truncated cone which is mounted on a
shaft. The top end is held in a flexible bearing while the bottom end is driven eccentricly so as to describe
a circle. The bowl of the machine is a portion of an inverted cone of massive construction and rigidly fixed.
The continuous crushing action is caused by the crushing head rotating within the bowl causing the
nipping arc to move around the bowl. Figure 4 shows the principle of this type of crusher. It consists of a
heavy steel or cast frame which includes in its lower part an actuating mechanism, eccentric and driving
gear, and in its upper part a cone shaped crushing chamber lined with wear resistant plates. Spanning the
top of the chamber is a steady rest containing a machined journal fixing the main shaft. The crushing
member consists of the main shaft and its crushing head or mantle. This assembly is suspended in the
journal by means of a large adjustable nut. The lower end of the shaft passes through the eccentric,
offsetting the lower end of the shaft. Both crushing members are subject to heavy wear and must be fitted
with substantial wearing plates.
Figure 4 Principle of a Gyratory Crusher

Gyratory crushers are capable of crushing very hard rocks with comparatively low maintenance costs but
the value of spares required to be kept on hand is much higher than with other types of crusher. Feed
problems can arise if the feed is not parallel to the steady rest.
Figure 5 shows the best feed direction. Both sides of the crusher must receive equal amounts of feed to
spread the wear caused by the impact of the feed on entry. Some breaking is done by impact of the feed
onto the armored cover over the suspension nut but the major method of particle reduction is by
compression.
Figure 5 Material Feed Direction to a Gyratory Crusher

4.2 Cone
This type of crusher, very commonly used as a secondary crusher, is usually either of the:
¨ supported head type
¨ suspended head type
Cone crushers with supported heads and feed plates on top of the cone were originally developed by
Symons in the USA. They consist of an external fixed bowl and a moving internal cone with its axis
running at an angle to the machine axis. The displacement of the cone at each stroke is at a speed that
permits pieces of rock to fall freely by gravity and be caught further down the rising head on its return
stroke. In the case of a machine with a suspended head, short stroke and lower speed, the rocks will slide
down the crushing opening using the same principle as the gyratory crusher.
Throughput capacities vary depending on the range of the feed size and the setting of the outlet. They are
most suited as a secondary crusher. However as a tertiary crusher with a shallow angled cone the
crusher is sensitive to the moisture content of the feed material.
Adjustment of the outlet setting is either by wedge or the fixed crusher member rotated on a threaded
ring. The latter method has been refined by the use of hydraulic controls so that settings my be altered
without stopping the feed to the crusher. Further advances in computerized automation has led to a more
accurate forecast of product size and power consumption.
At the lower end of the crushing chamber the two faces of the ‘liners’ are shaped so as to be nearly
parallel to each other. Figure 6 sketches the reduction principle. The effect of the parallel section of the
liners is to ensure that the larger rocks have at least one dimension equal to, or less than, the setting and
that all product will be less than twice this dimension. This setting is referred to as the ‘close side setting’
(css), see figure 7.
Figure 6 The Symons Principle of Crushing

Figure 7 Crushing Cavities

Reduction ratios of cone crushers are in the range of:

¨ used as a secondary crusher 6 to 8 : 1
¨ used as a tertiary crusher 2 to 3 : 1
Both crushing members are subjected to heavy abrasive action and must be fitted with substantial liners,
usually made of manganese steel. As these types of crushers achieve the best results if the whole
crushing cavity is utilized then they should be choke fed. There are a number of different liners profiles
available to suit different material characteristics and to select the best it is advisable to consult the
supplier. A wide angle between the crushing liners will increase the reduction ratio and the capacity. A
narrow angle has the opposite effect.
A protection method installed on many cone crushers is a series of springs or hydraulic rams which allow
the fixed cone jacket to rise up in the event of uncrushable material entering the chamber. The simple
operation and low level of maintenance required make for very economical use.
4.3 Jaw
Rugged machines of simple design and easy to maintain. They consist of a fixed and a moveable jaw with
massive side frames forming a wedge shaped crushing chamber. The cross section between the crushing
faces decreases towards the discharge end, the side frames remaining a constant distance apart. Lining
plates can have vertical serrations running their length. These assist with size reduction and moving
material through the crusher. The reduction method in jaw crushers is compression. There are two groups
of jaw crushers single and double toggle machines. Sections of both types are shown in figures 8 and 9.
Figure 8 Single Toggle Jaw Crusher

Figure 9 Double Toggle Jaw Crusher

4.3.1 Single Toggle

The moveable crushing member is hung from an eccentric shaft the lower end being held in position by
one toggle plate. The rear end of the toggle rests in a groove on the rigid back of the frame and the other
end in the similar groove on the back of the swing jaw. The motion is the result of the circular action of the
eccentric shaft at the top of the swing jaw combined with the rocker action of the toggle plate at the
bottom of the jaw.
When the swing jaw rises it is opening at the top in the first half of the stroke and closing during the
second half. The bottom of the jaw is closing during the whole up stroke. Opposite motion of the swing
jaw takes place during the downstroke.
4.3.2 Double Toggle
The moving jaw is freely suspended from a shaft at its top edge and the jaw movement is transmitted
through toggles near the lower edge. Maximum crushing force is applied at the inlet to the crushing
chamber where the largest particles are found.
The moving jaw is suspended from a cross shaft at its upper end, this shaft in turn being supported at
each end in bearings at the top of the two sides of the crusher frame. The actuating mechanism consists
of the eccentric shaft, supported in bearings, the pitman and the pair of toggles. The motion of the
eccentric shaft is transmitted through the pitman to the inner ends of the toggle pair. The setting of the
toggle plates alternatively increases and decreases the effective length of the toggles, imparting the
horizontal crushing motion to the jaw. The motion is greatest at the discharge opening.
In both machines the toggles are clamped in position by spring loaded bolts attached to the moving jaw,
taking up the motion of the jaw. The crushing action is intermittent allowing the rock to fall further down
the crushing chamber before being crushed again. This action can cause choking if overfeeding takes
place and it is best to control the feed to this type of crusher.
The single toggle crusher will not take such hard rock as the double toggle unit. With a rock of medium
hardness the single unit will have a larger throughput, due to the travel of the jaw. Where the rock to be
crushed is highly laminated the jaw crusher tends to produce slabs. This can make handling of feed
material to secondary crushers difficult.
All crushing in jaw crushers is done by compression.
4.4 Roller
A roller crusher consists of a heavy cast frame supporting one or two rolls. Each roll comprises a shaft, a
roll center made of cast steel and a shell. This shell can either be smooth or corrugated or have teeth of a
wear resistant metal inserted into slots on the shell. Diameters of rolls can vary from 350 mm to 2.0 m and
in width up to 2.0 m. Rolls are independently driven by a flywheel type multiple V-belt sheave. One set of
bearings is made to slide horizontally on the frames. These moveable bearings are spring loaded to
provide a safety relief for excessive pressures. Springs are pre-set to a working pressure for which the
machine is designed. The bearings are drawn up against locating shims to establish the gap between,
either, a roll and breaking plate or two rolls.
Speeds of roller crushers vary according to the material being crushed. Medium rotor speeds, a tip speed
of 8.0 to 10.0 m/s, are used with materials that are difficult to comminute. For materials of a plastic
consistency a lower rotor speed preferred, 4.0 to 8.0 m/s. Clay crushers, no longer in general use, had a
tip speed of only 1 to 2 meters per second.
Metal used for the teeth can be manganese steel or a boron alloyed carbon steel as they are subject to
high wear rates. Teeth have to be profiled by means of special welding materials at intervals depending
on the abrasiveness of the material and how the maintenance is carried out. The interval can be six
weeks or six months.
Number and size of teeth on toothed roller crushers depend on the crushing requirements. A primary
roller crusher will have larger teeth with fewer per row and less rows than a secondary crusher. Teeth of
different heights are often used on primary crushers. The higher teeth are known as ‘slugger’ teeth and
the shorter ones as ‘regular’ teeth. The slugger teeth are designed to grip the larger rocks dragging them
between the crushing faces where they are sheared by the regular teeth.
The crushing action of slugger teeth is termed sledging. Sledging is the breaking of material as a sharp
stroke is delivered to a particle while it is prevented from moving by being in contact with an opposing
surface either fixed or moving.
4.4.1 Single Roll
The crushing is done between the roll and the back plate or anvils which are pivoted at the top edge and
adjustable at the point of discharge. The adjusting bolts can be spring loaded if the roll is fixed so as to
permit the passing of tramp metal, see figure 10.
Figure 10 Single Roll Crusher

It is an effective breaker of soft to medium hard limestones and shales, but is not suited to blocky feeds
unless of a friable nature. During the crushing process material will ride on the roll and there will be
considerable slip between the material and the top of the teeth. This will lead to excessive wear if the
material has other than a low percentage silica.
The machine will turn out a product with less percentage fines than either the jaw or gyratory crushers.
Size of product is governed by the distance between the roll and the tip of the lower end of the anvil.
This machine is essentially a primary crusher and works most efficiently when set for a medium or coarse
product.
4.4.2 Double Roll
The crushing action takes place between the two rolls, figure 11. On large machines both rolls can be
mounted on slides which can be adjusted to give the correct size product. In special cases these
machines can be supplied with rotors running at different circumferential speeds. The shearing force due
to this increases the comminuting effect. Crushers with medium rotor speeds have proved suitable for
dealing with materials that are difficult to comminute, having compressive strengths up to 1500 kg/cm2.
Figure 11 Double Roll Crusher

These crushers are successful in the reduction of moist sticky materials. They are especially suitable for
crushing limestone, marl, clay and shale. Roller crushers are nearly always the first choice when there is
a need to reduce wet and very sticky or plastic materials.
The term ‘Crushing Rolls’ applies to the double roll machine with smooth or corrugated shells. Crushing is
entirely by compression of material between the surfaces of the roll faces. Although crushing rolls fitted
with corrugated shells have been used in special applications they remain, essentially, a fine reduction
crusher used in the secondary or tertiary reduction stage.
One disadvantage of the double roll is that one set of rollers delivers product to the conveyor in the
opposite direction to the belt travel. A curved chute can be fitted to reduce the effect but if the feed
material is sticky or contains a percentage of clay then a build up of material in the chute can occur
leading to clogging. The sticky material can also form boulders in the dead space between the rollers
which ‘ride’ on them and become such a size that when eventually discharged cause damage to the
conveyor belts.
4.4.3 Roll Size
In general the roll size of a crusher is governed by the feed size, crushing strength and friability of the
feed rock. In choosing the appropriate crusher size the aim should be to have a one to one ratio between
the maximum feed size and the roll diameter. Crusher throughput and product particle size are mainly
governed by the distance between the rolls and their width.
4.4.4 Mineral Sizers
The twin roll mineral sizer is a development of the on-belt coal crushers and Stammler sizers. The unit
consists of two counter rotating shafts mounted in a frame. On the shafts are mounted several rows of
sizing teeth, which draw the rock down into the crusher. An electric or hydraulic motor through a gearbox
and fluid couplings drives each shaft. The units are of modular construction, which allows each machine
to be made up to the purchaser’s requirements. The number of rings and the number of teeth per ring
can be varied to suit. Detailed specifications of each machine are decided upon by its specific duty.
Figure 12 sketches a cross sectional view of this type of crusher.

The minimum economically based product size for MMD application is minus 40 mm and only for small
capacities below 500 t/hr. For higher capacities, the minimum achievable product size is minus 80 mm.
Figure 12 Section through the shafts of an MMD Mineral Sizer

Picture 1: Alignment of teeth

Picture 2: Geometry of teeth

4.4.5 Material
A wide range of raw materials required for the making of cement are suitable to be crushed in a sizer.
These crushers perform well with very sticky clay and also marl with a high moisture content and are to a
large extent self-cleaning. On a consistent base, material with a hardness of up to 250 MPa can be
crushed. Hardness peaks of up to 500 MPa can be crushed, but this is not recommended.
Material with a high abrasive index, however, will accelerate wear on the pick heads and can result in
them being replaced at frequent intervals. The machine is slow running and with few moving parts which
minimizes wear and replacement of parts. If a hard rock or piece of tramp iron enters the crusher the
rotating shafts will stall when the teeth grip it rather than force such material through the crusher. The
shafts are then counter rotated and the offending piece can be removed. Similarly if bridging takes place
above the shafts they can be counter rotated until the teeth grip and the material is dislodged. Units have
been installed at an angle to assist very hard material to run off over the shafts rather than be crushed
and damaging the shafts or picks.
4.4.6 Forces
The sizer accepts material in through the top of the unit. The two inward rotating shafts with their rows of
teeth draw the oversize down into the crusher while permitting the controlled passage of undersize
without further reduction in size. This eliminates the need for a scalper in front of such a primary crusher.
Material is broken in a sizer principally by tensile stress and shear. This reduces the quantity of fines
produced by the crushing action.
All breaking forces are contained in the machine. This has the effect of reducing the foundations
necessary to support the crusher. It is very well suited to mobile mounting on crawlers, skids or even
wheels.
These crushers are compact. The space and particularly the vertical dimensions are by far smaller than
for the equivalent capacity jaw or hammer crusher. Their vertical dimension is small enough that they
have been installed at transfer points between conveyors. It does not require a feeder; material can be
loaded directly into the crusher chamber. However wear rates and the incident of broken teeth can be
considerably increased by this action and it is not to be considered “good practice”
4.4.7 Reduction ratio
The reduction ratio of the sizer depends on the hardness and the size of the material. A very hard material
may not be crushed in one step to the final product size, whereby a soft material does not require any
secondary crushing. Since the two rolls are in a fixed position, the maximum output size is well defined. In
projects where such a crusher has been considered then thought has also to be given to having a
secondary unit.
4.4.8 Dimensions
Due to its small size the space taken by two such crushers is minimal; especially when compared to other
types of crusher. It does, however, make the cost of the crushing system equal or higher to the more
conventional single stage systems that are in use at many of our plants.
The dimensions of the crusher depend on throughput, feed and product size, property of feed material,
moisture and hardness. A higher throughput is achieved with longer rolls, coarser feed material can be
handled with larger teeth. Depending on the percentage of fines entering the crusher, a smaller crusher
can provide the same throughput as a larger one with only coarse feed.

Figure 13 Size comparison of different crushers

4.4.9 Reduction
In these crushers the methods of reduction are shearing and compression. On entering the crusher a
rock is gripped by the teeth on each roll and shearing and bending actions takes place. This action
exploits the natural fractures and bedding planes in the rock that aid breaking . This makes it extremely
suitable for use with limestone. As the rock is pulled between the rolls a squeezing or compressing action
takes place. Fines are generally not crushed but pass through the varying size gaps between the rolls or
on the outside of them between the roll and the frame. The crusher acts as a “rotating sieve.”
The number of teeth on the circumference of the roll varies from 3 to a maximum of 16. For primary
crushers 3 or 4 teeth are normal. In secondary use at a cement plant there may be up to 14 teeth to the
circumference. The geometry of the teeth also varies according to the nature of the rock to be crushed
and whether the crusher is a primary or secondary.
Reduction ratios that can be expected using a mineral sizer are:
Ø Primary - 5 to 1 when crushing a medium hard limestone with a maximum feed size of 1.5m.
Ø Secondary 3.5 to 1 for limestone. Breaking is normally higher than in the primary due to both the
relative smaller percentage of fines in the feed and the need for a limiting maximum size of product.
4.4.10 Maintenance
The crusher can be constructed on rollers. This will permit it to be moved out of a tight spot for
maintenance. Although not seen everywhere it is used in areas where the crusher is installed in transfer
points such as at the change of conveyor direction.
Basically the only replacement parts needed to be stocked are the tips to the teeth and roll segments or
complete rolls.
4.5 Impact Crushers
Both swing hammer and fixed breaker bar machines may be classified under this heading. A
characteristic of these breakers is the large quantity of fines produced and the high reduction ratios
obtainable, up to 30 to 1. Run of quarry material can be reduced in one pass of the crusher and the
product will be mill feed size. A percentage of slab oversize may, however, be present in the product
which can be reduced by passing it in closed circuit back to the crusher.
4.5.1 Single Roller Hammer Crusher
This machine consists of a base frame and drum with a set of breaker plates or flanges mounted in one
half, a horizontal rotating shaft on which the hammers are mounted, and a set of breaker bars or grates
situated around the lower circumference of the frame.
The rotor consists of a shaft carried in bearings on either side of the housing at the centre of the multi-
flanged drum. The flanges are drilled near their outer edges for hinge pins to which the hammers can be
attached. The speed or the rotor is such as to keep the hammers in position by centrifugal force. Rock
entering the crusher is struck by the hammers and cast against the breaking plates. This action can be
repeated several times in one pass through the crusher. Figure 14 shows the operation of a hammer
crusher.
Figure 14 Single Shaft Hammer Crusher with Grates

A series of transversely arranged, tapered, wear resisting steel bars form a circular cross section just
below the hammers path. The spacing of these bars are varied to suit the required product size. When a
sticky feed is crushed in this type of breaker the grates soon become blocked and the crusher can
eventually stall. The problem then arises that the product will leave the crusher at a high velocity and
protection of the conveyor belt removing the product may be needed.
4.5.2 Double Roller Hammer Crusher
Material is fed, by gravity, into the center of a double rotor machine and is hit by the hammers. This
impacting of feed material against two counter rotating sets of hammers is the primary means of size
reduction. Other impactions further break the material on an anvil block situated between the rollers. A
grid of bars, parallel to the hammer’s path can be placed above the rollers. These act as a screen
preventing oversize material falling between the rotors. The hammers path is between the grid bars and
reduces these blocks so that they can fall into the crusher.
Material is crushed in two ways. First by impact on the hammers and breaker plates. Then by attrition and
shear where there is slight clearance between the hammers and the screen bars. This zone is the final
sizing area for the product. Some makes of double roller hammer crushers use only the dynamic
impacting action of one set of hammers to the other. The advantage of using this method is that in
reducing wet sticky materials there is little for it to stick to in the crushing chamber and therefore power
consumption will be relatively low. Figure 15 sketches the action of a double roller hammer crusher with a
grate.
All the points listed concerning the single roller version apply to the double roller crusher as well.
Figure 15 Double Shaft Hammer Crusher with Grates

4.5.3 Swing Hammers and Fixed Impact Bars

There are a variety of shapes of hammers, swing for hammer crushers and fixed for impact crushers.
Some examples are shown in figure 16. They can be made to span the whole width of the machine
hinged on two flanges or be installed individually on separate flanges in a row. There are usually two
circles of these flange holes one a smaller radius than the other. When the hammers are new, and their
maximum length, the spindles are placed in the inner row of holes. When worn and shortened, they are
then transferred to the outer row to restore the gap to the original size. Hammers are normally made out
of manganese steel and are reversible to maximize their use before new ones have to be purchased.

Figure 16 Types of Hammers and Bars

Speed has a definite influence on the reduction ratio of hammer crushers. The effect of a speed of about
60 meters per second on friable material is almost explosive the rock being pulverized. This results in a
very high percentage of fines. A low speed crusher can result in a fairly uniform product with low
percentage fines providing the feed is not struck too may times in the crushing chamber. The design of
the crushing chamber will also effect the fineness of the product. Machines which perform the majority of
the work by plain impact action will have a more uniform product size with less fines.
With all hammer crushers a means of controlling the feed rate is necessary and of screening out under
size material before it enters the crusher. A constant degree of crushing can be maintained by having
moveable breaker plates so that as the hammers wear the plates are moved inwards. A good practice,
which helps to reduce costs, is to preserve hammer profile for as long as economically possible.
4.5.4 Single and Double Rotor Bar
These types of crushers have rigid breaker bars extending the full length of the rotor with a combination of
fixed bars and moveable breaker plates to permit the passing of uncrushable material. Four or six rows of
bars is the norm, spaced equidistantly around the roller. The top ends of these moveable plates are
hinged and the lower end suspended on spring loaded adjustable bolts. This will allow the gap to be
varied to determine a particular product size. Alternatively breaker plates can be fixed in one position
arranged to give the rock particles maximum impact when cast against them.
4.5.5 Reversible Impactors
Feed is dropped into the central feed chute and cast by the hammers against breaker plates or blocks
and shatters under the repeated impact. The symmetrical construction of the crusher permits the unit to
work equally well with the rotor revolving in either direction. The advantages of this option are that wear
can be evenly distributed over both sets of breaker plates and that hammers do not have to be turned
during their working life. Figure 17 shows the outline of such a machine.
Figure 17 Reversible Single Shaft Hammer Crusher

4.5.6 Compound
This design eliminates the need to have several crushing stages by accepting Run of Quarry (RQQ) feed
and producing 95 % less than 25 mm. The compound crusher contains in one housing both primary and
secondary crushers. Feed enters through the primary inlet into the primary crushing chamber where it is
reduced and passed immediately to the secondary crusher. After further reduction the material moves
through a grinding path before exiting the housing. The sectional sketch in figure 18 shows the two rotors
working in conjunction with three impact aprons and a grinding path in the rear.

Figure 18 Compound Crusher with Grinding Path

The compound crusher consists of two rotors turning in the same direction. Each rotor contains three to
six breaker bars depending on the hardness of the material to be crushed. The secondary rotor turns at a
higher speed than the primary. An average figure is 30 to 33 meters per second for the tip speed of the
primary and 37 to 40 for the secondary. A maximum tip speed for the primary crusher of between 40 and
45 meters per second can be realized but this results in increased wear on the breaker bars. The speed
and the position of the rotors in relation to each other are the main factors affecting the reduction ratios.
The secondary crusher has a lighter weight rotor than the primary and is commonly fitted with breaker
bars that are of a softer steel.
A compound crusher will crush a wet sticky feed successfully without clogging the machine as there are
no grates in the crusher housing and the striker plates can be heated. Compound crushers have high
reduction ratios and throughput. They reduce the need for belts and feeders between primary and
secondary crushers. Their main field of application is in the limestone and gypsum industry.
5. MOBILE CRUSHING PLANTS
In a shallow quarry the benches will be advanced over distances of hundreds of meters. If trucks are used
to move broken material then provision must be made to increase the fleet in line with the extra distance
to ensure that production is maintained. An alternative, with considerable cost savings, is to erect the
primary crusher in the quarry and transport the product from it by conveyer belt. To maximize the
reductions in the fleet of trucks the crusher can be mobile or semi mobile. It can be advanced with the
quarry faces maintaining a fixed tramming distance.
5.1 Mobile
A mobile plant is one that can move itself without assistance from outside forces. There are a variety of
moving mechanisms available to suit different applications. Hydraulic walking pads are favored in quarries
with reasonably smooth floors. Their advantage is that the can turn on the spot. Crawler tracks can follow
a face working over floors with poor load bearing qualities. Pneumatic tyred crushers move quickly,
compared to the other mechanisms, and are suited to frequent movement. When in operation all traveling
mechanisms, except crawler mounted, have to be freed from load. Table 1 compares the various
mechanisms.
Table 1 Comparison of mobile mechanisms
see figure 19
Traveling
mechanism Speed
(m/h) Ground
pressure
(kPa) Travel Quarry
floor Cost
(% of
crusher)
Tracks 400 80 mediummuddy 260
Pads 72 120 short level 130
Wheels 800 800 frequent good 190

Figure 19 Application Criteria for Types of Transportation Systems

Most suitable ö
Suitable õ
Not Suitable ÷

Transportation Equipment Rail Mounted Wheels Raft Type Walking Mechanism

Pneumatic Wheels Crawler Mounted Fork-lift Car Transport Crawler
Operating Conditions
Load Low
Medium
High ö
õ
÷ ö
ö
ö ö
ö
õ ö
ö
ö ö
ö
ö ö
ö
ö
Travel Speed Low
Medium
High ö
ö
ö ö
÷
÷ õ
ö
ö ö
ö
õ õ
ö
ö ö
ö
õ
Climbing Capacity Low
Medium
High õ
÷
÷ ö
ö
ö ö
õ
÷ ö
ö
ö ö
õ
÷ ö
ö
ö
Ground Pressure Low
Medium
High ö
ö
ö ö
ö
ö ÷
õ
ö ö
ö
õ ÷
õ
ö ö
ö
õ
Travel Distance Short
Long ö
ö ö
õ ö
ö ö
õ ö
ö ö
õ
Mobility in all Directions ÷ ö õ õ õ õ
Applicable for several Machines ÷ õ õ ÷ ö ö
Overall Weight Low
Medium
High ö
ö
ö ö
ö
ö ö
ö
ö ö
ö
ö õ
ö
ö ÷
õ
ö
Price Relation 1.0 1.3 1.9 2.6 2.2 3.5

5.2 Semi-Mobile
These plants have no independent means of movement and either have to be towed or lifted by special
transporters. They are selected when a change of location is only necessary at long intervals. If the
working face is straight and proceeds in one direction the crusher chassis can be rail mounted to ease
movement. This is accomplished by means of a towing vehicle. Wheels are retracted when the crusher is
in operation.
6. FACTORS AFFECTING POWER REQUIREMENTS
Although no hard and fast rules can be applied to the determination of power requirements extensive field
experience has led to the compiling of some average values for various crushers. There are many factors
affecting consumption, the major two are the nature of the raw material being fed and the specifications
and features of the crusher. In general terms and as a rough guide for comparison the main factors are:
6.1 Raw Material
6.1.1 Type of Rock
The difference between the energy required to crush the strongest and the weakest rocks is about 50 %.
6.1.2 Moisture Content
A water saturated feed requires twice the energy to crush it as for a dry feed.
6.1.3 Feed Size
The maximum size of feed material rocks should be regulated so that the crusher feed does not have to
be stopped and started because of oversize in the crusher bowl. This will result in overall low rates of feed
and higher power consumption.
6.2 Crusher
6.2.1 Reduction Ratio
When crushing to the maximum ratio possible and having a choke or maximum regulated feed the energy
consumed is about 30 % higher than when the reduction ratio is 80 to 85 % of maximum.
6.2.2 Rate of Feed
Low rates of feed give high energy consumption values especially when using jaw, gyratory or roller
crushers. With jaw crushers lowest energy consumption is achieved when feed rate is between 50 and 75
% of choke feed.
6.2.3 Type of Crusher
Impact breakers have marginally lower power consumption than other types of crushers.
6.2.4 Speed of Crusher
Energy consumption of impact breakers and rolls is less at higher speeds.
6.2.5 Crushing Strength
The power required for crushing is almost directly proportional to the crushing strength of the material.
6.3 Work Index
This is defined as the power per unit mass required to break an infinite particle size down to 80 % passing
100 microns. Units of measurement are usually kwh per ton. The higher the work index of a material the
higher will be the required input work to obtain a given reduction ratio. Table 2 lists the average work
indices for materials associated with the cement industry.
Table 2 Average work indices

MaterialSG Work Index

Chert 2.65 26.16
Silica Sand 2.65 16.46
Shale 2.58 16.40
Clinker 3.09 13.49
Limestone 2.69 11.61
Dolomite 2.82 11.31
Clay 2.23 7.10

6.4 Typical Power Requirements

A primary single roll crusher reducing run of quarry medium hard limestone to a 165 mm product will
require about 400 watts per ton per hour. When this type of crusher is used to crush medium hard
bituminous coal to the same specifications only about 65 watts per ton per hour is needed. Even with the
hardest minerals single rolls use about 750 watts per ton per hour of power.
Impact crushers, used as primary crushers, require about 760 watts per ton per hour of the gross load to
drive them. This only increases slightly if the rotor speed is very high.
A jaw crusher needs approximately 250 watts per ton per hour for its maximum size reduction. If the ratio
of feed to product size is reduced then this will decrease.
6.5 Closed Circuit Crushing
This is a means of controlling product top size by screening and returning oversize to the crusher. To
control top size with an open circuit, material must remain in the crushing chamber until it is reduced to
the required size. The result is that a proportion of the material is overground and the percentage fines in
the product is high. Efficiencies are lowered with a corresponding increase in power costs. In a multi
stage crushing plant with the final stage in closed circuit the primary crusher operates at a setting which
produces a satisfactory feed size for the secondary so that a balance exists for the work done by each
crusher and power consumption is minimized. Figure 20 is a schematic drawing of a typical closed circuit
crusher system. The argument against a closed circuit system is that it reduces plant capacity, if the
recirculated load gets too large efficiencies are markedly decreased. With both, jaw and gyratory
crushers, there will be no increase in the product quantity produced since the increased portion will be
offset exactly by the reduced final output. Impact breakers will show an increase as there will be a smaller
average feed size.
Figure 20 A Closed Circuit System

6.6 Choke or Regulated Feed

A completely filled crusher chamber, or as full as the design will permit? Is there a sufficient head of
material above the receiving opening to keep the crusher continuously full? This is particularly important
with cone crushers as choke feeding gives higher reduction ratios and reduces wear on the crusher parts.
Regulated feed is the throttling of the supply of material to the crusher to keep it below the capacity of the
machine.
7. DRYING
In compound and impact crushers the contact plates can be heated to about 120 degrees Celsius.
Moisture contained in the sticky material evaporates when it comes into contact with these plates and falls
off. The purpose of this devise is not to dry the feed but to prevent build-up of material on the contact
plates and reduce the crushers ability to crush.
An alternative method of drying the feed is to blow hot air through the crusher unit as it is working. These
machines are capable of drying a feed containing 20 % moisture to a product containing 0.5 % moisture
whilst maintaining a high reduction ratio. An example of such a machine is shown on figure 21. The inlet
slide plate and impact aprons of crushers can be designed for heating of the material that comes into
contact with these surfaces. Feeds with a moisture content of 15 % can be crushed with few problems.
Figure 21 Crusher with Dryer

8. FEED CONTROL
A suitable feeder is required in order to present feed to a crusher to achieve the greatest efficiency. All
crushers, with the exception of the gyratory which can be flooded, require constant feed at near maximum
levels to achieve this. Where the screening off of undersize is necessary, as in clay and sticky feeds it is
possible to use a type of feeder that will remove most of the undersize as well as regulate the feed rate.
9. HOPPERS
Reception hoppers work under severe conditions, particularly the primary feed hoppers which take run of
quarry material. They are subject to severe shocks when trucks or dumpers tip into them loads of 20 to 50
tons from heights of 6.0 meters.
The average hopper has a capacity of about 50 tons and is made of steel plates supported by a frame of
Rolled Steel Joists (RSJ). Inside they should be lined with wearer plates or heavy rails laid in the direction
of flow. The hopper must retain material at all times so that as much of the wear and shock is taken up by
material on material when tipping into it.
10. SELECTING A CRUSHER SYSTEM
Primary crusher systems are usually the biggest and most expensive items of equipment for reducing raw
material to an acceptable size. The whole of the crusher house arrangement is designed around the
primary crusher and a mistake in the initial choice can be very costly. Major types of crusher and their
characteristics are summarized in figure 22 and 23.
Figure 22 Summary of the Major Types of Crusher

Figure 23 Application of Crusher Types

Most suitable ö
Suitable õ
Not Suitable ÷

Material Conditions Material Classification Crushing Ratio Material Abrasivity Material

Moisture
Crusher Type Soft MediumHard 1:5 1:15 1:30 1:50 Low MediumHigh Dry
Moist wet
Single Toggle Jaw ö ö õ ö ÷ ÷ ÷ ö õ ÷
ö õ ÷
Double Toggle Jaw õ ö ö ö ÷ ÷ ÷ ö ö ö
ö õ ÷
Gyratory / Cone õ ö ö ö ÷ ÷ ÷ ö ö ö ö
õ ÷
Mineral Sizer ö õ ÷ ö ÷ ÷ ÷ ö õ ÷ ö
ö ö
Roll ö õ ÷ ö ÷ ÷ ÷ ö õ ÷ ö ö
ö
Single Shaft Hammer ö ö ö ö ö õ ÷ ö õ ÷
ö õ ÷
With Grate ö ö õ ö ö ö õ ö õ ÷ ö
÷ ÷
Double Shaft Hammer ö ö ö ö ö õ ÷ ö õ ÷
ö ö õ
With Grate ö ö õ ö ö ö õ ö õ ÷ ö
õ ÷
Single Shaft Impact ö ö ö ö ö õ ÷ ö õ ÷
ö õ ÷
With Grate ö ö õ ö ö ö õ ö õ ÷ ö
õ ÷
Double Shaft Impact ö ö ö ö ö ö õ ö õ ÷
ö ö ÷
With Grate ö ö õ ö ö ö ö ö õ ÷ ö
õ ÷

The following have a bearing on the choice of crusher:

10.1 Characteristics of the Material
This includes the geological classification of the rock, physical structure, chemical analysis and an
evaluation of its resistance to crushing. Such information may be obtained from neighboring quarries or
from laboratory testing of actual samples. Many deposits of limestone are thinly stratified and can be
blasted into fragments that can easily be handled by a medium size crusher, a gyratory or sledge roll.
A jaw crusher may be necessary if the rock formation is massive and tends to be blasted into big blocks
bounded by jointing. If the rock to be processed contains high amounts of silica or other abrasive material
roll and hammer crushers are not a suitable selection unless the host rock is very soft and friable. Even
then they are unlikely to be an economic proposition.
10.2 Capacity
A crusher cannot be selected solely on the basis of capacity and should never be selected to just meet
the capacity. In the average quarry operation there is little or no surge capacity. In an operation delay
were to occur in loading then the primary crusher will in short order stop through lack of feed. All crushers,
primary or secondary, will bridge or block at some stage. The crusher capacity must be high enough to
overcome these shortfalls in production. Minimum reserve capacity should be 25 % and up to 50 % in
critical cases. Care should be taken when selecting secondary or tertiary crusher systems that their
combined feed rate will be capable of accepting all the product, requiring further reduction, from the
primary.
10.3 Product Size
A primary crusher should give the highest reduction ratio as is economically feasible. The crusher will be
set at, or near its minimum setting. This will reduce the throughput and the figures quoted for crusher
performance should reflect this. Table 3 lists various types of crusher and the product and feed sizes
obtained for different materials. Reduction ratio depends on the tip speed of the crusher, if a rotary for 95
% of the measure of reduction. The higher the tip speed the greater the reduction ratio. However
increased speed results in increased wear on the crusher and maintenance costs rise steeply.
Table 3 Examples of reduction ratios

Crusher MaterialFeed Size (max. mm) Product Size (mm)

Single Rotor Hammer Limestone 1800 0 - 80
Double Roll Limestone 1000 0 - 150
Mineral Sizer Limestone 1000 0 - 200
Gyratory Basalt 1500 0 - 230
Double Rotor Hammer Limestone 1000 0 - 30
Jaw Iron Ore 850 0 - 130
Impact Limestone 1500 0 - 300
Impact Limestone 1500 0 - 150

10.4 Quarry Equipment

Face loading and transporting equipment are all included in this. Usually the only surge capacity in the
quarry is that loaded into the trucks. The distance that the material has to be moved as well as the
number of trucks available will determine the actual peak capacity needed to maintain throughput and
therefore the size of the primary crusher.
All types of crusher work at their best efficiency if continuously fed at a rate close to designed throughput.
A short transporting distance with relatively small trucks will approximate this condition. A surge bin ahead
of the primary crusher capable of holding three or four trucks should take up any minor delays in feed
supply.
10.5 Drilling and Blasting
The size of the drill hole should be suitable for the physical properties of the material. If not then the
average rock size to the crusher may be large. This becomes important when a new primary crusher is to
be installed on an existing operation and the drilling equipment is not being replaced. Different types of
explosives result in different muckpile characteristics and fragmentation analyze. ANFO is a common
explosive found in quarries, it is cheap and easy to make on site. When it detonates there is a higher
proportion of heave energy released. This results in a coarser muckpile than if an emulsion explosive was
used. The number of holes and rows fired in a blast will also effect the muckpile fragmentation. Oversize
is generated from the collar of holes and the backbreak from the final row. If large blasts are set off and a
hang up occurs then it is possible that the crusher could stand for some considerable time.
10.6 Feeder Design
At most plants there will be an intermediate stockpile between the primary and secondary crusher
systems. A majority of quarries will be able to produce the required tonnage on one shift. The plant
process is continuous and therefore enough material must be available to permit the operation to continue
on the other shifts.
11. DAY TO DAY RUNNING
When a crushing system has been selected there are points to be considered with regard to installation
and operation. Below is a list of the main ones:
11.1 Operation
11.1.1 Fine Material Scalping and Screening
This is the removal of the fine material that can reduce the efficiency of the crushing process before it
passes through the crusher. Good screening performance is especially necessary for fine crushers. The
removal of this material, not requiring further crushing, reduces wear on the manganese and the total
percentage fines in the product. In addition moisture and contamination in feed material is usually found in
the finer fraction. Moisture and clay can cause abnormally high stresses in crushers, by packing, and
should be removed before crushed. It is sometimes necessary to have a scalping screen ahead of the
primary crusher to remove the undersize portion of a sticky, wet feed. A grizzly feeder, combining both
feeding and removal of fines, is one of the more popular methods of accomplishing this.
Screening accuracy depends to a high degree on the material bed depth on the screen deck which is, in
turn, dependent on screen width, a wider screen giving better results.
11.1.2 Even Feed to the Primary
An even and regular feed to the primary will increase output. A crusher waiting for material will not
perform at its optimum. The situation can be improved by the installation of a hopper in front of the
primary crusher capable of taking two to three truck loads of material. Even with this addition if the truck
fleet is not reliable throughput rates will suffer.
11.1.3 Surge Storage
Where secondary crushing is necessary a decision has to be taken as to whether the secondary plant is
to be operated as an extension of the plant, on a continuous process, or as part of the quarry. Run as part
of the plant its size can be reduced but a surge stockpile is required between the primary and the
secondary. The alternative means that the stockpile can be within the plant. With a wet feed or climate the
stockpile should be under cover. If all crushing stages are direct feed from the previous the stage with the
lowest capacity will govern the throughput and all other parts of the plant will operate at below optimum.
Providing surge capacity between crushing stages eliminates this problem. The size of the surge stockpile
should be such that the operation of the plant is not affected by breakdowns or stoppages further up the
line, a truck breakdown or a blockage in the primary crusher, for instance. A stockpile will ensure a regular
feed to the next crusher with the benefits of maximum utilization.
11.1.4 Overload Protection
All machines driven by electric motors should have overload protection. In crushers it is either the
transmission vee belts or the springs which take the initial shock of an overload. Hydraulic systems have
an advantage in that the crusher can open instantaneously if an overload occurs but with a steady return
to normal operation without the ‘chattering’ inherent in the steel spring system.
11.1.5 Setting Adjustment
Optimum performance is obtained by optimum setting of the crusher action. Adjustment must be made for
manganese wear on a regular basis, all the more frequent for abrasive materials. A few millimeters too
large a setting can reduce undersize in the product by 10 to 20 percent.
11.1.6 Metal Detectors or Magnets
Occasional tramp metal is found in the material fed to the crusher. It will pass the primary easily but can
cause damage to the finer crushing stages. Magnets, sited on the product belt from the primary crusher,
remove the metal. They are usually on a small belt which will lift the tramp metal clear and deposit it in a
bin. Detectors, on discerning tramp metal present, will stop the belt so that it can be lifted off.
11.1.7 Automation
There can be no doubt that automation of a plant increases throughput. The reaction of an automated
crusher to changing feed rates is much more precise and quicker than that of a manual system. With the
aid of electronic circuits to measure amperes on motors and mechanical loads, information and settings
can be frequently adjusted to suit the incoming feed. If a hydraulic system is in use on the crusher the
pressure in it can be measured to give the level of the crushing forces present in the machine. Manually
controlled crushers under the control of a skilled operator seldom use more than 65 % of the permissible
power. An automated feeder / crusher system can easily reach 90 %.
Level monitors provide a basic form of automation. Such a monitor in a cone crusher provides an
automatic choke feed to the machine. Monitors placed in the bottom and top of a surge bin can stop the
crusher when there is insufficient feed or provide protection from overfilling the bin.
Interlocking of the crushing system keeps spillage to a minimum by guaranteeing that the system starts in
the right order. If a conveyor trips interlocking will stop all forgoing machines to prevent excessive
spillage.
11.2 Maintenance
Efficient maintenance is the best way of maximizing the return on capital from a crushing plant. The
following points list the basics of good maintenance:
11.2.1 Access and Lifting Gear
Provide sufficient space to work around crushers and to use the large tools. All inspection and lubrication
points should be easily accessible. Plant should be designed with suitable lifting gear included or
structures capable of supporting mobile lifting machines.
11.2.2 Manuals
Personnel should understand and be familiar with all the manuals supplied for the particular crushers
purchased.
11.2.3 Training
All maintenance personnel must be qualified and properly trained.
11.2.4 Cleanliness
Dust can be hazardous to health. Piles of spillage can obscure areas of machines so that incipient failures
cannot be seen. The most profitable crushing plants are the cleanest.
11.2.5 Oil Analysis
Most lubricant suppliers provide an oil analysis service. Used regularly it will indicate trends and show up
any lubrication problems which may be developing. It can give advance warning of accelerated wear.
11.2.6 Pre-Planned Manganese Replacement
A set of crusher liners will give full capacity output for a period of time and then wear will reduce output. At
some stage in the wear it will be more economical to change plates than to operate at an increasingly
reduced capacity.
11.2.7 Spare Parts
Where possible the use of standard basic machines for a new plant is recommended as this will reduce
the spare part inventory. A spare parts stock at the plant is necessary to minimize downtime in the event
of a breakdown.
11.2.8 Operation and Maintenance Log
Written records of operation and maintenance for each crusher will make it easier to spot repetitive
problems and may give clues to an otherwise inexplicable failure. A regular log will soon indicate when
liner changes are due.
11.3 Safety
Rules of procedure should be written down. High voltages and high pressures can be dangerous. Safety
guards covering moving machinery will prevent accidents. Lockable isolating switches should be provided
for all motors preventing unauthorized starting.
Rocks in a crusher are subjected to large forces and can shatter propelling splinters out of an open
crusher mouth with great force. These will penetrate a body like a bullet. Personnel working in a crusher
plant should be provided with adequate safety gear and warnings of the sources of danger.
12. REFERENCES
1) Crushing Theory and Practice. Allis Chalmers, Milwaukee 1, Wisconsin. USA
2) Handbook of Crushing. Pennsylvania Crusher Corporation Box 100 Broomall, Pennsylvania
19008. USA
3) Crushing Manual. Hippo Quarries Ltd. Sandton, Republic of South Africa
4) The Selection and Operation of Crushers by John F. Steer. TIZ-Fachberichte. Volume 4 No. 6
1984
5) High Energy Crushing Technology and its Utilisation in Plant Design by M.R. Larnach. Presented
to the IOQ Conference, Durban March 1983
6) Automation of a Thirty Year Old Quarry by Karl Meissner-Roloff. Quarry Management June 1990
7) Crusher Terminology. Crusher and Portable Plants Association. PO Box 149, Darien Connecticut
06820. USA 1978
8) Crushing Handbook. Fabrica de Aco Paulista SA. Brazil. 1986
9) Nordberg Reference Manual. Clintonville Wisconsin 54929. USA
An Introduction to Crushing & Screening S.H. Mellor Institute of Quarrying 1990

C03 - Design of Bins and Feeders

Design of Bins and Feeders

F. Bucher
PT 97/14241/E
1. Introduction
2. Bin DESIGN concepts
2.1 The Funnel-Flow Concept
2.2 The Mass-Flow Concept
2.3 The Expanded Flow Concept
3. The nature of bulk solids
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Relevant Characteristics of Bulk Solids
4. Design of Bin/Feeder systems
4.1 Analysis for Flow
4.2 Design Criteria for new Bins
5. References and Bibliography:

1. INTRODUCTION
Looking at the flow sheet of the cement process (Fig. 1) the importance of bulk solid storage in bins and
silos becomes evident. Bins and silos are installed either
¨ as intermediate stores as to compensate for differences in material demand of subsequent
processes (e.g. clinker and cement silos) or
¨ as feed bins installed for feed rate control (e.g. feed bins for raw, coal and cement mills)
Bins have been considered for too a long time as unimportant and cheep equipment when compared to
mill and kiln systems. They have been considered to be simple containments only which are required to
be fed with product for storage with the aim that this product may be reclaimed later at a given time at a
consistent rate. The physical product characteristics have typically been ignored in bin design with
exception of the angle of repose which may have been considered by using slightly steeper wall
inclination for a bin’s discharge hopper. Making optimum use of a given area was the prime design
criteria. So it is not surprising that operation of many bin installations is still impaired by too flat concrete
discharge hoppers designed with a too small outlet and equipped with inappropriate feeders. Operation
problems as
¨ erratic or even interrupted product flow out of bins with cohesive bulk solids,
¨ flushing of the feeders with powders,
¨ product segregation,
¨ incomplete emptying resulting in a reduced bin live capacity
are common experience and very often accepted to be inevitable. The use of a sledge hammer and poke
rods are well known but ineffective means to compensate for the adverse consequences of a careless
and incompetent bin design.
It has to be mentioned that the attitude of the cement industry’s towards bin design has changed
fundamentally in the past fifteen years. Modern test procedures (as the shear test) and design concepts
(mass-flow) are no longer ignored but accepted.
In this paper an attempt is made to give a survey on ‘bulk solid storage in bins’. The following topics will
be dealt with:
¨ description of the different bin design concepts and the resulting flow patterns,
¨ description of the bulk solid characteristics which are relevant in bin design and their experimental
determination,
¨ analysis for product flow in bins,
¨ criteria for the design of bin/feeder systems,
¨ possible measures for improving the flow pattern for existing bins.
Figure 1 Cement Process Flow Sheet

2. BIN DESIGN CONCEPTS

The flow pattern that develops in bins as the stored bulk product discharges under gravity is commonly
demonstrated by means of transparent bins filled with layers of differently colored product. Such a set-up
allows to observe the changes in stratification during flow, helped to give an insight to the nature of gravity
flow of free-flowing and cohesive bulk products and allowed to understand the influence of wall inclination
and outlet size on the flow pattern. It became evident the flow pattern can be classified into two
¨ funnel-flow, and
¨ mass-flow.
2.1 The Funnel-Flow Concept
2.1.1 Bin Shapes
The funnel-flow bin type is the bin type with still the widest application in cement industry. Such bins may
either be flat-bottomed or equipped with discharge hoppers. In case of the latter the flat hopper wall
inclinations are the typical bin characteristic. Typical funnel-flow type bin shapes are shown in Fig 3.
Figure 3 Funnel-Flow typical bin shapes

2.1.2 Flow Pattern

When filling a bin, product will always segregate: The coarse grains will roll down the slope of the surface
pile to the bin’s circumference while the fines will predominantly be accumulated in the bin’s center. (Fig
4.1)
Development of the flow pattern in funnel-flow type bins depends on the product’s flow characteristics, the
relation of feed rate versus discharge rate and the arrangement of the feed relative to the discharge
opening. When opening the outlet of a funnel-flow type bin, product will flow in a narrow core only that
forms just above the bin’s outlet while the surrounding product remains at rest. Bulk solid discharge is
essentially irregular regarding rate and density. Funnel-flow type bins can typically not be emptied
completely what results in a reduced live capacity. The discharge order is inverted compared to the
loading order, i.e. the bin shows a first-in last-out flow sequence.
¨ For no feed conditions (Fig. 4.2) the product that will be discharged first is the fine product from
the bin center zone. Product surface will then be inverted from a pile to a funnel shape, product level in
the bin will fall. With the coarse particles from the bin’s circumference now rolling down the slope to the
center, granulometry of the discharged product changes from fine to coarse. All the product surrounding
the center core remains at rest. The discharge order is inverted compared to the loading order, i.e. the
bin shows a first-in last-out flow sequence.
¨ In case the feed rate is larger than the discharge rate (Fig. 4.3) product level in the bin is rising,
the product surface keeps a pile shape and the product’s fine portion is predominately discharged as all
the coarse particles roll down the pile slope. All the product surrounding the center core remains at rest.
¨ In cases that feed rate and discharge rate are similar (Fig. 4.4) product level in the bin and shape
of product surface will remain constant. Product do not segregate on feeding as it passes directly to the
bin outlet via the activated center core. Again all the product surrounding the center core remains at rest.
Figure 4 Flow sequence in funnel-flow type bins

2.1.3 Operation Problems (Fig. 5)

Erratic flow and Flushing
Bulk solids do not flow consistently in vertical or very steep channels and have a tendency to form voids
topped by product arches. As such an arch breaks, the product falls into a void. Coarse product tends to
pack under the impact on the feeder and to form another arch again, discharge rate will be erratic. Fine
powders will get aerated when falling into the void and may then behave as a liquid flushing the feeder.
Interrupted Flow: Arching and Rat-holing
Funnel-flow type bins are subject to arching and rat-holing. Product discharge may be interrupted when
product consolidation in the bin is that important that formation of a stable cohesive arch or rat-hole
becomes possible.
Product degradation
Product may degrade due to segregation or excessive storage at rest.
Product segregation when filling bins can not be avoided. The funnel-flow sequence do not correct the
adverse effect of segregation.
Extensive storage at rest of the product in a bin’s dead zones may result
¨ in lump formation with the possibility that such lumps plug later the bin outlet,
¨ in hang-ups on the bin walls,
¨ in a loss of bin live capacity due to incomplete emptying.
2.1.4 Evaluation of the Funnel-Flow Concept
+ maximized storage volume for a given headroom but only in case the bin volume may be cleared
completely on a batchwise basis
+ low investment per m3 storage volume
- tends to erratic flow and an inconsistent discharge rate (inconsistent regarding flow rate and bulk
density)
- first-in last-out flow sequence
- varying product quality at bin discharge as product segregation on feeding is not corrected
- non-flowing zones favoring product degradation with time resulting in spoiling, lump formation,
wall hang-ups and loss of live capacity due to incomplete emptying
- subject to flow stoppages if the product consolidates (packs) sufficiently to form stable arches or
rat-holes
® Funnel-flow may be acceptable in cases
· where segregation is unimportant,
· where product degradation is not likely to be a problem,
· where feed rate consistency is not of prime importance
Figure 5 Operation problems with funnel-flow type bins

2.2 The Mass-Flow Concept

2.2.1 Bin Shapes
Typical characteristics of mass-flow bins are a slender shape, steep wall slopes of the discharge hopper
and relatively large outlets. Typical mass-flow type bin shapes are shown in Fig 6.
2.2.2 Flow Pattern
Product segregation when filling a mass-flow type bin can not be prevented with the coarse grains rolling
down the piles slope to the bin circumference while the fines will predominately be accumulated in the bin
center.
The flow pattern that develops in a mass-flow type bin differs from that of a funnel-flow type bin
considerably. In mass-flow type bins all the stored product is activated and moves towards the bin outlet
whenever product is discharged. This results in a first-in first-out flow pattern (Fig. 7). Mass-flow type bins
can typically be emptied completely at uniform discharge rate.
2.2.3 Operation Problems
Consistency of Product Discharge
Product discharge out of mass-flow type bins is consistent in rate and bulk density thus not problematic.
Interrupted Flow: Arching
A mass-flow type bin only looses its beneficial properties in case the outlet is insufficiently sized or the
outlet is not fully effective. In such cases arching and rat-holing become possible with the flow pattern
changing to funnel-flow.
Product degradation
Zones of stagnant product will not form in mass-flow type bins at least as long as the bin outlet is fully
active i.e. as long as all the stored product gets activated whenever any of it is reclaimed. The product
sliding downwards along the bin walls keeps them clean and prevents formation of product lumps and
wall hang-ups.
The discharge hopper acts as a mixer correcting product segregation that took place while filling the bin.
This due to the fact that when emptying a mass-flow type bin the product surface keeps its shape down to
the transition.
2.2.4 Evaluation of the Mass-Flow Concept

+ product flow out of the bin is uniform independent of the head of product in the bin, erratic flow
and flushing are absent
+ first-in first-out flow sequence preventing product deterioration due to excessive storage at rest
periods
+ remixing effect for products which segregate on feeding
+ non-flowing zones are absent as are formation of product lumps and wall hang -ups
- limited storage volume for a given headroom
- high investment per m3 storage volume
® Mass-flow is the preferred flow pattern. Mass-flow type bins should always be selected in cases
· where segregation is important,
 · where product degradation is a problem,
· where feed rate consistency is of prime importance (e.g. for feed bins).

Figure 6 Mass-flow : typical bin shapes

Figure 7 Flow sequence in mass-flow type bins

2.3 The Expanded Flow Concept

2.3.1 Bin Shapes
The typical shape of an expanded-flow type bin is shown in Fig. 9. From this figure the concept becomes
evident: The selected bin discharge configuration is that of a composite hopper with the upper hopper
section designed for funnel-flow and the lower section for mass-flow.
2.3.2 Flow Pattern
It is evident that the expanded-flow concept combines both the funnel-flow and the mass-flow pattern.
This is a creative way of increasing a bin’s storage capacity while ensuring consistent product discharge.
2.3.3 Operation Problems
Consistency of Discharge Rate
Product discharge out of expanded-flow type bins will be consistent in rate and density provided the lower
hopper is properly sized for mass-flow.
Interruption of flow: Arching and Rat-holing
Arching and rat-holing will be absent with bins of the expanded flow type provided the lower hopper is
properly sized for mass-flow.
Product Degradation
In an expanded-flow type bin’s funnel-flow section a core of activated product will form but the
surrounding product will remain at rest. With products that tend to consolidation (packing) expanded-flow
type bins may not be cleared completely, the formation of product lumps and of wall hang-ups can not be
excluded.
Segregation that took place while filling the bin can only partly be corrected flowing through the mass-flow
hopper section.
2.3.4 Evaluation of the Expanded-Flow Concept
+ optimized storage volume for a given headroom
+ relatively low investment per m3 storage volume
+ product flow out of the bins is uniform
+ partial remixing effect for products which segregate on feeding
- last-in first-out flow sequence
- non-flowing zones favoring product degradation with time
® Expanded-flow may be useful
· where segregation is unimportant,
· where product degradation is not likely to be a problem,
· as a means to improve the insufficient flow pattern of a given bin.
Figure 9 Expanded-Flow : typical bin shape

3. THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS

3.1 Introduction
A bulk solid consists essentially of a multitude of granules (particles) which are randomly grouped to form
of a bulk. These granules differ in size, in shape, in hardness, in surface texture, in chemical composition,
etc.
The nature of a bulk solid not only depends on the characteristics of its constituent particles but also on
factors as its way to compact and get strength (i.e. its cohesion), its angle of repose, its tendency to
adhesion, it wall friction, the influence of moisture and storage at rest.
Hence it follows that any characterization of bulk solids must consider two levels
¨ the features of the constituent particles, and
¨ the features describing a products bulk form.
Unfortunately nowadays level of knowledge is still not sufficient as to allow for a reliable prediction of a
bulk solids behavior based solely on the characteristics of its constituent particles.
A first step in the characterization of bulk solids is always a qualitative description of its behavior, of its
‘personality’. Questions to be asked are
· does it flow easily or is it sticky;
· is it fragile, abrasive, corrosive, explosive, etc.
Such descriptive terms are essential when communicating information on bulk solids. But they are
unlikely sufficient as to allow for the design of handling systems which are matched to the product. For
this purpose measurable numerical parameters are required which characterize a bulk solid in a
quantitative manner. The most important of these parameters will be discussed in more detail in the
following.
3.2 Relevant Characteristics of Bulk Solids
3.2.1 Particle Size and Particle Size Distribution (Granulometry)
Qualitative terms commonly used to describe the granulometry of a bulk solid are given in below table.
Table: Descriptive terms for bulk solid granulometry

Descriptive term Particle Size Range Example

coarse (crushed) solid 5-300 mm limestone
granular solid 0.3 - 5 mm sand
particulate solid:
- coarse powder100 - 300 mm separator grits
- fine powder 10 - 100 mm cement
- superfine powder 1 - 10 mm dust collector product
- ultrafine powder < 1 mm paint pigments

Above qualitative terms are not sufficiently precise for the description of conglomerates of irregularly
shaped and sized particles. Quantitative parameters are required for the description of particle size, size
distribution and shape.
Monosized spherical particles are easy to be described. One single dimension is required, the particle
diameter.
For a conglomerate of spherical particles of varying sizes the situation is more complex. For the
characterization of particle size distribution the definition of an average particle diameter is required
together with some information on particle size distribution.
The situation gets worse in case of industrial, non-spherical bulk solids. The parameters used for the
description of particle size, size distribution and shape need careful definition. It is common industrial
practice to determine the granulometry of bulk solids by using one of the sizing techniques given in below
table. Selection of the sizing technique depends on the product’s particle size range.
Table: Sizing techniques and useful range

Sizing Technique Useful Range

· dry sieve analysis 50 mm - 100 mm
· wet sieve analysis 10 mm - 100 mm
· particle sedimentation 2 mm - 75 mm
· laser granulometry 1 mm - 600 mm

The results of a sieving test can easily be represented in a histogram (Fig. 10.1), i.e. by drawing
rectangles over the selected class intervals. The area of each rectangle is proportional to the percentage
of particles in that class. A smooth curve through the intervals results in a grain size distribution curve.
An even more useful way for the representation of the analysis data is the cumulative graph (Fig. 10.2). In
such a graph the particle size is represented along the horizontal axis whereas the cumulative percentage
retained or passing is given on the vertical axis. The advantage of this representation is that grain sizes
not determined experimentally are reliably predicted as is the median particle size (the 50% size).
The median particle size mentioned above is probably the most common term used for representing a
bulk solids average particle size. But it has to be noted that there are other definitions for an equivalent
diameter such as the mean volume diameter or the mean surface diameter.
¨ mean volume diameter
¨ mean surface diameter
Which of above figure is used for characterization of a bulk solid’s granulometry depends on the product’s
industrial use. The median is common in cement industry for characterization of e.g. raw meal and
cements, whereas the mean surface diameter is relevant in chemical industry for the characterization of
e.g. catalysts.
3.2.2 Particle Shape
The shape of the particles of a bulk solid has proven to be relevant for its packing and flow behavior. But
establishing quantitative data on particle shape is discouraging as there is hardly an agreement on how to
define shape factors. This above all as defining the shape of non-spherical particles in mathematical
terms is not easy.
For the time being the effect of particle shape on a bulk solid’s flow behavior can only be based on
qualitative observations:
¨ a fibrous appearance may warn of a tendency to particles interlocking,
¨ a sharp angular particle shape may indicate that abrasive wear may be excessive.
Figure 10 Graphical methods of presenting particle size distribution

3.2.3 Particle Hardness

Knowledge regarding the hardness of the particles constituting a bulk solid is important in that respect
that it gives an indication regarding the product’s abrasivity. It is common experience that a product is the
more abrasive the harder its particles are.
F. Mohs proposed already in 1822 a scale of hardness based on ten standard minerals grouped
according a simple scratch test.
Table: Mohs scale of hardness

Mohs scale hardness MaterialChemical formula Scratch test

1 Talc Mg3(OH)2·(Si2O5)2 Very soft, can be powdered with fingers

2 Gypsum CaSO4·2H2O Moderately soft, can scratch lead
3 Calcite CaCO3 can scratch finger nail
4 Fluorite CaF2 can scratch a copper coin
5 Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(Cl,F) can scratch a knife blade with difficulty
6 Feldspar KAlSi3O8 can scratch a knife blade
7 Quartz SiO2 all products harder than 6 will scratch window glass
8 Topaz Al2F2SiO4
9 Corundum Al2O3
10 Diamond C

The Mohs scale proofed to be too coarse and insufficiently reproducible. This resulted in the introduction
of a number of indentation tests above all for metals. The most common hardness figures are
¨ the Vickers Pyramid Number VPN,
¨ the Brinell Hardness Number BHN,
¨ the Rockwell hardness HRC.
There is sufficient knowledge available as to allow for relating the different hardness numbers to the Mohs
scale.
3.2.4 Voidage and Bulk Density
Bulk solids are constituted by a bulk of randomly packed particles which differ in size and shape. Bulk
solids are thus combinations of particles and void space. The percentage of the volume not occupied by
particles is referred to as the voidage.
voidage, e
Note that sometimes the term porosity is applied with bulk solids as a synonym for voidage. However, it is
advisable to reserve this term for the description of the structure of individual particles.
A quantity of a bulk solids has an apparent density, usually called bulk density, which is defined to be the
mass of material divided by the bulk volume.
bulk density, rb
Writing rp the particle density and rf as the density of the fluid in the voids it follows another expression
for the bulk density:
bulk density, rb
It is important to make a clear distinction between bulk density and particle density. For a single particle
the density is defined as its mass divided by its volume. Thus, determination of a particle’s density
involves the measurement its mass and the volume occupied. For large particles the density can easily be
determined by measuring the volume of liquid being displaced in a measuring cylinder.
Determination of a product’s bulk density is more tricky. For coarse products, again the liquid
displacement method can be used whereas for powders the use of a specific-gravity bottle or of an air-
compression pycnometer is required.
3.2.5 Angle of repose
A bulk solid’s angle of repose is defined to be the angle of an exhibited sloping product surface which
forms e.g. when a product is piled or after slippage from a product pile. Quantitative determination of the
angle of repose is discouraging in that respect that no unequivocal method is available. One has to
accept that for the same product as many different angles of repose may be measured as measuring
methods are used. Some of these methods are illustrated in Fig. 12 .
Besides the test procedure adopted and the skill of the operator the angle of repose depends upon the
nature and condition of the bulk solid concerned (moisture, granulometry, electrostatic charging, storage
at rest period).
Below table gives a qualitative evaluation of bulk solid flowability based on the angle of repose.

Angle of repose Flow behavior

20 - 30 deg free flowing
30 - 38 deg easy flowing
38 - 45 deg fair flowing
45 - 55 deg cohesive
> 55 deg very cohesive

The angle of repose should not be abused as a quantitative guide in bin design. But it may be a useful
indicator for the contours of product storage piles, the cross-sectional area of a product bed on a belt
conveyor, etc.
3.2.6 Cohesion and Adhesion
Flowability of a bulk solid is function of the forces of attraction or the ‘cohesion’ between its constituent
particles.
In case the interparticle forces are low the bulk solid will easily flow with the single particles moving as
individuals relative to one another. Dry sand or clinker are familiar examples from cement industry.
Interparticle cohesive forces are typically caused by moisture and electrostatic charging. The effect of
such forces is especially pronounced with products containing a considerable portion of fines. Familiar
examples for cohesive products in the cement industry are clay, natural and synthetic gypsum, fine coal,
fly-ashes, etc. When cohesion is defined to be a bulk solid’s resistance to shear under a given
compressive (normal) stress quantitative measurement becomes possible. For details see paragraph
‘Shear Strength’.
Flowability of bulk solids is not only concerned with cohesion but also with ‘adhesion’ on boundary
surfaces such as the walls of a bin discharge hopper, the bottom and side surfaces of transfer chutes, etc.
Whereas cohesion reflects the effects of interparticle attractive forces, adhesion describes a bulk solids
tendency to stick on a boundary surface. The adhesions between a bulk solid and a type of surface
material can quantitatively be measured using a test similar to the shear test mentioned above for
cohesion. For details see paragraphs ‘Shear Strength’ and ‘Wall Friction’.
Figure 12 Methods of measurement of angle of repose

3.2.7 Shear Strength

As with continuos material, the application of any force to a bulk solid tends to cause a shear deformation
and will result in an opposing resistive force. With increasing magnitude of the applied force, a point will
be reached where the bulk solid begins to deform with the constituent particles sliding relative to another.
For illustration let’s consider the following simple experiment (Fig. 13) :
¨ Prepare a bulk solid specimen in a cylindrical mold (cross section A) by compacting the product
applying a defined normal load FN. The cylinder wall is assumed to be free of friction.
¨ Remove the cylindrical mold.
¨ Expose the specimen exposed to an increasing normal load (e.g. by filling a bottle of water). At a
distinct load level which is termed shear or product strength FC, the specimen will collapse and shear.
The shear strength is determined just by weighing the bottle.
From this simple experiment it follows the existence of a flow limit. This flow limit is specific for each bulk
solid and function mainly of the magnitude of the applied consolidating force. But it is also affected by
factors as the particles nature (as e.g. their shape and packing arrangement), moisture content, thus the
pre-history of the product.
Product strength can (unfortunately) not be determined directly with sufficient accuracy using above
described simple experimental concept but rather needs to be derived from the results of so called shear
tests. The concept of shear testing is to make specimens of a bulk solid shear under varying normal loads
while measuring the appearing shear forces.
The result of such a test is commonly represented as a so called yield locus YL, i.e. as a plot of the shear
strength Sf versus the compressive (normal) force FN. A yield locus is thus a border line separating the
range of stresses which cause no permanent deformation from the range of stresses causing failure and
plastic flow.
Interpretation of a yield locus plot involves the use of Mohr circles of stress. From such a plot (Fig. 14) the
following characteristics can be derived:
¨ drawing a Mohr circle tangential to a yield locus and passing through its end point gives the major
principal stress s1, representing the initial state of sample consolidation;
¨ the Mohr circle drawn through the diagram’s origin and tangential to a yield locus gives the
unconfined yield stress sc, which represents a product strength at a free surface;

(Note that the unconfined yields stress for non-cohesive, free flowing bulk solids is equal to zero. Hence it
follows that the yield locus representing such products pass through the diagram’s origin!)
¨ the slope of the yield locus at any point defines the dynamic angle of internal friction f, which in
practice is somewhat varying due to the typically slight curvature of the yield locus,
¨ the straight line tangential to the Mohr circle for the initial consolidating load and passing the
diagram origin is termed the effective yield locus with its slope defining the effective angle of internal
friction fe.
Figure 13 Testing a bulk solid for flow

Figure 14 The yield locus

It has already been mentioned that a bulk solid’s shear strength is affected by its state of consolidation as
well as its pre-history. As a consequence a single yield locus is not a sufficient characteristic to describe a
bulk solid’s flow behavior as it is for a Coulomb type solid. For a full investigation of its flow properties
specimens must be tested for different levels of product consolidation, i.e. a family of yield loci YLi (Fig.
15) must be produced.
As already mentioned the shear strength of bulk solid’s may be determined by means of a shear-testers.
More than one type of shear testers have been developed with probably the Jenike translational shear
tester being the most familiar one. For any experimental arrangement designed for testing the flowability
of bulk products it is a prerequisite that the complicated stress conditions can be simulated which are
imposed on bulk products while being filled into bins, during storage at rest in bins and when being
discharged from bins.
Jenike's experimental technique meets these requirements. The set-up of such a tester (Fig. 16) is very
simple: Two rings of equal diameter form the shear cell. Samples of the product under investigation are
poured into such cells, are precompacted to different degrees of consolidation and made shear under
varying normal loads. It is important that a consistent procedure for sample preparation and testing is
followed. Jenike’s translational shear tester is subject to a number of limitations as its limitation to fine
products or to a product’s fine portion only (< 3 mm), its limited translational displacement as well as the
complicated testing procedure.
The torsional shear tester arrangement as it is used at HMC's laboratory (Fig. 17) allows for a simplified
testing procedures as it allows for unlimited strain. With such equipment the torques required to make the
specimens shear are measured. The respective shear stresses required for the representation of the yield
loci YLi can be calculated.
Figure 15 The flow function

Figure 16 Shear test concepts

Figure 17 The torsional shear tester

3.2.8 The Flow Function

A bulk solid’s flow behavior is commonly characterized by its Flow Function which is defined as the ratio
of consolidating principal stress versus product strength

Hence it follows that a bulk solid is flowing the easier the higher its flow function is. The flow function
allows for a rough evaluation of a product’s flow behavior

FF < 1 non-flowing product

1 < FF < 2 very cohesive product
2 < FF < 4 cohesive product
4 < FF < 10 easy flowing product
10 < FF free-flowing product

Above limits are represented in Fig. 15 . Commonly the Flow Function and with it a bulk solid’s flow
behavior are function of the state of consolidation. In most cases the value for the Flow Function FF
increases with increasing consolidating stress s1. Hence it follows that the flow behavior of various bulk
solids may only be evaluated based on the Flow Function figures in case all measurements have been
carried out on specimens prepared the same way (i.e. having the same state of consolidation).
3.2.9 Wall Friction
Bulk solid flow along a hopper wall or in a chute results in wall friction. Wall friction is function of the wall
material characteristics (adhesion, smoothness of surface), the wall inclination, etc.
A linear model similar to that the proposed for the internal friction of bulk solids can be used to represent
the relationship between the normal force FN pressing a particulate product against a constraining
surface and the shear force SW required to cause the product to slide along that surface

where mw is the coefficient of wall friction

Cw is a coefficient defining the adhesion between bulk solid and containing surface
The line defined by above equation is termed wall yield locus WYL. For most bulk solids it is found below
the yield locus YL and the angle of wall friction fw being less than the angle of internal friction f.
To investigate a bulk product's frictional behavior on bin walls the shear testing concept is slightly
modified. The lower ring of the shear cell is replaced by probes of possible bin wall materials. The testing
procedure is the same as described above: The forces or the torques respectively which are required to
make the sample shear under varying normal loads are measured. Again Wall Yield Loci (WYLi) can be
produced when plotting the shear stresses versus the corresponding normal loads.
3.2.10 Moisture Content
Product moisture can have a dramatic influence on a bulk solid’s flow behavior in addition to cause effects
such as chemical change, deterioration of quality, etc. Moisture analysis is therefore an important task in
characterization of bulk solids.
A common expression for a bulk solid’s moisture content is the percentage of water to wet solid:
moisture content
It has to be noted that water presence in bulk solids may be in two different forms
¨ as surface water present on the surface of the particles only,
¨ as inherent moisture resulting from water being crystallized within the structure of the particles.
The most common method for determining a bulk solid’s moisture content is still by determining the loss
in weight for a product sample when drying it in an oven until its weight remains constant. The moisture
content can then be calculated as
moisture content
When testing the surface moisture of bulk solids containing crystallized water in the structure of particles
(e.g. gypsum, coal, etc.) the drying temperature must be selected that low that product dehydration do not
occur.
Recently faster analysis methods have been introduced for moisture determination such as infrared
absorption, microwave absorption, nuclear magnetic resonance, ultrasonic, etc.
With regard to a bulk solid’s flow behavior commonly two moisture limits can be observed
¨ a lower limit where flowability will deteriorate resulting in an increasing product strength, a
reducing discharge rate, an increased tendency to arch, rat-hole and hang-up formation,
¨ an upper limit where the bulk solid is saturated (all voids filled) and flowability improves again.
The dramatic effect of moisture on a bulk solids flow behavior has already been mentioned. Testing the
product strength at different moisture levels is considered an important task in bulk solid’s
characterization, i.e. that additional yield loci (Fig. 18) should be produced at the moisture levels observed
in industrial live.
Figure 18 The influence of moisture on the flow behaviour of bulk solids

4. DESIGN OF BIN/FEEDER SYSTEMS

4.1 Analysis for Flow
4.1.1 Theories
The theoretical work concerning the flow behavior of bulk solids in bins has been initiated by the already
mentioned A.W. Jenike. He adapted theory and experimental technique of soil mechanics to the problem
of bulk solid handling. He postulated that bulk solids behave similar as Coulomb solids. Their flow
behavior is thus characterized by limiting stress envelopes, so called Yield Loci (YLi) which separate the
range of stresses that will cause no permanent deformation from the range of stresses that will cause
failure and plastic flow. The flow behavior of bulk solids depend on their pre-history, i.e. their
consolidation, moisture take-up, storage at rest, etc. Hence it follows that the flowability of bulk solids can
be characterized sufficiently by a family of yield loci only. This in contrast to Coulomb type solids for which
a single yield locus is a sufficient characteristic.
Following Jenike’s theory bin/feeder systems can be designed for consistent operation. Precondition is
that the design prevents any formation of obstructions to flow.
4.1.2 The flow - no flow Criterion
Consider a mass-flow bin. The bulk solid is unconsolidated when it is fed into a bin but becomes
consolidated with continuing filling, i.e. with increasing filling height. In the cylindrical bin section a static or
peaked stress field develops with the consolidating stress s1 varying from zero at the top surface towards
a maximum near the transition to the converging hopper section. At this transition the stress field changes
its orientation from peaked (static) to arched (dynamic). This results in an abrupt increase in stress level
to a peak value. Below the transition in the bin discharge hopper the consolidating stress s1 decreases
within the prevailing dynamic (arched) stress field towards zero at the virtual apex of the hopper.
Development of the consolidating stress within a bulk solid handled in a bin is shown in Fig. 19 .
The compressive stress s1 causes consolidation (packing) of the bulk solid handled in the bin. The
product get strength. Strength development of a bulk solid in a bin may be represented by the unconfined
yield stress sc (Fig. 19). It shows a profile similar to that of the consolidating stress s1. Note the product
strength at the top surface as well as at the discharge hopper’s virtual apex will be zero for free-flowing
bulk solids only but show a positive value for cohesive bulk solids
Imagine now that a cohesive arch has formed at some point of the converging hopper. In effect the bulk
solid consolidation in the bin is sufficient that a stable structure can form which spans the bin outlet,
supports the weight of above product column and transfers it to the wall of the hopper. Experience
teaches that the bearing stress sa of a cohesive arch is proportional to its span Da. I.e. that the bearing
stress sa will linearly increase for the bin’s discharge hopper section but remain constant for its cylindrical
section. A graphical representation of the relation bearing stress sa versus arch span Da is shown in Fig.
19 .
Figure 19 Analysis for flow

The lines representing the arch bearing stress sa and the unconfined yield stress sc are intersecting. The
intersection defines a critical dimension for formation a cohesive arch:
¨ for positions above the intersection bulk solid strength is not sufficient to support a stable
cohesive arch,
¨ for positions below the point of intersection stable cohesive arches will form as the bulk solid has
sufficient strength to support a stable arch.
Above observation allow the formulation of a flow - no flow criterion:
A bulk solid will flow as long as its cohesive strength is not sufficient to support the load of above product
column

or

sc < sa
For a bin discharge hopper both the bearing stress sa of a cohesive arch and the consolidating stress s1
are linear functions of the span width Da. Furthermore each of these stresses approaches zero at the
hopper’s virtual apex. Hence it follows that the ratio sa / s1 is a constant for a given hopper geometry.
This ratio is commonly called a hopper’s flow factor ff characterizes a hopper’s manner of discharging the
contained bulk solid. Note that flow factors have been calculated by Jenike for a wide range of hopper
types.
Flow factor ff and flow function FF (= sc / s1 , i.e. the ratio of unconfined yield stress versus consolidating
stress) will intersect when plotted in a common stress diagram (see Fig. 20+15). The intersection
represents again critical flow condition what allows for a further formulation of the flow - no flow criterion:
A bulk solid will flow at all conditions for which the FF line lies below the ff line

or

FF < ff
Figure 20 The flow - non flow criterion

4.2 Design Criteria for new Bins

4.2.1 Design Concept
The design of bins and silos can be based on two concepts, either
¨ on the mass-flow concept, or
¨ on the funnel flow concept.
An evaluation of both concepts (see Fig. 21) shows clear operation advantages for the mass-flow concept
but also its limited qualification for the storage of huge product volumes.
The funnel-flow concept is the preferred concept for large volume stores. It is considered an acceptable
selection in cases
· where non-cohesive (free-flowing) products are involved,
· where product segregation is unimportant,
· where product degradation is not likely to be a problem,
· where feed rate consistency is not of prime importance.
The mass-flow concept is the preferred concept for feed bins. But this concept is also recommended for
storage purpose
· with cohesive products,
· where qualitative consistency of the reclaimed product is important,
There are some general principles to be observed when designing bulk solid handling systems:

Rule 1: The demands on a large volume store are different from that on a feed bins where reliable
product reclaim is prerequisite.
> As a consequence storage and process feed functions should be separated whenever possible.
Rule 2: Feed bins should be designed for reliability of reclaim. This is much easier for small than for large
feed bins.

> As a consequence feed bins should be designed for the lowest possible volume but never be abused
for additional storage capacity.
Rule 3: Optimum process operation and consistency of product quality is function of consistent and
reliable rate control of the components.

> To meet this aim feed bins should be designed for mass-flow on principle.

Bin dimensions

Figure 21 Funnel flow versus Mass - flow

Precondition for mass-flow to develop in a bin are

¨ a discharge hopper which is sufficiently steep as to initiate product flow along its walls,
¨ a hopper outlet which is sufficiently wide to prevent formations of any obstructions to flow,
¨ a hopper outlet that is fully active.
Comment:
¨ Dimensioning of new bins and silos should always be based on the tested flowability
characteristics of the product in question independent of the selected bin design concept (mass-flow or
funnel-flow). Worst product conditions should be considered when designing the shear test program (e.g.
moisture levels valid for the wet season).
¨ For a given product the maximum permissible hopper half-angle qc is smaller for a conical
hopper than the half-angle qp for a plane flow hopper. In addition the required minimum opening width Dc
for a conical hopper is typically twice as wide as the minimum opening width Dp for a wedge type hopper.
Hence it is clear that the plane-flow hopper concept makes better use of available headroom than conical
hopper concept.
¨ For cohesive (sticky) products reclaim at low rates just by gravity may not be possible as full
activation of the required wide outlets is not ensured. In such cases the application of appropriate
discharge aids must be considered in the Bin/Feeder concept.
4.2.2 Product Reclaim Systems
Reliable operation of any rate control device depends on consistency of bulk solid supply out of the feed
bin. Feeders are typically designed for two functions
¨ as a discharge aid which activates the bin outlet, and
¨ as a means of controlling the feed rate to the following process.
Experience teaches that arching and rat-holing may occur even with bins that have been designed for
mass-flow according to the rule of (Jenike’s) art. This kind of problems can typically be related to partial
activation of the bin outlet, resulting in subcritical dimensions of the activated area and causing erratic or
even interrupted flow. There are two reasons for partial bin outlet activation
¨ a closed design of the bin/feeder interface,
¨ a low discharge rates with cohesive bulk solids.
Bin/feeder interfaces are designed as closed as possible as to prevent spillage and facilitate
housekeeping. With such designs product will be activated only in a narrow zone at the rear end of the
feeder as that is the only area where free volume is created for the product to flow in (Fig. 22). Activating
a bin outlet means that free volume must be created over the outlet’s full length. This can be achieved by
expansion of the bin/feeder interface as shown in Fig. 23, 1-3, or by means of live bottom feeders.
For cohesive (sticky) products reclaim at low rates just by gravity may not be possible as full activation of
the required wide outlets is not ensured. In such cases the application of appropriate discharge aids must
be considered as aeration systems for dry powders, vibrating cages for cohesive products, rotary
extractors for sticky products
Figure 22 The problem of the partial outlet activation
Figure 23.1 The concept for full outlet activation: the expanded outlet

Figure 23.2 The concept for full outlet activation

Figure 23.3 The concept for full outlet activation the tapered box

Figure 23.4 The concept for full outlet activation the screw feeder

5. REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1) Woodcock CR, Mason JS (1987), Bulk Solids Handling, Chapman and Hall NY
2) Molerus O (1985), Schüttgutmechanik, Springer Berlin
3) Schwedes J (1968), Fliessverhalten von Schüttgütern, Verlag Chemie Weinheim
4) Jenike AW (1964), Storage and Flow of Solids, University of Utah Salt Lake City
5) Reisner W, v Eisenhart Rothe M (1971), Silos und Bunker für die Schüttgutspeicherung, Trans
Tech Publications Clausthal -Zellerfeld
6) Kvapil R(1959), Schüttgutbewegungen in Bunkern, VEB Verlag Technik, Berlin

Coal Storage and Proportioning

1. INTRODUCTION
2. IMPACTS OF BULK MATERIAL FLOWABILITY ON BIN DESIGN AND FEEDER SELECTION
3. RAW COAL HANDLING DESIGN OF MILL FEED BINS AND FEEDER SELECTION
3.1 General Comment on Mill Feed Bin Design
3.2 Comment on Feeder Selection
3.3 How would a Mill Feed Bin for Raw Coal look like, when Designed for Reliable Operation?
4. PULVERIZED COAL HANDLING DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND FEED RATE CONTROL
4.1 Standard Design Criteria for Pulverized Coal Handling Systems
4.2 Discharge Problems with Pulverized Coal
4.3 Feeder Systems
4.4 How a Modern Bin Feeder System for Pulverized Coal would look like, when Designed for
Reliable Operation
5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Summary
Intermediate storage of raw coal and pulverized coal is common practice with nowadays indirect coal
preparation systems. As constant feed from such bins either to the coal mill or the burners of a kiln
system is a prerequisite for a safe operation the problems related to coal handling and feed rate control
will be discussed. For both coal qualities, wet raw coal and dry pulverized coal, criteria for bin design and
feeder selection will be given.
1. INTRODUCTION
Intermediate storage of raw coal and pulverized coal is common practice with nowadays indirect coal
preparation systems. Constant feed from these bins to the mill and to the burners of the kiln system is a
prerequisite for a safe operation. Any interruption in coal supply heightens the risk of explosions inside
the mill or inside the precipitators. During start-up of many of the modern coal preparation plants marked
discharge problems were encountered - either the bin outlet was crossed by a stable material bridge, or a
rathole formed in the bin, or the feeder was flushed by aerated pulverized coal. In most cases such
handling problems are directly attributable to an incorrect design of the bin outlets.
In this presentation raw coal and pulverized coal handling shall be discussed, above all the design of
storage and feed bins, feeder selection and the problems related to feed rate control.
2. IMPACTS OF BULK MATERIAL FLOWABILITY ON BIN DESIGN AND FEEDER SELECTION
As to create a common base for further discussions, first of all some terms should be cleared up.
¨ Both, coarse, wet raw coal and dry pulverized coal - as different their properties are - show a
typical cohesive behavior. Cohesive means, that the interparticle forces result in strength, being the
reason for the ability of coal to form and support stable obstructions to flow as arches or ratholes.
¨ As utmost availability and reliability of operation are the fundamental requirements to meet by
modern coal preparation plants, it is evident that all storage and feed bins for raw coal as well as for
pulverized coal must be designed for mass-flow. By the way, mass-flow means that all the material
contained in a bin is activated and moves to the bin outlet, whenever any of it is discharged. This in
contrast to funnel-flow where material in a narrow core only just above the discharge opening is activated.
3. RAW COAL HANDLING
DESIGN OF MILL FEED BINS AND FEEDER SELECTION
As already mentioned, wet raw coal is a bulk material of considerable cohesiveness. The major risks in
coal mill operation are interruptions in coal supply. As to guarantee highest reliability of operation, coal mill
feed bins must be designed for mass-flow.
3.1 General Comment on Mill Feed Bin Design
Some comments seem to be opportune:
Do not abuse coal feed bins as additional storage bins. With regard to possible discharge problems they
should be designed for capacities as low as possible or even be avoided following the rule that “the best
bin is no bin” (figure 1). In case the feed bin is fed from a fully automatic storage pile, a bin capacity of
one to three hours of continuous mill operation is sufficient. In case several feed bins - one bin for each
coal quality which should be mixed - are fed discontinuously by front end loaders, higher bin capacities,
sufficient for one to three shifts of continuous mill operation, are required.
¨ Never use one bin to feed several mills. As simultaneous operation of the mills cannot be
maintained all the time and discharge problems are therefore programmed during a shut-down of one mill.
¨ Wedge shaped bin discharge hoppers with slotted openings are preferred to conical bin
discharge hoppers with circular openings as they can be equipped with smaller feeders. Note: The
minimum width of a slotted opening required to prevent arching is half the diameter required for a circular
outlet. A slot, by the way, is defined to be a rectangular opening with a length which is at least two and a
half times its width.
¨ From table 3 it becomes evident that all the wall slopes of mass-flow bin discharge hoppers
strongly depend on the material of which the hopper is made or by which it is lined. Obviously the general
statement that hopper walls should not be inclined less than 70 degree is not sufficient. This statement is
only valid for Ultra High Molecular Weight (UHMW) Polyethylene (PE).
Hence it follows that new coal feed bins should be designed with PE lined wedge shaped discharge
hoppers, and that, by a PE-lining, feed bins with a funnel-flow sequence can be in some cases converted
to mass-flow.
¨ When selecting a feeder system it should be kept in mind that bin, interface to the feeder and
feeder work as one system. Any change in one will affect the performance of the whole system.
What selection of feeder size concerns, there is a primateship of the requirements for discharge reliability
over all other requirements, i.e. that sometimes, based on material’s flow properties, a wider feeder must
be selected than required when considering the feed rate as exclusive design criteria.
The design of the interface is of particular importance with regard to the flow pattern that will develop in a
bin. Mass-flow will develop provided that the interface is designed such that the entire bin discharge
opening is activated whenever material is withdrawn. In case of raw coal this is problematic. On one
hand, raw coal requires wide discharge openings due to its cohesion. On the other hand, the required
feed rates are low. Together with most feeder’s tendency to discharge preferably from the rear, this result
in an only partly active outlet (figure 2). To remedy this problem the interface must be designed
expanding, i.e. such that the volume of the material bed on the feeder increases in direction of material
flow. This in turn initiate material flow not only at the rear but across the full discharge opening (figure 2).
3.2 Comment on Feeder Selection
Volumetric feeders are sufficient for feed rate control to the coal mill. The possibility of gravimetric feed
rate control which offer some feeders is not a sufficient criterion to select a more expensive or more
complicated feed system.
The belt conveyor is quite common for the discharge of tipping hoppers. There is no reason which would
exclude its application as feeder underneath a raw coal bin. As belt conveyors are not gas tight, an
additional device must be installed to provide for the air lock to the mill. Gravimetric feed rate control is
possible if the belt conveyor is designed as weigh feeder. With regard to an expanding outlet, the feeder
width should be selected to be twice the width of the bin discharge opening (figure 4).
The apron feeder proved to be a very reliable but expensive feeder. Its application is justified at least with
very large raw coal storage bins. As to an expanding outlet design, similar criteria apply as for weigh
feeders.
The casing of a trough chain conveyor is completely air and dust tight. With such feeders there is no
problem with spillage. A sufficient air lock to the mill is achieved if a minimum material height of 3 m is
maintained in the feed bin. Trough chain conveyors show a strong tendency to discharge material
preferably from the rear. The most advanced feeder Redler - one of several suppliers of such feeders -
supplies for raw coal applications is equipped with an expanding interface (figure 5) and a nucleonic scale
as to provide gravimetric feed rate control.
Trough chain conveyors are judged to be very reliable but expensive feeders.
The table feeder is quite common for raw coal applications. With the feed bin arranged just above the mill
inlet a very compact plant design can be reached. Table feeders allow a volumetric feed rate control.
Such a feeder is usually a quite large equipment as it is applied with conical bin discharge hoppers -
remember, the minimum diameter of a circular discharge opening required to prevent arching is twice the
width of a slotted discharge opening. With regard to a fully active outlet the side skirts at the end of the
feed-in line should have a ‘corkscrew’ shape
(figure 6).
The un-coaler feeder (figure 7) is quite a new development. Its mode of operation is similar to that of a bin
activator, but its design is much more rigid. A center dome functions as activator or live bottom when
vibrated. By this, material flow becomes unproblematic. Furthermore such a feeder can be fitted directly
to the bin discharge opening without any need for an expanding interface. Automated control systems
arranged to respond to belt scale signals allow volumetric feed rate control.
The un-coaler feeder is considered to be a very reliable feeder for raw coal.
3.3 How would a Mill Feed Bin for Raw Coal look like, when Designed for Reliable Operation?
(figure 3)
¨ The bin would definitely be designed for mass-flow.
¨ The front wall of its wedge shaped discharge hopper would be by about 5 degree steeper than its
rear wall.
¨ The slotted bin discharge opening would rather be trapezoidal than rectangular, with a minimum
width of 800 mm and a taper of about 2 - 3 degrees.
¨ Guide plates would be fitted to the pin gate, corresponding to the shape of the bin discharge
opening.
¨ The interface would be expanding in direction of material flow.
¨ A feeder of at least 1600 mm in width would be selected.
4. PULVERIZED COAL HANDLING
DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND FEED RATE CONTROL
With pulverized coal, handling problems are similar to that with raw coal, although the mechanical
properties of these two coal qualities are quite different. As raw coal to the mill, pulverized coal must be
fed at a controlled rate to the burner as to guarantee complete combustion. Prerequisite for an accurate
feed rate control is again reliable material discharge from the storage bin. And again, mass-flow would be
the most suitable flow sequence in a pulverized coal storage bin.
4.1 Standard Design Criteria for Pulverized Coal Handling Systems
Nowadays, storage bins of a standard design are offered for pulverized coal by specialized suppliers.
Such bins are pressure shock resistant and fully equipped with feeding and flow rate control systems, with
the necessary monitoring equipment like load cells for bin content control, temperature and CO
measuring devices, with safety equipment as explosion doors and inertization systems. Suppliers design
bin discharge hoppers with a standard slope of not less than 70 degree and made of stainless steel. To
prevent caking due to condensation effects the discharge hoppers are provided with a thermal insulation.
Modern pulverized coal feeders are of a gravimetric type and have proved successful in supplying the fuel
at a controlled rate to the burner.
4.2 Discharge Problems with Pulverized Coal
Most discharge problems from pulverized coal bins are due to a deficient design of the bin outlet section.
To overcome bridging and ratholing discharge aids have been installed either of a mechanical type such
as paddle wheels or of a pneumatic type such as pulsed air nozzles.
But still, for some solutions, pulverized coal’s flow properties have been ignored. A typical example: For a
bin discharge design (figure 8) where the bin’s discharge hopper penetrates a rectangular cube,
discharge problems are immanent for a cube width smaller than 600 mm, even if a paddle wheel is
installed. A sledge hammer, an old fashioned device, often proved to be the most suitable discharge aid.
Note: The sections which must be activated to prevent arching of pulverized coal are at least 1200 mm in
diameter for circular discharge openings or at least 600 mm in width for slotted discharge openings.
In operational practice it also became manifest that the standard hopper slope of 70 degree even with
stainless steel is not sufficient in all cases. As a result ratholes have formed in the bins. Again, aeration
systems were installed as to promote material flow (figure 9).
Note: Although pulsed aeration systems are developed so far, that reliable bin operation is achieved, we
doubt, whether aeration is the adequate measure to promote flow for new installations. This, above all,
when considering the complicated venting and dedusting systems, which must be installed to ensure a
trouble-free operation of the subsequent feeders.
The flow regime can also be influenced when changing the wall frictional behavior. A UHMW PE lining in a
70 degree sloped bin discharge hopper would in most cases induce mass-flow. Nevertheless, it is not
recommended to base the design of new storage bins for pulverized coal on a UHMW PE lining due to
PE’s low melting point (~ 135 ° C). But a PE lining is accepted to be an effective measure to convert a
funnel-flow sequence to mass-flow in an existing bin.
Bin inserts too, influence the flow regime in a bin. By such inserts, the amount of stagnant material in a
funnel-flow bin may be reduced considerably (figure 10). Usual shapes are tables or cones which are
placed above the outlet. In contrast to these corrective bin inserts Jenike and Johanson propose a cone-
in-cone design (figure 10). The internal cone is designed for mass-flow what width of discharge opening
and wall slope concern. It was found that the half angle of the outer cone may be twice the half angle of
the inner one. Material will flow through both, the inner hopper and the annulus between inner and outer
hopper.
Note: The cone-in-cone system offers not only a simple measure to convert pulverized coal bins with a
funnel-flow sequence into mass-flow bins, but also is a possibility to design new bins with discharge
hoppers of a reduced height.
4.3 Feeder Systems
Nowadays various gravimetric systems are used for feeding pulverized coal to the several burners of a
kiln system. The most important feeding systems are the loss-in-weight and the impact flow meter
systems.
In the following, not the advantages of before mentioned feeders should be discussed, it should rather be
reflected how a feeder system, as simple as possible could look like.
The discharge equipment of a SIMPLEX feeder with its activating paddle wheels and its proportioning
screw is a perfect proportioning screw feeder system when fitted directly to the storage bin (figure 11).
Particular care should be taken with the design of the proportioning screw which should be expanding,
e.g. with decreasing core and increasing pitch in direction of material flow.
For multiple outlet bins several proportioning screws can be arranged in parallel to each other. If the
diameter of the screws is selected sufficiently wide, no further activators are needed (figure 12). Again
each proportioning screw should be of an expanding design.
The flow rate can be measured by a subsequent impact flow meter or a proportioning rotor scale, which is
quite a new development and will be discussed later. The flow rate is controlled by altering the speed of
the screw(s). For calibration purposes the bin should be installed on load cells and can be used as a
whole as loss-in-weight system.
Live bottom feeders consist of a vibrated frame with a set of blades. Each blade acts as a vibratory
feeder. With this type of feeder, discharge problems are prevented as it promotes flow across the entire
section of the bin’s discharge opening. These feeders are fitted to the storage bin’s discharge opening.
These feeders are fitted to the storage bins by means of pressure shock resistant flexible sleeves (figure
13). Again the flow rate can be measured by a subsequent impact flow meter or a proportioning rotor
scale. The flow rate can be controlled by altering the vibrator amplitude. For calibration purposes the bin
should be installed on load cells.
All above mentioned feeder systems not only consist of the discharge and measuring devices, but
additionally of a rotary gate which provides for the air lock to the subsequent pneumatic conveyor. At this
point, the proportioning rotor scale should be mentioned, where feeding and weighing are integrated in
the same device.
The proportioning rotor scale (figure 14), a suspended scale, consists of a rotor (with vertical axis)
installed in an explosion-resistant housing. The two suspension heads are arranged in line with the feed-
in duct and the delivery line as to prevent that external forces which result from incorrect connections
affect the weighing. The measuring pivot is arranged at the opposite.
For the future the proportioning rotor scale seems to be a very competitive feeder.
4.4 How a Modern Bin Feeder System for Pulverized Coal would look like, when Designed for
Reliable Operation
(figure 15)
¨ The bin would definitely be designed for mass-flow.
¨ A cone-in-cone design would be selected for the bin discharge hopper with wall slopes of 65
degree for the external and 77 degree for the internal hopper.
¨ Material of construction for both hoppers would be stainless steel plates.
¨ The minimum diameter of the circular hopper discharge openings would be at least 1400 mm.
¨ Material discharge would be activated by a live bottom feeder.
¨ The flow rate would be controlled by a proportioning rotor scale (or a flow meter).
5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
¨ J.R. Johanson
New Design Concepts for Coal Bins and Hoppers
Coal Age 1 (1966) p. 104-108
¨ E.A. Niemeyer
Planung und Bau einer zentralen Mahltrocknungsanlage für 55 t/h Kohlenstaub
im Werk Lägerdorf
Zement-Kalk-Gips 9 (1979), p. 415-433
¨ W. Flückiger / F. Bucher
Mühlen Bekohlungsanlagen
VA 80/4787/D
¨ H.W. Billhardt
Betriebserfahrungen mit einem neuen Kohlenstaubdosiersystem
Zement-Kalk-Gips 5 (1981), p. 255-256
¨ W. Ruhland
Dosierung von Kohlenstaub mit einer Differential-Dosierwaage
Zement-Kalk-Gips 1 (1981), p. 243-246
¨ G. Krogbeumker
Einrichtung zum sicheren Lagern und Fördern von Kohlenstaub
Zement-Kalk-Gips 1 (1982), p. 21-23
¨ W. Flückiger
Erfahrungen bei der Anlieferung, Entladung und dem Transport von Rohkohle
VA 83/5019/D
¨ F. Bucher
Coal Storage and Dosage
VA 84/5070/E
Table 1 Funnel-Flow versus Mass-Flow

Table 2 Handleability Characteristics of Raw Coal

Moisture content 7 - 15 % H2O

Granulometry:
- Reference value
- Minus 50 mm
- fraction
50 mm
95 %
50 %
Minus 5 mm fraction
Material strength 5000 - 7000 Pa
Effective angle of friction 47 - 52 deg
Angle of internal friction 37 - 45 deg
Angles of wall friction:
- Mild steel
- Stainless steel
- Uhmw polyethylene
27 - 30 deg
28 - 28 deg
22 - 25 deg

Table 3 Design Parameters of Mass-Flow Hoppers for Raw Coal

Type of hopper Conical Wedge type

Minimum hopper halfangles:
- Mild steel
- Stainless steel
- Uhmw polyethylene qc
10 - 13 deg
12 - 15 deg
15 - 20 deg qp
18 - 20 deg
20 - 22 deg
22 - 25 deg
Bin discharge opening:
- Shape
- Min. diameter / width
Circular
1200 mm
Slotted
700 mm
Feeder
- Min. width
2000 mm
1500 mm

Figure 1 Storage Capacity of Raw Coal Mill Feed Bins

Continuous feed of raw coal bin - Bin capacity: 1 - 3 hours continuous mill operation

Discontinuous feed of raw coal bins with integrated blending - Bin capacity: 1 - 3 shifts continuous mill
operation

Figure 2 Outlet Design

Figure 3 Expanding Bin Outlet

Figure 4 Apron and weigh feeders with expanded outlet

Figure 5 Trough-Chain Feeder with Expanded Outlet

Figure 6 Table Feeder with Expanding Outlet

Figure 7 Un-Coaler Activator / Feeder

Figure 8 Multiple Bin Discharge for Pulverized Coal

Figure 9 Flow Promotion by Aeration

Figure 10 Modification of Flow Pattern by Bin-Inserts

Figure 11 Silo Discharge with Double Paddle and Screw Feeder

Figure 12 Silo Discharge with Multiple Screw Conveyor (FLS)

Figure 13 Live Bottom Feeders

Figure 14 Proportioning Rotor Scale

Figure 15 Pulverized Coal Mass-Flow Bin

C04 - Raw Material Homogenization and Storage

Aspects of Raw Material Homogenization

F. Bucher
VA 83/5004/E
1. INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS
1.1 Homogenizing Efficiency
1.2 Other Measures of Variability
1.3 Problems with the Homogenizing Efficiency e
2. INTERPRETATION OF THE STANDARD DEVIATION
2.1 Minimum Number of Samples Taken
2.2 Estimation of s
3. CHARACTERIZATION OF CHEMICAL FLUCTUATIONS
3.1 Interpretation of Statistical Independency
3.2 The Correlation Function
4. HOMOGENIZATION
4.1 Blending
4.2 Mixing
4.3 Homogenizing Elements
5. DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL FLUCTUATIONS
5.1 Investigation of Chemical Fluctuations in the Quarry
5.2 Chemical Fluctuations after the Preblending Bed
5.3 Chemical Fluctuations after the homogenizing silo
6. LITERATURE

Summary
Raw material prehomogenization became a most essential part in modern plants. As daily practice
demonstrates, chemical fluctuations often influence kiln operation considerably by coating and ring
formation as well as encrustation and clogging problems. As a consequence not only the operation is
hampered but also the life time of the lining is shortened.
The homogenizing efficiency is normally expressed by
e = sa/sb
However a better value to judge a homogenizing element with regard to effectiveness is the standard
deviation (sb ) of the homogenized material. The standard deviation is only applicable if the samples are
statistically independent which can be verified by the correlation function.
Homogenization is achieved by two procedures, by ‘blending’ or ‘mixing’. Blending means that two or
more material streams or layers are combined whereas mixing signifies the homogenization of several
materials by agitation. By both methods good homogenizing efficiencies are achievable. However a limit
is given by the length of chemical fluctuations that can be homogenized.
During the whole raw material preparation process the following homogenizing elements can be met:
¨ selective quarrying
¨ Preblending bed
¨ raw material proportioning
¨ grinding
¨ raw meal or slurry homogenization
To select and dimension these homogenizing elements correctly, the determination of the chemical
fluctuations is of utmost importance. On existing plants the chemical fluctuations are relatively easily
detected whereas on plants in projection they have to be estimated with the aid of the drill hole
prospection of the raw material deposit.
If the efficiency of the homogenizing elements has to be judged the chemical fluctuations after each
element must be determined.
1. INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS
As the daily practice demonstrates, chemical fluctuations in the raw mix have a considerable influence on
kiln operation e.g. coating and ring formation as well as encrustation and clogging problems.
Therefore the degree of homogeneity directly influences the life time of the refractory lining.
Homogenization of the raw materials and the raw mix is, thus of utmost importance.
1.1 Homogenizing Efficiency
normally expressed by
e = sa/sb
where
sa = standard deviation of the unhomogenized raw material
sb = standard deviation of the homogenized raw material

1.2 Other Measures of Variability

¨ The variance is the mean square deviation of single observation from the mean, expressed as s2.
¨ The coefficient of variation is a relative measure of the variability.

v = s/x
¨ The range is the difference between the largest and the smallest value.

R = xmax - xmin
1.3 Problems with the Homogenizing Efficiency e
Since the homogenizing efficiency is a function of sa and sb, the factor e can be low although the
preblending bed or the homogenizing silo works satisfactorily, i.e. the fluctuations sb of the homogenized
material are within the tolerable limit. This is the case if the original fluctuations sa are small. If, contrarily,
sa is very large, the fluctuation sb can be unacceptably high although the homogenizing efficiency factor
is large and within the specifications.
Due to this ambiguity of the factor e, it is better to specify the desired maximum value for the standard
deviation sb of the homogenized material.
2. INTERPRETATION OF THE STANDARD DEVIATION
Practice has shown that in most cases the single observations follow a ‘Normal Distribution’ or a
‘Gaussian Distribution’.
The ‘Normal Distribution’ is determined by the mean and the standard deviation shown in fig. 1.
Figure 1 ‘Normal Distribution’

For the normal distribution about 68.3 % of the observations are expected in the interval x +/- 1s, about
95.5 % in the interval x +/- 2s and 99.7 % in the interval
x +/- 3s.
If the distribution is not ‘normal’, the standard deviation allows no direct interpretation. Therefore other
criteria to interpret the variability are demanded (e.g. the range).
The following fig. 2 illustrates another presentation of the standard deviation, a plot related to time.
Figure 2 Chemical Values and Standard Deviation versus Time

Note: Normally the range of +/- 2s (about 95 % of all observations) is taken into consideration, that means
a confidence interval of 95 % corresponding to +/- 2s.
2.1 Minimum Number of Samples Taken
To arrive at a meaningful sufficiently accurate standard deviation a minimum number of 30 better 50
samples is required.
2.2 Estimation of s
A rough approximation of the standard deviation is achieved by taking

whereby single observations which are far out of the range are not considered.
3. CHARACTERIZATION OF CHEMICAL FLUCTUATIONS
A global feature to express the chemical fluctuations in a raw material composition is the ‘standard
deviation’ as indicated in the previous chapter.
However, the standard deviation gives no indication about the time behavior, i.e. the frequency and
amplitude of the fluctuations. Furthermore it is only applicable for statistically independent samples.
3.1 Interpretation of Statistical Independency
The samples of a series are statistically independent (uncorrelated) if, in the average, a subsequent
sample is at the opposite side of the mean value. Contrarily, statistically dependent (correlated) means
that, in the average, a subsequent sample always lays at the same side of the mean value. A
mathematical description of this phenomena is given by the correlation function.
The presumption of statistically independent samples is only valid for raw material samples located in the
quarry sufficiently apart of each other. The chemical difference of subsequent raw material samples is
reduced with decreasing distance between the samples and from a certain point the latter become
statistically dependent.
Figure 3 Type of Chemical Fluctuations

3.2 The Correlation Function

The correlation function indicates the statistical dependency of the single samples in a series. It is
calculated in the following way:

where:
k = parameter for the number of Dt, indicating the distance related to time or material quantity between
single samples
I = parameter indicating single samples
n = number of samples
Dt = distance or material quantity between single samples
Figure 4 Correlation Function

Interpretation:
k Dt = 0 full correlation (1)
k Dt > 0 correlation (dependency) is valid
k Dt ³ T statistically independent
4. HOMOGENIZATION
Homogenization is achieved by two procedures:
¨ By ‘blending’ where two or more material components are combined. The materials are fed
alternately or time delayed in a common and reclaimed simultaneously afterwards.
¨ By ‘mixing’ where two or more different material components are fed in a common system and
agitated such as to achieve one homogeneous component.
4.1 Blending
4.1.1 Model
The following model idea describes the principle of ‘blending’.
Figure 5 ‘Blending’ Model

Model description
The portions Dt × min (where min is the average input mass flow) are entering the system subsequently
succeeding in time intervals Dt from compartment 1 to k. Due to the different material levels in the
compartments the simultaneous extraction effects a time delayed combinement of single material portions
Dt × min.
4.1.2 Homogenizing Efficiency of Blenders
Due to the special filling procedure of the individual silos and assuming a sufficiently large Dt it can be
expected that the raw materials extracted from each silo are statistically independent (uncorrelated).
Therefore the blending efficiency approaches the factor

If the material components to be blended are statistically dependent (correlated), the blending efficiency
can be much below above value.
4.1.3 Examples
¨ ‘Blending’ at the quarry
From two or more quarry faces the materials are fed simultaneously to the crusher (selective quarrying).
¨ ‘Blending’ in a prehomogenizing bed
The raw material is stacked in several layers into the bed and reclaimed in a way that all layers are
simultaneously cut, i.e. ‘preblended’.
Figure 6 Raw Mix Proportioning
¨ ‘Blending’ of the raw mix by proportioning

Note: The final raw mix is prepared by proportioning single raw material components. This procedure
effects the combinement of the single material components, and thus ‘blending’ resp. dampening of their
original chemical fluctuations is achieved. Of course by wrong adjustments of the components, also very
large errors (additional fluctuations) can be introduced into the raw mix.
¨ ‘Blending’ of raw meal
Raw meal simultaneously extracted from parallel bins which have been filled subsequently (time delayed)
as shown on the model (usual solution before the large raw meal homogenizing silos were known).
¨ ‘Blending’ of slurry
Extracting from several parallel slurry tanks and feeding into a common storage basin.
¨ ‘Blending’ of coal
(If no special preblending bed is provided).
Stacking the coal in longitudinal rows and reclaiming it from the front with wheel loaders.
4.2 Mixing
4.2.1 Model
The following model idea describes the principle of mixing which is done by agitation.
Figure 7 Mixing Unit

Model description
It is assumed that two components (A) and (B) are fed in a mixer so that they first are completely
separated. By agitating, the components are homogenized (fig. 7).
4.2.2 Homogenizing Efficiency of Mixers
The homogenizing efficiency is shown by the plots below (fig. 8 and 9) where the measuring points 1 and
2 are periodically sampled and analyzed.
Figure 8 Analyses of Measuring Point 1

Figure 9 Analyses of Measuring Point 2

Similar measurements on several systems have confirmed that above plots follow the so-called ‘ideal
blender’ curve which is mathematically described as follows:
Figure 10 ‘Ideal Blender’ Curve

where: T = Characteristic agitation time

The mixer shall be agitated approx. 5 times (T) so as to achieve the optimum homogenizing efficiency.
Comment
Mixing units are operated either batchwise or continuously. In both cases mixers provide very good
homogenizing efficiencies (see figures above).
However chemical fluctuations larger than the batch volume (in case of batchwise operation) or the mean
retention time, i.e. v / vf, v = volume of the mixer, vf = volume flow, (in case of continuous operation) are
not homogenized and pass the mixer undampened.
In case of continuous mixing it has to be assured that the mean retention time is larger than the required
characteristics agitation time T.
The mixing should also not be made too long since after a certain mixing period the mix starts
segregating again.
Fig. 11 illustrates the mixing behavior between batch and continuous operation.
Figure 11 Batchwise - Continuous Mixing

4.2.3 Examples

4.3 Homogenizing Elements

Homogenization takes place during the whole raw material preparation process. It starts already in the
quarry where blending occurs by combining different components at the crusher feed and ends at the bin
feed where raw meal from several silos is extracted.
During the total process the following homogenizing elements can be met:

Homogenizing element Homogenizing procedure Type of homogenized fluctuations

Selective quarrying Blending Long-term to middle-term fluctuations
Preblending Blending Middle-term to long-term fluctuations
Proportioning Blending Long-term to middle-term fluctuations
Grinding Mixing Short-term fluctuations
Homogenizing Mixing / blending Short-term to middle-term fluctuations

4.3.1 Definition of Fluctuations

The type of fluctuation as generally outlined in chapter 3, fig. 3, can be refined more specifically in time
relation as follows:
Short-term fluctuations: min., h
Middle-term fluctuations: 1 - 5 days
Long-term fluctuations: 5 - 7 days
4.3.2 Comment on the Homogenizing Elements
4.3.2.1 Selective quarrying
If the quarry operation is well organized in an integrated preblending bed concept and the raw material
components are located not too far away, premixing of certain material qualities by alternate crusher feed
can reduce long and middle term fluctuations to hourly or daily fluctuations.
4.3.2.2 Preblending
Depending on the size of the preblending bed, fluctuations within the rage of 5 - 7 days (preblending bed
capacity) are normally blended.
4.3.2.3 Proportioning
More component preblending bed concepts incorporate the raw material qualities separated in two or
more preblending beds. By proportioning the single components to the final raw mix already blended,
fluctuations within pile capacity (approximately one week) or even exceeding pile capacity can be
combined (it means blended). As previously mentioned also very large errors (additional fluctuations) by
wrong adjustments can be introduced into the raw mix.
4.3.2.4 Grinding
If grinding is considered as a mixing element it holds true only for short time fluctuations which are related
to the retention time on material particles passing through the mill.
4.3.2.5 Homogenizing silo
In the continuous homogenizing silo fluctuations of few hours depending on the inactive volume of the
silo, are mixed which is equal to the retention time of material passing through the silo. Whereby in the
batch type homogenizing silo the certain batches are first mixed and combined afterwards in the
succeeding storage silo. There, fluctuations amounting up to days are blended.
5. DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL FLUCTUATIONS
The determination of the chemical raw material fluctuations is mandatory in order to select the appropriate
homogenizing elements and to dimension them correctly. Furthermore it allows to judge their
homogenizing efficiency.
Chemical fluctuations are detected by taking samples. The required sample number depends on the
quantity and the homogeneity of the material to be sampled. The required number of samples rises with
increasing inhomogeneity of the raw material. With an increasing number of samples also the sampling
reliability improves. To be representative, the sample must be collected in an appropriate quantity
depending on the maximum grain size. The relation between maximum grain size and necessary sample
quantity is given in fig. 17 as guide line.
Please note that the error of analysis has to be deducted in the following way:

Figure 17 Relations between the Maximum Grain Size and the Corresponding Necessary Quantity
of Sample

5.1 Investigation of Chemical Fluctuations in the Quarry

On existing plants the chemical fluctuations of the quarried material are detected by hourly samples taken
after the crusher e.g. on a belt transfer point. In order to get a representative sample, the whole cross
section of the transport belt ought to be sampled. Another, less accurate method is to sample the dust of
the blast drill holes.
On plants in projection the chemical fluctuations of the future quarry must be determined with the aid of
the drill hole prospection which is executed to assess the future raw material deposit. The chemical
analyses of all drill hole cores are taken to calculate the standard deviation. If the drill holes cover the
total deposit area, sufficiently accurate results can be expected for the overall chemical fluctuations of the
quarry. The absolute accuracy is only dependent on the number of realized drill holes and the
homogeneity of the deposit. However, in the raw material preparation process not the whole quarry
fluctuations are relevant but only the fluctuations within one blast approximately or within the raw material
quantity of one preblending bed. Usually the raw material deposit shows some stratification so that the
chemical fluctuations are not equal in all three directions, i.e. horizontally (length and width) and vertically.
Thus, with the application of a certain quarrying method, the chemical fluctuations within one blast are
reduced as compared to the overall quarry fluctuations. In order to assess this reduction, the chemical
fluctuations in each direction shall be calculated. From these calculations the standard deviation of an
individual blast must be estimated.
5.2 Chemical Fluctuations after the Preblending Bed
The sample procedure after the preblending bed takes place in the following way (fig. 18).
Figure 18 Sampling of the Preblending Bed

In order to judge the fluctuations at the exit of the preblending bed the different cross sectional slices of
the pile have to be compared. It is that within one slice approximately 6 to 9 spot samples have to be
taken from which one cumulative sample is made. The samples can be taken from the exit belt leaving
the preblending bed on an equal distance with a quantity per spot sample of about 10 kilograms. The
cumulative sample has to be prepared and representatively divided down to 8 to 10 kilograms from which
the analysis in the laboratory is made representing then the concentration value of one cross sectional
area.
In this described way 60 to 80 cumulative samples distributed over the whole stock pile must be taken.
Each sample must represent approximately the same stockpile mass.
From all cumulative samples the mean value and standard deviation is calculated.
Note: An achievable homogenizing efficiency of the preblending bed obtained by the above sampling
procedures (under the circumstance of normal raw material qualities) amounts to
e = sa/sb = 5 - 6
However, not the homogenizing efficiency e is important. But to judge the effectiveness of the preblending
bed, the most interesting value represents sb which is in normal case expected to be below 1 % CaCO3.
5.3 Chemical Fluctuations after the homogenizing silo
To assure an appropriate representativity of the sample the following considerations are essential:
¨ The sampling location is preferably on a meal discharge point where the total material flow is
accessible, if necessary by taking some subsamples in short time intervals, which afterwards are
combined to one ‘spot sample’.
¨ The samples themselves should be spot samples or ‘spot samples’ as described above, evenly
distributed over the total sampling period.
* Period for continuous homogenizing silo: 24 h (e.g. every 30 min. one sample = 48 samples).
* Period for batch homogenizing silo: should contain 3 batches (e.g. 3 time 8h = 24 h again every
30 min. one sample = 48 samples).
¨ The sampling quantity per spot sample amounts to approx. 1 kg which then is homogenized and
divided.
6. LITERATURE
1) J. Zulauf
Design of blending installations
TC-Report VA 72/4364/E
2) A.W. Gerstel and E. Luttekes
Homogenisieren in Mischbetten
ZKG 1/1973
3) A.W. Gerstel
Homogenisierung von Schüttgut in Mischbetten
ZKG 8/1980
4) R. Hasler
Vergleichmässigung im Mischbett
TC-Report VA 75/4481/D
5) R. Hasler, K. Völlmin
Stand der Mischbett-Technik in der Zementindustrie
ZKG 12/1975
6) R. Hasler, G. Lingford
Investigation on blending and homogenizing systems
TC-Reports VA 81/48099/E, VA 81/4810/E
7) R. Hasler
Vorhomogenisieren und Zwischenlagern von gebrochenen Rohmaterialien mittels Mischbett

Preblending of Raw Materials

F. Bucher
VA 83/5005/E
1. INTRODUCTION
2. HOMOGENIZING EFFICIENCY OF PREBLENDING BEDS
2.1 Principle of Preblending
2.2 Mathematical Models for the Homogenizing Efficiency
3. LONGITUDINAL PREBLENDING BED
3.1 Stacking / Reclaiming Methods
3.2 Pile Geometry
3.3 Stacking Machines
3.4 Reclaiming Machines
4. CIRCULAR PREBLENDING BED
4.1 Working Principle
4.2 Pile Geometry
4.3 Stacking Machines
4.4 Reclaiming Machines
5. MATERIAL SEGREGATION IN THE PREBLENDING BED
5.1 Determination of the Reversal Points of the Stacking Machine
6. PREBLENDING BED LAYOUTS
6.1 Parallel Stockpiles
6.2 In-Line Stockpiles
6.3 Circular Stockpile
6.4 Homogenizing Pit
7. PREBLENDING BED APPLICATIONS
7.1 Longitudinal Preblending Bed
7.2 Circular Preblending Bed
7.3 Homogenizing Pit
8. PREBLENDING BED CONCEPTS
8.1 Automatic Storage
8.2 Single component Preblending Bed
8.3 More Component Preblending Bed
8.4 Integrated Preblending Bed
9. PREBLENDING BED DIMENSIONING AND DESIGN
9.1 Dimensioning of the Preblending Bed
9.2 Design Aspects of the Preblending Bed
10. ACCEPTANCE TEST
11. LITERATURE

Summary
Raw material components incorporating chemical fluctuations with a standard deviation of s > 2 %
CaCO3 should definitely be blended in preblending beds.
Various mathematical models and methods have been developed to determine the homogenizing
efficiency of the preblending bed in function of the primary chemical material fluctuations, the number of
layers and the geometry of the preblending bed.
The principle of blending is simple as the material from the quarry is stacked in layers to a pile and
reclaimed in right angles to the layers in thin slices.
The mostly applied preblending system utilizes Chevron stacking (or possibly Chevcon stacking in case of
a circular preblending bed) and front reclaiming.
The stacking machines are either throw-off carriages under the ridge of the roof (for covered longitudinal
piles) or laterally traveling boom stackers (for open air stock piles) or slewing stackers (for circular
preblending beds). The highest travel speeds for stackers attain 25 - 30 m/min. corresponding to 400 -
500 layers with a pile width of 30 m and a stacking capacity of 1000 t/h.
The reclaimers usually consist of bridge-mounted scraper chains, equipped with moving harrows or
sweeping ropes to bring the stacked material to the base of the pile. The largest reclaiming capacities are
approx. 500 m3/h, the span width of the bridge being up to 50 m.
For sticky materials and for very small storage capacities are still the ‘homogenizing pit’ or, in case of low
homogenizing efficiency requirement, the well known side reclaimer is applied.
If preblending piles have to be covered, circular beds are preferable since roofing can be done at
relatively low cost a dome-type structure.
The integrated preblending bed is used if different materials (two or more components) are dumped on
the same pile in a controlled manner so as to attain a predesired chemical value for the whole pile. This
goal is achieved by continuously sampling and analyzing the material feed to the pile, the amount of
sampled material being about 1 % of the total.
The homogenizing effect of a preblending bed is approx. 3 : 1 to 6 : 1.
1. INTRODUCTION
Raw material components incorporating chemical fluctuations with a standard deviation of s ³ 2 % CaCO3
should definitely be blended in preblending beds.
For fluctuations with s £ 2 % CaCO3, no preblending is required since the discontinuous batch type
homogenizing silo provides a sufficient homogenizing efficiency.
However, preblending beds are also installed for other reasons than for their homogenizing efficiency:
¨ The preblending bed represents a fully automatic raw material storage. There is no difficulty in
obtaining also very large storage capacities.
¨ Decoupling of the quarry operation from the plant, thus avoiding a multiple shift operation in the
quarry and allowing for the application of bigger quarrying machines.
¨ There is no problem in handling also very sticky materials in preblending beds.
¨ Selective quarrying and premixing of different raw material components is easily done in the
preblending bed.
2. HOMOGENIZING EFFICIENCY OF PREBLENDING BEDS
2.1 Principle of Preblending
The operation principle of the preblending bed is very simple:
The raw material from the quarry is stacked in layers to a pile and reclaimed in right angles to the layers
in thin slices. This principle can be put into practice by various combinations of pile structure and
extraction processes. The homogenizing process in a preblending pile takes place in the following way:
a) As a result of layer-by-layer stacking, the raw material flow is divided into sub-quantities of Dt
tons (fig. 1).
b) Because of this the characteristic variations which occur in the raw material flow are also divided
into equal intervals Dt (fig. 1).
c) As a result of the layered build-up of the blending bed the variations within the sub-quantities Dt
are superimposed.
d) On considering cross-sections at right angles to the layers, it is seen that, because of the above-
mentioned superposition, there occur altered characteristic variations within the cross-sections and
variations from one cross-section to another, i.e., between the cross-sections.
Note: Material of subsequent layers are only insignificantly different, in the region of the stacker reversing
points (fig. 2) thus for the purpose of calculation only every second layer is considered (i.e. every ‘double
layer’).
Fig. 1 to 4 illustrate the working principle of the preblending bed.
Figure 1 Raw Material Fluctuations at the Inlet of the Preblending Bed

Figure 2 Build-Up Model of the Preblending bed

Figure 3 Model Illustrating Build-Up and Reclaiming

Figure 4 Raw Material Fluctuations Smoothed out on Leaving the Blending Bed
2.2 Mathematical Models for the Homogenizing Efficiency
Various mathematical models and methods have been developed to determine the homogenizing
efficiency of the preblending bed in function of the primary chemical material fluctuations, the number of
layers and the geometry of the preblending bed. In the following short summaries of the most important
methods are provided.
2.2.1 Method 1
Assumption: The raw material properties of the (N) ‘double layers’ are:
* normally distributed
* statistically independent
Based on the above assumption the basic relations of statistics will hold
S2b = S2a 1/N
Thus the homogenizing efficiency is only a function of the realized number of ‘double layers’ (N):

Comment
The assumption of statistically independent raw material ‘double layers’ holds true only if a small number
of thick ‘double layers’ is realized. As soon as the number of ‘double layers’ is large adjacent layers
become statistically dependent (correlated) and the achievable homogenizing efficiency is below .
The practical application of this method is thus rather limited.
2.2.2 Method 2
2.2.2.1 Correlation Function
The model below considers the correlation between the material ‘double layers’ in the preblending bed
and is thus an important improvement compared to model 1. The model derived in the following form was
invented by Van der Mooren (see (2) (3)).

where:
sa = input fluctuations to the preblending bed
sb = output fluctuations out of the preblending bed
N = number of ‘double layers’
ra = correlation function
k = parameter for the number of Dt, indicating the material quantity between single ‘double layers’ of
the preblending bed
Dt = material quantity of one ‘double layer’ of the preblending bed
Comment
In practice the application of this model is mostly not possible since the correlation function ra of the raw
material to be blended is not known.
2.2.2.2 Frequency Response
The same model was described also by the frequency response (see (1)) in the following way:

where:
G(f) = frequency response
f = frequency
N = number of ‘double layers’
Dt = material quantity per ‘double layer’
Comment
This form of the model is well suited in case that the whole material preparation chain including
preblending, raw mix proportioning and raw meal homogenizing is treated. Each element of the chain is
then described by its individual frequency response and connected to one large control and homogenizing
model. Of course, for the application of this form of the model the similar problems arise as mentioned
above. In this case not the correlation function ra is usually unknown but the spectrum of the chemical
input fluctuations.
2.2.3 Method 3
This model represents a simplified version of the model 2 by assuming the shape of the correlation
function ra.
Assumption: ra (k Dt) = exp (- k Dt / T)
where:

ra (kDt) = correlation function

Dt = material quantity of one ‘double layer’ of the preblending bed
k = parameter for the number of Dt indicating the material quantity between single ‘double
layers’ of the preblending bed
T = correlation term

Using above assumption in the formula of model 2 for ra and setting , the following simplified model
arises:

where:
e = homogenizing efficiency
sa = input fluctuation into the preblending bed
sb = output fluctuation out of the preblending bed
N = number of layers
M = preblending bed capacity (approx. 1 week)
T = correlation term
Correlation term T
The correlation term T indicates the time period or the material quantity of the unhomogenized material,
within which the statistical correlation of single elements will hold.
The correlation term can be estimated by determining the time or the material quantity during which the
real curve of chemical concentration cuts the line of its mean value (see fig. 5).
Expressed in formula:

The term T can be expressed in time (h), material quantity (t) or length (m) according to the further
application.
Figure 5 Determination of Correlation Term T

Examples:
¨ On an existing plant, T is determined by taking samples from the belt conveyor.
¨ On a plant in projection, T has to be estimated with the aid of the drill hole prospection:
1) The length of T is determined in the main directions where the quarrying is done, e.g. vertical and
horizontal if exploitation is done by blasting of benches.
2) Afterwards the ‘correlation quantity’ is calculated with the aid of the correlation length in each
direction, e.g.:

correlation length over the width: 20 m

correlation length over the depth: 5m
chosen burden during blasting: 3m
correlation quantity (r = 2.5 t/m3): T = 20 × 5 × 3 × 2.5 = 750 t
Note: In the same way also the relevant standard deviation of the unhomogenized raw material has to be
estimated (see chapter ‘aspects of raw material homogenization’, section 1).
2.2.4 Method 4
Often no or only scarce information concerning the raw material properties are available. In such a case,
the number of layers N in the preblending pile shall be chosen according to the following criteria:
If required homogenizing efficiency is high: N = 400 - 500
(rather inhomogeneous raw material)
If required homogenizing efficiency is not important: N = 200 - 300
(rather homogeneous raw material)
Note: The maximum number of layers will depend on the stacking performance, the pile cross section and
the maximum travel speed of the machine. In most cases however it does not pay to work with such large
number of layers because - irrespective of the correlation of the raw material - the effective statistically
independent number of layers are smaller than the actual, i.e. for calculation purpose two layers = one
‘double layer’ (see 2.1 / 2.2.1).
3. LONGITUDINAL PREBLENDING BED
The longitudinal preblending bed represents the most common and simplest type of preblending bed. This
type always corresponds to batchwise blending since one pile has to be formed while the other is
reclaimed.
3.1 Stacking / Reclaiming Methods
Different stacking / reclaiming methods are shown in fig. 6 - 9, the Chevron Windrow and Conical Shell
stacking as well as the stacking of the homogenizing pit. Reclaiming is normally done by a front acting
reclaimer. An exception is the side reclaimer (see chapter 3.4.2).
3.1.1 Chevron Stacking / Reclaiming
Longitudinal layers are placed by a to and fro stacker movement over the ridge of the pile until the full
height of the triangular pile is reached. The material is afterwards reclaimed in slices transversal to the
pile by means of a front acting reclaimer. This is the common stacking method for a longitudinal pile with
front reclaiming (see fig. 6).
Figure 6 Chevron Stacking

3.1.2 Windrow Stacking / Reclaiming

Several longitudinal layers are stacked parallel over the whole width of the pile in such a way that they
form a triangular pile face after completing the full height. In other words the stacker not only makes
longitudinal but also transversal movements so that a pattern of parallel, longitudinal rows arises.
Reclaiming is always done by a front acting machine (see fig. 7).
Figure 7 Windrow Stacking

Note: Due to the higher investment cost as compared to Chevron, the Windrow stacking is only applied if
a large segregation in the end cones is expected (e.g. max. Grain size > 100 mm).
3.1.3 Conical Shell Stacking / Reclaiming
The stacker moves stepwise in longitudinal direction. The next step is only executed after completing the
Conical shell up to the full pile height. Reclaiming is normally done laterally by a side-reclaimer (see fig.
8).
Figure 8 Conical Shell Method

Note: The Conical shell stacking method should not be applied in conjunction with front reclaiming since
only few material layers are blended so that the achievable homogenizing efficiency is rather poor. The
method is used for preblending beds with side reclaimers in case of sticky materials and if the
homogenizing efficiency is not important.
3.1.4 The Stacking and Reclaiming in the Homogenizing Pit
The stacking method in the homogenizing pit could be both, either Windrow stacking in longitudinal or
transversal layers. Reclaiming is performed by a bucket chain excavator lifting and discharging the
material on to a bridge mounted transversal extracting belt (see fig. 9 and fig. 25).
Figure 9 Homogenizing Pit - Windrow Stacking

Note: The homogenizing pit is applied for small preblending capacities or for sticky materials requiring a
good homogenizing efficiency. Due to the high investment cost, the homogenizing pit is not used for
‘normal cases’ where the longitudinal Chevron bed can be applied.
3.2 Pile Geometry
Figure 10 Longitudinal Preblending Bed Geometry

Volume Calculation Terms

Prismic Part:
Cone end part:
Pile Height:
Total volume:

3.3 Stacking Machines

The stacking machines dealt with here after allow the stacking according to the Chevron, Windrow and
Conical Shell pattern. For stockpiling the material there are, in principle, two different types of machine.
Throw-off carriages (tripper) fed by a belt conveyor installed under the ridge of the roof of the storage
building can be used only for stockpiles under cover. Laterally traveling boom stackers can be used for
covered as well as for open-air stockpiles. Fig. 11 and 12 schematically illustrate a throw-off carriage with
a fixed depositing chute for building up bed-blending stockpiles on the Chevron principle. If the throw-off
carriage is equipped with a cross-traversible or a slewing throw-off belt, it can also be used for Windrow
stacking. For this purpose the stackers are designed with slewing gear or with a telescopic boom.
The solution with a throw-off carriage operating along the ridge of the roof has the disadvantages that the
material undergoes segregation as a result of the great height from which it falls, that the material in the
pile becomes compacted, and that dust is thrown up. These disadvantages are obviated by stackers
equipped with booms that can be lowered. Segregation can be reduced by variable reversing points of the
stacker set according to the slope of the pile end (see chapter 5).
Because of the counterweight needed to balance the boom stacker, a machine of this type is rather wide
and therefore requires a fairly large amount of clear working space within the storage building (see fig.
13).
The maximum number of layers to be deposited will depend on the stacking performance and the
maximum travel speed of the machine. The highest travel speeds are around 25 - 30 m/min., enabling -
with a pile width of 30 m and a stacking capacity of 1000 t/h - 400 - 500 layers to be deposited.
In present-day practice the combination of Chevron stacking with a front-acting reclaimer has found
widespread acceptance as a favorable system, since this method of stacking can be achieved with the
least elaborate machinery.
Figure 11 Belt Conveyor and Belt Tripper

Figure 12 Reversible Belt Conveyor

Figure 13 Side Stacker

3.4 Reclaiming Machines

3.4.1 Front Acting Reclaimers
This type of reclaimer equipped with an extracting scraper chain (see fig. 14) is the mostly applied
reclaiming machine.
The highest attainable performance for these bride-type reclaiming machines is around 500 m3 /h. Bridge
spans in the region of 50 m are already in use.
Advantages:
¨ The homogenizing effect is good because this slices of the whole cross-section of the pile are
reclaimed.
¨ The output rate is constant and easy to control.
¨ Only a small amount of clear working space is needed for the machine inside the storage shed.
¨ The working direction of the machine can be changed quite simply.
Disadvantages:
· There is an upper limit to the output attainable.
· For feeding the exit belt conveyor the machine requires, on the discharge side, a feeding table or
delivery chute, to enable the discharge to the exit belt.
· As the machine moves continuously into the pile and the scraper chain is filled progressively
towards the discharge point the bridge has a tendency to move at the back and more quickly that at the
front end. Provision must be taken that this oblique movement can be corrected.
Figure 14 Bridge-Type Reclaimer with Harrow

3.4.1.1 Dislodging Device

All front-acting reclaimers are equipped with a material handling system which can pick up the material
only from the toe of the stockpile. A dislodging device, for bringing the material down from the slope,
sweeps across the end face of the pile. The material contained in a thin slice undergoes blending while it
rolls and slides down. Machines equipped with harrows or rakes, rope-operated scrapers and scraper
chains for dislodging the material are available (fig. 15).
Harrows are normally triangular in shape with renewable teeth and capable of being tilted to the natural
angle of repose of the material. Dislodging the material is achieved by the oscillating to-and-fro movement
of the device.
Scraper chains are more particularly suited for dislodging difficult and heavy materials from stockpile
slopes. In performing their to-and-fro motion they sweep the whole end face and force the material by
positive action to the tow of the slope.
The rope-operated scraper comprises two ropes which pass around pulleys at the tip of the pile attached
to a slide which performs a shuttle motion along the bridge. In this way the ropes pass to and fro across
the whole face of the pile in the manner of windscreen-wipers. For dealing with heavy material the ropes
are interconnected by pivoted cross-beams studded with teeth. In this way the loosening and dislodging
effect can be substantially increased and the wear on the ropes reduced.
Figure 15 Slope Scraper

3.4.1.2 Scraper Chain

The scraper chain extracts the material to the side of the pile where it is discharged onto the exit belt.
Different types of chain arrangements can be distinguished, horizontal, inclined or inclined only at the
discharge end on the exit belt (see fig. 16 - 18). A discharge table is for the horizontal as well as for the
inclined chain an indispensable prerequisite. The horizontal chain inclined at the discharge end therefore
needs only a delivery chute which is less expensive compared with the concrete transfer (see fig. 18).
Figure 16 Horizontal Chain

Figure 17 Inclined Chain

Figure 18 Horizontal Chain Inclined only at the Discharge End

3.4.1.3 Bridge-mounted bucket-wheel reclaimers

A bridge-mounted bucket-wheel reclaimer takes the material from the tow of the slope and discharges it to
a transverse belt mounted on the same bridge. The dislodging device is attached to the support of the
bucket-wheel and moves to and fro with it (see fig. 19).
Figure 19 Bucket-Wheel Reclaimer as Bridge-Type Machine

Advantages:
¨ Good homogenizing effect. The variations that occur because the machine does not sweep the
whole cross-sectional area of the pile all the time in the to-and-fro motion of the bucket-wheel are of short
duration and can without difficulty be evened out in the subsequent raw material processing stages.
¨ The output performance is virtually unlimited. For high reclaiming rates it is possible to mount two
or more bucket-wheels on one and the same bridge.
¨ Sideways discharge of the material onto the exit belt conveyor is done by a belt installed in the
bridge. This is an energy-saving arrangement compared with the bridge-type scraping reclaimer and
makes it possible to construct a low retaining wall as the lateral boundary to the toe of the stockpile. Thus
there is no risk of overfilling, and the amount of space required is kept down to the minimum.
¨ The bridge is moved stepwise while the bucket-wheel is in its extreme position. It is therefore no
pronounced danger for oblique movement to the bridge.
Disadvantages:
· The rate of discharge of the reclaimed material does not remain constant as the bucket-wheel
moves transversely. This drawback is compensated by switching to three different speeds for the
traversing of the bucket-wheel. This involves more elaborate control, however.
· The clear working space required is greater than for the bridge-type scraping reclaimer.
· On reversal of the working direction the buckets have to be reversed too.
3.4.1.4 Bucket-Wheel Reclaimers with Slewing Boom
Machines of this type operate in the same way as the machines described in section a, except that the
reclaiming face is not flat but curved (fig. 20).
Figure 20 Bucket-Wheel Reclaimer as Slewing Machine

Advantages:
¨ These are the same as those offered by the bridge-mounted bucket-wheel reclaimer.
¨ Since the rails on which the machine is mounted are within the stockpile itself, there is an
additional saving of space.
Disadvantages:
· These are the same as those associated with the bridge-mounted bucket-wheel reclaimer.
· Turning the machine inside a building requires much space.
3.4.1.5 Tube Reclaimers
With this type of machine the material dislodged by the to-and-fro motion of a harrow is picked up by
scoops mounted on a rotating tube or drum and is deposited onto a belt conveyor running inside the tube
(fig. 21). The blending effect that they can attain is excellent, as their reclaiming action comprises the
whole cross-section of the stockpile. However, they are sophisticated and expensive machines which can
be economically employed only for very high reclaiming rates (upwards of 2000 t/h).
Figure 21 Tube Reclaimer

3.4.1.6 Disc Reclaimer

This type of reclaiming machine is an entirely new concept of a reclaimer. It only has in common with the
other reclaimers that it acts also on the front of the pile (see fig. 22).
Working principle:
A rotably disc structure supported by a bridge spanning the width off the bed agitates, transports and
discharges the material continuously over the rim of the pile onto the exit belt. The only parts of the
machine that are in contact with the material to be reclaimed are the harrow teeth connected to the
spokes, the bottom edge of the rim, the inside of the rim and the carriers along the rim. If the material has
reached the rim of the pile it slides down the pile side over the reclaiming wall onto the collecting
conveyor. The disc inclination can be adjusted on the slope of the pile face. The machine can reclaim in
two opposite directions by simply tilting the disc from one position through the horizontal to the other
position. If necessary the disc could discharge at either side by selecting the rotation direction.
Figure 22 Disc Reclaimer

3.4.2 Side Reclaimers

Side reclaimers acting from the side of the preblending bed are equipped with a boom mounted scraper
chain that can be lowered. They work either on the front of the preblending pile or on the side.
3.4.2.1 Side Reclaimers Working on the Front of the Pile
Reclaiming of the material from the pile is done by lowering and lifting the scraper chain on the pile face
simultaneous forwards and backwards movement of the reclaimer carriage (see fig. 23).
This method of reclaiming has severe drawbacks and should not be installed anymore:
* Complicated sequence control of boom and carriage and thus high maintenance requirement
* Irregular material discharge flow requiring large belt capacities
(fluctuations up to 50 %).
Figure 23 Front (Pilgrim Step) Reclaiming
3.4.2.2 Side Reclaimers Working on the Side of the Pile
The lowering boom reclaims the material from the side of the pile while the carriage travels the whole
length of the pile (see fig. 24).
This working method is only applied in conjunction with Conical shell stacking. Their respective
advantages and disadvantages can be summarized as follows:
Advantages:
¨ Several material components stored on the same preblending bed can be served by a common
reclaiming machine (e.g. additives stored on the same preblending bed).
¨ Suited for fairly sticky materials
¨ Low investment costs
Disadvantages:
· A diminished homogenizing efficiency is obtained since not all layers are blended simultaneously
(Conical shell stacking).
· Suited only for homogeneous raw materials (additives) with fluctuations
s £ 2 % CaCO3.
· Preferred only if the available preblending bed concept demands a simple automatic material
storage with no or less homogenizing requirements.
Figure 24 Lateral (Side) Reclaiming

3.4.3 Reclaiming Machines for Sticky Materials

In the cement industry it is often necessary to deal with materials that tend to stick. In such cases
difficulties are liable to arise with some types of machine described in the foregoing, because in certain
circumstances the material refuses to be easily dislodged and come tumbling down to the tow of the pile.
The side-acting scraper can still be used for such materials. The scraper blades are normally provided
with ripper teeth in that case, and devices for cleaning the blades when dealing with extremely sticky
material have been developed. Alternatively, an easily modifiable version of the slewing-boom bucket-
wheel reclaimer can be employed for the purpose. Here the raking device for dislodging the material from
the slope is omitted, and the bucket wheel is raised to reclaim directly from the stockpile. Unfortunately in
both cases the blending effect achieved by such machines is diminished.
A third possibility, without loss of blending effect, is provided by the homogenizing pit with bucket chain
reclaimer.
Because of the high cost of construction the pit to receive the material, these blending installations are
expensive. Under favorable conditions it is possible to construct the pit by blasting it out of solid rock and
thus saving money. In comparison with stockpiles of triangular cross-section the space required by such
tanks is substantially less. Under cramped conditions in a specific case it will therefore be the most
economical one even in a case where the material to be dealt with is not particularly sticky. The
application of this type of installation is also indicated for small storage capacities where the space for a
Chevron bed becomes too large (see fig. 9 and fig. 25).
Figure 25 Homogenizing Pit with Bucket Chain

4. CIRCULAR PREBLENDING BED

Principally two different types of circular preblending beds can be distinguished:
Batch-wise preblending by forming two or more pile according to the Chevron method covering two or
more sections of the complete circumference. The piles are linked together (see fig. 27) or separate (see
fig. 26).
Averaging preblending by forming one continuous pile according to the so called Chevcon stacking
method. This method is explained in chapter 4.1.2.
The chemical fluctuations are differently damped by both methods. While batchwise stacking enables the
achievement of a certain fixed mean value, averaging blending yields a continuous floating mean value
(see fig. 28, 29, 30).
Figure 26 Separate Piles
Figure 27 Adjacent Piles

Figure 28 Batchwise Stacking with Separate Piles

Figure 29 Batchwise Stacking with Adjacent Piles

Figure 30 Averaging Stacking by Continuous Stacking

4.1 Working Principle

4.1.1 Circular Preblending Bed with Batchwise Stacking
The batches of the pile are stacked according to the known Chevron method. The Conical shell method is
also possible but not recommended due to the reduced blending efficiency.
The circular batch type stacking procedure can either be performed in separate (fig. 26) or adjacent piles
(fig. 27).
Separate piles need too much space between single sections and are not recommended.
Adjacent piles gain a better space utilization but a diminished or heavy controllable homogenizing
efficiency in the transition zone between single piles occurs.
In order to guarantee a sufficient operating flexibility a minimum number of three segments is
recommended which distributes the total circumference of 360 ° in 60 ° minimum allowable space
reservement for the reclaiming machine and 100 ° for each segment. More pile segments could improve
the operating flexibility but adverse would reduce the homogenizing volume.
Before starting a new pile at least one segment and the space reservement for the reclaimer has to be
free.
The ratio between stacking and reclaiming volume amounts in an optimal case with three segments to 2:1
while longitudinal piles always correspond to a ratio of 1:1.
If ever possible the continuous Chevcon stacking should be applied to overcome the diminished and
nearly uncontrollable homogenizing efficiency in the transition zone of adjacent batch type pile segments.
4.1.2 Circular Preblending Bed with Continuous Stacking (Chevcon Method)
This relatively newly developed method of stacking is a superimposing of the Conical shell and Chevron
method. As already mentioned above, the Chevcon stacking represents a continuous blending contrarily
to the methods which yield batch blending. Continuous blending provides the following advantages:
¨ Continuous operation
¨ maximum space utilization
¨ variable storage volume according to the homogenizing requirements
¨ no segregation problems
The following working principle applies for the Chevcon stacking:
Stacking the material in the blending bed is effected over a preselected path length, corresponding to
certain angle of slew, which in the course of each forward and reverse motion of the stacker is advanced
a distance equivalent to the volume of material stacked. The number of layers deposited on the bed
depends on the slewing speed of the stacker and on its material handling rate. Superimposed on the
slewing is the raising / lowering motion, so that during each pass the stacker is raised from its lowest to its
highest point, and vice versa. An electronic control system ensures that the stacker is kept lower over the
stockpile, so that the height of fall of the material in building up the pile is always suitably small. The
preselected slewing angle progressively shifts round the circumference, and by continually the stacker
builds up an annular pile of material. The smaller the angle of slope of the pile is chosen, the longer
becomes each individual layer deposited.
Figure 31 Chevcon Stacking

Note: The total homogenizing volume (see fig. 33) is a function of the length or the inclination of the
layers. Chemical fluctuations within this fictive volume corresponding to approx. 5 days are yet
homogenized. The homogenizing efficiency within the homogenizing volume depends on the number of
layers, which is a function of the stacker velocity, the input mass flow and the pile cross section.
4.2 Pile Geometry
The circular preblending bed geometry differs for the two stacking types.
4.2.1 Pile Geometry for ‘Batchwise Stacking’
In the following the geometry of the batchpiles linked together are considered only since separate piles
spoil too much space.
Figure 32 Pile Geometry for Batchwise Stacking

Volume Calculation Terms

Pile width:
Pile height:
Cross section:
Mean diameter:
Prismic part of pile:
Cone end part:
Total volume:

4.2.2 Pile Geometry for ‘Averaging Blending’

Using the averaging blending method there is only one continuously growing pile. But only one part of this
pile is fully homogenized and ready to reclaim.
Considering the maximum available volume (V) of the pile (Dm × p × F), three subvolumes can be
differentiated (see fig. 33):
· the storage volume ready to reclaim (V1)
· the total homogenizing volume (V2), consisting of the effective stacked volume (VSt) and the
theoretical homogenizing volume (Vtheor).
· The empty space reserved for the reclaiming machine (V3).
Figure 33 Pile Geometry for Chevcon Stacking

Chevcon Stockpiling
Volume calculations

Pile width:
Mean diameter:
Pile height:
Cross section:

Maximum available volume (V)

This volume represents the maximum possible volume of the circular preblending bed.
V = F Dm × p
Storage volume (V1)
This volume represents the homogenized volume ready to reclaim. It is normally chosen such as to last
approx. 1 week or at least over a longitudinal weekend (3 days).

Note: (Ls) is equal to the distance on the mean pile circumference and (g) represents the belonging
angle.

The homogenizing volume (V2)

The total homogenizing volume composes of a theoretical part and a really stacked part. Both together
influence the homogenizing efficiency of the pile since raw material fluctuations with this fictive volume V2
are homogenized.

Theoretical homogenizing volume (Vtheor)

The theoretical homogenizing volume represents the volume which has to be added to the real stacking
volume to form the total homogenizing volume (V2).
Vtheor = V2 - VST
Real stacking volume (VST)
The real stacking volume represents the tail of the pile being in progress:

Note: (LST) is equal to the distance on the mean pile circumference and (d) represents the belonging
angle.
Other parameters

Number of layers in the pile cross section

Number of layers in the pile face
Preblending bed hight
Tail angle

Angle of the slewing boom to form a complete layer: (d‘)

Progress angle of the slewing boom after each completed layer: (Dd‘)

Empty space reserved for the reclaiming machine (V3)

The empty space reserved for the reclaiming machine represents the empty volume between the tail end
and the beginning of the pile.
Note: U is equal to the distance on the mean pile circumference representing the empty space reserved.
4.3 Stacking Machines
In general the same machineries as introduced on the longitudinal preblending bed do also apply for the
circular piles. The tripper carriage or side stacker of the longitudinal pile is replaced by a slewing stacker
boom turning around the preblending bed center column.
4.4 Reclaiming Machines
Front acting reclaimers moving the material to the center discharge by means of a bridge mounted
scraper chain are normally used. The center discharge consists of a funnel from where a tunnel
underneath the pile withdraws the material and conveys it to the surface.
5. MATERIAL SEGREGATION IN THE PREBLENDING BED
The mathematical models to calculate the homogenizing efficiency, the capacity and the number of layers
of the preblending bed, are based on the assumption that the material layers are stacked in an ideal
manner one upon the other.
The longitudinal pile as well as the circular pile (separate pile) stacked according to the Chevron method
have at both extremes of the stockpile two semi-conical ends with unideal stratification and material
segregation. When the reclaimer takes its first slices out of the end cone it picks up only coarse material.
There are various ways and means of improving these adverse end-cone conditions:
¨ By adopting a high length / width ratio for the pile the volume of the end cones is reduced. A
minimum value of L/B = 3 (see fig. 34) should be aimed at for this ratio, which corresponds to a volumetric
proportion of about 15 % for the end cones. For L/B = 2 this proportion is about 20 %.
¨ One end cone at the ‘far end’ of the pile can always be left standing or be only partly reclaimed.
Of course, this does not alter the situation at the ‘near end’ cone; besides, there is a loss of efficiency
stockpile volume.
¨ The material in the end cones can be recirculated to the second stockpile. This procedure is time-
and energy-consuming, however, and should therefore be applied only in special cases.
¨ The reversal points of the stacking machine can be staggered in relation to the height attained by
the stockpile during the course of building it up. In this way the segregation at the ‘near end’ cone can be
reduced.
¨ These end cone problems are obviated if a circular stockpile with continuous stacking is adopted
for the blending bed.
Figure 34 Percentage of the End Volume in Function of the L/B Ratio
5.1 Determination of the Reversal Points of the Stacking Machine
If the stacker is designed with only two fixed reversal points the non ideal layers according to fig. 35
develops. Fig. 36 illustrates the layering by variable stacker reversal points, where segregation is
effectively reduced.
The reversal points are calculated as follows:
At the near end:

where:

Rn = reversal position (n) at the near end of the pile

n = number indicating the package of layers on which the reversal positions have to be
adusted
N1 = number of layers per layer package on which the reversal position is adjusted
H1 = height of the first layer payckage on which the reversal position is adjusted
a = angle of repose

At the far end:

Rn = reversal position (n) at the far end of the pile

all the other parameters remain as indicated above
Figure 35 Fixed Stacker Reversing Points

Figure 36 Variable Stacker Reversing Points

Comment
Theoretically, the number of variable stacker reversing points should be equal to the number of layers.
This is however practically not feasible. Generally it can be said as higher the number of reversing points
is chosen, the better will the blending results be. An appropriate number of stacker reversing points which
are practically realizable are assumed with n = 10 - 15 for a pile height of approx. 10 m.
The above determined variable stacker reversing points are only theoretical values which are based on
geometrical relations at the pile shape and on the assumption of ideally stacked layers formed with a
constant input quantity resp. stacker speed.
Since the input quantity varies in practice not the number of layers per stacker reversing point is important
but the quantity of height related to individual stacker reversing points is the decisive measure.
6. PREBLENDING BED LAYOUTS
Since a stockpile destined to serve as a blending bed has to be built up first before the material can be
reclaimed from it. It holds true for a longitudinal preblending bed where the material is stacked batchwise,
but not for circular preblending beds with continuous stacking. On batchwise longitudinal stacking it is
always necessary to operate with two piles to ensure uninterrupted delivery of material from the blending
bed. One pile is being built up while reclaiming takes place from the other. The two piles may either be
arranged parallel side by side or in line with each other.
The circular stockpile offers two other possibilities. In the one case the material is deposited by means of
a revolving stacker attached to a central column. The material is placed in Chevron layer formation
directly against the end cone of the pile already built up or by separate piles in sections. In the other case
continuous stacking according to the Chevcon method is performed as dealt with in chapter 4. End cone
problems are thus obviated and in addition a saving in space can be effected.
The homogenizing pit as dealt with in chapter 3.4.3. offers a further possibility suited for inhomogeneous,
sticky material.
In selecting the layout for a blending bed installation the following important points should be given
consideration:
* How much space is available?
* Does the layout fit in with the layout of the other parts of the plant and with the future extension
scheme for the plants?
* Can good adaptation to the topography of the site be achieved?
* Is the choice of layout affected by subsoil conditions?
Of course, a detailed cost comparison will have to be made for the respective variants in order to arrive at
the most economical solution. Their respective advantages and disadvantages can be summarized as
follows:
6.1 Parallel Stockpiles
Advantages:
¨ Moderate length / width ratio fits in easily with the layout scheme for a cement work.
¨ Storage capacity can be increased.
Disadvantages:
· Reclaimer has to be changed over from one pile to the other.
· Slewing stacker or stacker with two booms.
· Large number of belt conveyors and transfer points.
· Long roof spans for shed.
· Extra space required for change-over of machine.
· End-cone problems.
6.2 In-Line Stockpiles
Advantages:
¨ No change-over of machine.
¨ No slewing stacker required.
¨ Only two belt conveyors.
¨ Short roof spans for shed.
¨ Capacity can be increased.
Disadvantages:
· Long sheds.
· End-cone problems.
· High length / width ratio requires extremely long shed to accommodate high-capacity blending
bed. Awkward to integrate into cement works layout.
6.3 Circular Stockpile
Advantages:
¨ Very short belt conveyors.
¨ Simple roof construction for shed, with central column to support it.
¨ No end-cone problems.
¨ Reclaiming output rate can easily be kept constant
¨ Area on plan about 40 % less than for straight stockpiles.
¨ No change-over of reclaiming machine.
Disadvantages:
· Sometimes difficult to fit into the cement works layout.
· Sticky material may choke the chutes in the central column.
· Ground-water may make it impossible to construct the discharge tunnel for removing reclaimed
material.
· Capacity can be increased only by setting up a second pile.
6.4 Homogenizing Pit
Advantages:
¨ Very good space utilization.
¨ Windrow stacking.
¨ No end-cone problems.
¨ Roof of simple and light construction.
Disadvantages:
· Expensive machinery.
· Tank is expensive to construct
· Dust thrown up by material falling from great height.
Figure 37 Longitudinal Preblending Bed Layouts

Figure 38 Circular Preblending Bed Layouts

7. PREBLENDING BED APPLICATIONS
The selection of the appropriate preblending bed is dependent on many factors as listed below:
* Plant layout
* Material properties (stickiness, grain size, etc.)
* Environmental influences (weather conditions)
* Feeding capacity
* Storage capacity
* Raw mix proportioning
* Storage capacity expansion
7.1 Longitudinal Preblending Bed
The longitudinal preblending bed is best suited if a more component or integrated preblending bed is
chosen, since a defined chemical value within one pile can be obtained.
However, material segregation in the end cones have an unfavorable influence on the homogenizing
efficiency of the preblending bed.
The roofed preblending bed is a simple construction. Instead of a side stacker with a movable
undercarriage the stacker can then be installed under the ridge of the roof.
But especially the unroofed preblending bed is considered favorable, since it is the cheapest solution.
7.1.1 Longitudinal Preblending with Side Reclaimer
The side reclaimer is a relative simple machine which is low in investment and low in maintenance cost. It
is well suited also for very sticky materials.
The side reclaimer represents a cheap solution if several materials are stored on the same preblending
bed in line, since the different piles can be served by one common side reclaimer.
The achievable homogenizing efficiency is rather poor, since not all layers are reclaimed simultaneously.
7.1.2 Longitudinal Preblending Bed with Front Acting Bridge Reclaimer
The bridge reclaimers should favorably be applied in the following cases:
* For materials which are not extremely sticky.
* If a good homogenizing efficiency is required.
7.2 Circular Preblending Bed
Normally circular preblending beds are slightly cheaper because of less civil costs for roofing. However
this statement depends much on the local condition. If the preblending bed is not covered this argument is
inapplicable.
The respective advantages and disadvantages can be summarized as follows:
Advantages:
¨ No material segregation at the end cones if the next pile is formed adjacent to the foregoing or by
continuous stacking.
¨ Good space utilization; this argument becomes only true for adjacent piles or continuous
stacking.
¨ The continuous stacking method allows the adaptation of the homogenizing volume in
comparison with the storage volume.
Disadvantages:
· When having an integrated preblending bed stacking is rather preferred in two or more segments
(batchwise) than continuous. However stacking in segments has the drawback that before starting a new
segment first a material free segment plus the space reservement for the reclaimer has to be free.
· The central discharge arrangement can become problematic if the material is sticky and difficult
to handle.
· Machine parts as central slewing boom stacker bearing and lifting device are sensitive units
exposed to excessive wear and therefore need special attendance.
· The extraction tunnel is exposed to ‘water break in’.
· Expansion of the existing preblending bed is not possible.
7.3 Homogenizing Pit
The usual applied preblending bed type for sticky materials is the homogenizing pit. This type of
preblending bed represents an expensive solution since excessive civil work is implied. As the material is
stacked in longitudinal or transversal layers according to the windrow method a good homogenizing
efficiency can be expected.
8. PREBLENDING BED CONCEPTS
The preblending bed concept depends very much on the raw material situation. The required number of
raw material components, their homogeneity as well as the applied quarry concept are the basis for the
elaboration of a suited preblending bed concept.
The following four concepts can be distinguished:
* Automatic storage
* Single component preblending bed
* More component preblending bed
* Integrated preblending bed
8.1 Automatic Storage
Assuming a raw material situation with homogeneous raw material components
(s £ 2 % CaCO3) the preblending bed simply serves as an automatic storage deposit. No special caution
with respect to raw material homogenization has to be given. In this case the simple and less expensive
preblending beds with side reclaimers are applied (see fig. 39).
Figure 39 Automatic Storage

8.2 Single component Preblending Bed

The preblending bed is installed to effectively prehomogenize one single raw material component. This
represents the ‘classic’ application of the preblending bed. It is applicable if the raw material component is
a clearly defined raw material which is always above respectively below the desired average composition
of the raw mix. Due to the less expensive roofing and the possibility to apply the Chevcon stacking.
Circular preblending beds are in common cases preferred if the storage capacity is larger than 10’000 t
(see fig. 40).
Figure 40 Single Component Preblending Bed

8.3 More Component Preblending Bed

It is often the case that in the same quarry various raw materials are deposited. In this situation it can be
advantageous to put all material qualities in the same preblending bed (no problems with separating the
material during exploitation).
In order to guarantee a right proportioning of the raw mix, several solutions to apply the ‘more component
preblending bed’ are possible:
¨ Providing two ‘more component preblending beds’ one being below the chemical target value of
the raw mix, the other being above target (see fig. 41).
¨ Installing one ‘more component preblending bed’ followed by two large corrective silos which
allow the final correction to the target value (see fig. 42).
¨ Controlling the ‘more component preblending bed’ in a way that is average chemical
concentration is always below respectively above target so that the installation of one corrective silo only
is sufficient (see fig. 43).
Figure 41 More Component Preblending Bed - ‘High’ and ‘Low’ Component

Figure 42 More Component Preblending Bed - ‘High’ and ‘Low’ Corrective Silo

Figure 43 More Component Preblending Bed - ‘High’ or ‘Low’ Corrective Silo

8.4 Integrated Preblending Bed

Integrated preblending beds are ‘more component preblending beds’ which are closely controlled in their
average pile composition by an automatic sampling station.
Today there is an increasing tendency to chose the integrated preblending bed as it implies some obvious
advantages, e.g.:
¨ Complete utilization of a raw material deposit by controlled and selective quarrying.
¨ Stable kiln operation since the preblended material corresponds fully or nearly to the raw mix
composition so that the chemical fluctuations of the kiln feed are very small.
¨ Possibility of storing a sticky raw material component together with non sticky materials so that
material handling becomes easy (e.g. common crushing etc.).
¨ Only one preblending bed is required.
However, the advantages are faced to some not negligible drawbacks as listed below:
· The production line is dependent on a sampling station which requires high attendance.
· The required selective quarrying and controlling of the pile composition necessitate a qualified
laboratory personnel.
Working principle
In an integrated preblending bed different materials (two ore more components) are dumped on the same
pile in a controlled manner to attain a predesired chemical value. To reach this goal samples of about 1 %
of the total material stream are continuously branched off in front of the preblending bed and prepared in
an automatic sampling station.
Regularly (say hourly) composite samples are analyzed and together with the stacked material quantities
the mean chemical composition of the pile is controlled.
Practice has shown that in most cases the integrated preblending bed can be controlled in such a way
that no or only very little corrective material is required.
Figure 44 Integrated Preblending Bed

In fig. 44 the integrated preblending bed arrangement is schematically presented.

Application of the integrated preblending bed
The task to reach a predetermined chemical value within one pile is best obtainable by the batch type,
longitudinal pile. The circular stockpiling is not well suited since the mean value is floating and needs
considerably more careful supervision than the batch type piles.
8.4.1 Sampling Station
The proper functioning of the integrated preblending bed is to a far degree dependent on the sampling
station. Only a regular and representative sampling of the material stream to the preblending bed
guarantees to arrive at the exact desired chemical value. A sampling station has to fulfill generally the
following requirements:
* Branch off of a defined sample quantity from the main material stream to the preblending bed
* Sample crushing
* Sample dividing
* Sample drying
* Transport to the laboratory
* Laboratory analysis
The sampling procedure as well as the selection of the special machines has to be adjusted to the
individual case.
Typical applications for sticky and abrasive materials are illustrated in fig. 45.
Figure 45 Sampling Station

Design of a sampling station

The sampling station aims to determine the mean chemical composition of the integrated preblending
bed, given by

where:
xi = analysis of the (hourly) integrated sample No. i
mi = material quantity in the preblending bed, represented by xi

Accuracy of the mean value (X)

The accuracy e of the determined mean value (X) depends on factors as:
* Representativity of the sampling station
* Number of samples taken
* Sampling quantity
The following calculations are based on a confidence interval of 95 % corresponding to an accuracy of e
= +/- 2s (see ‘aspects of raw material homogenization’).
According to the accuracy e, within the target mean value of the preblending bed, the type and quantity of
corrective material must be chosen.
Representativity of the sampling station
The type of machines of the sampling station have to be selected by the criterion that each piece of raw
material has the same chance to be sampled, i.e.
* Sampling of the whole cross section of the material flow
* Special design of the sampler (speed, slot width)
* Special design of the sample divider ( speed, slot width)
* Reducing the grain size before the sample is divided
* Division rate of the samples not too large in one step
Required number of samples
For calculating the required number of samples the following relation will hold (see fig. 46):

where:
n = required number of samples
s = standard deviation of sampled material
k = 2 (confidence factor for 95 % probability)
e = required accuracy of the average bed composition
Based on n, the sampling frequency (f) is calculated as follows:
F = n/T
where:
the stacking time
Figure 46 Required Number of Samples

Sampling quantity
Slot width of the sampler:
A sampler traveling across the material stream should be sufficiently wide that each grain has the same
chance of being sampled, i.e.
B = 3d + 10 mm
where:
B = slot width (mm)
d = maximum grain size (mm)
Individual (primary) sample quantity (see fig. 47):
g = M B/W
where:

g = individual (primary) sample quantity (kg)

M = mass flow rate (kg/sec)
w = travelling speed of sampler (mm/sec)
(w) is normally choosen as 300mm/sec

Figure 47 Required Sampling Quantity

Quantity of corrective material

Figure 48 Proportioning of Correctives

Proportioning formula:

By setting e = [xdes - xdev] the required amount of corrective material is calculated by the following
formula:

or expressed in percentages (P):

9. PREBLENDING BED DIMENSIONING AND DESIGN
9.1 Dimensioning of the Preblending Bed
¨ Estimation of the required homogenizing efficiency (see chapter 2).

1) Standard deviation of the preblended material sb £ 1 % CaCO3

2) Determination of the chemical input fluctuations.
3) Calculation of the number of layers by assuming a certain capacity of the preblending bed.
For operation and storing reasons the capacity of the preblending bed should normally correspond to
approx. 1 week production capacity.
¨ Choice of the type of preblending pile: longitudinal pile (side or front reclaimer, homogenizing pit)
or circular preblending bed (see chapter 7).
¨ The required number of layers (N) determined in (a) leads to a certain cross-sectional area of the
pile or to the width (B) resp. (Da - Di) of the pile:

where:

F = cross-sectional area
v = stacker velocity
q = mass flow rate
B = pile width for longitudinal pile
= pile width for circular pile

The nomograms 1,2,3 resp. 4 allow a quick determination of (B) resp. (Da - Di).
¨ In case of a longitudinal bed, check whether the assumed preblending bed capacity has a
minimum length to width ratio of L/B ³ 3.
In case of a circular preblending bed, check whether the resulting (Da - Di) allow to incorporate a storage
capacity as assumed in (a). In case of Chevcon stacking check also the available homogenizing volume.
Enlarge (Da - Di) if the desired bed capacities cannot be incorporated.
¨ Determine the measures to be taken against cone segregation, normally
* adjustable reversal points of the stacker
* dead stock at the rear ends
(see chapter 5)

9.2 Design Aspects of the Preblending Bed

On selecting the proper machine equipment attention to the below listed facts should be given.
· Power rates and speed range of all travel drive systems (e.g. stacking machine, reclaiming
machine with scraper chain and raking device for dislodging the material).
· Rakes wiping the whole cross-section in few minutes time, equipped with renewable teeth.
· Synchronized speed control of the reclaimer drive to compensate skew-running tendency.
· Angle of repose not more than 38° for safety reasons.
· Lowerable boom to avoid dust.
· Scraper chain design (e.g. horizontal, inclined, block link or roller chain).
· Blade spacing and size
· Material of the blades
· Material of the chain
· Blades equipped with replaceable wear pieces and ripper teeth.
9.2.1 Machineries Especially for Circular Piles
Check points as mentioned above concerning the stacker, reclaimer bridge and scraper chain.
The center discharge as well as the feed point of the stacker are exposed to clogging problems when
dealing with sticky materials and should therefore be examined carefully in that respect.
The central slewing boom stacker bearing is considered to be a delicate machine part and needs special
attendance.
The lifting device of the stacker which is exposed to excessive wear oblige special observance.
9.2.2 The Below Announced Figures should Assist as Guide Values:
Stacking machine:
The stacker speed should be limited at max. 30 m/min.
Reclaiming machine:
The front acting bridge reclaimer should be equipped with a fast traveling speed of 10 m/min. to dislodge
the machine to the next pile and an operating speed of 0.005 to 0.05 m/min. The scraper chain speed
should be in the range of 0.5 m/s.
10. ACCEPTANCE TEST
The proof of proper functioning of a preblending bed under most extreme circumstances as expected
during operation shall be subject to an acceptance test.
Extreme test conditions are:
¨ maximum moisture content
¨ maximum input fluctuations
¨ maximum input material flow
11. LITERATURE
1) J. Zulauf
Design of blending installations
TC-Report VA 72/4364/E
2) A.W. Gerstel and E. Luttekes
Homogenisieren in Mischbetten
ZKG 1/1973
3) A.W. Gerstel
Homogenisierung von Schüttgut in Mischbetten
ZKG 8/1980
4) R. Hasler
Vorhomogenisieren und Zwischenlagern von gebrochenen Rohmaterialien mittels Mischbett
5) R. Hasler und K. Völlmin
Stand der Mischbett-Technik in der Zementindustrie
ZKG 12/1975
6) R. Hasler, G. Lingford
Investigation on blending and homogenizing systems
TC-Reports VA 81/4809/E, VA 81/4810/E
7) R. Hasler
Vergleichmässigung im Mischbett
TC-Report VA 75/4481/D
8) E. Gähwiler, K. Völlmin
Concept and equipment of preblending beds for very sticky materials
TC-Report VA 74/4449/E
9) R. Hasler
Comparison of different stacking methods
TC-Report VA 81/4850/E

C05 - Raw Meal Homogenization

A Survey on Homogenising and Blending Silos and their Operation

F. Bucher
PT 98/14361/E
1. Introduction
2. Compositional uniformity and Blending Factor
3. Silo Concepts For Raw Meal Beneficiation
3.1 Air-fluidized Systems
3.1.1 Process Concept
3.1.2 Design concepts
3.1.3 General Design Characteristics:
3.1.4 Valuation of the air-fluidised silo concept
3.2 Aerated gravity Systems
3.2.1 Process Concept
3.2.2 Design Concepts
3.2.3 General Design Characteristics:
3.2.4 Valuation of the aerated gravity silo concept
3.2.5 Limits in blending efficiency
4. Kiln Dust Handling
4.1 Compositional characteristics of kiln dust
4.2 Conceptual set-up of Kiln Dust handling systems
4.2.1 The separate kiln dust silo concept
4.2.2 The silo by-pass concept
4.2.3 The kiln dust dilution concept
5. annex
5.1 Annex 1
5.2 Annex 2
5.3 Annex 3

Summary
In Cement Industry raw meal blending or homogenisation is always done in silos. It is the last
beneficiation step in the line of the raw mix preparation processes installed with the aim to reduce the
residual (relatively short-term, high frequent) compositional variations observed for the raw meal
produced in the raw mill. The raw meal reclaimed from such blending or homogenisation silos will then be
fed to the kilns without further beneficiation. Therefore it is a challenge for all cement plant operators to
achieve for the raw meal ex blending or homogenising silo a quality that meets narrow uniformity
specifications regarding chemical composition and physical characteristics. This as a prerequisite for
achieving steady process conditions for the kiln.
The paper gives a survey on the silo concepts used in raw meal beneficiation as well as their valuation.
The beneficiation efficiency achieved with such silos is not only function of the selected silo configuration
but also of the kind of compositional disturbances produced in raw mix composition. The major lesson to
learn is that the raw meal beneficiation silos can not be blamed for all the errors committed in raw mix
composition. Hints regarding optimum operation of raw meal silo systems are given.
1. INTRODUCTION
In Cement Industry raw meal blending or homogenisation is always done in silos. It is the last
beneficiation step in the line of the raw mix preparation processes (acc. Fig. 1) installed with the aim to
reduce the residual (relatively short-term, high frequent) compositional variations observed for the raw
meal produced in the raw mill. The raw meal reclaimed from such silos will then be fed to the kilns without
further beneficiation. Therefore it is a challenge for all cement plant operators to achieve for the raw meal
ex blending or homogenising silo a quality that meets narrow uniformity specifications regarding chemical
composition and physical characteristics. This as a prerequisite for achieving steady process conditions
for the kiln.
Besides final compositional beneficiation blending and homogenising silos serve as intermediate stores
separating the two continuous processes raw grinding and clinker burning which are not necessarily
operated at similar rates.
2. COMPOSITIONAL UNIFORMITY AND BLENDING FACTOR
In cement industry it is common to specify kiln feed uniformity
¨ in terms of variations in clinker compounds (%CaO; %CaCO3 (titration)) or
¨ in terms of clinker moduli (%LSF; %C3S; etc)
using simple statistical terms such as the Average and the Standard Deviation.
The simplest and most common statistical measure is the Average or Mean. Given a set of N
measurements, X1, X2, , XN the mean value X is given by
(1)
Deviations from the mean are expressed in terms of the Standard Deviation S, given by
(2.1)
or
(2.2)
The difference between each measurement Xi and the mean value X are squared so that positive and
negative fluctuations above and below the mean do not cancel each other. The square root of the sum of
the squared variations is then divided by the number of measurements N to obtain an average measure
of variation, having the same units as the measured quantity.
The Standard Deviation S allows for the following simple interpretation:
¨ the characteristic tested of 68 % of all samples will fluctuate within a range of ± 1S
¨ the characteristic tested of 95% of all samples will fluctuate within a range of ± 2S
¨ the characteristic tested of 99 % of all samples will fluctuate within a range of ± 3S
The natural and induced blending which occurs at a particular beneficiation stage may be expressed by a
Blending Factor BF defined as the ratio of the incoming and discharge Standard Deviations:
(3) as blending/homogenising factor
The Standard Deviations as measured need correction for sampling and analysis errors for which the silo
can not be blamed. For determining the sampling and analysis error Merks1 double sampling method is
proposed. Evaluation of the test is given in Annex 1.
In Cement Industry daily practice demonstrate that compositional variations of the kiln feed have an
adverse effect on kiln operation (coating formation, temperature profile, encrustation due to unstable
evaporation of the circulating elements (SO3, Alkalis, Cl-), etc.) and thus on brick life and kiln availability.
The problem gets even more complex by the fact that not all industrial raw meals need to be uniform to
the same extent. Easy burning raw mixes tolerate fluctuations in a wider range than difficult burning raw
mixes.
Nevertheless it is useful to have some guide values regarding tolerable compositional fluctuations at
hand. In Cement Industry it is generally accepted that no further improvement of raw meal quality can be
expected by additional blending/homogenisation for the kiln feed variations given in below table.

Characteristic analytical error excluded

[standard deviation s] analytical error included
[standard deviation s]
CaCO3 % £ 0.2 £ 0.25
CaCO3 max. % £ 0.3 £ 0.35
CaO % £ 0.11 £ 0.15
CaO max. % £ 0.17 £ 0.2
SiO2 % £ 0.1 £ 0.15
Al2O3 % £ 0.07 £ 0.12
Fe2O3 % £ 0.04 £ 0.04
LSF % £ 1.0 £ 1,5
SR % £ 0.04 £ 0.06
AR % £ 0.06 £ 0.08

Figure 1: A cement works blending / homogenizing sequence

3. SILO CONCEPTS FOR RAW MEAL BENEFICIATION

The silo concepts used in raw meal beneficiation can be classified according to the kind of the working
principle applied into the following categories:
¨ Air-fluidised systems,
¨ Aerated gravity systems,
¨ Non-aerated gravity systems.
3.1 Air-fluidized Systems
3.1.1 Process Concept
Air-fluidised homogenising systems aim at raw meal beneficiation prior to be stored. A typical system set-
up is the two-storey silo concept with the homogenising silo installed on top of a storage silo (Fig. 2).
Figure 2: Air Fluidized silo systems - Batchtype, tow storey arrangement

Such systems follow the concept of the fully agitated mixer. For that purpose compressed air is introduced
through a permeable media covering the silo’s bottom. Aeration causes the cement raw meal to behave
as a liquid. By variation of the airflow through the raw meal bed the individual particles are forced to move
relative to each other what result in efficient homogenisation (Fig. 3).
Figure 3: Air fluidized silo systems - The Quadrant System

As to achieve a variation of the airflow through the raw meal bed the silo bottom is divided into segmented
areas, typically into quadrants or octants. Typically two air compressors are installed for aeration air
supply. Homogenising air is supplied at a high rate and a high pressure into the selected homogenising
sector (one quadrant or octant) and creates by this an extremely active, low-density column of raw meal.
At the material surface this upward moving blending column spills onto denser, downward moving
material located over the aeration sectors. Air supply to the aeration sectors is at much lower rate and at
lower pressure. Active homogenising aeration is switched systematically at regular time intervals by
means of a special valve sector by sector.
The design of storage silos is quite similar to the design of continuous blending silos, which will be
discussed in Para 3.2.
3.1.2 Design concepts
Fluidised homogenising silos are designed according two concepts:
¨ as batch-type silos or
¨ as continuous-overflow type silos.
3.1.2.1 The batch-type silo concept
¨ Homogenising effect
The homogenising effect of air-fluidised silo system when operated in batch-wise mode may be as high
as 15:1. Air fluidised silo systems are thus most efficient in raw meal beneficiation but one has to accept
small compositional differences between the single batches (Fig. 4). These differences become the
smaller the closer the goal value for raw mix composition is achieved by component adjustment at mill
inlet.
Figure 4: Homogenizing / blending effect of raw meal silos

¨ Energy consumption
Energy consumption with air-fluidised silos is in a range of 0.7-1.0 kWh/t, thus important energy
consumers. Nevertheless batch type operation of homogenising silos may be optimised regarding power
consumption just by limiting compressor run-time to the minimum required for achieving a sufficient
compositional uniformity. It is often observed that compressor run-time is excessive without that raw meal
quality can be further improved (Fig. 5)
Figure 5: Air fluidized silo systems - The Varioflow System

Suppliers:
¨ BMH-CPAG
¨ IBAU
¨ Fuller-Kovako
3.1.2.2 The continuous-overflow concept
¨ Homogenising effect
The continuous-overflow operation mode was developed as to overcome the step type quality changes
common for batch-type silo systems (Fig.4). Nevertheless one has to accept a slightly reduced
homogenising efficiency due to short-circuit product leaving the silo immediately without being
homogenised.
¨ Energy consumption
With the compressors permanently running energy consumption of overflow-type silos is in a high range
of 1-1.5 kWh/t, thus significantly higher compared to the batch-type silos
Suppliers:
¨ BMH-CPAG
¨ IBAU
¨ Fuller-Kovako
3.1.2.3 The Vario-Flow concept
The Vario-Flow silo concept (Fig. 7), a further development of the overflow silo concept, was developed
as to reduce system energy consumption. Again the silo bottom is divided in quadrant areas but each of
the quadrants is in addition divided into a homogenising and an aeration area. By this air supply may be
reduced what results in reduced system energy consumption.
Figure 6: Air fluidized silo systems - The Varioflow System

¨ The homogenising effect is similar as with a conventional overflow system.

¨ Energy consumption is about 0.9 kWh/t.
¨ Supplier:
¨ BMH-CPAG
3.1.3 General Design Characteristics:

Design characteristics Homogenising Silo Storage Silo

capacity (hours of mill operation) h, d 10-12 h 1-3 d
height/diameter ratio - 1.2-1.5 : 1 up to 2.5:1
net aeration area (% of bottom area) % 50-70 35-50
active aeration air rate (specific) m3/minm2 1.5-2.0
active aeration air pressure bar up to 2.5
aeration air rate (specific) m3/minm2 1.0-1.5 1.0-1.5
aeration air pressure bar 0.6-0.8 0.6-0.8
energy consumption (specific) kWh/t 0.9-1.5 0.1-0.3
range of fluctuations that can be reduced h 10-12
homogenising effect - up to 15:1

3.1.4 Valuation of the air-fluidised silo concept

+ most efficient raw meal homogenising system

- high energy consumption, above all when operated in a continuous-overflow mode
- application limited to capacities of about 2000 t corresponding to 3000 t/d clinker production lines
- high investment

Development of the air-fluidised silo concept has to be seen in context with the introduction of the dry
process in Cement Industry. At that time efficient raw meal blending was indispensable as a consequence
of the non-availability of efficient raw material preblending systems. The air-fluidised silo systems lost
ground in favour of continuous blending silos (i.e. inverted cone type gravity systems) with the
introduction of efficient preblending systems. New air fluidised homogenising silos will hardly be installed
anymore in Cement Industry.
Still operational air fluidised homogenising silos need not to be modified at all costs. But there operating
cost may in many cases be reduced by optimising the homogenising sequence. In that respect batch-wise
operation at shortest homogenising time is preferred to a continuous-overflow operating mode.
3.2 Aerated gravity Systems
3.2.1 Process Concept
Aerated gravity systems aim at raw meal beneficiation and intermediate storage in one common silo.
The system follows the concept of a blender. For that purpose the raw meal is fed into the silo in
horizontal layers. When reclaiming meal from the silo a funnel will form on top of the discharge point at
the product surface. The declining funnel surface cause blending of particles originating from different
layers when sliding down the slope to into the transport channel. (Fig. 8).
Figure 8: Aerated gravity systems

Horizontal layering of the raw meal is achieved while feeding the silo via a spider-type air slide system.
Cement raw meal activation for discharge is achieved by slight aeration. For that purpose compressed air
is introduced through a permeable media covering the silo bottom. The silo bottom itself is divided into
segmented areas, the number of which is a function of the silo diameter. Aeration air is supplied at a low
rate and a low pressure into the selected aeration sector for raw meal activation. This air leaves the silo
together with the activated raw meal; it will not penetrate into the raw meal column on top of the activated
sector. Aeration is switched systematically by means of a special valve sector by sector.
The blending potential of the aerated gravity silos is limited compared with that of air-fluidised
homogenising silos (Fig. 13).
Figure 13: Homogenizing / blending effect of raw meal silos

3.2.2 Design Concepts

Aerated gravity silo systems are designed according to three concepts:
¨ as inverted cone silos or
¨ as central chamber silos,
¨ as multiple-outlet silos.
3.2.2.1 The inverted cone concept
The inverted cone silo (Fig. 9.1) represents the pure concept of the aerated gravity silo. The silo is, as
said by its name, equipped with a huge inverted cone covering most of its centre bottom area. The
remaining annulus is divided into segmented areas that are covered by open airslides. Each sector is
equipped with its own outlet. Raw meal is activated predominantly at the silo’s circumference by
sequential air supply to the individual sectors, avoiding by this the formation of huge zones of stagnant
product.

¨ Blending effect: max. 5:1

¨ Energy consumption: 0.1-0.2 kWh/t

System suppliers:
¨ BMH-CPAG
¨ IBAU
¨ Fuller-Kovako
¨ Krupp-Polysius tangential silos
3.2.2.2 The central chamber silo concept
The central chamber silo configuration (Fig. 9.2+3) refers to a concept that uses the inverted cone as a
centre chamber for additional reduction of residual compositional short-term variations. The annulus is
divided into segmented areas that are covered by open airslides as for the inverted cone configuration.
Again raw meal is activated by sequential air supply to the individual sectors. Design of the central
chamber differs in shape (conical or cylindrical) and volume. Compressed air is introduced for air-
fluidisation through a permeable media (open airslides) covering the chamber bottom that is typically
divided into quadrants. The aeration sequence for the central chamber is similar to that of air-fluidised
silos as discussed in Para 3.1.
The blending potential of a central chamber silo is slightly better compared to that of a simple inverted
cone silo.

¨ Blending effect: 5:1

¨ Energy consumption: 0.3 kWh/t

System suppliers:
¨ BMH-CPAG central chamber silos homogenising chamber silos
¨ Joh. Möllers
Figure 9: Continuous blending - type silos

3.2.2.3 The multiple-outlet silo concept

Multiple-outlet type gravity silos follow the concept of blending the raw meal while it is discharged via
different outlets at different rates.

¨ Blending effect: 5:1

¨ Energy consumption: 0.3 kWh/t

This type of silos is available in various configurations:

3.2.2.3.1 The FLS’ Controlled Flow (CF) silo concept
The silo bottom of the CF silo (Fig.10) is divided into seven identical hexagonal sectors, each of which
has its centre outlet covered by a pressure relief cone made of steel. Each of the hexagonal sectors is
subdivided into six triangular segments all equipped with open aeration boxes. Raw meal extraction
follows a sequence where three segments positioned at three different outlets are aerated at a time. From
the outlets it is conveyed at different rates to the central mixing tank installed below the silo. The aeration
sequence is cyclic in a way that all the 42 segments will be activated once within about 15 minutes.
Supplier:
¨ FLS
Figure 10:

3.2.2.3.2 The Fuller-Kovako Random Flow silo concept

Again the silo bottom of the Random Flow silo is divided into a number of sectors. In addition these
sectors are subdivided in six discharge zones and equipped with a closed collecting airslide. Each
discharge zone has its pick-up point to the collecting airslide from which the raw meal is transferred to the
centre mixing tank installed below the silo. Selective aeration is the means by which raw meal is
discharged out of three different silo areas at a time. Again aeration sequence is cyclic.
The concept can easily be applied for upgrading existing fluidised blending silos.
Suppliers:
¨ Fuller Kovako
¨ Krupp-Polysius Multiflow silo
3.2.3 General Design Characteristics:

Silo design characteristics Continuous Blending Silo

silo capacity t 2’000-20’000
height/diameter ratio - up to 2.5:1
net aeration area (% of bottom area) % 25-35(-50)
aeration air rate (specific) m3/minm2 1-1.5
aeration air pressure bar 0.6-0.8
energy consumption (specific) kWh/t 0.1-0.3
range of fluctuations that can be reduced h up to 5
homogenising factor - up to 5:1
Internal Chamber
net aeration area (% of bottom area) % 35-50
active aeration air rate (specific) m3/minm2 1.0-1.5
active aeration air pressure bar 0.8
aeration air rate (specific) m3/minm2 1.0- 1.5
aeration air pressure bar 0.6-0.8

3.2.4 Valuation of the aerated gravity silo concept

+ applicable for wide capacity ranges
+ low energy consumption
+ low investment
- limited raw meal beneficiation potential compared to the air-fluidised homogenising silos
- insufficient reduction of long-term, peak or step-type fluctuations

A comparison of aerated gravity systems versus air-fluidised systems is given in Fig.12.

Figure 12: Comparison of silo concepts: Homogenizing versus Blending Silos

Development of the aerated gravity silo concept started with the introduction of raw material preblending
systems in the cement process out of the need to reduce power consumption for cement raw meal
homogenisation. The increasing efficiency of such preblending systems went along with a gradual
reduction of the size of blending silos. While sizing of blending silos was typically for holding a three days
stock in the area 1960 to 1980 it is now as low as for holding a one-day stock.
3.2.5 Limits in blending efficiency
3.2.5.1 The case of insufficient reduction of a peak disturbance
The blending efficiency of a continuous blending silo is commonly given by the ratio of the silo inlet and
outlet Standard Deviations for the selected compositional characteristic:

The diagram given in Fig. 15 shows the example of the LSF fluctuations at silo inlet and how these
fluctuations are reduced in function of the time. In the first part of the observed interval the inlet and the
outlet fluctuation have the following values:

Inlet Outlet
mean 96.0 96.0
Standard Deviation 2.11 0.24

The blending effect of the silo calculates to be

Unfortunately this efficiency factor do not means that all compositional peaks fed into the silo are reduced
by this factor. The second part of the observed interval illustrates the case of a huge peak (LSF=112.0)
that has been produced and fed into the silo. Reduction of this peak is much less efficient (LSF=103.5).
The corresponding blending effect calculates to

Continuous blending silos obviously reduce suddenly appearing compositional peaks much less than
more or less stochastic short-term fluctuations.
The example demonstrates that compositional fluctuations of different kind are reduced with different
efficiencies. The simple blending efficiency as defined by the ratio of the silo inlet and outlet Standard
Deviations gives thus just a very general indication on the silo’s blending behaviour. As to get more
specific in this respect a more in depth investigation is required.
Figure 15: Homogenizing / blending effect of raw meal silos

3.2.5.2 “Holcim’s” silo investigation

Investigations in a silo’s blending behaviour are in that way complex as direct operation of the flow during
silo operation is impossible. Again the only information available for evaluation is the information
regarding the compositional variations in the silo feed and in the raw meal reclaimed. What we have done
already some years ago was to test a silo’s response on different types of on purpose created
disturbances like
¨ suddenly appearing peak-type disturbances and
¨ periodic oscillations.
Suddenly appearing disturbances can mathematically be divided into a sum of single impulse functions.
Knowing a silo’s response on one inlet impulse function allows for predicting the silo outlet function of any
suddenly appearing disturbance. (Fig. 16)
Figure 16: Silo response to a suddently appearing disturbance

If raw meal’s composition out of the raw mill varies like a harmonic oscillation (e.g. like a sinus function)
the raw meal exit function (at silo outlet) will also be harmonic with the same frequency but with reduced
amplitude and with a phase shift. Real periodic disturbances are not exactly harmonic functions but can
according to the law of Fourier be divided into as um of harmonic functions. Again the silo answer to a
harmonic inlet function can be calculated from the answer to one single impulse function (Fourier-Laplace
Transformation). (Fig. 17)
Figure 17: Silo response to a harmonic oscillation

Hence it follows that with an impulse function as inlet disturbance the behaviour of the silo can be
sufficiently investigated and the blending efficiency for all cases predicted. Applying Fourier
Transformation on both the silo inlet and outlet functions, for each function a discrete spectrum of
amplitudes is obtained (Fig. 18). Just by dividing the two spectra of amplitudes the silo’s frequency
response G can be calculated. Its bending factor is the reciprocal of G.
Figure 18: Spectrum of amplitudes - Frequency response

In a further step a mathematical model of second order (Fig. 19) was developed for the simulation of the
real behaviour of a continuous blending silo.
Figure 19:

The investigation showed the following results:

¨ Most efficient blending takes place at product surface in the silo when a funnel is formed. Feeding
raw meal into the silo in horizontal layer is therefore prerequisite for a good blending effect.
¨ In the transporting channel no significant cross-mixing takes place. This part is of inferior
influence on blending efficiency.
¨ Due to the raw meal’s limited residence time in a central chamber contribution of this chamber to
the meal beneficiation is limited to very short-term fluctuations.
3.2.5.3 Lessons to learn for silo operation
The diagram in Fig. 19 indicate that all fluctuations with a periodical time shorter than about 5 h are
reduced with an efficiency better than 5:1. The first part in the diagram (Fig. 15) represents efficient
reduction of such short-time fluctuations.
Long-term fluctuations with periodical times exceeding 5 h are not reduced sufficiently. A compositional
oscillation for example with a periodical time of 20 h is reduced with a low efficiency of just 1.16:1. In this
case the silo has no chance to achieve a sufficient blending result. The only way to improve the situation
is to cut any long-term fluctuations by frequent adjustment of raw mix composition, i.e. by frequent
adjustment of the weigh feeder set points.
Different to oscillating disturbances are suddenly appearing peaks due to reasons such as
¨ cut of a new preblending pile,
¨ loss of one raw mix component,
¨ inadequate feeder adjustment,
¨ inadequate kiln dust handling when changing from a compound to a direct operating mode.
Continuous blending silos are not in a position to reduce the peak disturbances sufficiently. The only
efficient measure to compensate for such peak disturbances is by creation of a defined counter-peak by
making adequate adjustments to the raw mix composition (Fig. 20).
Figure 20: Effect of inadequate raw mix preparation

4. KILN DUST HANDLING

4.1 Compositional characteristics of kiln dust
Switching from a compound operation mode (kiln and raw mill in operation) to a direct operation mode
(kiln only in operation with the raw mill stopped) or vice versa may result in an abrupt compositional
variation of kiln feed, particularly of its Lime Saturation Factor (LSF). The reason for is that kiln feed and
kiln dust are different in their chemical composition. Typical LSF data of some 4 stage preheater kilns are
given in below table.

Plant Kiln No. LS kiln feed LS recirculated dust

AL 1 95.7 119.5
AP 1 93.4 110.4
AP 2 93.4 110.1
AT 1 93.2 88.6
EC 3 92.1 81.3
GM 4 95.3 97.3
HD 2 96.1 93.3
KA 6 119.7 87.4
MI 3 93.9 97.4
OZ 4 + 5 93.1 93.9
PL 1 90.8 70.8
RE 3 93.1 103.9
RK 1 91.3 93.0
UV 3 90.2 81.3

As can be seen from above data LSF of kiln dust may differ from LSF of kiln feed quite significantly (in a ±
20 % range). There is no general rule allowing for predicting the LSF of kiln dust based on the
compositional data of kiln feed.
A ± 1 % standard deviation of LSF in kiln feed is tolerated regarding stability of kiln operation. Abrupt
changes in kiln feed LSF may in principle be compensated by adapting the burning conditions in the kiln.
Nevertheless, all effort is made to keep the burning conditions unchanged
¨ as each variation result in unstable coating conditions in the kiln,
¨ as clinker quality may temporarily deteriorate due to insufficient control of free lime.
4.2 Conceptual set-up of Kiln Dust handling systems
LSF variation in case of switching from compound to direct kiln operation also depend on the set-up of the
kiln feed system and the manner in which this system is operated by the works personnel.
There is no problem in adding kiln dust to the raw meal when operating kiln and raw mill in a compound
operation mode. Arrangement of the sampling station should be such that the compound material flow is
sampled.
When switching from a compound to a direct operation mode or vice versa gas routing is adapted to the
new operating conditions by the kiln operator but often not kiln dust routing. With the kiln in a direct
operation mode kiln dust should never be fed into a raw meal silo. Neither the air-fluidised homogenising
silo nor the continuous blending silo is fit to deal with kiln dust out of extended periods of direct kiln
operation.The batch actually prepared in case of an air-fluidised homogenising silo will deteriorate under
such conditions within a short period of time to an extent that its composition may not be corrected
anymore. An important top-layer of kiln dust in an aerated gravity silo deteriorates its beneficiation effect
as blending predominately takes place at product surface in such a silo.
Three conceptual set-ups have been developed for reasonable kiln dust handling:
¨ the separate kiln dust silo concept,
¨ the silo by-pass concept,
¨ the kiln dust dilution concept.
4.2.1 The separate kiln dust silo concept
In compound operation all the exhaust gases from the kiln pass through the raw mill. All the kiln dust is
mixed with the raw mix fed to the mill. This mix is separated in the kiln dust collector and fed into the
homogenising/blending silo. In addition a small portion of kiln dust out of the separate kiln dust silo is
added to the raw meal ex mill prior to be fed into the homogenising/blending silo.
In direct operation the kiln exit gases are diverted directly to the kiln dust collector by-passing the raw mill
(Fig. 21). At first the kiln dust separated by the dust collector is stored in a separate silo from which it is
then added at a low rate to the raw meal reclaimed from the storage/blending silo. It is obvious that by
doing so the kiln feed LSF is subject to a change.
When changing from a compound to a direct operation mode the concept allows for limiting the kiln feed
LSF to an acceptably small variation provided the kiln dust recirculation rate is sufficiently low.
Valuation:

+ allow for keeping the compositional variations in a narrow range

- Expensive solution

Figure 21: Kiln dust handling - By-Pass with separate dust silo

4.2.2 The silo by-pass concept

In compound operation again all the exhaust gases from the kiln pass through the raw mill and the kiln
dust collector. The raw mix separated in the dust collector is then fed into the homogenising/blending silo
out of which the kiln is fed.
In direct operation the kiln exit gases are diverted directly to the kiln dust collector by-passing the raw mill
(Fig. 22). The kiln dust separated by the dust collector is mixed with meal reclaimed from the blending silo
for being fed to the kiln.
When changing from a compound to a direct operation mode it is obvious the kiln feed LSF is subject to a
change. This change may be significant and cause operational problems. But provided the system is
correctly operated the meal content of the homogenising/blending silo is not subject to a compositional
change. For a numerical example see Annex 2.
Valuation:

+ simple inexpensive arrangement, standard arrangement

- may in rare case result in a compositional change that can cause problems with kiln operation

Figure 22: Kiln dust handling - By-Pass without separate dust silo

4.2.3 The kiln dust dilution concept

Compound operation is similar as for the silo by-pass concept.
In direct operation the kiln exit gases are diverted directly to the kiln dust collector by-passing the raw mill
(Fig. 23). A second silo outlet is activated The kiln dust separated by the dust collector is mixed with meal
reclaimed via an additionally activated outlet from the blending silo for dilution and recirculation to the
blending silo.
When changing from a compound to a direct operation mode kiln feed LSF will gradually change as will
the raw meal contained in the blending silo.
Valuation:

+ simple arrangement
+/- result in a gradually changing composition of the hold raw meal stock

Figure 23: Kiln dust handling - Dust Dilution with Raw Meal

5. ANNEX
5.1 Annex 1
Testing the Blending Factor BF of Blending/Homogenising Silos

Duration: 2 x 24 h
Permissible interruptions: 3 interruptions, but max. 90 min per test
Sampling the silo feed product: double spot samples (2 x 100 g) once an hour
Sampling the silo outlet product: double spot samples (2 x 100 g) once an hour
Analysis: CaO by XRF

Test Evaluation:
¨ Blending Factor
(1) as blending/homogenising factor
¨ Correction for the sampling and analysis error acc. to Merks double sampling method

with (2) as variance of the measured values

(3) as mean concentration of a double sample
(4) as mean concentration of all double samples
(5) as error of sampling and/or analysis (acc Merks)
(6) as difference in concentration for one double sample

5.2 Annex 2
Effect of kiln dust on kiln feed composition

Assumptions:
average LSF of the clinker (goal value) 95 %
LSF of kiln dust 110 %
external dust circuit (LOI free) 0.1 kg/kgcli
operating time of mill
(5 d/w, 20 h/d) 59.5 %

Calculation:
¨ specific mill performance (LOI free)

¨ LSF of raw mix ex mill or kiln feed respectively (compound operation)

¨ LSF difference on changing from compound to direct operation

with: LSFDO = Lime Saturation direct operation %

LSFCO = Lime Saturation compound operation %
LSFKD = Lime Saturation kiln dust %
LSFRM = Lime Saturation raw meal %
mKD =specific kiln dust rate (LOI free) kg/kgcli

¨ LSF of kiln feed (direct operation)

¨ LSF in clinker during compound operation

¨ LSF in clinker during direct operation

The LSF of the clinker and the raw meal ex silo will be identical provided that the dust produced by the
kiln is immediately returned to the kiln at the same quantity.
5.3 Annex 3
Operation of Raw Meal Homogenising and Blending Silos
The efficiency of a homogenising/blending silo system is mainly impaired by
¨ insufficient working condition of the silo system,
¨ insufficient operation of the silo system,
¨ insufficient raw mix composition control.

1 Condition of the Silo

 Problem: lump formation due to water ingress into the silo
Remedies: · empty and clean the silo completely
· check silo roof and wall with regard to leaks, seal the leaks and coat the silo wall
2 Raw meal distribution
Problem: non-uniform distribution of raw meal in continuous blending silos (Fig. 24)
Remedies: · install a guide plate in distributor box
· check installation (level) of distributor box
· check whether the feed spout is arranged in the centre of the distributor
3 Raw meal reclaim
Problem: raw meal lumps obstruct material flow from the silo
Remedies: · check and clean outlet boxes, cut-off and flow control gates with regard
to foreign matters, tramp iron, hard product lumps
· in case that product lumps check the possibility of water ingress (acc. Para 5.1.1)
or install a lump breaker
· install dryer for the aeration air
4 Aeration air supply
4.1 Problem: reduced air supply to the aeration system
Remedies: · check air aspiration filter on permeability and clean the filter
· check air distribution system on permeability and clean the system
· check pressure distribution in air distribution system

4.2 Problem: continuous blow-off of blower safety valve

Reason: inadequate tuning of blower capacity to silo operating conditions
Remedies: · relief blower safety valve by a reduction of its differential pressure
· Measure volume of excess air, reduce air rate by this volume by a proportional
reduction of the blower speed (exchange of pulleys)
4.3 Problem: loss of aeration air
Remedies: check external air distribution systems with regard to leaks
· empty and clean the silo completely as to check the aeration system on leaks
5 Aeration air distribution
5.1 Problem: the specific aeration air rate (m3/m2min) should be constant and not function of
the silo diameter (Fig. 25.1)
Remedies: check opening of manual valves
5.2 Problem: faulty operation of air distribution valves resulting more than one activated sector
at a time (Fig. 25.2)
Remedies: check operation of air distribution valves
5.3 Problem: asynchronous aeration sequence (Fig. 25.3)
Remedies: check setting of air distribution valves

Figure 24: Continuous Blending silo

Figure 25: Continuous Blending Silos - Problems with aeration air distribution

C06 - Comminution Enginering

Comminution Engineering
S. Ortega
MPT 00/14675/E (Replacement for VA 89/5589/E)
1. COMMINUTION PROCESSES
2. COMMINUTION METHODS
3. MATERIAL FINENESS AND PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
4. COMMINUTION THEORIES
5. COMMINUTION EFFICIENCY
5.1 Comminution efficiency
5.2 Energy utilisation
6. LABORATORY TEST
6.1 Fineness
6.2 Grindability test

Introduction
Comminution engineering, also known as size – reduction engineering, is defined as the designing and
analysing of processes for the breakdown of bulk solids into smaller (finer) particles without changing their
state of aggregation.
Comminution is a major operation unit in a cement manufacturing plant, accounting for about 50 [%] to 75
[%] of the plant electrical energy consumption.
The comminution processes are divided, depending on the feed material size, into crushing (breaking)
and grinding (pulverizing) processes.
In the following pages the processes, the theories and the relevant laboratory tests are dealt with. The
crushing aspect will only briefly be mentioned.
1. COMMINUTION PROCESSES
The comminution processes in a cement production line are divided into the following main groups
depending on the kind and / or the feed size of material to be processed (see fig. 1).
¨ Crushing of rocks from the quarry, size 1 – 1.5 [m], in one to two steps to an intermediate raw
material state, which size is below 100 [mm], used as feed for the raw meal grinding process.
¨ Grinding of the intermediate material to raw meal which degree of fineness is defined by the kiln –
firing process and use to be < 2 [%]R 200 [mm].
¨ Grinding and mixing of clinker and additives, size < 30 [mm], to the cement which degree of
fineness is defined by standards or customer requirements.
¨ Grinding of fuel mix from the size of about 20 [mm] down to powder used for kiln firing.

It is obvious that the great differences between these comminution processes will affect the machinery
design, the electrical energy consumption, the grinding tools wear rate and the heat consumption.
Here after are given typical ranges of electrical energy consumption per ton of clinker, for each of the
above mentioned processes:
Raw material crushing 1 – 2 [kWh/t clinker]
Raw material grinding 5 – 15 [kWh/t clinker]
Coal grinding 2 – 4 [kWh/t clinker]
Cement grinding 30 – 60 [kWh/t clinker]
Total cement plant 90 – 130 [kWh/t clinker]

2. COMMINUTION METHODS
The most known comminution forces are (see fig. 2):
¨ Impact forces.
¨ Compression forces,
¨ Inter – particle contact forces,
¨ Friction / shear forces,

A crushing process is often characterised by the application of a single type of comminution force,
whereas a grinding process is mostly characterised by the application of a combination of the above
comminution forces. For instance, a roller mill combines compression and friction / shear forces, while ball
mill combines impact and friction forces.
The selection of the adequate grinding machinery depends principally on three parameters:
¨ Material parameters:
· Chemical composition (SiO2 content of the feed),
· Mineralogical composition,
· Physical properties (strength, abrasiveness),
· Moisture content,
· Time – dependent variation of the above parameters,
· Particle shape (only for crushing).
¨ Process parameters:
· Comminution, drying, handling and wear behaviour of fed material,
· Requirements on fineness and homogeneity of processed material for further processing.
¨ Environmental parameters:
· Specific energy consumption ([kWh/t] of processed material),
· Noise level, space requirements,
· Life cycle (investment, operation and maintenance),
3. MATERIAL FINENESS AND PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
The target of any comminution process is to break the processed material into smaller particles, or
increase the material fineness, to a level that suits the next step of the cement manufacturing process.
According to the material size there are different ways to measure the material fineness and its particle
size distribution:
¨ For very coarse material (> 150 [mm]), as the resulting rocks from a quarry blasting. In this case,
due to the material size, the photo analysis of blasted material while transported by trucks can allow a
rough determination of the material size.
¨ For coarse material ( < 150 [mm]),
· A size analyse can be done through a sieving of a sampled material on a set of sieves. The
retained weight of material in each sieve, expressed weight percentage in relation to the sample weight,
will give the material fineness for each sieve (fig 3).
· The plotting in a diagram of the above-cumulated sieving results will represent the relation
between the particle size and its statistical distribution in the sample also called particle size distribution
(PSD).
¨ For very fine material, like cement products, the PSD can be measured through the diffraction of
a laser beam as represented in fig. 4.

In this case the most common way to plot the PSD is with a Rosin – Rammler – Sperling diagram (RRSB)
from the fig 5. In this diagram the PSD tend to correlate with a straight line due to the logarithmic axis.
This allows deeper analysis of the material after linear regression of its PSD. Values like the slope of the
line, n, and the grain size that gives 36.8 [%] residue, d’, are important PSD definition parameters.
The following formula establish the relation between “n” and “d’”:

Rd [mm]: % of residue on the d [mm] sieve

d ‘ [mm]: particle size for which there is 36.8 [%] cumulated residue’
n [--]: slope of the PSD linear correlation straight line.
4. COMMINUTION THEORIES
Based on approximations and empirical findings the comminution theories are trying to explain / describe
the relationship between the process energy input and the increase in material fineness. There are three
theories that ended in the three, incorrectly called, “Comminution Laws” (see fig. 6).
¨ The first one is from Rittinger, which postulates that the new material created surface by the
comminution process is directly proportional to the energy input. This means that the energy input “WR” is
inversely proportional to the decrease in particle size:
d1: particle initial size
d2: particle final size

¨ The second one is from Kick, which postulates that the energy input, WK, is proportional to the
particle volume reduction during the comminution process:

¨ Finally Bond developed a formula, widely applied in the cement industry, that establish that the
energy input, WB, is proportional to the new crack length developed by the comminution process.

EB: Bond ‘s work index,

d180: fresh feed particle size for which there is 80 [%] of passing,
d280: final product particle size for which there is 80 [%] of passing,
WB: specific energy consumption [kWh/t].

The Bond work index EB is derived from the Bond grindability test, which simulates on laboratory scale, a
closed grinding circuit.
For calculation with this formula EB should only be used with the same type and within the same size
reduction as the material from the Bond grindability test.
See next page for typical Bond work index values (table 1).

5. COMMINUTION EFFICIENCY
5.1 Comminution efficiency
In comminution processes the energy is utilised with a rather low efficiency. This is due mainly to the
following reasons:
¨ Poor distribution of comminution forces to every single particle in the particle bed,
¨ Noise emission,
¨ Mechanical losses (gears transmission, etc),
¨ Material handling, drying and de – dusting.

Due to these energy looses the concept of efficiency can be introduced as the relationship between the
theoretically required energy divided by the really required.
The theoretically required energy is defined as the energy required to over – come a single particles
strength and break it into smaller pieces.
The really required energy is the one measured at the comminution machine shaft.

Based on a single particle test an efficiency classification of the comminution machines can be
established as follow (see fig. 7):
¨ Jaw and roller crusher: 70 – 90 [%]
¨ Impact crusher: 30 – 40 [%]
¨ Hammer crusher: 15 – 25 [%]
¨ Roller press: 10 – 20 [%]
¨ Vertical and horizontal roller mills: 7 – 15 [%]
¨ Tube mills: 6 – 9 [%]
5.2 Energy utilisation
To compare comminution process, where material with the same chemical / mineralogical composition is
ground the energy utilisation, Eu, can be used. Eu is the quotient of the new created specific surface and
the specific energy used hereof.

Since there are a lot of different methods to measure the specific surface value, the one used must be
specified.
The most efficient comminution process is the one with the highest energy utilisation (see fig. 8).

6. LABORATORY TEST
The laboratory tests are a very useful tool to develop through testing a vital “base of knowledge”, that
together with practical comminution experience and the theories dealt with before will help in the design
and improvement of comminution machines and processes.
The laboratory test here after described can be performed at the HMC laboratory.
6.1 Fineness
¨ Particle size distribution PSD
As already mentioned the PSD is determined by sieving the sampled material on several sieves, each
one with a different mesh size, and recording the retaining weight (or the passing weight) on each sieve.
Plotting the cumulated percentage on weight retained in each sieve gives the PSD of the sampled
product.
Table 2 gives some common sieving methods.
¨ Specific surface
· Specific surface according to Blaine (SSB) is the most common parameter for characterisation of
a cement and its behaviour.
The SSB is obtained by measuring the powder air permeability with the equipment shown in fig 9. The
time that a specified amount of air needs to pass through the test sample is indirectly proportional to the
powder specific air surface.
· Calculated specific surface (SSC)
The specific surface of a material can also be calculated form its PSD. At the HMC laboratory the SSC is
calculated from the PSD according to the following presumptions:
1. The particles have a spherical shape (shape factor = 1)
2. For cement, the powder has a standard density of 3.1 [g/cm3]
with the formula here below

f: shape factor
r: specific density of cement [g/cm3]
Ri: [%] of particles with a diameter greater than di
di: particle size [mm] / I = {1, 2, … , 16} and covers the interval 1 – 200 [mm]
The SSC, because of the calculation presumptions, indicates usually a greater total specific surface than
the SSB.

6.2 Grindability test

The grindability is defined as “the resistance behaviour against size reduction of a material in a grinding
process” and it is expressed, as the energy consumption required for the size reduction of one mass unit
of material.
The grindability test has been developed to simulate, on laboratory scale, the performance of an industrial
machine (tube mill, vertical and horizontal roller mill, roller press) in the comminution of fine to very fine
products like raw meal, ground coal and cement.
The laboratory test gives the grindability of the tested material at the mill shaft and a scale up factor must
be applied to obtain the grindability at the industrial mill shaft.

¨ Holcim grindability test (see fig. 10)

· Material requirement
A 10 [kg] representative sample of each one of the product (cement, raw meal) components.
· Test equipment (fig 10):
1. Test mill: Æ 0.5 x 0.5 [m]
2. Mill speed: 37.8 [rpm]
3. Ball charge: 100 [kg]
4. Sample weight: 10 [kg], 100[%] passing on the 12 [mm] sieve.
· Test procedure
In a first step the material is ground with a 40 [%] 70 [mm] balls and 60 [%] 40 [mm] balls to a fineness of
about 60 [%] R90 [mm].
In the second and subsequent steps the material is further ground with 17 [mm] cubes as grinding media.
In each one of these steps the mill is sampled after 200 – 300 revolutions. The sample is analysed
through SSB and PSD characterisation.
· Test evaluation
The mill shaft torque is measured during the whole test. The material grindability, or specific energy
consumption, Es, at the mill shaft can be calculated from the following formula:

Md: torque at the mill shaft

Dn: number of revolutions of the mill in one grinding step
For each test the specific energy consumption versus the material fineness evolution can be plotted. The
figure 11 shows the grindability interval for all the grindability test of clinker and slag carried out at the
HMC laboratory.

¨ Hardgrove grindability test

This test is based on the comminution theory developed by Rittinger. It is widely used for the
characterisation of the grindability of coals.
· Material requirement
50 [g] sample with particle size within 590 to 1’190 [mm]
· Test equipment (see fig 12)
1. Grinding bowl with eight Æ 25. 4 [mm] balls
2. Grinding ring driven by a 0.2 [kW] motor
3. +/- 29 [kg] load of the grinding ring on the grinding bowl
· Test procedure
The material sample is fed to the mill bowl. After 60 revolutions the sample has to be removed and sieved
on the 74 [mm] sieve.
· Test evaluation
The Hardgrove index H (HGI) can be calculated from the weight D of the tested sample passing on the 74
[mm] sieve.

H = 13 + 6.93 x D
The HGI can be converted into the work index EH:
EH = 435 / (H x 82) [kWh/t]
The specific energy consumption Es can be calculated from:

d1: material particle before the test for which %P = 80

d2: material particle after the test for which %P = 80

The graphic from fig. 3 gives an approximate correlation between the HGI and the specific mill energy
consumption as a function of the [%] R 90 [mm] for coal grinding with balls mill.
C07 - Tube Mills

Dimensioning of Tube Mills

S. Ortega
PT 99/14486/E
1. Introduction
2. Main design criteria
2.1 Length to diameter ratio
2.2 Mill internal dimensions
2.2.1 Mill useful length
2.2.2 Length of compartment
2.2.3 Mill internal diameter
2.3 Filling degree
2.4 Weight of grinding media
2.5 Mill speed
3. Net Driving Power
4. Power Transmission Chain
5. Practical calculations

1. INTRODUCTION
The tube mill is a simple, approved machine, not difficult to operate well and still competitive when
compared with more modern type of mills.
This paper deals with the design criteria used to dimension a tube mill. These criteria are guidelines. But
there is no complete analytical theory for optimal mill design and, therefore, this topic still remains a
matter of experience.
2. MAIN DESIGN CRITERIA
2.1 Length to diameter ratio
The relation between the mill shell length and the shell internal diameter is the length to diameter ratio l
(fig. 1).
The length to diameter ratio depends on various factors. The most important ones are:
¨ Hourly throughput,
¨ Type of material to be ground,
¨ Fineness of the finished product,
¨ Mill in open or closed circuit,
¨ Fresh feed size (one stage or two stage grinding),
On one side the hourly throughput depends on the mill diameter. On the other side the fineness at the mill
outlet depends mainly on the time the material remains inside the mill, also called retention time. The
main factor influencing the retention time is the mill length. Therefore, the ratio of length to diameter of a
mill is an important factor for an optimum design of the mill. Table 1 shows guidelines for the length to
diameter ratio l:

Table 1:Length to diameter ratio l for different mill systems

Type of mill system Ratio l Remarks

Cement mills
Open circuit mills 3.0 – 6.0
Closed circuit mills 3.0 – 3.5 large mills: l = 2.8 - 3.2
low l yields higher circulating load
Closed circuit mills with pre grinding unit 2.8 – 3.5
Slurry mills
Ratio l similar as for cement mills. Max. length 12 - 14 [m]
Raw mills
Center discharge mill
Two comp. Mill
Single comp. mill
Air swept mill 2.1 – 2.7
2.0 – 2.5
1.7 – 2.2
1.5 – 2.0 The lower l are applied for large raw mills

Fig. 1 l For a closed circuit cement mill

2.2 Mill internal dimensions

The mill shell would only last a few thousand hours if not conveniently protected by shell liners. These
internal elements determine the shell internal dimensions.
2.2.1 Mill useful length
The mill useful length is defined as the shell length L reduced by the cumulated width of the head liners
and the diaphragms (intermediate and outlet).
Figure 2 shows the mill useful length (Lu) for a two-compartment mill.
LID is the total width of the intermediate diaphragm. For normal applications this value is in the order of
400 [mm].
2.2.2 Length of compartment
For mills with two or more compartments there are some guidelines for the length of each different
compartment as shown in table 2
Figure 2 shows for a two chamber mill the length of the first (Lu1) and second (Lu2) compartments of a
two chamber mill.
Table 2:Length of Grinding Compartments for Different Types of Mills
(see Fig. 7)

Type of mill [%] of total useful length

Comp. IComp. II Comp. III
Two comp. mill 30 - 35 70 - 65 ---
Three comp. mill 20 30 50
Center discharge mill 50 50 ---

2.2.3 Mill internal diameter

The mill internal diameter is defined as the mill shell internal diameter (D) reduced by twice the liner
average thickness ().
As already defined in chapter “tube mills” there are many different types of liners. Figure 3 shows typical
liner thicknesses for first (C1) and second (C2) chamber as a function of the mill shell diameter.

Figure 2 & 3

2.3 Filling degree

The filling degree f is defined as the volume VQ of the grinding media charge expressed as a percentage
of the total useful mill volume VM.
(1)
Table 3 shows guidelines for filling degree values:
Table 3:Filling degrees for different types of tube mills

Type of mill Filling degree [%]

Comp. IComp. II Comp. III
Single comp. mill 27-33 --- ---
Two comp. mill 27-33 25-32 ---
Three comp. mill 26-32 26-30 23-27
Air swept mill » 26 --- ---

Studies have proven that there is a maximum grinding efficiency for a filling degree of 26 – 28 [%]. Above
this value the higher the filling degree the lower the grinding efficiency. Nevertheless, in countries with low
electrical energy cost and high market demand, filling degrees of 40 – 45 [%] are used to maximise mill
production.
The filling degree in a tube mill can be practically determined by measuring the free heights h above the
grinding charge according to figure 4.
Due to liner design it is not possible to measure the free height accurately. Figure 5 shows an alternative
method to determine the free height. Having measured d and h’, h can be calculated and graph from
figure 4 can be used with.

Fig. 4 & 5

2.4 Weight of grinding media

The weight of the grinding media charge can be calculated as follows:
[t] (2)

where: Lu = internal length of the mill or compartment [m]

f = filling degree [%]
gQ = grinding media bulk weight [t/m3]
Di = internal mill diameter (inside lining) [m]
Q = grinding media charge [t/m3]

The bulk densities of the grinding media are given in the following table:
Table 4: Bulk weight of grinding media charge (Figure 6)

Ball size Æ [mm] Bulk weight [t/m3]

100 – 60 4.4
Steel balls 50 – 30 4.6
30 – 20 4.7
Cylpebs 30 – 20 4.8

Figure 6 shows the grinding media bulk weight distribution in a two chamber mill equipped with classifying
liners in the second chamber.
For calculation 4.4 [t/m3] and 4.65 [t/m3] are used as grinding media bulk weight for first and second
chamber respectively.
Fig. 6: Bulk weight of a grinding media charge in a two-chamber mill with classifying liner

2.5 Mill speed

The operating speed of the mill can be expressed as a percentage of the critical mill speed. Critical speed
is attained when centrifugal force FC compels the outer layer of grinding media to rotate with the mill
lining.
The critical speed is obtained when the centrifugal force FC is equal to the force of gravity FG; i.e. (Fig.
7):
(3)
The critical angular speed vcrit will then be:
(4)
calculated as a function of the mill diameter Di
(5)
(6)
The operating mill speed n is then calculated as:
(7)

n = operating mill speed [min-1]

ncrit = critical mill speed [min-1]
k = ratio n/n crit [%]
Di = internal mill diameter [m]

Fig. 7: Critical Mill speed

The critical speed chart in Figure 8 is based on the equations 6 and 7 and allows a quick determination of
the critical speed for tube mills with various diameters.
Figure 9 shows the ball charge behavior under different combinations of filling degrees and percentage of
critical speed.
Low filling degrees and low percentage of critical speed do not allow an efficient ball charge action on the
material. High filling degrees and high percentage of critical speed lead to ball charge centrifugation and
very little grinding efficiency.
Mills with high percentage of critical speed can be operated with low filling degrees but wear of internal
element is very high.
The framed picture in Fig. 9 shows a typical first chamber ball charge behavior for 30 [%] of filling degree
and 70 [%] of critical speed.
Grinding efficiency shows a somewhat indefinite peak in the range between 65 [%] and 75 [%] of critical
speed. The driving power increases with mill speed. However, this linear relationship is only valid for the
above mentioned range of speed Therefore, an increase in out-put can be expected by increasing speed.
Modern mills have a speed range from 70 – 75 [%] of critical mill speed.
The type of liner, the filling degree and the ball charge composition are to be adjusted to the mill speed for
optimum grinding performance.

Fig. 8 & 9

3. NET DRIVING POWER

The net driving power for a tube mill is the power necessary at the mill shell to maintain the centre of
gravity of the ball charge load in a position of kinetic equilibrium.
According to MITTAG the distance b (Figure 10) can be expressed as a function of the mill diameter Di ,
taking into account the following assumptions:
¨ Distance b is always in the same relationship with the diameter for mills with the same filling
degree but different diameters.
¨ Distance b does not depend on the mill speed for the usual range of speed.
The following formula can then be derived:

The torque M can be expressed as:

and the net driving power P as a function of the angular speed w and the torque M

With the angular speed w being

the net driving power P can finally be written as

For practical calculations the formula can be simplified to

(8)
P = Net driving power [kW]
Q = Grinding media charge [t]
Di = Mill diameter inside liners [m]
n = Mill speed [min-1]
c = Power consumption factor [-]

Formula (8) allows the determination of the net driving power for a tube mill with an accuracy within 5 – 10
[%].
For multi-compartment mills the total net driving power can be calculated as the sum of driving powers for
each individual compartment.
Fig. 10: Net driving power or mill shell power

The power consumption factor c depends on filling degree and on grinding media size. The value of x and
therefore the value of c cannot be calculated theoretically. But by measuring the total driving power of
industrial mills in operation and by considering the known values of Q, Di and n, the power consumption
factor c can be determined.
Figure 11 shows this factor c versus the filling degree f.

The driving power is proportional to the:

¨ Weight of the grinding media charge
¨ Distance between the centre of gravity of the grinding media charge and the mill rotation centre,
or lever.
As the filling degree increases, the weight of the grinding media increases but the lever decreases. It
results that the driving power has a maximum value for a filling degree within 40 – 45 [%].
Formula (8) indicates that the net driving power varies as the grinding media charge, which in turn varies
as the square of the diameter Di for a given shell length; that driving power likewise varies as the
diameter; and that it varies as the speed, which is an inverse function of the diameter, it follows that

This formula means that the net driving power of tube mills of the same length operating under the same
relative conditions varies with 2.5 power of the internal diameter. Differences of length can be considered
by the following formula

By assuming the same ratio of length to diameter for both mills the above formula can be written as:
(9)
It can be seen (from the above) that the diameter of a tube mill has a great influence (~D 2.5) on the
driving power, whereas the length of the mill has just linear influence (Figure 12).
Fig. 11 & 12:

4. POWER TRANSMISSION CHAIN

Mill power is always dimensioned at mill motor shaft.
The power available for grinding is referred at the mill shell, also called net power. The power
consumption the cement plant is billed for is measured at the mill motor kilowatt - hour meter. All these
defined powers are lined to each other through the power transmission chain.
Figure 13 shows two possible transmission chains. The one in full line is for a mill with a central drive. The
one in doted line is for a mill with a gearth drive.
The efficiency figures shown are only indications and might vary with the type of mill drive and the mill
power (see fig. 11 in the chapter “Tube Mills”).
h1 to h4 are the efficiencies along the power transmission chain:
¨ h1: Due to cable loss between the mill motor and the power measuring point. Bigger than 99 [%]
except if wattmeter very far.
¨ h2: Motor efficiency. (< 98 [%]).
¨ h3: Gearbox efficiency (< 97 [%]).
¨ h4: Pinion transmission efficiency. Bigger than 99 [%] if pinion in good state.
To avoid misunderstandings or in the worst case a wrong mill design it is of utmost importance to mention
to which link of the chain the power is referred.
Fig. 13: Power transmission chain

5. PRACTICAL CALCULATIONS
For rough calculation of the main mill dimensions the mentioned formulas:
(2)
(6)
(7)
(8)
can be combined to one formula:

Introducing the length to diameter ratio l = yields the following equation:

(10)
The internal mill diameter can therefore be calculated according to formula (10) :

[m] (11)

P = mill net driving power [kW]

c = power consumption factor [-]
Q = weight of grinding media charge [t]
Lu = useful mill length [m]
Di = internal mill diameter [m]
k = percentage of critical speed [%]
f = filling degree [%]
gQ = bulk weight of grinding media [t/m3]
l = length to diameter ratio [-]

Tube Mills
M. Bürki
VA 95/4313/E
1. INTRODUCTION
2. GRINDING WITH TUBE MILLS
3. MILL TYPES
3.1 Type of material being ground
3.2 Number of chambers
3.3 Material transport
3.4 Discharge point of material
3.5 Grinding process
4. ELEMENTS OF TUBE MILLS
5. EXTERNAL ELEMENTS
5.1 Feed arrangements
5.2 Discharge arrangements
5.3 Mill shell
5.4 Mill heads
5.5 Mill bearings
5.6 Mill drives
6. INTERNAL ELEMENTS
6.1 Overview
6.2 Head liners
6.3 Shell liners
6.4 Intermediate diaphragm
6.5 Discharge diaphragm
6.6 Grinding media

1. INTRODUCTION
The mechanical elements of a tube mill can be subdivided into internal and external parts.
The external parts of a standard tube mill consist of mill shell, mill heads, mill bearings, feed and
discharge equipment and include also the mill drive.
The internal parts have a direct function with regard to the grinding process and include principally the
wear parts of a mill such as mill liners, diaphragms and grinding media.
This paper treats first the external parts and afterwards the internal parts of the tube mill. Special attention
has been paid to the process technological aspects.
2. GRINDING WITH TUBE MILLS
The rotation of the mill tube causes the charge consisting of grinding media and feed material to be lifted
due to centrifugal forces and friction between the media and the lining. The height to which the charge is
lifted depends on a number of factors:
¨ liner design
¨ circumferential velocity of the mill
¨ shape, size and weight of the grinding media
¨ friction between the lining and the grinding media
¨ friction within the mill charge itself
The media performs a cataracting motion as can be seen in Figure 1a if the speed of rotation of the mill is
sufficiently high, the loading percentage is appropriately chosen, the ball charge is relatively coarse and
lifting liners are installed.
The feed material is ground mainly by impact in the zone "A", where almost the entire energy of the falling
grinding media is concentrated. This form of comminuting action is especially effective in the primary size
reduction of relatively coarse feed material supplied to the mill (chamber 1 or coarse grinding
compartment).
Under similar conditions, but with a finer ball charge and without lifting liners the grinding media will
perform a cascading motion as can be seen in Figure 1b.
In cascading the motion of the grinding media in their downward stream is characterized by flowing and
rolling rather than falling. This motion of the grinding media causes friction forces. For this reason,
cascading is not very suitable for the comminution of coarse feed material, but is on the other hand very
effective for fine grinding (chamber 2 or fine grinding compartment).
Through the design of liners, the composition of the grinding media charge and the loading percentage of
the mill it is possible to modify the motion of the grinding media so as to adapt it to the operating
conditions in any given case.
Figure 1 Grinding with Tube Mills

3. MILL TYPES
Since there is a various number of ball mill setups a subdivision according to the following characteristics
can be made (Fig. 2):
¨ type of material which is being ground
¨ number of chambers (drying or grinding)
¨ method of material transport at mill outlet
¨ point of discharge
¨ grinding process
The different characteristics can be commented as follows:
3.1 Type of material being ground
The majority of today's installed tube mills are used for grinding cement. Besides cement a variety of
other materials are being ground in tube mills such as raw meal, coal etc.
3.2 Number of chambers
A modern cement mill can consist of two or one chamber. Raw material mills are often equipped with one
drying compartment to evaporate the water contained in the raw material and one or two grinding
chambers. The drying compartment is provided with lifters to obtain a dispersion of the material to be
dried. Ball mills with only one chamber are mostly applied in grinding circuits where the material enters
the mill preground or raw mills for easy grindable raw material.
3.3 Material transport
There are basically two ways of transporting the material after leaving the mill.
The so called airswept mills carry the material pneumatically to the separator and are not equipped with a
bucket elevator. This type of mill is only chosen if a high airflow is needed for the drying of very wet raw
materials (or coals). The mechanical material transport by bucket elevators is more economical.
3.4 Discharge point of material
The discharge point of the material can be located at the mill end (end discharge mill) or in the centre
(centre-discharge mill). With the exception of wet grinding mills where no airflow takes place the material
and the air leaves the mill either at the mill end or at its centre.
3.5 Grinding process
Two grinding processes are applied in existing raw grinding plants, wet grinding (slurry mills) and dry
grinding.
Since vertical roller mills are more economical than ball mills and also have the ability to dry extremely
wet materials the ball mills were not considered in the latest evaluations of raw grinding plants. However
ball mills are still common in wet grinding plants.
Figure 2 Overview Tube Mills

4. ELEMENTS OF TUBE MILLS

The following table and the according drawing (Fig. 3) show the classification (division) of the mechanical
elements and their location on the example of a two compartment tube mill.
The external elements are introduced first in chapter 5. The internal elements follow in chapter 6.

feed arrangement
discharge arrangement
mill shell
mill heads
mill bearings
mill drive

head liners
shell liners
intermediate
diaphragm
discharge
diaphragm
retention rings
grinding media

The dimensions and design of the mill shell, the mill heads and the mill bearings are basically dictated by
the required grinding capacity whereas the design of the feed and discharge devices are selected
according to process considerations such as wet grinding, dry grinding or drying-grinding.
The internal elements are the so called wear elements. They have a direct influence on the grinding
process.

Figure 3 Elements of Tube Mills Overview

5. EXTERNAL ELEMENTS
5.1 Feed arrangements
The feed devices have to fulfill the following functions:
¨ enable the material to flow into the mill continuously and without building blockages
¨ prevent the back-spillage of material
¨ permit the intake of cold ventilation air in case of cement mills
¨ permit the intake of hot gas in case of raw grinding mills
There are different types of feed arrangements which meet above listed requirements. A selection is
shown in Figure 4 and explained below.
5.1.1 Spout feeder
This type of feeder is applied on slurry mills and on older small cement mills. The limited cross section
permits only a small intake of venting air in case of dry grinding.
5.1.2 Drum feeder
FLS provides their tube mills for wet and dry grinding with a drum feeder. The disadvantage of this feed
device is its high pressure loss which appears in the dry grinding process where the mill should be
ventilated.
5.1.3 Step type feeder
This type of feeder is used where high venting air or high amount of drying gas is required. The big
opening gives a low pressure drop. The air can also find its way into the mill by passing in between the
steps.
5.1.4 Feed chute of airswept mills
The mill has its name from the way of transporting the raw material. The ground material is swept out by
the mill exhaust gases. This requires a high gas flow rate within the mill. Therefore its inlet device is
designed to meet this requirement. The raw material is fed into the gas stream entering the mill. To
prevent the intake of false air the feed inlet has to be sealed by pendulum flaps or by rotary valves.
Figure 4 Feed Arrangements

5.2 Discharge arrangements

5.2.1 Centre discharge
The centre discharge is located between the coarse and the fine grinding compartment of a tube mill (Fig.
5). The mill is fed from both sides through its hollow trunnions. The material leaving the coarse and fine
grinding compartment is led together through a elevator to a separator.
The separator fines are the final product. The coarses are transported back to the fine, or to both grinding
compartments.
At the discharge itselve the material leaves the mill through outlet holes in the mill shell.
The material is then collected by a casing which is located around the mill shell.
The ventilating air also leaves the mill through the outlet holes.
5.2.2 End discharge
The material leaves the mill through the hollow trunnion at the mill discharge side.
The outlet casing includes a sealing which is located between the rotating and static parts. A steady
under-pressure prevents the escape of dust.
Inside this outlet casing the first separation of venting air and ground material takes place.
5.2.3 Discharge of airswept mills
The ground material leaving an airswept mill is transported only by gas. Therefore the discharge
arrangement must be in a way that the gasflow is not hindered and causes no excessive pressure losses
and no accumulation of material takes place.
5.2.4 Discharge of slurry mills
The most slurry mill discharge arrangements are equipped with a drum screen. Slurry mills are installed in
open and cloased circuits. The rejects (nips) are led back to the mill inlet in case of a cloased circuit
grinding plant.

Figure 5 Discharge Arrangements

5.3 Mill shell

The mill shell consists of several sections of welded plates.
The thickness of the shell is determined by the weight of the material, the grinding media and the rotating
parts and the design of the mill. The shell thickness of long mills is graded, i.e. the thickness increases
from both ends towards the mill centre.
The stress distribution within the mill shell can roughly be estimated by using a simplified load distribution
model, where the total rotating weight presents the sum of the material, the grinding media and the
rotating parts.
The stresses are maximum at the centre of the shell and minimum at the ends.
For the listed shell material qualities the maximum admissible bending stresses for the different types of
mills can be found in Figure 6.
5.4 Mill heads
Tube mills supported with trunnion bearings are provided with mill heads. The heads are bolted or welded
to the mill shell.
Small mills are often equipped with one piece mill heads (integral heads) where the trunnion and the mill
head are cast as one piece. They are bolted to the flange of the mill shell as shown in Figure 7-1.
Trunnions can also be bolted to the mill heads as indicated in Figure 7-2. The mill head in this example is
directly welded onto the mill shell.
The mill heads of large mills are mostly divided concentrically into an outer and an inner part (Figure 7-3).
The inner conical part of the head can either be cast together with the trunnion or it is jointed to each
other by welding.
The outer part is bolted to the inner part and welded to the mill shell.
In order to entirely relieve the mill heads of large mills of the elevated bearing reaction forces, there is a
certain trend to use slide shoe bearings in conjunction with a riding ring mounted to the mill shell. The mill
head consists in this case of a welded construction of mild steel plates (Figure 7-4).
The mill heads can be cast from modular cast iron. However a cast steel with a low sulphur content is
often preferred to permit a proper welding of the mill heads to the mill shell.

Figure 6 Mill Shell

Figure 7 Mill Heads

5.5 Mill bearings

5.5.1 Trunnion bearing
The hollow trunnions of tube mills are supported by trunnion bearings (Fig. 8). The bearing comprises a
welded or cast casing with the bearing liner, the supporting insert mounted on spherical surfaces, the
white metal lined bearing liner and the lubricating and cooling equipment.
Trunnion bearings are hydrodynamically lubricated and support approximately 30 - 50 % of the mill head
trunnion. During the starting and shut-down period high pressure pumps float the bearings (hydrostatic
lubrication).
This is because there is a critical zone between the mill end and the trunnion where severe stresses
occur. The fabrication of the mill ends requires special precaution to ensure sound component quality with
an extended life.
5.5.2 Slide shoe bearing
The slide ring (or riding ring) rests on a set of self adjusting sliding shoes as shown in Figure 8.
Hydrostatic lubrication is provided for the start-up phase and hydrodynamic lubrication during operation.
The main advantages of slide shoe bearings as compared with trunnion bearings are:
¨ no limitation in size and capacity of mill
¨ no delicate large size mill head castings are necessary
¨ simple design of wear plates
¨ simplification of feed and discharge devices
¨ large feed and discharge openings allowing the passage of considerable amounts of gas
¨ no limitation in gas temperature influencing expansion of trunnion and trunnion bearing
Figure 8 Mill Bearings

5.6 Mill drives

5.6.1 General
The mill drives can basically be subdivided into three groups:
¨ girth gear / pinion drives
¨ central drives
¨ gearless drives
Each type can be applied for a certain range of power as indicated in Figure 9.
Figure 9 Power Ranges of Mill Drives

5.6.2 Girth gear / Pinion drives

The girth gear (or spur rim) is bolted to the mill body and is driven either by one or two pinions as shown
in Figure 10 a . The reduction gear box arranged between pinion and mill motor is equipped with an
auxiliary drive. The auxiliary drive allows slow rotation of the mill (0.2 - 0.3 min -1) for inspection or to turn
the mill to a certain position.
Girth gear drives are often used for mills which are designed for high drying capacities which due to the
large required outlet cross section do not permit the use of central drives.
The girth gear is enclosed in an oil-tight casing and is spray or splash lubricated.
Girth gears are made from Cr-Mo heat treatable cast steel hardened to max. 900 N/mm2 tensile strength.
The pinions are generally made from Cr-Ni-Mo heat treatable steel hardened to max. 1150 n/mm2 tensile
strength.
US suppliers often prefer a low speed synchronous motor instead of a reduction gear.
Double pinion drives can be used where a driving power of up to 5000 kW needs to be transmitted. The
Combiflex presents a good solution for driving powers above 5000 kW.
One Combiflex gear consists already of two pinions. If two units are installed, four pinions transmit the
forces to the girth gear. This design allows to install driving powers above 10'000 kW. A further
characteristic of the Combiflex is that the girth gear and the slide shoe ring are located next to each other
and covered by the same casing.
Figure 10a Types of Mill Drives

5.6.3 Central drives

The gear unit of a central drive can either be coupled by a hollow shaft, by a torsion shaft or directly to the
mill. The gear is operating in an oil-bath in a completely enclosed casing.
Smaller existing mills with input powers up to 3'000 kW are equipped with a two way spur gear with either
one or two motors, Figure 10b.
For larger driving power either a multi-way spur gear or a planetary gear could be used.
Multi-way spur gears (e.g. FLS "Symetro" gear or Flender "Polyflex" gear) are manufactured in sizes up to
10'000 kW.
Single motor planetary gears are built up to 8'500 kW. For higher power ratings up to 10'000 kW dual
planetary gears are available. The planetary gears are generally more expensive than multi-way spur
gears, offer however a very high gear efficiency and are of a very compact design.
The planetary gear drive where the gearbox is flanged to the mill (MAAG) has no direct contact with the
mill foundation, i.e. mill movements or any lowering of its foundation have no effect on the gearbox teeth.
This planetary gearbox requires only a little support for the torque arm.
5.6.4 Gearless drives
Large tube mills can be driven by low frequency electrical motors; the so-called ring motors or wrap-
around motors. The ring motor is directly arranged around the mill shell; i.e. there is no speed reducer
required.
For the required low mill speed of 13 - 15 min -1 a speed adjustable AC drive with a frequency of 5-6 Hz
is used.
The motor can be supported by an extended mill head or it can be arranged on the mill shell according to
Figure 10c.
The ring motor can be accelerated from standstill up to operation speed. For a limited time the mill can be
turned with a very low speed to allow a positioning of the manholes in the mill shell.
The main advantages of the ring motor as compared with conventional mill drives are:
¨ adjustable mill speed
¨ no wearing part on gearless mill drive
¨ no costly lubrication required
¨ low mechanical maintenance costs
¨ no limitations for larger tube mills
¨ more flexible layout of mill room
The disadvantages include mainly:
¨ low efficiency (91 - 92 %)
¨ higher investment cost (for small units)
¨ extra load (15 %) on mill bearing due to weight of motor
¨ sensitive for electrical failures
Figure 10b Types of Mill Drives (Central Drives)

Figure 10c Types of Mill Drives (Gearless Drives)

5.6.5 Selection criteria for mill drives

For the proper selection of the type of mill drive following facts have to be considered:
¨ investment costs
¨ operation costs (e.g. gear efficiency)
¨ maintenance costs (e.g. lubrication)
¨ process requirements (e.g. mill discharge design)
¨ availability and reliability
¨ space requirement
The most important features of the various types of mill drives are summarized in Figure 11.
The latest tube mill installations show a trend toward the application of either double pinion Combiflex
drives or central drives with a planetary gear.
A comparison of these two mill drives shows that the planeatary gear drive has a good drive efficency but
also high investment costs whereas the efficency of the Combiflex drive is low at lower investment costs.
Both mill drives permit the installation of rather high driving powers.

Figure 11 Selection Criteria for Mill Drives

6. INTERNAL ELEMENTS
6.1 Overview
6.1.1 Liners
The internal parts of a tube mill are protected by means of various types of wear resistance liners as can
be seen in Figure 12. They have to assist the grinding function in the respective grinding compartment.
Liners need to have resistivity against impact forces (deformation, breakage), friction and corrosion.
Dry grinding mills are equipped with steel liners whereas wet grinding mills can alternatively be equipped
with rubber liners.
6.1.2 Diaphragm
Diaphragms are installed to separate the grinding compartments. They have to be selected in such a way
as to obtain the required retention time of the material in the former grinding compartment as well as to
allow a sufficient flow of venting air or drying gases.
6.1.3 Grinding media
The sizes of the grinding media as well as the material quality are determined according to:
¨ material feed size
¨ product fineness
¨ mill diameter
¨ mill length
¨ grindability
¨ mineralogical structure of the material
6.1.4 Retention rings
Cement mills in open circuits are often equipped with retention rings. The installed rings increase the
rotating surface. More friction within the ball charge should result.
However an increase in grinding capacity has never been demonstrated.
Initiated further trials should show the effect of retention rings in one compartment slurry mills. At present
time results are not available.
Figure 12 Overview Internal Elements

6.2 Head liners

Tube mill heads are built conical (with trunnion bearings) or even (with slide shoe bearings) as can be
seen in Figure 13. Both types of mill head liners are exposed to high friction wear due to the relative
movement between the liners and the grinding media. The liners of a conical mill head are additionally
exposed to impact forces caused by the falling grinding media.
The wear ratio is not even across the liner rings and finds its maximum in the middle section of the liners.
Some mill head liners are designed with a radial rib in order to lessen the relative movement between the
liners and the grinding media.
6.3 Shell liners
The following table shows the appearance forms of wear within the tube mills and the consequent
requirement to the liner material.
Table

Chamber 1
Coarse grinding Chamber2
Fine grinding
Wear appearance within the tube mill
Impact wear High Low
Friction wear Low High
Requirements to Liner Material
Hardness Low High
Notch impact strength High Low

The selected material should further fulfill the following requirements:

¨ Homogenous hardening and homogenous structure composition throughout
¨ Low wear rate, no deformation and no breakage
Today's common material qualities, their composition and hardness and their field of application can be
found in Figure 14.
High chromium alloy cast liners are the mostly used liner type due to their relatively good wear behavour.
The hardness of the shell liners for the coarse grinding compartment is in general somewhat lower than
the hardness of the respective grinding balls.
Figure 13 Head Liners

Figure 14 Material Quality and Application of Shell Liners

The exact measurements of the liners depend on the mill diameter. There is a norm (DIN 24111)
describing the liners' length and width. Figure 15.
There are still many tube mills in the United States where the norm has not been considered yet.
It is the overall target of each liner design to reach:
¨ the lowest spec. energy consumption
¨ the highest production capacity of the tube mill
with the lowest possible specific costs for liners
6.3.1 Lifting liners
Lifting liners are applied in the coarse grinding compartment and in older mills, also in the fine grinding
compartment. In the coarse grinding compartment the liners have to lift and release the grinding media in
such a way that the impact will be strong enough to break the larger particles. The grinding media should
not be overlifted, since some of them would fall on the bare liner and thus ball breakage and increased
wear of liner and grinding media occurs.
In Figure 16 some of the most known types of lifting liners are shown.

Figure 15 DIN 24111

Figure 16 Lifting Liners

6.3.2 Classifying lining

The fineness of the material increases towards the discharge of the fine grinding compartment due to the
ongoing grinding process.
At the inlet of the fine grinding compartment the 'coarse' material requires larger balls for an efficient size
reduction. Less friction but more impact forces are needed.
Toward the outlet of the fine grinding compartment smaller balls are required for the production of surface
(friction).
Therefore, fine grinding compartments are often equipped with classifying liners. These liners
automatically segregate the grinding media; i.e. the larger balls to the inlet end of the compartment with a
progressive decrease in the ball size towards the outlet of the mill. The basic principle is shown in Figure
17.
The quantity and shape of classifying liners depend on the size of the mill.
Often a combination of different liners can be found within the fine grinding compartment e.g. at the inlet
lifting and classifying liners and at the discharge where less impact forces are needed only classifying
liners.
6.3.3 Lifting and classifying liners (combined)
Airswept mills consist of only one compartment. Since some of the feed material is rather coarse the
grinding media consists also of bigger balls up to 80 mm. A normal classifying lining does not match to
this ball size.
The lifting and classifying lining lifts the grinding media sufficient in order to grind also coarse material by
impact forces. Due to the classifying function they also prevent the reverse classification of the ball
charge.
Airswept mills are equipped with lifting and classifying lining over the whole compartment length or only in
the first third. The remaining two thirds of the compartment are then lined with regular classifying liners.
Figure 17 Classifying Lining

Figure 18 Lifting and Classifying Liners

6.3.4 Other liner types

6.3.4.1 Dragpeb
FLS supplies compartment 2 of its tube mills with either classifying lining or the so-called Dragpeb lining.
The philosophy of this type of liners (Fig 19) is the maximum utilization of the mill diameter.
The mill capacity changes exponential with the mill diameter D 2.5. Therefore, the Dragpeb liners are very
thin (~ 40 mm high) to have the largest possible internal diameter.
The Dragpeb liners do not classify the ball charge. For this reason the advantage of a classified ball
charge as described in chapter 6.3.2 can not be applied.
6.3.4.2 Grooved liners
The philosophy of this liner type is to maximize the contact zone between the outer layer of the ball
charge and the liners.
Figure 19 shows that the material between the liners and the balls can not escape due to the grooved
liner shape.
There are also grooved liners available which have a classifying effect. The expected better efficiency has
never been proven in direct comparisons to other mill liners.
6.3.5 Fastening and installation of liners
The mill shell lining can be divided according to the method of fastening into three groups:
¨ bolted mill lining
¨ bolt saving mill lining
¨ boltless mill lining
The boltless or bolt saving lining has compared to the conventional bolted liner the following advantages:
¨ longer lifetime of liner due to elimination of fasting hole where wear generally starts
¨ elimination of mill shut-downs due to bolt breakages
¨ no leakage in mill shell due to untight fastening
Bolted mill lining
The bolted mill liners are fastened to the mill shell either by one or by two bolts depending on the plate
size.
Bolt saving mill lining
To decrease the number of bolts also a bolt saving fastening according to Figure 20 can be applied. The
bolted liners are located in an angle of 90 ° to each other.
Boltless lining
The boltless lining is self-supported. First the lower half of the mill is lined and the endliners braced with
jacks; the mill is then rotated to facilitate lining of the other half of the mill. The installation should always
be supervised by the supplier.
Figure 19 Other Liner Types

Figure 20 Fastening and Installation of Liners

6.3.5.1 Life times of shell liners

High chromium alloyed cast steel is mostly used for the fabrication of the shell liners. The life time of this
typical wear part depends on the type of material being ground.
Some ranges of the expected life times for high chromium liners can be found in Figure 21.
Some of the additives such as pozzolana or slag can cause high wear. They often are not only very
abrasive but also consist of high moisture which increases the wear rates due to corrosion.
6.3.6 Rubber liners
Rubber lining is applied in wet grinding mills.
A comparison to steel liners shows the advantages and disadvantages of such a lining:
¨ Advantages:
· low noise
· less liner weight
· easier installation
· good abrasion resistance
· more economical in combination with small balls due to less liner wear costs at smaller ball sizes
as can be seen in Figure 22
¨ Disadvantage:
· limited ball size (excessive increase of wear rate with bigger balls)
· bigger liners -> less volume -> less grinding capacity
· maximum operation temperature of 80 ° C (no dry grinding possible).

Figure 21 LifeTime Of Shell Liners

Figure 22 Rubber Liners

6.4 Intermediate diaphragm

They consist of the following elements (double diaphragm):
¨ slotted plates
¨ centre screen
¨ supporting structure
¨ blind plates
¨ lifters
Diaphragms can be located at following places:
¨ between a drying and grinding compartment
¨ between a coarse and fine grinding compartment
¨ at the mill discharge of either end or centre discharge mills
6.4.1 Function
The intermediate diaphragm subdivides the mill in a coarse grinding and fine grinding compartment. In
order to maintain the grinding efficiency along the length of the mill a graduation of the grinding media is
required.
The material ground in the first compartment passes through the slots of the intermediate diaphragm and
enters the next grinding compartment.
Adjustable diaphragms permit to control the material flow. They keep as much material in the
compartment as required for the highest grinding efficiency. Figure 23 shows the working principle of an
adjustable diaphragm.
Up to the diaphragm the fed material should be ground to a size smaller than the slot width. Oversized
material is retained in the coarse grinding compartment until it is sufficiently ground.
The most important design criterias for intermediate diaphragms are the slot width and the total slot area
(open area).
6.4.2 Single diaphragm
Single diaphragm consist of :
¨ slotted plates
¨ centre screen
They are installed as separation between coarse grinding and fine grinding compartments of smaller mills
(Fig. 24).
The centre piece is built either open with a screen or closed.
The single diaphragm is also applied as discharge diaphragm for centre discharge mills as shown in
Figure 24.

Figure 23 Function of a Intermediate Diaphragm

Figure 24 Single Diaphragm

6.4.3 Double diaphragm

6.4.3.1 Double diaphragm with lifters
Double diaphragms consist of slot plates on the inlet side and of blind plates on the outlet side. The
diaphragm is furthermore equipped with lifters to transport the material (Fig. 25).
The lifters are either straight or curved. The centre part of the diaphragm is open to allow a sufficient
passage of venting or drying air through the mill.
6.4.3.2 Double diaphragm system Combidan (FLS)
The Combidan diaphragm from FLS consists at the inlet side instead of slot plates of a screen which
covers the whole mill cross section.
This relatively thin screen is protected against the impact of the large grinding balls by solid, highly wear-
resistant protection plates. They are spaced to allow preground material but not grinding media to pass
into the short separation compartment between the solid liners and the screen.
6.4.4 Adjustable diaphragm
The grinding efficiency of a mill is greatly affected by a proper retention time of the material in the first
chamber.
There is a various number of material flow control systems available. All systems are generally based on
the same working principle which controls in one way or the other the material flow from the first to the
second chamber.
Slegten and Voest Alpine have instead of fix installed lifting plates adjustable scoops and Pfeiffer controls
the material flow by changing the open area with an adjustable tube.
Some of the main systems are shown in Figure 26.
Figure 25 Double Diaphragm

Figure 26 Adjustable Diaphragm

6.4.5 Open diaphragms (Drying chamber diaphragm)

Open diaphragms (Fig. 27) are installed as separation between drying and coarse grinding compartment.
Therefore they are often called drying chamber diaphragms.
The liner slots have to be large enough to allow the transfer of the material and the drying gas through the
diaphragm.
The diaphragm is on the drying compartment side open and has to resist the forces coming from the ball
charge of the grinding compartment.
In operation with hot gases the temperature on the diaphragm can go up to 400 °C. The diaphragm needs
to be shock resistant also at high temperatures.
6.4.6 Slots (Intermediate diaphragm)
On the inlet side the intermediate diaphragms are provided with slot plates made of wear resistant steel.
The slot width depends on:

the material to be ground compartment length

ball size mill venting air rate

Some typical examples are shown in Figure 28.

The slot design must be in such a way that they fulfill the following conditions:
¨ constant slot width also with continuous wear
¨ low restriction to air and material flow
¨ resistance to slot breakage
¨ no clogging of slots by particles or due to impacts from the grinding balls
The slots are arranged radially or tangentially to the mill axis whereas radial slots are reducing the
possibility of clogging and tangential slots yield a better material flow through the diaphragm.
6.4.7 Wear rate and life time of diaphragms
The slot plates are either made from special hardened wear resistant rolled steel, or they are made from
high chromium castings. Some main features of both types of material are listed below.

MaterialCr content Surface hardness

High chromium alloyed casting up to 27 % 60 HRC
Rolled steel low 50 - 60 HRC

The wear rate resp. life time of a diaphragm depend on the type of material being ground. Some guide
figures are given in the table below.

MaterialLife time [h]

Raw material (15 % R 90 mm; 17 kWh/t) 10'000 - 15'000
Clinker (2800 cm2/g; 30 kWh/t) 8'000 - 10'000

The slot plates are from the life time point of view the weakest point of the mill.
Figure 27 Open Diaphragm (Drying Chamber Diaphragm)

Figure 28 Slot Design for Diaphragm

6.5 Discharge diaphragm

Discharge diaphragms are installed at the outlet of an end discharge mill or are placed in the centre of a
centre discharge mill.
The main components of a discharge diaphragm are shown in Figure 29. They are equipped with lifters
and cones similar to the double diaphragm.
6.5.1 Diaphragm for centre discharge mills
The discharge diaphragm of a centre discharge mill consists of two single diaphragm which are installed
at the outlet of the coarse and fine grinding compartment.
The difference between these two single diaphragms are their slot widths. Normaly the slots at the outlet
of the fine grinding compartment are about two milimeters wider than the slots at the outlet of the coarse
grinding compartment.
6.5.2 Combidan discharge diaphragm
The Combidan mill outlet (FLS) differs from the other known discharge designs (Fig. 30).
A very small outlet compartment is added to the fine grinding chamber. A dam ring equipped with liners
protects the outlet screen from wear caused by the ball charge.

Figure 29 Discharge Diaphragm

Figure 30 Combidan Discharge Diaphragm

6.5.3 Adjustable discharge diaphragm for slurry mills

This discharge diaphragm for slurry mills consists of slot plates, structure and an adjustable cone (Fig.
31).
Depending on the position of the cone the material level inside the diaphragm and grinding chamber stays
from low to high, i.e. the material level in the chamber of slurry mills can be adjusted.
The correct amount of slurry in the grinding compartment has the following advantages:
¨ low wear rate on liners and grinding media
¨ good use of the grinding compartment
6.5.4 Slots (discharge diaphragm)
The slots for the discharge diaphragm are normally wider than those for the intermediate diaphragm but
also depend on the material to be ground and the size of the smallest balls in the grinding chamber.
Following guide values for slot width can be given:
¨ Raw mills (dry) 12 - 18 mm
¨ Slurry mills (wet) 8 - 11 mm
¨ Cement mills 7 - 10 mm
6.5.5 Wear rate and life time of discharge diaphragm
The wear at the discharge diaphragm is caused by friction forces between the grinding media and the
diaphragm or the material and the diaphragm.
Since there is no heavy impact on the plates the wear rate is lower than the wear rate on the intermediate
diaphragm.
Figure 31 Adjustable Discharge Diaphragm for Wet Grinding

Figure 32 Slot Design For Discharge Diaphragm

6.6 Grinding media

6.6.1 General
The ball charge of a mill consists of grinding balls of several sizes and of different material qualities.
For coarse grinding normally balls between 50 and 100 mm and for fine grinding balls between 15 and 50
mm are used. The maximum and minimum ball size and the composition depends on various factors,
such as:
¨ max feed size of material to be ground
¨ product fineness
¨ mill diameter, mill length
¨ grindability and mineralogical structure of the feed material
¨ mill system (open/closed circuit, number of compartments, circulating load)
Depending on the grinding process resp. grinding step the balls have to resist:
¨ impact forces by the balls themselves (specially in coarse grinding with big
balls)
¨ wear caused by friction forces between the balls and the liners
¨ wear caused by abrasive materials
¨ corrosion
To maintain a constant and optimum mill output, the selection of the adequate ball sizes as well as of the
respective material quality has to be done very carefully.
6.6.2 Material quality
The mill can be filled either with cheap low quality balls with high wear rates or with expensive high quality
balls with lower wear rates. It has to be considered, however, that low quality balls also call for more
frequent recharging of the mill in order to replace the worn grinding media, thus resulting in a lower
utilization rate of the mill and higher maintenance costs.
The material qualities as shown in Figure 33 are applied for the grinding media.
Due to their good wear resistancy a clear trend toward the use of high chromium cast iron quality balls is
observable.
Figure 33 Material Quality of Grinding Media

6.6.3 Wear rate

The wear of the grinding media is caused by:
¨ impact
¨ friction forces
¨ abrasiveness of the material
¨ corrosion
Grinding media (e.g. balls and cylpebs) are either forged or are cast from wear resistant high chromium
steel. Depending on the quality of the grinding media wear rates of 15 - 1200 g per ton of material can be
expected.
Considering the material qualities as mentioned in the last chapter the specific wear rates as listed in
Figure 34 could be expected. Following assumptions were made:
¨ Raw material ~ 17 kWh/t, 10 - 15 % R 90 mm
¨ Slurry ~ 10 kWh/t, 10 - 15 % R 90 mm
¨ Cement ~ 30 kWh/t, 3000 cm²/g
Balls in white cast iron quality can not be used in coarse grinding compartments due to the danger of ball
breakage.
The wear rates given for cement consider only portland cement. For composite cements where parts of
the clinker are replaced by additives such as slag, pozzolana, etc. the wear rates can be much higher,
e.g. ~200 g/t grinding a pozzolana cement with high chromium balls.
Figure 34 Specific Wear Rates of Grinding Media

Operation of Tube Mills

Hanspeter Fisch
MPT 01/14745/E

1. INTRODUCTION
2. TUBE MILL SYSTEMS (FIG.1)
3. MILL CONTROL
3.1 Optimal mill load (Fig. 2)
3.2 Adjustment possibilities (Fig. 3)
3.3 Process parameters (Fig. 4)
4. MILL OPERATING PERFORMANCE
4.1 Mill efficiency (Fig. 5)
4.2 Separator efficiency (Fig. 6)
4.3 Mill ventilation, heating and cooling (Fig. 7)
5. GRINDING AIDS (GA) (FIG. 8)
6. GRINDING MEDIA CHARGES (FIG. 9)
6.1 Grinding media charge compositions
Grinding media sizes
6.2 Ball charge calculation (Fig. 10)
6.3 Replenishment of ball charges
6.4 Ball charge management

1. INTRODUCTION
The proper operation of a tube mill system is the key to get the highest benefit out of a given installation.
A prerequisite is that the system and the process are appropriately set-up.
The operator has only a few adjustment possibilities, based on certain process values measured in the
system and indicated in the control room, which allow to operate the grinding plant at its optimal
efficiency.
This paper deals with the operation of tube mills for grinding cement. For grinding different materials the
same principles can be applied, adapting the parameters correspondingly to these conditions.
2. TUBE MILL SYSTEMS (FIG.1)

Operating aspects
¨ Open circuit system:
· Fineness mainly adjusted by mill feed rate
· Mill ventilation rate limited by product fineness
¨ Closed circuit system:
· Fineness adjusted by separator settings
· Mill load controlled by fresh feed and rejects
· Mill ventilation, drying, heating separately adjustable
¨ Pregrinding with roller press:
· Coarse grinding shifted to roller press
· Pregrinding mainly of hard and dry components
· Pregrinding requires adjustment of first compartment length and ball charge composition (finer
mill feed material)
· Mill operation influenced by feed fineness and feed rate from press
¨ Semi-finish grinding with roller press:
· Major part of coarse grinding shifted to roller press circuit
· Feed to tube mill quite fine (depending on press size and performance)
· Tube mill either open circuit- one compartment mill or closed circuit two compartment mill with
small grinding media
· Tube mill feed fineness 1800 – 3500 [cm2/g] according to final cement fineness
· Intermediate bin with weighfeeder recommended to assure the best performance and a balancing
of the two circuits.

3. MILL CONTROL
3.1 Optimal mill load (Fig. 2)

Objectives of mill operation

¨ To establish and to maintain an optimal material load (= material level) within the 2 compartments
¨ To achieve an optimal particle size reduction along the mill to the discharge
¨ To achieve the shortest possible start time to normal operation and transition times from one
cement type to another

Basis
¨ Experimental studies and experiences show the following important factors influencing the
grinding:
· Material load in and over the ball charge:
Best efficiency: 1st compartment: half of balls covered with material
2nd compartment: balls covered with ~ 50 [mm] of material

These figures can not be checked during operation and can only be verified by measuring the material
level over the ball charge after a crash stop of the mill.
· Material/grinding media tumbling behavior
Best ball filling degree at a certain shell liner profile and mill speed
· Material residence time in mill influenced by:
* Ball charge porosity
* Material feed coarseness / fineness
* Material (feed) temperatures
* Material moisture and characteristics

Measures of control
¨ Establish the proper circulation load in the grinding system through changes in mill feed rate
(based on existing ball charge composition and separator settings)
¨ Changes of the following parameters influence the flowability of the material within the mill
(retention time, material level) and thus the material load:
· Water injection rate
· Dosage of grinding aid
· Feed moisture and temperature
· Cooling and heating within the mill (ventilation rate)
¨ Preconditions for a good performance are a proper selection of liner profiles, ball
charge compositions and grinding media filling degrees, proper dimensioning of
intermediate and discharge diaphragms.

3.2 Adjustment possibilities (Fig. 3)

Each tube mill system has a certain number of control elements (adjustment possibilities) for operation of
the grinding system.
The main control elements and the corresponding process values to check the adjustments as well as
their influences are:

Control element Process parameter Influence on

Mill feed
total mill feed mill [kW] absorbed mill material load
bucket elevator [kW] circulation load
rejects flow meter [t/h]
[%] of component product composition product quality
grinding aid dosing meter flowability of material
mill throughput
Temperature
water injection injection rate [l/h] material temperatures
material level
hot gases fuel rate [l/h] material temperatures
drying effect
quality (gypsum)
mill fan damper mill exit temperature quality aspect
drying / cooling
material transport across mill
Static separator
guide vane position filter dust fineness product fineness
Dynamic separator
separator speed product fineness product quality
fan damper separating air flow product quality (PSD)
separator efficiency
fresh air damper product temperature product behavior

3.3 Process parameters (Fig. 4)

Process parameters (indicated, measured values from the plant) are necessary to give important
indications about how the system is performing and to allow for corresponding adjustments of the control
elements.
It is of utmost importance that the indications are calibrated and correct. Wrong values lead to faulty and
poor mill operation and performance!
Usefulness of parameters
¨ Weighfeeder [%], [t/h]
· Very accurate
· Control quality and system load
¨ Electronic ear [%]/[dB]
· Valid for trend indication
· Varies with many material characteristics
· Mostly used for alarm purpose
¨ Mill motor power absorbed [kW]
· Indication of material load in mill (average 1st and 2nd compartment)
¨ Bucket elevator power
· Good indication of total material through the mill
· Indication very delayed (retention time in mill)
¨ Separator rejects flow meter [t/h]/[%]
· Best and fastest indication to adjust circulating factor and mill load
· Trends indication possible with corresponding instrumentation
¨ Temperatures [°C]
· Mill inlet – drying/cooling needs
· Intermediate diaphragm – drying efficiency, necessary hot gases or water injection 1st comp. for
good material flowability - maintain temperature around 100 [°C]
· Mill discharge (product or air)
· Indication of cooling/heating needs, ideal 100 – 120 [°C]
· Air normally 5 [°C] lower than material
· Separating air – cooling effect in separator
· After cement cooler – cooling needs for final product
¨ Water injection [l/h]

· 1st compartment · Only with clinker temp > 100 [°C]

· up to 1/3 of total water injection
· 2nd compartment · control of mill discharge temp.
· up to 2/3 of total water injection

¨ Static pressure mill discharge mbar – magnitude of draught

¨ Fineness mill filter – if worse than the final product, adjust static separator or recirculate to
dynamic separator
¨ Fineness of product – adjust separator speed
4. MILL OPERATING PERFORMANCE
4.1 Mill efficiency (Fig. 5)

Fresh feed material

¨ The material characteristics of the mill feed influence considerably the mill performance.
Corresponding actions must be taken to counteract negative influences.
Main problems:
· High/low clinker temperature
· Coarse/fine feed material
· Harder/softer components
· Changing feed moisture

Circulating load
¨ The circulation load, established by the separator rotor speed and the prevailing system
parameters, must be maintained in order to keep an optimal material load in the mill. The control
philosophy applied indicates what actions have to be taken to reestablish an equilibrium and an optimal
grinding efficiency.

Start-up of the mill

¨ When starting-up a mill, the optimal mill load has to be achieved as quickly as possible to obtain a
good grinding efficiency.
¨ An accelerated start procedure to reach the normal operation quickly can be done by a temporary
increase of the mill feed rate and/or increase of the separator speed. The most important objective is to
maintain a sufficient separator tailings flow rate and mill load from the beginning.

Stop of the mill

¨ For a routine stop, the mill should not be emptied. Stop the mill as quickly as possible after the
stop of the feeders to keep the material in the mill.
¨ Emptying the mill is a loss of production and energy and leads to high wear of mill internals.
Empty the mill only when necessary for maintenance purpose or dropping of the ball charge.

Transition of cement types

¨ The procedure for switching from one type of cement to another is similar to a start-up: do not fall
short of the separator rejects flow and the material load in the mill. Determine an optimal/quick routine to
change the feeder settings (feed rate and composition) as well as the separator speed (new fineness).
Feed transition product to a special silo or to the silo with the lowest quality cement.

4.2 Separator efficiency (Fig. 6)

Circulating load
¨ The circulating load shows the amount of material fed to the separator.
¨ The circulating load is generally determined by:
· Type and percentage of additives
· Cement fineness
· Existing ball charge composition

The circulating load can be slightly changed during the operation by changing the mill feed rate or
changing the separator settings. However, at a long run, the resulting circulation load, based on the
factors above, will establish.

¨ The range of normal circulating loads is shown in the graph in fig. 6, based on OPC and high-
efficiency separators. The adjustment is mainly done by the ball charge composition.
¨ High circulating loads tend to produce a narrow PSD (Particle size distribution) where as low
loads lead to wide PSD.
Air flow/separator speed
¨ Modern separator systems offer the possibility to change the air flow rate. Basically, separators
have to be operated with the maximum air flow for an optimal separating efficiency.
¨ The target product fineness is only adjusted by changing the separator rotor speed. The steps for
an adjustment of the speed have to be minimal (e.g.: 1 – 2 [min –1]) to allow the grinding system to
establish a new equilibrium.
¨ There might be cases, where the air flow rate should be reduced for e.g. product quality reasons.
Lower airflow rates require lower separator rotor speeds for a given fineness, but tend to produce a wider
PSD (= flatter slope acc. to RRSB) and vice versa.
¨ The separator efficiency is reduced at lower air flow rates (higher by-pass rates) resulting also in
lower separating sharpness.

Cooling
¨ Separator systems with a filter (single-pass separators) have a possibility to open the fresh air
damper to reduce the product and tailings temperatures.

4.3 Mill ventilation, heating and cooling (Fig. 7)

¨ The mill ventilation plays many roles, e.g.:
· Transport of fines through the mill
· Fluidization of material
· Heat carrier for heating and drying purpose
· Cooling the mill with fresh air

Mill ventilation rate

¨ The mill ventilation rate refers to the air speed over the ball charge. The normal range is between
1 – 1,5 [m/s] and is adjusted with the mill fan damper according to the needs.
¨ In case of moist feed material, the ventilation rate and air temperature have to be kept high
enough to avoid condensation. Air temperature in the filter of ³ 30 [°C] above dew point temperature is
required.
¨ Higher ventilation rates are favorable in connection with the use of grinding aids.

Heating
¨ A good grinding efficiency is achieved when the material temperature at the intermediate
diaphragm is around 100 [°C] as this guarantees a sufficient drying and a good material flowability. The
correct temperature can be reached through heating (hot gases and/or hot clinker), adjustment of
ventilation rate, water injection 1st compartment or the circulating load.
¨ Even if hot gases are used to maintain the temperature at the intermediate diaphragm, it might be
necessary to inject water into the 2nd compartment to adjust the appropriate mill discharge temperature.
This assures a proper gypsum dehydration and reduces the risk of coating in the 2nd compartment.
¨ Any drying process must be completed up to the intermediate diaphragm to avoid clogging of the
slots and to guarantee a good flowability in the 2nd compartment.

Cooling
¨ Mill ventilation with fresh air helps to cool down the mill in case of feeding hot clinker. This
enables to reduce the water injection rate.
¨ The air temperature at the mill outlet is generally 5 [°C] lower than the material temperature. If this
difference is higher, this points to excessive false air at the mill discharge.

5. GRINDING AIDS (GA) (FIG. 8)

Definitions and purpose
¨ Grinding aids - Organic compounds (e.g. glycols, amines, amine-acetates)
Þ increase mill output and / or reduce spec. energy consumption
¨ (Product -) Quality improver
- salts (e.g. NaCl, NaNO3), plasicizers
 (e.g. ligno sulfonates, amine-acetate))
Þ acts as grinding aid and enhances / influences
cement performance
è GA addition is only beneficial when savings of spec. energy costs are higher
than GA costs and/or the additionally produced cement can be sold.
Effects of grinding aids
¨ Increase of mill output
· Better material flow through mill
· Reduce or avoid coating (remove interparticle attraction)
· More efficient separation (less adhesion forces of particles)
¨ Reduced spec. energy consumption (higher output, better separation)
¨ Reduces pack-set (better powder flowability of product)
Process
¨ Storage with mixer (optional) – diluted with 40 – 60 [%] of water for higher dosing quantity and to
keep the admixture components soluble
¨ Dosing/metering with control loops, ev. adaptation to production rate of mill
¨ Solenoid valve in pipe ahead of feed point to prevent from dripping when the mill is down
¨ Feed generally onto mill feed material or injected into the 1st compartment (Optimal distribution in
mill feed). Avoid dosing GA into feed chute to avoid build-ups.
¨ Changes in GA dosage affects the material level in the mill (change in material flowability)
® Changes in water injection show the same effect
® Electronic ear changes signal
¨ GA needs an optimal dispersion in material in the mill (best in form of vapor in mill atmosphere) to
be absorbed from particle surfaces and hence to dissolve agglomerations.
¨ A good mill ventilation improves activation of GA
¨ GA shows also positive effects for grinding of slag
Tests for optimal dosage rate
¨ Typical dosing range 100 – 300 [g/t] product (optimal quantity to be found by industrial tests)
¨ Typical test procedure
· Calibration on instrumentation
· Start-up of mill system 3 – 4 [h]
· Adjustment of parameters 2 – 3 [h]
· Stable mill operation for test 8 – 12 [h]
· Record all parameters
· Tests with and without GA
· Tests with various dosages and different types of GA
® Adjust only one parameter – wait for the results

6. GRINDING MEDIA CHARGES (FIG. 9)

6.1 Grinding media charge compositions
HMC established standard charges for various applications. The charges can be applied for wide ranges
of cement types and finenesses. These charges are mainly based on OPC grinding to ~3’200 [cm2/g]
Blaine. Analogue adaptations for different cases and based on performance test results (mainly
longitudinal sieving tests) may be done.

1st compartment
¨ same composition for all types of circuits for medium hard and normal size (d80 ~12 [mm]) clinker
¨ Max. ball size to be adapted according to the formula in Fig.10:

Æ max [mm] Max. ball diameter

d80 [mm] Particle size at 80 [%] passing
K [-] Constant = 350 for steel balls
r [t/m3] Density material (cement comp.)
WI [kWh/t] Work index acc. To Bond
% n crit [%] Relative mill speed
DI [m] Internal mill diameter

¨ For preground feed materials, corresponding reduced particle sizes are applied

2nd compartment (based on classifying liners)

¨ Coarse ball charge, standard for closed circuit mill systems producing mainly “normal” OPC
cements
¨ Fine ball charge, standard for closed circuit mill systems where finer cements are produced
¨ Ball charge for open circuit mill systems, where the ball charge in the second compartment must
retain more material in the 2nd compartment

6.1.1 Grinding media sizes

¨ 1st compartment
· Æ 90 – 60 [mm]without pre grinding
· Æ 70 – 50 [mm]with pre grinding
¨ 2nd compartment
· Æ 50 – 20 * [mm] for closed circuit mill systems
· Æ 50 – 17 [mm]for very fine cements and open circuit mill systems

· practical experience in Holcim

6.2 Ball charge calculation (Fig. 10)

¨ Additionally to the standard charges, which are a result of experience, there are several methods
to calculate a ball charge distribution. A good method is the calculation acc. to Bombled, which allocates
the proper ball diameter to the particle size at each point along the mill axis, considering the particle size
reduction progress.
¨ Methods according to Bombled, preconditions:
· Mill compartment with classifying lining
· Largest and smallest ball size to establish (Æ max, Æ min)
· Use of grinding balls (not cylpebs)
· Formula for the Bombled curve:

Fm [%] cumulated percentage of balls larger than diameter Dm [mm]

D0 [mm] max value = Æ max * 1,1
D1 [mm] min value = Æ min * 0.95
Dm [mm] mean value of ball size interval (e.g. ball Æ 50, 40 Þ Dm = 45 mm)
m [-] constant ~1.7

6.3 Replenishment of ball charges

To maintain a good and constant mill performance, the ball charges have to be maintained in terms of
composition, filling degree and clean charge (without scrap and deformed balls).
Methods to determine date for replenishment:
¨ Fixed intervals
¨ After reaching a minimum kW absorbed
¨ After reaching a minimum filling degree
The objective for replenishment is to maintain an optimal ball charge composition over a long time.
Proposed rules for replenishment of balls (compensation for wear):
 Circuit Closed Open
Coarse Fine
Ball Æ [mm] [%]
1st compartment 90 100
*) *)
50 15 10 15
2nd compartment 30 85 35 35
20 -- 55 50
*) with ball sizes Æ 50-20 mm

6.4 Ball charge management

A sufficient and continuous mill efficiency can only be guaranteed if the changes of the ball charge (total
quantity and quantity of ball sizes) are registered.
The statistics of the ball charges (ball charge management) allow to monitor the mill performance and to
take corrective measures if needed. Also the balance of tons filled into the mill and the tons sorted out
give the net and gross wear figures, which are important to assess the wear behavior of the ground
material and the quality of the grinding media (judgement of suppliers quality and guarantees).
It is recommended to drop the entire ball charge, to classify and to regrade it:
· 1st compartment every year (sort out scrap, easy to classify due to large balls)
· 2nd compartment every 1 to 3 years according to the needs
The balls have to be classified according to sizes e.g. Æ 40 [mm] ® (all between ~31 – 40 [mm]), the
deformed and too small balls as well as the scrap screened out. With the classified sizes and a respective
quantity of new balls, a new complete ball charge is composed.
All quantities have to be weighed and registered.

Corresponding papers

Operation of separators VA 93/4052/E

W. Zeller

Cooling and heating in the cement PT 99/14489/E

grinding process
Hp. Fisch

B – Level Audit VA 91/5954/E

K.Breitschmid

Drying technology PT 96/14027/E

Hp. Fisch

C08 - Roller Mills

Roller Mills
Hp. Fisch
VA 94/4167/E
1. INTRODUCTION
2. FUNCTIONS OF THE ROLLER MILL
3. GENERAL DESIGN AND WORKING PRINCIPLES
4. DIMENSIONING AND DIMENSIONING CRITERIA
5. OPERATIONAL ASPECTS
6. ROLLER MILL PERFORMANCE
6.1 Mill Throughput
6.2 Mill Energy
6.3 Partial Load
6.4 Fan Energy
7. DESIGN AND FEATURES OF VARIOUS SUPPLIERS
7.1 Gebr. Pfeiffer (fig. 12)
7.2 Loesche (fig. 13)
7.3 Fuller - Loesche (fig. 14)
7.4 FLS (fig. 15)
7.5 Polysius (fig. 16)
8. MAINTENANCE AND SERVICING
8.1 Wear
8.2 Inspections

1. INTRODUCTION
The vertical roller mill is the appropriate equipment for grinding and drying of wet materials. Grinding and
drying can very efficiently be executed in one machine:
Many materials can be ground in vertical roller mills such as:
* raw materials
* coal
* pozzolana / trass
* slag
* (cement)
This paper deals in first place with roller mills for raw material processing. For grinding coal, slag, cement,
etc., adaptations to mills and systems have to be made.
2. FUNCTIONS OF THE ROLLER MILL
The vertical roller mill fulfills 4 main functions in one compact piece of equipment:
¨ Grinding
¨ Drying
¨ Separation
¨ Transport
The process is called a drying / grinding process, where most of the material / product is transported
pneumatically by drying gases.
¨ Grinding:
The material is ground between rollers and grinding table while passing from the center of the table to the
nozzle ring. The comminution method belongs to the most efficient grinding processes applied in the
cement manufacturing.
¨ Separation:
The ground and dried material is lifted up with the drying gases. In the separator, the too coarse particles
(tailings) are rejected to the grinding table. The fines leave the mill and are conveyed to a dust collector.
¨ Drying:
The process air consists mostly of waste gas from a kiln or cooler or is supplied by a hot gas generator.
Drying occurs during transport through the grinding and separating process stage.
¨ Transport:
The drying gases are utilized to serve as conveying media. The first transport stage is the internal
circulation and the second the separator. At last, the product is extracted from the separator and
pneumatically conveyed to cyclones or a filter where the product is collected and fed to a silo. The clean
gases are exhausted to the ambient and/or recirculated to the mill.
Figure 1 Functions.

Figure 2 General Design.

3. GENERAL DESIGN AND WORKING PRINCIPLES
¨ Material feed:
The wet material is fed through an air sealed feed gate onto the grinding table. The feed gate has to avoid
false air inlet to the mill and seal against a fairly high negative pressure in the mill body. For wet and
sticky materials triple gates (heatable) are preferred, for general use rotary airlocks are commonly
applied, depending on supplier’s philosophies.
¨ Grinding:
The material (fresh feed, recirculating material and separator tailings) passes from the table center under
the rollers. The material is drawn in-between roller and grinding track and is comminuted. Depending on
the roller diameter, table speed, roller pressure and the material characteristics (granulometry and
properties) a certain max. particle size can be drawn under the rollers (max. size = 5 - 8 [%] of roller
diameter). Higher bed thicknesses require higher grinding pressures and thus absorb more power. More
power is also absorbed with increasing material moistures.
The ability to form a stable grinding bed is essential for a stable mill operation. Dam rings are often
utilized for adjustment of the grinding bed thickness. They serve as retention device for the material on
the grinding table.
¨ Material circulation:
The material, which flows over the dam ring is caught by the vertical gas flow from the nozzle ring and
lifted up. Coarser particles fall back to the grinding table and finer ones are swept up to the separator for
being classified. The internal circulation rate depends mainly on the grindability of the ground material and
can amount up to 15 - 25 cycles.
Reducing the gas speed in the nozzle ring (adjustment of the open area) leads to falling through of larger
particles. The fall through material has to be extracted with scrapers and mechanically recirculated to the
mill feed.
¨ Separation:
The use of modern separators in roller mills is state of the art. A sharp separation improves the raw meal
quality and avoids over grinding (saving of energy). Coarse tailings, fed through the tailings cone to the
center of the grinding table, helps the formation of a more stable grinding bed. The raw meal fineness is
easily controlled by adjustment of the cage rotor speed.
¨ Drying:
Drying occurs mainly where the hot gases exit the nozzles and enter in contact with the moist material.
Fine particles have an extended retention time within the drying gases (up to the dust collector), which
ensures a good drying performance. The drying rate, resp. drying need is directly reflected in the mill
exhaust temperature.
¨ Water injection:
At certain conditions, roller mills need water injection to stabilize the grinding bed. Injection nozzles
should spray onto the material in front of each roller, proportioned according to the throughput.
Water injection facilities with dosing valves can be installed in the mill casing to cool down the kiln gases
in case of excess gas temperature and lack of material moisture.
Figure 3 Working Principle.

Figure 4 Internal Circulation.

4. DIMENSIONING AND DIMENSIONING CRITERIA

Two main aspects have to be considered when sizing a vertical roller mill:
* grinding
* drying
Which ever of the two is critical determines mainly the size of the mill.
· For the grinding needs, the grindability of the processed material (as a function of the material
properties and the product fineness) requests a certain size of grinding table and rollers, as well as
eventually the table speed.
· For the drying, the necessary gas flow rate (as a function of material moisture and available gas
temperature) determines the casing diameter, the open section of nozzles and the separator size.
Mill throughput : is proportional to DM 2.5 for given conditions and mill type.
Mill power absorbed Pabs: is a result of the required mill throughput and the grindability of the material
under given conditions. The mill size is determined by solving formula 2) for DM. The friction factor and
the spec roller pressure are empirical values gained through experience and/or lab tests. The mill
parameters are supplier specific and given in chapter 7. The absorbed power increases with higher
material moisture, higher press forces and higher grinding bed thickness.
Installed power Pinst = 1,1 x Pabs [kW]
Specific roller pressure k: is defined by division of the total roller press force F by the projected roller
section DR x WR. Each mill type has its operating range. The achieved spec. roller pressure is related to
the operating conditions.
Roller pressure force F: consists of the proper roller weight G and the exerted force by the hydraulic
pressure device F2. Force F1 applies for rocker arm type mills, where the force from the hydraulic
cylinder has to be converted to F2 with the lever arm ratio.
Table speed n: is a function of DM for a constant centrifugal force of the material on the grinding table.
Typical speed constant c are given for each supplier. In certain cases, lower speeds are used for fine and
dry feed materials.
Drying capacity: In general, the maximum drying capacity is around 20 [%] H20. For higher moisture
contents a predrying facility is necessary. The required gas flow rate through the mill has to be calculated
e.g. through a heat balance. The maximum admissible mill inlet temperature is < 450 [C].
Gas speeds: The mill has to be sized to meet the required speed ranges:
· Nozzle ring: ³ 30 [m/s], higher speeds can be adjusted by covering nozzles
· Mill casing: 4.5 - 7 [m/s] for vertical transport
· Separator: 4.5 - 6 [m/s] through the cage rotor (gross area)
Dust load: The gas flow rate must be selected to achieve a dust load of 500 - 600 [g/m3] raw meal at the
mill outlet. The never exceed value for the separator and dust collector is 750 [g/m3].
Separator speed: should be adjustable in the range of 10 - 25 [m/s] periferical cage rotor speed for raw
mills.
Figure 5 Dimensioning

Mill throughput M:

(t/h)

Absorbed mill power Pabs:

(kW)
‚
Specific roller pressure k:

(kN/m2)
ƒ
Roller press force F:

(kN)
„
Table speed n:

(min-1)
…

Symbol explanation

Symbol Unit Designation Symbol Unit Designation

(t/h) Mill throughput DR (m) - roller
q (kWh/t) Spec. energy consumption WR (m) Roller width
Pabs (kW) Mill power, absorbed F (kN) Roller press force
I (-) Number of rollers F1 (kN) Mech. force at hydr. piston rod
m (-) Friction factor F2 (kN) Mech. force at roller
k (kN/m2)Spec. roller pressure GR (kN) Roller weight
D (m) Diameter c (-) Speed constant (supplier specific)
DT (m) - table n (min-1) Speed of grinding table
DN (m) - nominal v (m/s) any velocity
DM (m) - grinding track

5. OPERATIONAL ASPECTS
Grinding:
During operation the prime objective is to ensure an optimum and stable grinding bed which allows the
optimum grinding production at the lowest absorbed mill power. The main influence factors are:
¨ Material granulometry: - A mixture of coarse and fine particles form a stable material bed. Too
coarse material (car on gravel road) causes rough roller movements. Too fine material (car on a sandy
ground) tends the rollers to slide or slip.
Too dry material is usually moistened by water injection to form a compact bed.
¨ Roller pressure: - High pressures yield a higher comminution work in one material passage and
hence lead to lower circulation loads and vice versa. Pressure and circulating loads influence the particle
size distribution of the product, higher circulating loads produce wider and lower circulating loads
narrower particle size distributions. At higher pressures also the absorbed motor power increases. The
optimal conditions have to be established by trials and experience.
¨ Dam ring: - The dam ring allows an adjustment of the bed height and is more important for mills
with flat tables to retain the material on the grinding table. As the wear at rollers and table segments
proceed, the grinding bed height increases. To keep the bed height constant, the dam ring height needs
then to be lowered. When exchanging roller and table wear parts, the dam ring has generally also to be
renewed accordingly.
¨ Louvre ring: - Based on the rollers arrangement and table design, the material reaches in uneven
flows the louvre ring. By proper adjustment of the nozzle openings (covers, inserts, adjustment devices)
more gas can be guided through the nozzles where more and coarse material has to be lifted up.
External circulation:
¨ The material is lifted up over the louvre ring by the gas flow and pneumatically recirculated. To lift
up the larger particles, too much gas velocity is needed which causes high pressure loss across the
louvre ring.
In order to reduce the pressure drop in this area, the open nozzle section is opened to provide speeds in
the range of 30 - 50 [m/s] through the nozzles, with the result of reducing the fan power. As a result,
coarse particles fall through the nozzles, have to be collected by a scraper attached to the rotating
grinding table, and are lifted up mechanically (bucket elevator) to the mill feed. Bucket elevators are
dimensioned for the same capacity as the mill throughput (100 [%]), even if during normal operation a
lower rate is externally recirculated.
Figure 6 Grinding Aspects.

Figure 7 External Circulation.

Separation:
¨ The separator has to classify the material lifted up from the grinding table. The separator acts
mainly in the coarse fraction of the product. The fines are produced by the grinding process. The target is
to produce a narrow particle size distribution (PSD) with a low amount of coarse (% R 200 mm) and fine
particles (% < 10 mm).
¨ There are three generations of separators:
1. Generation: Static separators
2. Generation: Conventional rotor type separators
3. Generation: Cage rotor separators with guide vanes
¨ Static separators are cheap and simple equipments, but produce a wide PSD. Fineness
adjustment is done by adjusting the direction of the vanes. The efficiency drops with increasing fineness
(more tangential vane position, higher pressure loss, lower gas flow rate due to fan characteristic).
¨ Conventional rotor type separators adjust the fineness by the rotor speed. They produce a wide
PSD. Low pressure loss. Tailings fall spreaded over the grinding table.
¨ Cage rotor separators with guide vanes are based on the same considerations as commonly
used for cement grinding, but have to operate with higher air speeds through the cage rotor (4.5 - 6 [m/s])
for raw material (speed related to the gross cylindrical cage area (D x p x H). The guide vanes are
positioned during the commissioning phase and then remain fixed.
In new roller mills only cage rotor separators with guide vanes should be installed as they produce a
narrow PSD, represented as a steep slope in the range of 90 - 200 [mm]. Good ratios [%] R 200 [mm] /
[%] R 90 [mm] are between 0.02 - 0.05 [-]. This means, while the target residue on 90 [mm] can be
maintained, a much lower residue on 200 [mm] can be achieved. As in general, the quartz is found in the
coarse fraction, a lower residue on 200 [mm] points to finer ground quartz particles, which in turn favors
the burnability.

Increased gas speeds through the separator rotor provoke narrower, lower gas speeds wider PSD, resp.
steeper or flatter slopes in the RRSB-chart. The PSD is also strongly influenced by the grindability of the
material and the applied roller pressure.

On the other hand, cage rotor separators, due to the better classifying efficiency, produce less fines (=
saving of energy) and produce coarser tailings (= more stable grinding bed).
Drying:
¨ The gas flow rate through the mill, resp. the gas mass, has to be maintained constant, to keep
stable grinding/separation conditions. As the gas volume changes with the temperature (gas density), it is
important to keep the mill exit temperature constant.

When processing material with higher moisture content, the mill exit temperature must be higher, and
lower for material with less moisture.
Figure 8 Separators.

Figure 9 Particle Size Distribution.

6. ROLLER MILL PERFORMANCE

6.1 Mill Throughput
For a given mill, the mill production rate depends mainly on:
* produced fineness
* grindability of feed material
* conditions of mill and system
* mill operation and control
Assuming that the feed material and its properties are given, the mill production rate changes in first order
with changing fineness. The finer the product, the lower the possible mill throughput. On the other hand
the feed granulometry to the mill has in general little or no influence on the production rate, specially in
the coarse range. The impact of the feed granulometry is strongly operational (distribution of particles).
6.2 Mill Energy
The spec. mill energy consumption is a result of the absorbed mill power divided by the mill production.
The absorbed mill power was discussed before.
The spec. energy consumption varies largely with the produced fineness. From the graph (fig. 10) the
tendencies can be seen in case of raw materials. The graph shows the dependencies of the spec. energy
consumption in relation to fineness and material hardness (grindability ranges for raw materials as
defined by Holcim). Spec. energy consumptions for roller mills are lower than for tube mills as the process
is more efficient. Further the curves for roller mills are flatter than for tube mills, this means, the spec.
energy consumption varies less for the same change of fineness.
6.3 Partial Load
The tendency in modern cement plant concepts is to adapt the raw mill production rate to the needs of the
kiln. Therefore the roller mill often operates at partial loads. At lower mill throughputs the spec. energy
consumption increases.
6.4 Fan Energy
The energy consumption of a roller mill system consists mainly of two large consumers, the mill and the
mill fan. The energy consumption of the mill fan is generally in the same order of magnitude as for the mill
itself. The fan energy can be influenced by two prime factors:
* gas flow rate
* pressure loss over mill and system
The gas flow rate can hardly be changed, therefore the pressure loss is predominant for the portion of
energy consumed, where the pressure loss over the mill is the most important. The pressure loss of large
mills increases compared to small mills. A maximum effort should be made to lower the pressure losses.
Fig. 11 shows a normal range of pressure loss for vertical roller mills for raw material.
Figure 10 Roller Mill - Performance / Raw Material

Figure 11 Roller Mill - Pressure Loss / Raw Material

7. DESIGN AND FEATURES OF VARIOUS SUPPLIERS

7.1 Gebr. Pfeiffer (fig. 12)
¨ Make:

MPS 3750 A
½
½ ¯
Series
½® Diameter [mm] *)

¨ Series: *)
A - old series - Diameter = DM (grinding track)
B - new series - Diameter = DB (outside grinding track)
C - version for cement
K - version for coal
¨ Application:
* Raw material
* Coal
* Pozzolano / Trass
* Cement
¨ Sizes: up to MPS 4850 A, 350 [t/h] raw material
¨ Dimensioning parameters:

DM = 0.8 x DB [m]
c = 44.5 ... 47.5 [-]
k £ 450 [kN/m2]
m » 0.1 [-] raw material

¨ Design features:
* Roller and grinding bed 15 deg inclined, concave grinding path
* 3 rollers for all sizes
* Rollers suspended at a pressure frame
* Hydraulic actuated at a pressure frame
* Pull rods inclined to absorb torque, mill housing not affected with horizontal forces
* High-efficiency separator type SLS
¨ Operation:
* Start-up with auxiliary drive, rollers statically on grinding table
* Normally large size mill casing and low pressure losses of gas flow
* Series B operates with higher gas flow rates and higher roller pressures than series A
¨ Maintenance:
* Swing-lift device for retraction and servicing of the rollers
¨ Specialties:
* Lower part of mill (without separator) to be used as a pregrinder for clinker in connection with a
ball mill
¨ Licensees:
* Former license to FLS
* Babcock
* Allis-Chalmers
Figure 12 Gebr. Pfeiffer

7.2 Loesche (fig. 13)

¨ Make:

LM 38. 4 50
ç
ê
ç
ç
ê
¾ ç
ê
ç
ç
¾
¾ ê
ç
ç
®
®
® ¯
Module

No of rollers (2,3,4)
Table diameter (nominal) in [dm]
Loesche-Mill

¨ Application:
* Raw material
* Coal
* Pozzolana
* etc.
¨ Dimensioning parameters:
(Loesche mills vary in geometrical ratios for the different mill sizes.)

levers rocker arm F2 » 0.8 ... 0.85 x F1 [kN]

diameter grinding path DM » 0.81 ... 0.83 x DN [m]
speed constant c = 50.5 ... 53.5 [-]
spec. roller pressure k £ 880 [kN/m2] operation
friction factor m » 0.1 [-] raw material

¨ Sizes: up to LM 59.4 for 700 [t/h] raw material

¨ Design features:
* Airlock in general as triple gate, larger mills double triple gate
* High-efficiency separator, jalousie type LJKS
* Conical rollers 2, 3 or 4 according to mill capacity
* Rocker arm with hydraulic cylinders to exert the roller pressure
* Hydraulic cylinders with nitrogen accumulators
* Modular design; hydropneumatic units can be combined with various mill sizes according to
throughput or drying needs.
¨ Operation:
* Rollers can be lifted from grinding track for low torque start-up of the mill
* Two of four rollers can be unloaded for partial capacity operation of special operating conditions
* Generally high pressure loss across mill, can be optimized with external circulation
* Generally high false air rates due to rocker arm openings in mill casing
¨ Maintenance:
* Practical swing-out device for roller servicing and replacement
* Rocker arm sealings need carefully be maintained
¨ Licensees:
* UBE Japan
* formerly also Fuller, today expired due to take-over by FLS
¨ Future:
Mill has been adapted, specially through UBE, for grinding blast furnace slag and cement
Figure 13 Loesche

7.3 Fuller - Loesche (fig. 14)

¨ Make:

LM 38. 4 30
ç
ê
ç
ç
ê
¾ ç
ê
ç
ç
¾
¾ ê
ç
ç®
®
® ¯
Module

No of rollers (2,3,4)
Table diameter (nominal) in [dm]
Loesche-Mill

¨ Application:
* Raw material
* Coal
* Pozzolana
* etc.
¨ Dimensioning parameters:
(Fuller-Loesche mills vary in geometrical ratios for the different mill sizes.)

levers rocker arm F2 » 0.8 ... 0.85 x F1 [kN]

diameter grinding path DM » 0.81 ... 0.83 x DN [m]
speed constant c = 50.5 ... 53.5 [-]
spec. roller pressure k £ 880 [kN/m2] operation
friction factor m » 0.1 [-] raw material

¨ Sizes: up to LM 59.480 for 700 t/h raw material

Fuller has many different roller sizes for the same mill size. Therefore the dimensions of rollers have to be
indicated for the calculation of a specific mill type.
¨ Design features:
* In general the same as the Loesche mill
* High-efficiency separators type O-SEPA (license of ONODA) are installed. Also features of the
SEPAX separators are available since the take-over through FLS.
¨ Operation:
* Mainly same as Loesche mills
¨ Specialties:
Fuller offers often roller mill systems with fresh air dampers. These systems are generally very difficult to
operate. It is recommended to install in any case a gas recirculation duct for a good controllability of the
systems.
Figure 14 Fuller - Loesche

7.4 FLS (fig. 15)

¨ Make:
ATOX 50
¯
Table diameter DT = DN (nominal) [dm]
¨ Application:
* Raw material
* Coal
¨ Dimensioning parameters:
Atox mills are totally geometrical:

DM = 0.8 x DT [m]
DR = 0.6 x DT [m]
WR = 0.2 x DT [m]
c = 50.1 [-]
k = 800 [kN/m2] dim. / £ 700 [kN/m2] operation
m » 0.1 [-] raw material

¨ Sizes: available up to ATOX 60, 660 [t/h] of raw material, built up to ATOX 50
¨ Design features:
* No. of rollers: always 3
* Axles of the rollers interconnected in a rigid center yoke
* Hydraulic cylinders with pull rods connected to each axle tip
* Pull rods arranged outside grinding area
* Roller axis with 3 degrees lag of the table center in rotating direction
* Tangential thrust absorbing torque arms and bearings fixed to the mill body
* High-efficiency cage rotor separator SEPAX type (RAR...) with adjustable guide vanes
* Nozzles of louvre ring adjustable with inserts
¨ Operation:
* Rollers can be lifted-up for start-up of grinding table
* Compact mill housing with reduced false air leakage
* Standard systems include a gas recirculating duct
* External material circulation installed as normal
¨ Maintenance:
* Roller segments uniformly worn due to flat rollers and table
* Roller segments can be turned around
* Roller segments exchange possible by lifting-up hydraulically rollers with yoke
¨ Future:
* Tests with grinding of cement performed
* FLS favors commercializing the OK mill (Kobe/Onoda) for cement grinding
Figure 15 FLS - ATOX

7.5 Polysius (fig. 16)

¨ Make:

RM 46/ 26/ 370

ç
ê
ç
ç
ê
ç¾
ç
ê
ç
ç¾

¾
. ê
ç
ç®
®

®
¯
Diameter separator rotor [cm]
Diameter rollers DR [dm]
Diameter grinding table DT [dm]

R-Raw Mill
K-Coal Mill

¨ Application:
* Raw material
* Coal
* etc.
¨ Dimensioning parameters:

DM1 » 0.75 x DN [m]

DM2 » 0.35 x DT [m]

c
= 38 ... 42 [-] related to DM =
k £ 1100 [kN/m2]
m » 0.1 [-]

¨ Sizes: up to RM 60/29
¨ Design features:
* Mill feed sealing through rotary air lock
* 2 twin rollers for all sizes with double grooved grinding table
* Each roller pair with a yoke
* Hydraulic cylinders with pull rods, fixed to hooks at yoke tips
* Pull rods arranged outside grinding area
* One pull rod is generally fix, the other is the working side which adjusts the roller pressure
* High-efficiency separator type SEPOL
¨ Operation:
* Start-up of mill with auxiliary drive, as rollers can not be lifted hydraulically
* Nozzle ring openings adjustable to adapt gas speed to operating conditions (normally v = 20 ...
50 [m/s] adjustable)
* External circulation preferred, installed capacity £ 200 [%] of mill throughput
¨ Maintenance:
* Rollers (twin rollers with yoke) turnable for more even wear
* Rollers retraction by crane through large doors in mill casing
* Nozzles for louvre ring adjustable from outside
* Pull hooks at the roller yokes adjustable in position for distribution of grinding force to the two
rollers
¨ Future:
* Roller mill tested and adapted for grinding of cement
Figure 16 Polysius

8. MAINTENANCE AND SERVICING

Today’s roller mills for raw grinding have to run through for a long time (weeks, months) without
interruption to cope with the kiln and plant’s needs. The reliability has been greatly improved, so that
usually only planned stops are necessary.
8.1 Wear
What concerns the wear of the grinding tools (roller tyres / segments and table liners) one does hardly
talk about [g/t] of wear, but service lives of “years’. To change the main wear parts, a mill stop is needed.
This should be one of the yearly stops. Spare rollers / tyres / segments and table liners are preferably in
stock and can be exchanged / replaced upon a planned stop. In certain cases (e.g. Polysius, FLS) the
rollers can be turned around after half the service life.
Roller exchanging facilities:
¨ Loesche, Fuller, Ube, Mitsubishi, Raymond:
Rocker arm type mills add a servicing hydraulic cylinder in order to swing out the roller. The casing
opening has to be prepared for. The swung-out roller can be lifted by an overhead crane.
¨ Polysius
There are crane rails fix installed within the mill. The large side doors are opened, a connection of the
rails with the outside crane is done and the crane hoist can enter the mill. The twin rollers form a unit
together with a yoke. Yoke and rollers are lifted up and moved at a crane out of the mill. Sufficient space
for the handling of the roller set (quite heavy for large mills) has to be provided.
¨ Gebr. Pfeiffer
Pfeiffer mills can be fitted with a swing-lift device. A support with a central column is fitted to the rollers
and the swing-lift device outside the mill. The swing lift device can haul the roller out of the mill where a
crane will take over the roller.
¨ FLS
A crane rail is introduced into the mill, directly over one roller. A hoist lifts the roller up and moves the load
over the rail to an external rail connection to the servicing area.
8.2 Inspections
A continuous operation of a roller mill can only be achieved if the critical areas are regularly inspected and
serviced.
¨ During operation:
* Vibrations of gear drive and mill casing
* bearing and oil temperatures
* lubrication systems
¨ During stop:
* wear parts (table, rollers, nozzles, dam ring, bearings exposed to material/gas flow, feed gate,
etc.)
* bearings, roller bearings, bearing sealings
* air locks, sealing air system for bearings
* lubrication systems (filters, oil conditions)
* hydraulic pressure system, include. accumulators
* gear device, clutch
Figure 17a Servicing Facilities - Loesche, Fuller, UBE, Mitsubishi

Figure 17b Servicing Facilities - Gebr. Pfeiffer

Figure 17c Servicing Facilities - Polysius

Figure 18 Suppliers - Design Roller Mills

C09 - Separators

Separators
W. Zeller
VA 95/4299/E
1. STATIC SEPARATORS
1.1 Cyclone
1.2 Grit Separator
1.3 VS-Separator
2. DYNAMIC SEPARATORS
2.1 Classifiers with Counterblades and Internal Fan
2.2 Classifiers with Counterblades and External Fan
2.3 Classifiers with Rotor Cage and External Fan (High-efficiency separators)
2.4 Wear Protection
2.5 Installation Arrangements

1. STATIC SEPARATORS
1.1 Cyclone
1.1.1 Principle of Operation
Air with dispersed material enters the cyclone through the inlet. Coarse particles precipitate at the wall
due to centrifugal forces, while fine particles are carried with the air and leave the cyclone through the
immersion tube.
1.1.2 Mechanical Elements
· immersion tube
· inlet volute and cylindrical section
· conical part
· discharge device (rotary valve, pendulum flap)
1.1.3 Dimensioning
Cyclone nominal diameter (rule of thumb)
d =

d
V
n [m]
[m3/h]
[n] nominal diameter cyclone
total airflow
number of cyclones

1.1.4 Operation
· pressure drop around 10 - 15 mbar, dedusting efficiency 75 - 80 %
· product fineness adjustment possibilities:
* diameter of immersion tube (smaller diameter - finer separation)
* immersion tube depth (longer tube - finer product)
* gas flow (higher flowrate - finer product, but higher pressure drop)
Applications
· air-swept tube mills
· roller mills
· hammer crusher-dryers, flash dryers
· cyclone-air dynamic separators (see 2.2)
1.1.5 Design
Figure 1 Cyclone

1.2 Grit Separator

1.2.1 Principle of Operation
Dust-laden air enters the separator from below and flows through a large number of adjustable blades. If
the blades are set radially, coarse particles are precipitated only by the action of inertial forces since they
cannot follow the 90 ° deflection of streamlines when entering the blades and the immersion tube.
If the guide vanes are set at an angle to the radial direction, a vortex motion of the fluid is created and
separation due to centrifugal forces takes place. The effectivity of centrifugal separation is limited since
the tangential velocity is not very large compared to the radial velocity.
If the angle is increased, the tangential velocity increases also and the cut size is lowered. At angles of
around 60 ° the particles begin to hit the blade tips and due to friction the tangential velocity decreases.
This explains why with angles larger than about 60 ° the cut size goes up again and is generally limited to
about 90 mm with this type of classifiers.
1.2.2 Mechanical Elements
· immersion tube
· adjustable blades
· blades adjustment ring
· tailings cone
· housing
1.2.3 Dimensioning
Specific air load (feed) 500 - 1000 g/m3
d = 0.0127

d
V [m]
[m3/h] nominal diameter
airflow

1.2.4 Operatin
· Pressure drop 10 - 15 mbar, dedusting efficiency 75 - 80 %
· coarser product: shorten immersion tube, set blades radially
· finer product: lengthen immersion tube, set blades tangentially
Applications
· air-swept ball mills
· vertical roller mills
· hammer crushers
1.2.5 Design
Figure 2 Grit Separator
1.3 VS-Separator
1.3.1 Principle of Operation
The feed is admitted to the VS-Separator from above. The material flows through the classifying zone
over inclined plates. Classifying air is introduced into the classifying zone transversely to this fresh
material flow. The classifying air can consist of either circulating air, hot gases for drying or fresh air for
cooling. The actual separation zone is located between the inclined plates and an array of baffle plates.
The fines entrained by the air flow are moved through the space in between the baffle plates and
discharged at the air exit opening.
Due to gravitational force the coarse fraction is discharged from the classifier in downward direction.
1.3.2 Mechanical Elements
· housing
· inclined plates four guiding the feed material with individually replaceable plates
· baffle plates for flow direction with individually replaceable elements
· air inlet/outlet box
· tailings outlet
1.3.3 Dimensioning
Guide values for 1700 cm2/g product fineness in closed circuit with roller press:
· specific air load (feed) ~ 4 kg/m3
· specific separator load ~ 6 m3/s per m2 projected open separating area
· designation: VS-459 ® 4.59 m2 projected open separating area
1.3.4 Operation
· Setting of a suitable air velocity enables control of cut size
· product fineness up to 4’500 cm2/g is possible in finish grinding systems
· pressure drop 6 to 15 mbar
Applications
· high pressure comminution circuit with a roller press for clinker and raw material
Figure 3 KHD VS-Separator

2. DYNAMIC SEPARATORS
2.1 Classifiers with Counterblades and Internal Fan
2.1.1 Principle of Operation
Feed material is introduced through a chute onto a distributor plate that disperses the particles in the
airflow. Air with dispersed particles flows up and passes the rotating counterblades. Coarse particles are
centrifuged out to the surrounding wall and fall down into the tailings cone. Air with fines flows through the
fan to the fines chamber. Here the fine material is separated from the conveying air and collected in the
outer cone. Air together with some amount of fine material is returned to the separating zone through the
air vanes.
2.1.2 Mechanical Elements
· housing
· feed spouts
· distributor plate
· counterblades
· internal fan
· return air vanes
· tailings cone
· fines collecting chamber
· fineness control valves (Sturtevant)
· gearbox and motor
2.1.3 Dimensioning

Cement Fineness
[cm2/g] Specific Separator Load
[t/h.m2]
~ 2500 2.2 - 3.6
~ 4500 1.0 - 1.5

specific separator load =

· the nominal cross section area refers to the outer diameter of the separator
· for large separators the higher values are applicable
· the indicated values are guide values and vary from supplier to supplier
Figure 4 Sturtevant Whirlwind Air Separator

2.1.4 Operation
Fineness range 3000 - 6000 cm2/g
Adjustment possibilities:
· speed of counterblades
· radial position, number and size of counterblades
· radial position of fan blades (Sturtevant, Raymond)
· radial position of fineness control valves (Sturtevant, Raymond)

adjustment product fineness

counterblades:

increased speed
increased number
increased radius (moved outward)
increased size

finer
finer
finer
finer
fan blades:

increased radius (moved outward)

coarser
internal fan damper:

outward position (larger opening)

inward position (smaller opening)

coarser
finer

2.1.5 Design
¨ Sturtevant Separator (fig. 4)
· the separator shown in fig. 4 has additional air inlets/outlets for drying/cooling purposes
· similar makes: Raymond
¨ Heyd Separator (fig. 5)
· the Heyd separator from Chr. Pfeiffer has two individual drives for fan and counterblades
· (fixed speed for fan, variable speed for counterblades and distributor plate), this makes
adjustment easier and improves the separator efficiency by fine grinding.
· similar makes: Polysius (Turbopol), Fuller, Schmidt
Figure 5 Heyd-Type Separator

2.2 Classifiers with Counterblades and External Fan

2.2.1 Principle of Operation
Material is introduced through feed spouts and dispersed in the circulating air by the rotating distributor
plate. Particles fine enough to pass the rotating counterblades are conveyed by air to external cyclones
where they are precipitated and discharged. Coarse particles move downward to the coarses cone. The
air is recirculated to the separator via fan air vanes.
Inleaking false air is removed via dedusting filter and fan in order to maintain a constant underpressure
inside the system.
2.2.2 Mechanical Elements
* housing
* feed spouts
* tailing cone
* distributor plate
* counterblades
* drive unit
* cyclones
* external fan
* additional ducts
2.2.3 Dimensioning

Cement Fineness
[cm2/g] Specific Separator Load
[t/h.m2]
2600 ~ 11
3000 ~ 8
4000 ~ 5
4500 ~ 4

specific separator load =

The indicated values are guide values and vary from supplier to supplier.
Figure 6 Cyclone Air Separator (WEDAG)

2.2.4 Operation
Fineness adjustment possibilities:
· speed of counterblades
· number of counterblades
· airflow rate

adjustment product fineness

counterblades:

increased speed
increased number

finer
finer
fan damper:

more open
more closed

coarser
finer
fan speed:

higher speed
lower speed
coarser
finer

2.2.5 Design
Fig. 6 shows a Wedag ZUB separator with external air circuit and usually a number of planetary cyclones.
In figure 7 a typical example for the wear-protection of separator parts is given for a Polysius Cyclopol
separator.
The advantages of this type of classifier over the internal air circulation types can be summarized as
follows:
· independent adjustment of separator speed and airflow gives a wider range of regulation and
better fines separation efficiency because of more circulating air and lower particle concentrations
· a number of small cyclones gives a more efficient fines separation from the circulating air. This
gives less fines in the return material and therefore a higher efficiency .
· fan runs in less dusty environment
· adjustment of fineness can be made without stopping the separator for change of counterblades
Figure 7 Cyclone Air Separator (Polysius Cyclopol)

2.3 Classifiers with Rotor Cage and External Fan (High-efficiency separators)
2.3.1 Principle of Operation
The central part is a rotating circular cage comprising a top distributor plate and a ring of vertical blades or
rods that constitute the rejector.
Material is introduced through feed spouts and drops on the rotating dispersion plate on top of the rotor
cage. From there it descends in the form of a circular curtain in front off the rotor blades. Air is introduced
tangentially through guide vanes into the separating zone. Fine particles leave the separator with the air
through the rotor and are precipitated in external cyclones or bag filter. Coarse particles are rejected by
the rotor blades, pass the separation zone and leave the separator through the discharge device of the
tailings cone.
2.3.2 Mechanical Elements
* feed chutes
* cage with rotor blades, shaft and distributor plate
* air inlet volute
* air guide vanes or conical louvre rings
* tailings outlet
* fines outlet
* gearbox and motor
Figure 8 O & K Cross-Flow Separator

2.3.3 Dimensioning
Dimensioning criteria for cement with around 3000 Blaine (see also fig. 9)
· specific rotor load ~ 10 - 12 t/h.m2 or less
· specific air load (feed) < 2.5 kg/m3
· specific air load (product) < 0.75 kg/m3
· peripheral speed 5 to 35 m/s, depending on Blaine
· specific installed power 0.4 - 0.5 kWh/t
2.3.4 Operation
The separator is operated with constant airflow, fineness is controlled by the speed of the separator cage.
Only in extraordinary cases where motor power or gearbox reduction ratio pose limits to separator speed,
the airflow may be decreased to obtain the desired fineness.
To avoid dust emissions, it is mandatory to maintain a certain underpressure (around - 5 mbar) in the
separator system. Since no ducting is perfectly tight, this underpressure causes an air inleak that has to
be removed and dedusted by a filter. In case of single pass design this is the main dedusting filter. With
cyclone air separators an additional dedusting filter has to be provided.
The recommended design value for the dedusting system air flow rate is 10 % of separating air amount.
Characteristic figures:

¨ installed separator about 0.4 - 0.5 kWh/t

¨ installed fan power about 2 - 2.5 kWh/t
¨ pressure drop across separator 20 - 25 mbar
¨ pressure drop across cyclones about 10 - 15 mbar
¨ pressure drop across bagfilter about 10 - 15 mbar
¨ pressure drop ducting about 5 mbar

Figure 9 Rotor Type Separator

Figure 10 Fuller (Onoda) O-Sepa

Characteristics

Supplier
Type Fuller (Onoda)
O-Sepa
Rotor: Diameter/Height ~ 1.7 : 1
Number of sep. air inlets
primary air
secondary air
tertiary air 3
mill exhaust, ambient air
ambient air
air into cone
Number of sep. air outlets 1
Location air outlet top of separator
Feed central from top (2 or 4 inlets)
Fineness adjustment rotor speed
separating air amount
Standard sizes 12
Designation N-500
¯
Separating air amount m3/min.

Figure 11 Polysius Sepol (Rotor Type Separator, Makes)

Characteristics

Supplier
Type Krupp-Polysius
Sepol
Rotor: Diameter/Height 1.5 : 1
Number of sep. air inlets 1
Number of sep. air outlets
single pass
with cyclones depending on system
1
1 to 6
Location air outlet bottom part
Feed central from top
Fineness adjustment rotor speed
separating air amount
Standard sizes 21
Designation 150 / 4 ® number of cyclones
¯
rotor diameter [cm]

Figure 12 FLS Sepax

Characteristics

Supplier
Type F.L. Smidth
Sepax
Rotor: Diameter/Height ~ 2.4 : 1 small separators
~ 1.2 : 1 large separators
Number of sep. air inlets 1
Number of sep. air outlets
single pass
with cyclones depending on system
1
4
Location air outlet top of separator
Feed from bottom (dispersed in air/gas)
Fineness adjustment rotor speed
separating air amount
Standard sizes 17
Designation Sepax 2 - 450
½ ½® diameter casing [cm]
½® 2 with cyclones
½® 1 single pass
The separator shown on the right of fig. 12 is equipped with integrated desagglomerator for application in
roller press circuits.

Figure 13 KHD Sepmaster SKS - Z

Characteristics

Supplier
Type KHD
Sepmaster
Rotor: Diameter/Height ~ 1.65 : 1
Number of sep. air inlets 1
Number of sep. air outlets
single pass
with cyclones depending on system
1
2 to 8
Location air outlet top of separator
Feed central from top (SKS-Z, SKS-D)
from bottom (SKS-LS)
Fineness adjustment rotor speed
separating air amount
Standard sizes 14
Designation SKS 175 / 4
 ½® number of cyclones

Figure 14 KHD Sepmaster SKS-D and Sepmaster SKS-LS

KHD Sepmaster SKS-D
The design is specially tailored for closed-circuit operation with roller presses.
The sturdy desagglomerator is mounted directly above the separator and equipped with its own drive.
Thus, both separator and desagglomerator can be individually adjusted for optimal performance.
KHD Sepmaster SKS-LS
The separator is laid out for material feeding together with air/gas.
It is applied mainly for combined drying and grinding of materials with high moisture content.

Figure 15 Pfeiffer QDK

Characteristics

Supplier
Type Pfeiffer
QDK
Rotor: Diameter/Height ~ 1.5 : 1
Number of sep. air inlets 1
Number of sep. air outlets
single pass
with cyclones depending on system
1
1 (cyclones installed separately)
1 to 8 (cyclones installed around sep. )
Location air outlet bottom part
Feed central from top
Fineness adjustment rotor speed
separating air amount
Standard sizes 17
Designation 11-N / 2 cyclones
½® diameter of separating zone [dm]

Figure 16 FCB TSV Classifier

Characteristics

Supplier
Type FCB
TSV
Rotor: Diameter/Height ~ 4 : 1 small separators
~ 2.5 : 1 large separators
Number of sep. air inlets 1
Number of sep. air outlets 1
Location air outlet top of separator
Feed from top
from bottom (feed dispersed in air/gas)
mixed (top/bottom feed)
Fineness adjustment rotor speed
separating air amount
Standard sizes 16
Designation TSV - 4000
 ½® rotor diameter [mm]
The type with top feed is applied in e.g. bucket elevator ball mill circuits.
The type with mixed feed (top + bottom) is applied in e.g. grinding circuits with air-swept and semi-
airswept tube mills and with the HOROMILL.

Figure 17 Sturtevant SD (Side Draft) Classifier

Characteristics

Supplier
Type Sturtevant
SD (Side Draft)
Rotor: Diameter/Height ~ 1.3 : 1 small separators
~ 2.4 : 1 large separators
Number of sep. air inlets 1 to 8
1 with cyclones
8 with only fresh air
Number of sep. air outlets depending on system
Location air outlet bottom part
Feed central from top
Fineness adjustment rotor speed
separating air amount
Standard sizes 10
Designation SD - 20 - 4
½ ½® number of cyclones
½® casing diameter [ft]

2.4 Wear Protection

The following parts of a rotor type separator are exposed to higher wear and require a protecting material
or are manufactured of a wear-resistant material:
* air inlets
* air outlets
* distributor plate
* rotor
* drive shaft
In fig. 18 typical examples for wear-protected parts are given for the Sepol separator from Polysius and
the O-SEPA separator from Fuller.
Figure 18a Separator Wear Protection (e.g. Polysius) for Medium Abrasive Material

Figure 18b Separator Wear Protection (e.g. O-Sepa)

2.5 Installation Arrangements

Basic solutions (fig. 19):
* cyclone air separator
* single pass separator with separate mill ventilation
* single pass separator combined with mill ventilation
Selection criteria:
* required cooling capacity
* condition of existing mill venting system
* available space
* investment and operating costs
 cyclone air separator single pass combined mill ventilation single pass separate mill
ventilation
cooling effect very low mediumhigh
space
requirement approx. same
as for mechanical
separator low for separator additional space requirement for bagfilter depends on capacity of
existing mill filter low for separator large bagfilter required
mill
ventilation
system existing system
is kept depending on capacity and condition the existing mill filter is:
replaced
enlarged
kept as it is existing system is kept

Figure 19a Cyclone Air Separator

Figure 19b Single Pass Separator Combined with Mill Ventilation

Figure 19c Single Pass Separator with Separate Mill Ventilation

Operation of Separators

1. INTRODUCTION
2. GENERAL CALCULATING METHODS
2.1 Definition of a Closed Grinding Circuit
2.2 Basic Equations (Mass Balance)
2.3 Circulating Load
2.4 Separator Efficiency
2.5 Classification (Tromp) Curve
2.6 Features of the Classification Curve
3. TEST PROCEDURE
3.1 Target of Test and Conditions
3.2 Sampling and Duration of Test (figures 11, 12, 13)
3.3 Sieve Analysis
3.4 Evaluation of Test Results
4. PRACTICAL CALCULATION AND EXAMPLE
4.1 Data of Separator and Mill
4.2 Test
4.3 Sampling and Sieve Analysis
4.4 Evaluation

1. INTRODUCTION
The ideal situation in grinding would stipulate that a particle of feed would be discharged from the grinding
circuit as soon as it has been reduced to the required size. Thus, the grinding forces would be applied
only to the oversize particles. However, due to the action of tumbling mills, any attempt to reduce all the
feed to a finished product in one step results in costly overgrinding.
To control top size of discharge from the grinding circuit, sizing apparatus such as an air separator is
employed, and the oversize constitutes the circulating load to the mill. In this manner, particles greater
than a specified maximum size are prevented from leaving the circuit, and particles below the desired size
are not recirculated through the mill.
The separation itself has an essential influence on the grinding performance in the mill, and therefore it is
necessary to evaluate characteristics performance figures.
Proper functioning is mainly influenced by:
· Separator adjustment and technical condition, e.g. distributor plate speed, number and position of
spin rotor blades, wear on fan and spin blades, air in-leaks, etc.
· Separator feed, e.g. feed rate, particle size distribution, moisture content, density, etc.
· Separation air, e.g. temperature, density, viscosity, moisture content, etc.
Four levels of representation of separator performance are recognized, in which:
a) Only the total mass of the coarse (or fine) stream is considered relative to the mass of feed,
expressed by the term ‘yield’. This is the simplest form of assessment.
b) Cumulative size distributions of feed, fine and coarse streams are included, leading to the term
‘recovery’ or ‘efficiency’.
c) The extent to which a feed size class appears in the fine and coarse stream is calculated for all
size classes and leads to the term ‘classification function’ or ‘Tromp curve’ with its characteristics
parameters cut point, sharpness off cut and by-pass.
d) Stochastic errors are taken into account (not dealt with in this paper).
Figure 1 Mechanical Air Separator

Figure 2 Cyclone Air Separator (Rotor Type)

Figure 3 Single Pass Separator (Rotor Type)

2. GENERAL CALCULATING METHODS

2.1 Definition of a Closed Grinding Circuit
If the oversize in the mill discharge is recycled to the mill after a classification stage, the mill is considered
to be operating in a closed circuit.
Figure 4 Symbols used for Mass Balances

Description Mass flow

[t/h] Fineness
[%] passing Spec. surface
[cm2/g], Blaine
Mill feed M - -
Separator feed
(= mill discharge) A a BA
Fine fraction (Product) F f BF
Coarse fraction (Tailings) R r BR

2.2 Basic Equations (Mass Balance)

In steady-state operation, the mass flow of feed is equal to the sum of mass flows of fine and coarse
streams.
A=F+R eq. (1)
A mass balance can also be formulated for a portion of the streams finer than a certain particle size x
[mm] (see figure 5).
Let a, f and r denote the percentage finer than size x in the feed, fine and coarse stream. As long as no
comminution takes place in the separator, the amounts of material less than size x entering and leaving
the separator are equal, hence:
A.a = F.f + R.r eq. (2)
The values of a, f and r are found by a particle size analysis (e.g. sieve analysis, laser diffraction analysis,
etc.).
Yet another formulation of the mass balance can be made for a portion which is limited by a lower and
upper particle size x1 and x2 (see figure 5).
Let a, f and r denote the percentage of material finer than size x2 and larger than size x1 in the feed, fine
and coarse stream. As long as no comminution takes place in the separator, the amounts of material
between x1 and x2 that enter and leave the separator are equal, hence:
A.D a = F. Df + R. Dr eq. (3)
The values of a, f and r are found by a particle size analysis.
Figure 4 Symbols

Basic equations

A =F+R
A×a =F×f + R×r
A × Da = F × Df + R × Dr

Figure 5 Definition Fineness

2.3 Circulating Load

The circulating load in closed-circuit grinding is defined as the mass of the separator feed A divided by the
mass of the fine fraction F, or :
eq. (4)
The actual value of the circulating load depends on various factors, such as mill design, grinding
efficiency, product fineness, etc., but as a guide the following values can be given:

Cement mill low fineness

high fineness u = 1.5 to 2
u>2
Raw mill u = 2 to 2.5

2.3.1 Calculation of Circulating Load

Formula (4) can be used directly if the mass flows of fines and feed (or rejects) are given. Most mills are
equipped with weigh feeders, so M is known, which is equal to F in steady-state operation.
If no weighing equipment for separator feed or rejects is installed, u must be determined using particle
size analysis data and formula (1), (2).

A=F + R (1)A.a = F.f + R.r (2) u = A/F (4)

eq. (5)
It is recommended to use the u-values calculated by this formula with caution, because inevitable errors
in the determination of the particle size distributions affect the result considerably.
2.4 Separator Efficiency
Efficiency takes some account of size distribution, to the extent that it is defined as the recovery of a feed
size class (0 to x mm) into the fines stream.
eq. (6)
eq. (7)
If x is chosen as the maximum particle size present in the feed, h(x) is equal to 1/u.
Figure 6 shows efficiency curves for two different values of u.
Figure 6 Circulating Load, Efficiency
Circulating load

Separator efficiency

2.5 Classification (Tromp) Curve

The information given by the efficiency curve is not detailed enough because the defined fractions 0 to x
[mm] are wide.
If we ask for the recovery of a feed size class with lower limit x1 and upper limit x2 (x1 greater zero) into
the coarse stream, we arrive at the Tromp value for the coarse stream.
tr = eq. (8)
or
tr = eq. (9)
If this ratio is obtained for a number of size classes and plotted against x, there results the classification
curve (figure 7). It is also called the Tromp curve after the name of the man to whom it is assigned.
2.6 Features of the Classification Curve
2.6.1 Cut Point
The cut point d50 corresponds to 50 % of the feed passing to the coarse stream as seen in figure 8. It is
therefore that size which has equal probability of passing to either coarse or fine streams.
2.6.2 Sharpness of Separation
The sharpness of separation is defined as follows:
eq. (10)
where d75 and d25 denote the sizes with Tromp values of 75 % and 25 % (figure 8).
For an ideal separation k would be 1.
2.6.3 By-Pass Effect
Ideally, the Tromp curve is asymptotic to the abscissa at ordinate values of zero and unity.
In practice, it is often the case that the lower asymptote occurs at ordinate values a ‘ greater than zero
(figure 9), i.e. a portion of each size fraction bypasses the classifying action. Expressed in an other way,
part of the feed reports to the coarse stream independently of its particle size.
Experience has shown that the bypass parameter a’ varies with classifier feed rate, and hence it is difficult
to describe a single Tromp curve which is representative of the classifier.
Figures 7, 8 & 9 Tromp Curves
Basic equations
tr =
Figure 7 Tromp Curves (continued)

Figure 8 Tromp Curves (continued)

sharpness of cut k =

Figure 9 Tromp Curves (continued)

With mechanical air separators of Heyd or Sturtevant type it frequently happens that the bypass value
exceeds 50 %, so that the definitions given above for d50 and k are no more applicable.
It is then common practice to introduce a separator model which explicitly includes the bypass effect,
shown in figure 10.
The ‘reduced’ Tromp curve with

allows for determination of d50 and k*.

Figure 10 Separator Model
3. TEST PROCEDURE
3.1 Target of Test and Conditions
The separation result is characterized by weight and fineness of coarse and fine streams. These values
and the operating variables which affect separator performance (e.g. separator adjustment, feed,
separating air, etc.) must be recorded during the test.
Since separator performance is strongly dependent on feed rate and feed size distribution, it is of utmost
importance that stable operation of the mill is maintained during the test, which in this context means
constant classifier feed rate.
Variables correlated with this figure are e.g. power consumption of the bucket elevator or separator
rejects mass flow (provided a scale is installed). If no automatic control system is available, the fresh feed
rate to the mill must be regulated such that the power consumption of the bucket elevator is constant.
3.2 Sampling and Duration of Test (figures 11, 12, 13)
The most accurate determination of A, F and R can be done if two of the values can be measured by
scales and the third value is calculated by means of equation (1). In this case, the duration of the test is
about 10 minutes, and samples should be taken in intervals of 1 to 2 minutes.
It is very often that only the fresh feed M to the mill can be measured. It is assumed that the weight of the
fine fraction F is equal to the mill feed M. Separator feed rate A and coarse stream R can only be
determined by means of the circulating load u, which in turn is calculated applying formula (5) to the
particle size distributions of A, F and R. Duration of test is about 10 minutes, and samples should be
taken every 1 to 2 minutes.
Then the individual samples of each sampling point can be homogenized to one composite sample for A,
F and R. Before doing this, it is recommended to check for outliers due to e.g. instable mill operation by
checking the residue on a sieve of medium size, e.g. 30 mm. Samples with extreme values should be
eliminated.
Two separators operating in parallel usually do not have equal feed rates, therefore it is recommended to
carry out a separate test for each unit.
3.3 Sieve Analysis
As mentioned earlier, it is necessary to determine the particle size distribution (PSD) of the three samples
A, F and R.
In many plants it is only possible to carry out dry sieving tests down to 30 mm. For an accurate separator
judgment the PSD must be known also in the finer range. Below 30 mm, wet sieving is applied.
A more advanced method of PSD determination would be the application of a laser diffraction analyzer.
Figure 11 Sampling Points - Single Pass Separator

Figure 12 Sampling Points - Cyclone Air Separator

Figure 13 Sampling Points - Mechanical Air Separator

3.4 Evaluation of Test Results

The further procedure comprises calculation of:
· Mass balance
· Circulating load
· Efficiency, including graph
· Tromp values, including graph
· Cut point, bypass and sharpness of separation
The report at hand explains the basic methods how to carry out a separator performance test. These
methods enable to define and evaluate the main operational characteristics of a closed grinding circuit, to
compare them with other cases and with ideal values.
The optimum solution for a particular case must be found in several steps, the evaluation of each single
step indicating a better choice of operating variables for the next one. No universal method is available to
find the ideal solution at the writing desk without experiments.
4. PRACTICAL CALCULATION AND EXAMPLE
4.1 Data of Separator and Mill

Plant A
Date of test
12.06.1991
Separator:
Make, type Q&K QS 225 (HES)
Rotor diameter 2.25 [m]
Rotor height 2.25 [m]
Rotor speed 120 [rpm]
Installed motor power 220 [kW]
Separation air amount 170’000[m3/h]
Fineness regulation rotor speed variation
Year of start-up
1991
Mill: Cement mill, No. 4
Type Two compartment, end discharge
Diameter, length 4.2 / 15.4 [m]
Installed motor power 3’600 [kW]
Year of start-up
1980
Mill feed Weigh feeder
Control automatic mill control system
Flowsheet figure 14

Figure 14 Flowsheet - Operation of Separators

4.2 Test
During the test a cement has been produced with 93.1 % clinker, 4.6 % gypsum and 2.3 % kiln dust.
Since the system was equipped with a scale for the returns, test duration was only 30 minutes.
Average mill feed rate was 120 t/h, average returns rate 126 t/h.
4.3 Sampling and Sieve Analysis

Sampling points: shown in figure 14, marked

Number of samples: 16 per sampling point
Sieve analysis: Particles > 200 mm dry screening
Particles < 200 mm CILAS laser analyzer

The particle size distributions of feed, coarses and fines are listed in figure 15, the corresponding graphs
are shown in figure 16.
4.4 Evaluation
4.4.1 Circulating Load u
1) Calculation by means of measured mill feed rate and rejects rate

2) Calculation by means of particle size distributions

The circulating load for each particle size (e.g. 1,2, 4 mm etc.) can now be calculated and then the mean
value of the circulating load can be determined.

A simpler form is to calculate the sum of a, f, and r and then to calculate u by means of the formula:

Figure 15 Size Distribution

size (mm) feed coarses

(% passing) fines
1 3.6 1.9 4.9
2 6.1 3.5 8.3
4 11.0 6.3 14.7
8 18.5 10.1 25.4
16 31.2 14.4 44.9
24 39.7 16.1 58.8
32 47.8 19.1 71.1
48 60.6 28.1 87.0
64 67.7 37.1 92.6
96 81.8 59.5 100.0
200 95.1 89.0 100.0
Sum 463.1 285.1 607.7

Figure 16 Particle Size Distribution

4.4.2 Separator Feed A

The mill feed M is known and is equal to F. The separator feed A can now be calculated by means of
equation 4:

4.4.3 Coarse Fraction R

R = A - F = 97 t/h
4.4.4 Efficiency
Equation 7 is used for calculating the efficiency.
h =
The calculated values are listed in figure 17, and the corresponding graph is shown in figure 18. It is to
state that for the calculation the value u = 1.81 has been used.
4.4.5 Tromp Values
Equation 9 is used for calculating the Tromp values.
tr =
The calculated values are listed in figure 17, and the corresponding graph is shown in figure 18.
4.4.6 Cut Point
The cut point was determined graphically, and its value is
d50 = 52 [mm]
4.4.7 Sharpness of Separation
Equation 10 was used for the calculation

4.4.8 Bypass
The minimum of the Tromp curve is located at 20 mm, the bypass value is 9 %.
Figure 17 Efficiency, Tromp Curve - Calculation

size (mm) efficiency (%) Tromp (%)

1 76.4 23.7
2 74.7 27.9
4 74.2 26.6
8 75.8 22.2
16 79.4 15.4
24 81.9 9.0
32 82.2 16.7
48 79.3 31.5
64 75.6 56.6
96 67.5 71.1
200 58.1 100.0

Figure 18 Efficiency, Tromp Curve

4.4.9 Specific Air Loads

4.4.10 Specific Rotor Load

D [m] rotor diameter
H [m] rotor height

4.4.11 Conclusion
The evaluation of the separator performance test shows that separator efficiency is good, bypass is low
and sharpness of separation is sufficient.

C10 - Raw Grinding Systems

Raw Grinding Systems

1. PURPOSE OF RAW GRINDING

2. RAW MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND PRODUCT QUALITY
3. BASIC RAW GRINDING EQUIPMENT (DRY GRINDING)
3.1 Available Raw Grinding Equipment (figure 4)
3.2 Selection Criteria for Raw Grinding Equipment
4. DRYING POSSIBILITIES AND PERFORMANCE
4.1 Heat Sources
4.2 Drying Possibilities (figure 5)
4.3 Drying Performance
5. RAW GRINDING SYSTEMS (DRY GRINDING)
5.1 Raw Grinding System with End-Discharge Mill (Figures 6, 7)
5.2 Raw Grinding System with Center Discharge Mill (Figures 8, 9)
5.3 Raw Grinding System with Air Swept Mill (Figures 10, 11)
5.4 Raw Grinding System with Vertical Roller Mill (Figures 12, 13)
5.5 Raw Grinding System with Roller Press (Figures 14, 15)
6. WET GRINDING (FIGURES 16, 17)
7. COMPARISON OF RAW GRINDING SYSTEMS
7.1 Performance (Figure 18)
7.2 Energy Consumption (Figures 19, 20)
7.3 Grinding Installation

1. PURPOSE OF RAW GRINDING

The raw grinding is the size reduction stage for raw material between crushing and burning process
(figure 1) and has to fulfill the requirements:
· Produce a raw meal fineness (particle size and particle size distribution) adequate for the
production of the required clinker quality
· Provide the proper raw mix by proportioning the components in the correct percentages
· Mixing the components
· Drying of the raw material to enable a good handling of the raw meal
The raw grinding stage cannot homogenize the raw meal due to the short retention time in this process.
The raw grinding can be divided in
· Dry grinding process
· Wet grinding process
All new installations are, with few exceptions, dry grinding processes.
Figure 1 Purpose of Raw Grinding

2. RAW MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND PRODUCT QUALITY

¨ Raw materials and correctives used for the raw mix:
* Limestone
* Marl
* Clay
* Iron correctives (e.g. iron ore, slag)
* Silica correctives (e.g. quartz sand, fly ash)
* etc.
¨ Max. feed size of raw material components to the raw mill depend on the mill type and mill size
(figure 2):

Tube mill < 25 - 50 [mm]

(max. ball size!)
Roller mill < 100 [mm]
(max. 5 - 7 [%] of roller diameter)
Roller press < 50 [mm]
(max. 3 - 5 [%] of roller diameter)
Autogenous mill< 300 [mm]
Hammer/impact Crusher < 200 [mm]

¨ Besides the max. feed size also the particle size distribution must be observed, and eventually
adapted to the needs of the mill type (roller mill, roller press) to enable a stable grinding process.
¨ The level of raw material moisture limits the application and calls for a certain grinding/drying
equipment.
¨ For high moisture contents (8 - 20 [%] H20), the drying capacity is the critical item for
dimensioning the grinding/drying system.
¨ For low moisture contents (< 8 [%] H20), normally the grinding capacity is the predominant factor.
¨ Indications of moisture contents are always on wet basis.
¨ The stickiness of moist feed components require certain precautional measures for a safe
handling such as
* Bin design
* Bin extraction facilities
* Conveyors and chutes
* Air locks (ev. heated)
Figure 2 Mill Feed Particle Size

¨ Product (raw meal)

· Raw meal fineness depends on the requirements of burning process and is normally in the range
of
10 - 20 [%] R 90 [mm]
· The fineness should be determined by the rule
‘Grind only as fine as necessary’
· Even more important than the residue on 90 [mm] is the one on 200 [mm], as this fraction
contains the poor burnable quartz particles. The aim is, to reduce the residue on 200 [mm], while
maintaining the same residue on 90 [mm]. The general aim is
< 0.5 [%] R 200 [mm]
· A typical range for particle size distribution is shown in figure 3.
¨ The raw meal moisture is usually reduced to < 1.0 [%] H20, basically to achieve a good flowability
and to allow an easy and save handling of the raw meal.
Figure 3 Typical Particle Size Distribution Raw Meal

Ranges of raw meal particle size distribution

A - Conventional
B - Improved (mainly by separator)
Main influence of particle size distribution

Ü Fine range Coarse range Þ

Ü Grinding process Design and operation of
separator Þ

3. BASIC RAW GRINDING EQUIPMENT (DRY GRINDING)

3.1 Available Raw Grinding Equipment (figure 4)
Main types:
¨ Tube mills
* End-discharge mill
* Center discharge mill
* Air swept mill
¨ Vertical roller mill
¨ Roller press
Various types:
¨ Autogenous mill
¨ Hammer/impact mill
The tube mill is the most used raw grinding equipment up today.
Modern raw grinding equipments are the vertical roller mill for high production and high drying capacities
and the roller press for low moisture contents and moderate capacities.
Autogenous and hammer/impact mills are only used for special applications. Autogenous mills are often
fitted with a few balls for better efficiency.
Hammer/impact mills are mainly used for pregrinding/predrying purpose, ahead of a conventional tube
mill system. They are often used with a kind of flash drier.
In the past, many complicated connections between various grinding/drying equipment have been
installed. The trend today goes towards simple and reliable plants.
3.2 Selection Criteria for Raw Grinding Equipment
¨ Capacity of installation
¨ New installation or extension
¨ Moisture content of raw materials
¨ Raw material hardness (grindability of components)
¨ Raw material properties (stickiness, abrasiveness, etc.)
¨ Feed size of raw material (depending on crushing installation)
Figure 4a Raw Grinding Equipments - Main Types
Tube Mills

Figure 4b Raw Grinding Equipments - Main Types

Vertical Roller Mill
Figure 4c Raw Grinding Equipments - Main Types
Roller Press

Figure 4d Raw Grinding Equipments - Various

Hammer/Impact Mill

Figure 4e Raw Grinding Equipments - Various

Autogenous Mill

4. DRYING POSSIBILITIES AND PERFORMANCE

4.1 Heat Sources

Kiln exhaust gases

(depending on kiln system and number of preheater stages) < 350 [C]
Cooler exhaust air < 350 [C]
Hot gas generator < 600 [C]

Utilizing all kiln exhaust gases, in general, raw material can be dried up to 7 - 8 [%] H20. For higher
moisture contents, a hot gas generator can be installed. The limitation of drying with kiln exhaust gases is
mainly given by the maximum available amount of gases at a production equilibrium between raw mill and
kiln. All parts of equipment in contact with hot gases of 450 - 600 [C] have to be lined with refractories and
bearings insulated to prevent from overheating.
Max. hot gas temperature for vertical roller mills is < 450 [C] at the mill inlet. The same applies for tube
mills without drying compartment.
4.2 Drying Possibilities (figure 5)
¨ Separate drying (predrying) in
* Rotary dryers (drum dryers)
* Dispersion dryers
* Flash dryers, with or without hammer/impact crusher
¨ Drying in mills
* Drying compartments within tube mills or ahead of the tube mills in overhung drying
compartments
* Drying in grinding compartments of tube mills (low drying capacities)
* Drying in vertical roller mill casing
* Drying in separator (e.g. for roller presses)
4.3 Drying Performance
The drying performance depends basically on:
* Type of drying equipment
* Volume and design of drying facility
* Hot gas temperature (energy level)
* Hot gas flow rate (restricted by max. gas speed in drying equipment)
* Raw material properties
* Particle size of material, when drying
* Retention time in drying equipment
Many times, the drying capacity of a given system is limited through the high false air intake in various
places of the system, and the installed fan cannot match the entire gas flow rate.
Any drying capacity of mill can be increased by a preceding, separate drying process (e.g. flash drier
etc.).
Figure 5a Drying Possibilities - Predrying
Figure 5b Drying Possibilities - Drying in Mill

Figure 5c Drying Possibilities - Drying in Separator

5. RAW GRINDING SYSTEMS (DRY GRINDING)

5.1 Raw Grinding System with End-Discharge Mill (Figures 6, 7)
This mill is used for grinding raw materials with low moisture contents or predried materials. The drying
capacity is limited by the admissible gas speed through the mill. The drying compartment is either
incorporated into the mill shell or as drum installed ahead of the inlet trunnion. The drying gases or the
mill ventilating air passes generally through a static separator (4) and is dedusted in a dust collector (5).
The system utilizes a mechanical conveyor (bucket elevator) to lift the mill discharge product to the
dynamic separator (3). The mechanical transport is very economical with a minimum of electrical energy
consumption.
In some cases, raw material with low moisture content is even dried within the grinding compartment.
Moisture contents of 1 - 1.5 [%] can be dried without hot gases. Moisture content s up to 5 [%] can be
dried with hot gases. The critical point is to avoid clogging of the intermediate diaphragm with too moist a
material.
When drying in the grinding compartment, special care has to be paid to avoid overheating of the grinding
media and intermediate diaphragm.
Sufficient cooling and/or insulation of the bearing of tube mills with trunnion bearings has to be provided.
The tube mill may be fitted with one or two grinding compartments, according to the material hardness
and feed size.
The mill system is of a conventional, simple and easy operable set-up.
5.1.1 Features
¨ Low drying capacity (limited by allowable gas speed within the mill < 2 [m/s] over ball charge)
¨ With or without drying compartment
¨ With one or two grinding compartments (according to material hardness and consequently
adaptation of ball sizes)
¨ Conventional, simple mill
Figure 6 End Discharge Mill

Figure 7 Raw Grinding System with End Discharge Mill

5.2 Raw Grinding System with Center Discharge Mill (Figures 8, 9)

The drying is done in an incorporated drying compartment ahead of the first grinding compartment. For
higher moisture contents, also a second drying compartment (drum) ahead of the inlet trunnion is often
installed. The drying gases pass the drying and the first grinding compartment before leaving the mill
through the central openings around the mill shell. If needed, hot gases can be drawn through the second
grinding compartment for a complementary drying or fresh air can be introduced for a normal mill
ventilation. The dust in the mill exhaust gases is separated in a static separator (4). The tailings are sent
to the dynamic separator whereas the final dedusting of the gases is done in the mill/kiln gas dust
collector (5).
The separator tailings from the dynamic separator are fed to the second grinding compartment for fine
grinding. Usually approx. 30 [%] of the tailings return to the first grinding compartment.
The center discharge mill is applied for hard grindable raw materials or materials with components of
significant different grindabilities. The advantage is, that particles, which are already sufficiently ground
after the first compartment, can be classified by the separator and only the harder particles pass through
the second compartment.
False air rates are seldom below [%] for mill and mill fan.
As the mills are preferred for harder materials, generally the specific energy consumption of center
discharge mill system is higher than for other tube mill systems.
The experience shows, that the center discharge mill system, due to its complexity, is quite difficult to
handle and to operate.
5.2.1 Features
¨ Medium drying capacity up to 15 [%] H20 with a heat source additional to the kiln exhaust gases
¨ Suitable for materials of high hardness, and materials with hard and soft components
¨ Sensitive to false air leakage (sealing around entire mill shell)
¨ Complex process (difficult distribution of gases and tailings)
Figure 8 Center Discharge Mill

Figure 9 Raw Grinding System with Center Discharge Mill

5.3 Raw Grinding System with Air Swept Mill (Figures 10, 11)
Drying, grinding and transport are close connected in an air swept mill system. The drying is done in an
incorporated drying compartment, the grinding in a subsequent single grinding compartment.
The single grinding compartment requires a corresponding pattern of liner plates, as the materials have to
be ground from feed size down to the final fineness in this compartment. Often lifting or combi liners are
used over the first few meters of the compartment and classifying or combi liners over the rest of the
compartment.
One of the weak points of the air swept mill is the diaphragm between drying and grinding compartment,
which has to provide low pressure drop for the gas flow and a good passage for the feed materials.
The drying gases discharge the ground materials from the grinding compartment and convey the
materials through a static or dynamic separator (3) to a dust collection facility (4) (5). The grits from the
separator return to the mill inlet.
One part of the mill exhaust gases are recirculated form the mill fan outlet to the mill discharge to ensure
a sufficient gas speed for the material transport. An other part of the gases are recirculated to the mill inlet
to maintain a proper gas speed and constant conditions within the mill. Excessive false air presents often
a capacity problem of the mill fan and makes a proper control difficult. False air rates of more than 25 [%]
over mill and fan are common.
The close connection between drying and transport with the hot gases make the system quite difficult for
a proper adjustment and optimization.
The pneumatical transport leads to higher electrical energy consumption for the transport part.
5.3.1 Features
¨ Medium drying capacity (limited by max. gas speed within the mill < 6 [m/s])
¨ Low to medium hardness of materials (single grinding compartment)
¨ Small feed size to mill required (< 30 [mm])
¨ Difficult adjustment of the ball charge distribution
¨ Higher gas flow rates cause higher circulating loads
Figure 10 Air Swept Mill

Figure 11 Raw Grinding System with Air Swept Mill

5.4 Raw Grinding System with Vertical Roller Mill (Figures 12, 13)
Drying, grinding and separating are done in one single machine.
The drying gases are used to dry, to provide the internal material circulation, the transport to and from the
separator as well as acting as separating air. The system can only be kept in equilibrium and in stable
conditions by controlling and maintaining a constant gas flow through the roller mill. Normally recirculating
gases are used to maintain the gas flow constant and a negative pressure at the mill inlet. The drop of the
gas pressure across the mill is usually kept constant by adjustment of mill feed rate.
Some systems are setup with cyclones and three fans, whereas others operate only with a filter (3) and
two fans. The duct for the gas recirculation and the duct for direct operation of kiln gases to the filter
should always be separate to avoid operating problems.
This roller mill system works with high negative gas pressures and needs therefore special care of the
sealings to avoid excess false air intake. False air rates of more than 20 [%] over mill and fan are
common.
The external material circulation with a bucket elevator (4) is used to recirculate coarse material, which
falls through the nozzle ring back to the mill inlet. The bucket elevator can easily be used with a surge
hopper in connection with a metal detector by-pass or when emptying the mill for maintenance purpose.
For low moisture the mill is sized according to the grinding capacity, and for high moisture according to
the necessary gas flow rate (casing diameter).
5.4.1 Features
¨ High drying capacities, up to 20 [%] with an additional hot gas generator
¨ Max. mill inlet temperature of < 450 [C] admitted
¨ Efficient grinding process in a compact machine
¨ More specialized maintenance staff required
¨ Coarse material feed size possible < 100 [mm]
¨ Operation at partial load 70 - 100 [%] possible
¨ Large grinding capacities up to approx. 550 [t/h] in one machine
Figure 12 Vertical Roller Mill

Figure 13 Raw Grinding System with Vertical Roller Mill

5.5 Raw Grinding System with Roller Press (Figures 14, 15)
The materials are proportioned to a press feed hopper and are dosed to the gap between the rolls of the
press (2). The discharge material from the press consists of slabs, a type of compacted flakes. The slabs
contain a portion of fine material which has to be broken up in a desagglomerator (3) before it can be fed
to the separator (4). The fines from the separator are collected in a dust collector (5) and leave the
system as raw meal. The separator tailings are sent back to the roller press.
The entire drying takes place in the separator where hot gases are utilized for drying and separating. The
maximum hot gas temperature at the separator inlet depends on the placement of the rotor bearing and
its maximum admissible operating temperature and will generally be around 250 - 300 [C].
For higher drying capacities a single pass separator (4) (5), where up to 100 [%] of the separating air can
consist of hot gases, may be used. For lower drying needs a cyclone air separator (4a) with a steady use
of high amounts of recirculating gases is recommended.
A possibility for drying higher moisture contents is the use of a vertical duct under the separator, which
acts as a flash drier (figure 5). In this case, the bucket elevator is replaced by the raiser duct, feeding the
separator with the material laden flow of hot gas from below. Fine and moist correctives can be fed
directly to the raiser duct.
Material moisture is limited to 3 - 5 [%] H20, above this, the grinding efficiency is reduced and a predrying
facility will be necessary. The drying will be completed in the separator.
Fine and dry feed components call for a reduction of the roller speed for vibration free operation, resulting
in lower production rates.
5.5.1 Features
¨ Suited for low moisture of feed material or even predried materials
¨ Moist components reduce the grinding efficiency and increase the wear rates of the rolls surface
¨ Feed components with high quartz contents also provoke high wear rates, which may cause
excessive stops for rolls surface recharching
¨ Moist feed components may present flow problems in the press hopper
¨ Feed size limited to < 50 [mm] (draw-in action to roller gap!)
¨ Size of a single machine system up to 200 [t/h]
Figure 14 Roller Press

Figure 15 Raw Grinding System with Roller Press

6. WET GRINDING (FIGURES 16, 17)

The wet grinding is an older process which, today and in the future will no more be installed, provided
very special conditions are prevailing.
Typical mills for wet grinding are tube mills with balls or rods.
The raw material is fed through a spout feeder to the tube mill with addition of water. The product leaving
the mill is a slurry which is pumped (3) to a slurry basin (5). The slurry is further conveyed to a wet kiln or
treated by a filter press. In case of a filter press, the filter cakes are either granulated and fed onto a
traveling grate or dried in a drier before being fed to a semi-wet process kiln.
Slurries have typical moisture contents of 28 + 42 [%] H20.
A typical water content of cakes after the filter press is approx. 15 - 18 [%] H20.
Due to the high water content in the mill, high wear rates (mainly corrosion) at liners and grinding media
are resulting. The mills must frequently be recharged with grinding media.
The slurry mills are either operated as open circuit or as closed circuit mill systems. In the latter case,
DSM screens (4), centrifugal or vibrating screens, or hydrocyclones are utilized for separation of the fine
and the coarse fraction.
The electrical energy consumption of a slurry tube mill is quite low as the water addition to the mill favors
the grinding. However more thermal energy is necessary for drying of the high water contents of the
slurry.
6.0.1 Features
¨ Suited for wet raw materials, escavated from under water
¨ Low electrical grinding energy needed
¨ Heavy wear of mill internals and pumps
¨ Today only used in special cases
Figure 16 Slurry Mill

Figure 17 Wet Grinding System with Wet Classifier

7. COMPARISON OF RAW GRINDING SYSTEMS

7.1 Performance (Figure 18)
¨ Moisture content: The moisture content of raw material is the predominant criteria for the
performance of a raw grinding/drying system. The drying capacity is limited by the max. allowable gas
speed within the drier/mill, the volume of drying compartment and the available amount and temperature
of hot gases.
¨ Material feed size: Materials fed to a specific grinding facility have to be crushed to the suitable
max. particle size. In tube mills, the max. ball diameter can be adapted in a very small range to cope
better with a specific feed size.
¨ Grinding capacity: The grinding capacity of a tube mill system increases with smaller material
feed size. The finer the raw meal, the lower the production rate.
¨ Stickiness: Sticky components are difficult to handle and have to be put into a drying
compartment before grinding (roller press is not suitable).
¨ Abrasivity: Suitable equipments are those which have easy replaceable and cheap wear parts
(tube mills).
7.2 Energy Consumption (Figures 19, 20)
¨ Grindability: Raw material grindabilities vary in wide range according to the specific properties of
the components. A comparison between various raw grinding systems can only be done on basis of
grindability tests.

Among the tube mill systems, the slurry mills are generally the lowest (due to the water addition) and the
center discharge mills the highest (suitable system for hard materials) in electrical energy consumption.
¨ Specific energy consumption: Generally can be said, that the lowest specific energy consumption
can be achieved with roller mill and roller press systems based on the more efficient grinding principle.
¨ The experience shows, that three fan systems have about the same specific energy consumption
as two fan systems.
7.3 Grinding Installation
¨ Complexity: Complex systems like center discharge and air swept mill systems are often difficult
to optimize, as there are many interactions between various parameters. The same applies to systems
with integrated pregrinding/predrying facilities.
¨ Extensions: Often the grinding capacity of an existing tube mill system can be increased by
adding a pregrinder, but the drying capacity can only be increased with higher efforts in costs and
considerable space requirements.
Figure 18 Performance of Raw Grinding Systems

Figure 19 Spec. Energy Tube Mills

Figure 20 Spec. Energy Roller Mills

C11 - Drying Technology

Drying Technology
H.P. Fisch
PT 96/14027/E
1. Basics of Drying
2. Analysis and calculation
3. Dryers
3.1 Drum dryers
3.2 Dispersion Dryer
3.3 Rapid Dryer
3.4 Dryer-Crusher
3.5 Flash dryer
3.6 Tube mill (without drying compartment)
3.7 Tube mills with drying compartment
3.8 Vertical roller mills
3.9 Separators
4. Energy Balance (Heat Balance)

1. BASICS OF DRYING
Drying means in general the removal of water from a material. This might be a mechanical or a thermal
"dewatering".
Materials to be dried in the cement industry are normally thermally dewatered, that means the removal of
moisture by evaporation under utilization of various types of hot gases.
Types of moisture are:
¨ Surface moisture
water film on particle surface causing agglomerations of fine particles
¨ Outer Moisture (provokes handling problems)
· cavity moisture
droplets captured in voids between fine particles
· capillary moisture
water drawn in thin gaps between surfaces leads to adhesion and agglomerations of particles
¨ Inner moisture (no influence on handling)
· pore moisturewater
contained in pores
· inherent moisturenatural moisture
inhibited in solid materials
The drying process is mainly influenced by the
¨ characteristics of material
¨ percentage of moisture
¨ type of moisture
¨ particle size of material
¨ time of exposure to heat
¨ drying system
When drying a material, first the surface then the outer and at last the inner moisture is evaporated due to
the heat transfer and moisture diffusion. The outer and surface moisture can evaporate easily. The inner
moisture has to diffuse first to the particle surface, from where it can be evaporated. This diffusion of
moisture is facilitated by heating up the particle.
The water evaporation rate of a moist material increases with higher hot gas temperature and is different
for each material.
The residence time during which a particle is exposed to drying gases as well as the particle sizes are of
utmost importance for a sufficient drying.
Figure 1: Moisture and drying speed

2. ANALYSIS AND CALCULATION

Remember: The values of moisture content are always indicated on wet basis and weight percent. This
means that the weight of the wet material is always 100 %. This rule corresponds to the analysing method
in the laboratory.
In thermal drying processes, the heat is transferred mainly by convection from the gas to the material and
moisture.
Major possible heat sources:
¨ kiln exhaust gases < 350 [°C] (depending on system)
¨ clinker cooler exhaust air < 350 [°C] (depending on system)
¨ hot gases (hot gas generator) < 1300 [°C]
¨ grinding heat (electrical/mechanical energy)
¨ clinker heat (for cement grinding)
The necessary energy of a drying gas is expressed by

Q = required energy [kJ/h]

V = gas flow rate [Nm3/h]
t = gas temperature [°C]
cp = spec. gas heat [kJ/Nm3 ·°C]

and has to be found through a heat balance.

The residual moisture is mainly a function of the exhaust gas temperature and the dry product
temperature after the drying process. For raw material drying, the residual moisture is generally < 1 [%]
H20 and for cement close to zero.
Some types of coal are only dried to the level of the hygroscopic moisture, as the coal will reabsorb
moisture to the equilibrium point. The hygroscopic moisture has no negative effect on the flowability and
handling ability of the coal.
Often, drying of material is done in connection with a grinding process, so called drying/grinding, e.g. raw
mill, coal mill, cement mill. General drying is done in drying equipments (dryers).
Special attention has to be paid to the dedusting equipment of drying installations. Drying exhaust
temperatures have preferably to be kept about 30 [°C] above the dew point temperature of the exhaust
gas to avoid condensation of the moisture in contact with ambient air or cold spots of the equipment.
Sometimes filters and ducts need insulations.
Problems may arise with the handling of material which is partially dried and the dedusting equipment.
Partially dried and warm material is difficult to handle and develops vapors which often clog the filterbags.
Figure 2: Analysis and calculation
3. DRYERS
3.1 Drum dryers
Design
The drum or rotary dryer consists of an inclined steel tube on two tyres driven by a girth gear drive. The
dryer volume is essential for the amount of water to be evaporated. Usually the L/D ratio is kept < 8 [-].
Drying
The heat exchange in a drum dryer depends mainly on:
¨ drum speed
¨ inlet gas temperature
¨ gas speed within the drum
¨ type, size and surface of internal fittings
Drum dryers are specially suited for moist and sticky material (clay components) and allow a larger
material feed size than other dryers.
¨ Parallel flow
Material and gas flow in parallel from the inlet to the discharge. Moist feed material is already exposed to
the hot gas at the dryer inlet. This prevents from clogging the inlet and improves the material flow through
the dryer.
High hot gas inlet temperatures are possible and advantageous (high temperature difference between
moist material and hot gas) for a more efficient heat exchange.
Parallel flow operation is always preferred.
¨ Counter flow
The hot gases enter at the drum discharge, where the material moisture is low. A main disadvantage of
this principle is that the gases at already low temperatures enter in contact with the moist feed material.
An increase in hot gas temperature leads mainly to unnecessary heating-up of the discharge material. On
the other hand, the dust emission is relatively low. Counterflow operation is generally not recommended.
Features

¨ retention time depends on:

· dryer rotating speed 2 - 5 [min-1]
· dryer inclination 3 - 6 [°]
· internal fittings
· gas speed < 6 [m/s]
¨ dust load < 150 [g/m3] in exhaust
¨ pressure drop 2 - 5 [mbar] accross drum
¨ exhaust gas temperature 100 - 120 [°C] Recommende
¨ specific electrical energy consumption ~ 3 [kWh/t] for drum, transport and fan

Figure 3: Drum (rotary) Dryer

3.2 Dispersion Dryer

Design
Dispersion dryers are comparable with a drying compartment of a tube mill. The drums are short (L/D ~
2.5 [-]) and contain lifter plates for the material dispersion across the entire drum length.

The inlet is generally fitted with a trunnion bearing and the support at the discharge end is combined with
the central drive shaft.

A retention ring at the outlet retains the material to a certain level. As the dryer drum is horizontally without
inclination, the material movement towards the outlet is strongly influenced by the material flowability and
the gas speed.

Drying
Material and hot gases are introduced through the trunnion bearing into the drum. Radial openings at the
outlet provide the material discharge and the exhaust gases leave the dryer through the discharge hood
to a dust collecting facility.

The hot gas temperature at the inlet is limited by the admissible temperature for the trunnion bearing.

The lifter plates disperse the material over the dryer cross section for a good contact with the hot gases.

The evaporation rate depends very much on:

¨ gas inlet temperature
¨ material dispersion
¨ material granulometry
¨ retention time

Features

¨ rotating speed ~70 [%] or critical speed, which is almost the same as for a tube mills
¨ higher material filling degrees than drum dryers, up to 15 [%] according to the retention ring at the
outlet
¨ gas speeds < 3 - 4 [m/s] in drum
¨ dust load < 300 [g/m3] exhaust gas
¨ pressure loss < 30 [mbar] depends also on internal fittings, inlet, outlet arrangement
¨ spec. energy consumption < 1 [kWh/t]
< 3.5 [kWh/t] drum
system

Figure 4: Dispersion Dryer

3.3 Rapid Dryer

Design
The rapid dryer is stationary and consists of an air-tight closed casing. The lower part is fitted with one or
two rotating shafts which are fitted with paddles. The paddles throw the material up and disperse it in the
gas stream.
The material transport is based on the paddle action and the gas flow through the dryer.
As the casing is stationary, it can very well be sealed with an inlet and outlet airlock.
The casing inside is lined with wear resistant plates for abrasive materials.

Drying
Rapid dryers are operated in parallel flow mode. High hot gas temperature may be used if necessary,
which leads to sufficient casing wall temperature to prevent build-ups in case of moist feed components.
The mechanically forced dispersion of material in the gas stream enables an intense heat transfer
efficiency and therefore a quick water evaporation.

Features
¨ air speeds in dryer < 1.0 [m/s]
¨ suppliers indicate that slurries with extreme high moisture content can easily be dried (attention to
dew point and filter operation!)
¨ one-shaft dryers are available up to an evaporation rate of 2'500 [kg H2O/h]
¨ the largest dryers available can dry up to 25'000 [kg H2O/h]
¨ this dryer occupies little space
¨ special attention has to be paid to wear on the paddles when processing abrasive materials (slag
etc.)
¨ the energy consumption of rapid dryers is in general higher than for drum dryers due to the
mechanical dispersing by the paddles.
Figure 5: Rapid Dryer

3.4 Dryer-Crusher
Design
As the name reveals, the dryer-crusher is suited for the comminution and the simultaneous drying of soft
and low abrasive materials. Moist feed materials pass through an impact or a hammer rotor and are most
of the time extracted by the proper drying gases. The discharged, ground or partly ground and dried
material may pass a classifier (static or dynamic) for separation of already fine enough particles. The
return material from the separator reenters the crusher, the fines are swept to a dust collector.
Dryer-crushers are used in many different arrangements and set-ups according to the needs and
possibilities.

Drying
The drying process takes place in the crusher and during the subsequent air transport. The comminution
of the feed material improves tremendously the drying effect, as smaller particles provide much better
evaporation of moisture.
The hot gases through the crusher rotor avoid clogging and blockage of the casing. The hot gas
temperature is limited by the heat based stresses and dilatation of the rotor parts.
Crushers with gravity discharge have a much lower drying efficiency than the air-swept types. The effect
is a result of smaller dryer volume and thus lower retention time.

Features
¨ circumferential rotor speed 25 - 35 [m/s]
¨ suited for partial predrying ahead of a mill
¨ single and double rotor crushers available
¨ spec. energy consumption of crusher depends on:
· material hardness
· particle size reduction ratio
· produced fineness
· feed moisture
Figure 6: Dryer-crusher (with separator)

3.5 Flash dryer

Design
Flash dryers have a wide field of applications. They usually are used ahead or in connection with an
additional equipment (crusher, mill separator etc.).
Hot gases are drawn through a vertical duct with a fan, while moist material is fed to the upward flowing
gas stream. Often a disagglomerator is installed ahead of the flash dryer to ensure a fine enough
granulometry. The finer, dried material is collected in a dust collector where the large particles fall out of
the dryer through an airlock.
L/D-ratios reach as far as 8 - 20 [-] according to application and fineness of material.

Drying
Drying takes place during the pneumatical transport with the drying gases. The vertical gas speed has to
be superior to the terminal velocity of the particles to be lifted-up. The heat transfer from the gases to the
particles and the evaporation of moisture is very efficient and intense.
The material to air ratio is limited by an acceptable maximum pressure drop over the system and the
prevailing heat transfer for drying.

Features

¨ gas speed superior than18 - 25 [m/s] according to the particle size

¨ material to air ratio < 1,8 [kg/m3]
¨ typical pressure drop 35 - 45 [mbar] without dust collector
¨ pneumatical transport inceases the specific energy consumption

Ranges of conditions
¨ particles fall down below the terminal velocity
¨ fluidized bed zone (high pressure drop)
¨ critical transition zone with whirling of particles
¨ pneumatic transport for economical operation
Figure 7: Flash Dryer (with disagglomerator)

3.6 Tube mill (without drying compartment)

Design
There are tube mills, mostly two-compartment mills, with end discharge which have no drying
compartment. This is normally the case when materials with low moisture content are ground. Often
cement mills, producing blended cement with wet additives, have to be adapted to a maximum drying
capacity by
¨ utilization of a hot gas source
¨ modification of the inlet arrangement
¨ modification of intermediate diaphragm for maximum open area
¨ modification of mill outlet
¨ provide an appropriate dedusting facility

Drying
The drying must entirely take place in the first compartment. If the material is not sufficiently dry at the
intermediate diaphragm
¨ the slot plates may be clogged or
¨ the material does not flow within the 2nd compartment (loss of efficiency and throughput)
Therefore, the maximum moisture content is limited by the drying ability of the 1st compartment. Beyond
this limit
¨ a predrying facility must be utilized or
¨ the percentage of the wet component must be reduced or
¨ the mill production must be reduced.
Main heat sources are
¨ hot gases (hot gas generator, kiln or cooler exhaust gases)
¨ grinding heat generated by grinding media
¨ hot clinker (in case of cement grinding)

Features

¨ Max. gas/air speed (over ball charge) < 2 [m/s]

¨ Max. gas/air speed (inlet, outlet, diaphragms) < 25 [m/s]
¨ Fan and filter to be adapted to required gas volume and pressure drop
¨ Filter fabric to be selvted to operate with mois exhaust gas
¨ Operate filter at min. 30 [°C] above the point

Figure 8: Tube Mill without drying compartment

3.7 Tube mills with drying compartment

Design
Typical tube mills for drying/grinding are of a design with
¨ end discharge
¨ center discharge
¨ air swept mills
Drying compartments may be incorporated (normal case) or of overhung type. The overhung
compartments are added for a better drying (increase of dryer volume). They allow higher inlet gas
temperatures as the mill bearings are placed at the outlet of these compartments.
Drying compartments have to be fitted with lifter plates for dispersion of material in the gas stream. Worn
lifters reduce the dispersion effect and the drying efficiency.

Drying
The drying has to take place before the material enters into the grinding compartment. The heat source
used is normally hot gas. The drying capacity depends on
¨ total volume of drying compartment(s)
¨ max. acceptable gas speed through mill
¨ hot gas temperatures available/acceptable
¨ type of mill discharge
¨ false air leakage
In case of air swept mills, the gas speed may be higher than in other mills and the gas flow rate to the
separator must be adequate for the pneumatic transport of the ground material.

Features
Typical features are very different for all three mill types and are outlined in the paper "Raw grinding
systems" VA 93/4013/E.
Figure 9: Tube with drying compartment

3.8 Vertical roller mills

Design
The vertical roller mill is specially designed for grinding and drying.
The mill has to be dimensioned for the required grinding or the drying capacity, whichever is the critical
item of the two. The mill table and the mill casing diameter have to be sized for this critical item.
The same applies to the gas flow rate, which has to be adapted either to the grinding needs (internal
material circulation @ grindability) or to the drying needs.
For very moist and sticky materials, the inlet must be designed to avoid clogging and is preferably
centralized (through the separator axis). For coal mills, often screw conveyors force the material to be fed
to the grinding table.

Drying
The vertical roller mill is in principle an airswept mill. As the ground material is extracted by the drying
gases, an excellent heat exchange between material and gases takes place up to the dust collecting
facility.
The hot gases hit the moist material for the first time above the mill's louvre ring. Hot gases enter from the
inlet gas channel and the material, first fed to the center of the grinding table, is spread over the nozzles.
This first contact is the major drying action, where the gas temperature is already reduced to practically
exhaust temperature.
Major material dried and ground in vertical roller mills are:
¨ raw materials
¨ coal
¨ slag
¨ pozzolana

Features
¨ For more technical details see also reports:
· roller mills, VA 94/4167/E
· raw grinding systems, VA 93/4013/E
¨ Recirculating gases are needed to ensure a steady gas flow rate through the mill (transport
function) in case less hot gases are required for drying
Figure 10: Drying in vertical roller mill
3.9 Separators
Design
Air separators are designed to classify partly fine or already ground particles by means of air.
Certain grinding equipments (e.g. roller press, Horomill) are not suited to dry in the mill and need
therefore an additional facility. Up to a certain extent, drying in the separator is possible.
Two problems are obvious:
¨ these mills can handle only materials with low moisture content (efficiency)
¨ only materials with low moisture content can sufficiently be dispersed in the separator.

Drying
The drying capacity in the separator is very limited due to the small volume and the short retention time.
This capacity can be increased by adding a flash dryer ahead of the separator to increase the dryer
volume.
The maximum permissible hot gas temperature is limited by the lower separator rotor bearing to avoid the
overheating of the bearing.
A gas recirculation is needed to keep the gas flow (speed) in flash dryer and separator constant,
regardless of drying gases required.

Features
¨ Wet and fine materials can be added after the grinding equipment, preferably to the flash dryer
¨ Partly fine materials can be fed directly to the the separator
Figure 11: Separator (with flash dryer)

4. ENERGY BALANCE (HEAT BALANCE)

The calculation or recalculation of a drying process is normally done through an energy balance. The aim
of the heat balance is to find the necessary quantity of drying gases to cover the required drying energy.
In principle all energy inputs (indicated as heat) have to be equal to the energy outputs of the drying
system.
Heatbalance: Inputs = Outputs

Procedure:

1) Define borders of the system

2) Define inputs and outputs
3) Compute the balance based on
Heat inputs = outputs [kJ/kg product]
Gas flow inputs = outputs [Nm3/h]
(including false air)
4) Observe the restrictions
· max. gas speed
· max. gas temperature (available and equipment related)
· dew points
· plant altitude (è ait/gas density)

Hints
¨ The heat is always related to 1 [kg] of system output product dry
¨ The heat balance is based on a reference temperature of 20 [°C], therefore the Dt is always (t -
20)
¨ Dust refers to the amount of dust contained in the kiln or cooler exhaust gases/air
¨ In the grinding heat all major electrical consumers are included (mill, separator, fan) as energy
measured at the equipment drive shaft (if not, to be converted with drive efficiency)
¨ The evaporation heat consists of heating up the water to operating temperature and the
subsequent portion of evaporation energy
¨ The radiation/convection losses are often assumed as a spec. figure related to [kg] water
evaporated for simplicity reasons.
Figure 12: Heat Balance

Heat Balance (Example)

Raw grinding system:

Data Vertical roller mill with filter and fan

Production 145 [t/h] raw meal dry
Moisture content 9 [%] initial
Moisture content 0.5 [%] residual
Electrical energie mill 1050 [kW] counter
separator 35 [kW] counter
fan 1100 [kW] counver
Drive efficiencies 93 [%]
Drying gases kiln exhaus gas 340 [°C]
Mill exhaust gases (after fan) 90 [°C]
False air rate system 12 [%]
Recirculating air 42 [%]
Dust in kiln exhaustet gas 70 [g/Nm3]
Index G [t/h] Mill production
Pabs [kW] Absorbed power at counter
h [-] Drive efficiency
V [Nm3/h] Gas/air flow rate
Index k kiln exhaus
h hot gas (from auxiliary furnace)
c cooler exhaust air
f false air
r recirculating air
e mill exhaust gases
cp [kJ/Nm3]
[kJ/kg] Spec. heat value (related to preference temperature
W [kg/h] Amount of Water
Index in moisture in feed material
ev moisture evaporated
out moisture in product
q [kJ/kj H2O] Evaporation / heat
r [kJ/kg H2O] Radiation / convection factor
t [°C] Temperature
Dt [°C] Temperature difference
(operating temp. - reference temp.)
d [kg/Nm3] Dust in drying gas

Figure 13: Heat Balance

Figure 14:
C12 - Cement Grinding Systems

Cement Grinding Systems

K. Breitschmid
VA 93/4014/E (Revised Version 02/98)
1. Overview grinding systems
2. Requirements
3. Grinding systems
3.1 Tube Mill Systems
3.1.1 Tube Mill in Open Circuit (Figure 5)
3.1.2 Tube Mill in Closed Circuit
3.2 Tube Mill Systems with Pregrinding Unit
3.2.1 Roller Press
3.2.2 Vertical Shaft Impact Crusher
3.2.3 Vertical Roller Mill
3.3 Finish Grinding Systems
3.3.1 Roller Press (Figure 13)
3.3.2 Vertical Roller Mill (Figure 14)
3.3.3 Horizontal Roller Mill (Figure 15)
4. Comparison

1. OVERVIEW GRINDING SYSTEMS

The common cement grinding systems are summarized in Figure 1 and can be divided up into three main
groups:

Tube Mill only

All grinding work is done in the tube mill and the set-up is:
¨ Tube mill in open circuit
¨ Tube mill in closed circuit with
· Mechanical air separator
· Rotor type separator

Tube Mill with Pregrinding Unit

A part of the grinding work is done in a pregrinding unit which can be:
Roller press
Vertical shaft impact crusher
Vertical roller mill (without separator, only grinding tool is used or with separator)
Depending on the selected system, the tube mill is in open or closed circuit (in most applications the tube
mill is in closed circuit).

Finish Grinding System

The tube mill is omitted and all grinding work is done in a more efficient comminution machine. The
possible systems are:
Roller press with desagglomerator and rotor type separator
Vertical roller mill with integrated rotor type separator
Horizontal roller mill with rotor type separator
Figure 1: Overview

2. REQUIREMENTS
The requirements on a cement grinding system are manifold and a profound investigation and valuation
of all criteria is necessary in order to find the appropriate solution (technically and economically) for:
Procuring of a new grinding system
Expanding and optimizing an existing system
The common criteria are summarized in Figure 2 and the most important will be further discussed.

Production - Cement Types

From a process point of view the grouping is:
¨ Portland cement 2'500 - 6'000 [cm2/g]
¨ Portland cement with 2'500 - 6'000 [cm2/g]
minor additive £ 5 [%]
¨ Composite or blended cement, 2'500 - 9'000 [cm2/g]
additive > 5 [%]

Possible additives for composite cements are:

Fly ash, pozzolana, blast furnace slag, limestone,
silica fume, calcined clay etc.
A system must be able to grind one or several of above cement types to the required fineness at the
lowest possible energy consumption.
In case of Portland cements cooling must be performed within the system.
In case of composite cements drying within the system is often a need and components with different
grindabilities must be interground.
Figure 2: Requirements

Production - Cement Properties

The cement properties are influencing the:
¨ Workability of the concrete
¨ Early and late strength
The necessary values are given by the market requirements and the standards.
The cement properties are mainly influenced by:
¨ Composition of the cement
¨ Chemical and mineralogical composition of components
¨ Reactivity of clinker
¨ Particle size distribution, particle shape
¨ Sulphate agent:
· Distribution and fineness
· Modification and its solubility
The grinding system has influence on:

Particle Size Distribution and Shape

The particle size distribution is presented in the RRSB-diagram as shown in Figure 3 and characterized
by:
¨ Steepness of distribution n
¨ Limiting particle d' (36,8 [%] R)
The steepness is depending on the type of grinding system, as shown in Figure 3, and can be adjusted
within a certain range.
Without considering the chemical-mineralogical influences often the tendency is, going from wide to
narrow distribution:

Early strength ® decrease

Late strength ® increase
Workability ® worsening

The particle shape can be characterized (simplified):

Round shape ® Tube mill system (grinding by friction)

Angular shape ® Finish grinding system (grinding by compression)

Angular shape could result in a higher water requirement.

Figure 3: Particle Size Distribution

Sulphate Agent
In order to achieve the optimal workability of concrete an adaptation of clinker reactivity, particle size
distribution and soluble calcium sulphate is a need. The relation can be simplified as follows:

Clinker reactivity Particle size distribution Easily soluble CaSO4

Low Wide Low
Low Narrow Medium
High Wide High
High Narrow Very high

Clinker reactivity low C3A < 8 [%], Na2Oeqv. < 0,6, SR > 2,7
Clinker reactivity high C3A > 11 [%], Na2Oeqv. > 0,9, SR < 2,3
Particle size distribution wide n < 0,9
Particle size distribution narrow n > 1,0

Solubility of sulphate agent:

The modification of the sulphate agent is

¨ Dihydrate fed to the mill as "gypsum"

¨ Hemihydrate } produced in the mill under high
} temperature from dihydrate
¨ Soluble anhydrite }
¨ Natural anhydrite fed to the mill as "gypsum"

The solubility is increasing in the sequence:

¨ Natural anhydrite
¨ Dihydrate
¨ Soluble anhydrite / hemihydrate
If supply of easily soluble sulphate is short
® flash set can occur
If oversupply exists
® false set can occur
If high amount of easily soluble sulphate is required, cement must be ground at high temperature.
The following grinding systems are producing a narrow particle size distribution at a low grinding
temperature:
¨ Tube mill in closed circuit with rotor type separator with product collection in bag filter (cooling in
separator)
¨ Finish grinding system with roller press
¨ Finish grinding system with vertical roller mill and horizontal roller mill (less critical)
If the clinker has in addition a high reactivity the system must be laid out in such a way that:
¨ Steepness of particle size distribution can be adjusted
¨ Cement can be ground at high temperature
Operation - Specific Energy Consumption
The total specific energy consumption of a grinding system is depending on a multitude of factors:
¨ Type of grinding system

The highest influence on the energy consumption has the type of system. Figure 4 gives a comparison
between tube mill open circuit, closed circuit, tube mill with pregrinding unit and finish grinding system.
The given [kWh/t] in relation to fineness [cm2/g] should only indicate at which level the individual systems
are and are not absolute values.

Further factors are:

¨ Mill feed
· Composition
· Grindability of components
· Grain size distribution
· Moisture content of additive
¨ Technical condition
· Main machines
· Wear parts in general
· Mill internals, ball charge etc.
¨ Mill control
· Manual
· Automatic (High Level Control)
¨ Use of grinding aid
Figure 4: Specific Energy Consumption

3. GRINDING SYSTEMS
3.1 Tube Mill Systems
3.1.1 Tube Mill in Open Circuit (Figure 5)

Main Elements of System

1) Feed bins with weigh feeders
2) Tube mill with two or three compartments
3) Mill filter: Electrostatic precipitator or bag filter
4) Metal trap: Vibratory screen
5) Cement cooler: Not standard outfit

Judgement
¨ Production
Suited for Portland cement with low fineness.
Not recommended if several types must be ground.
Product characterized by wide particle size distribution.
¨ Operation
Specific energy consumption high for fineness > 3'000 [cm2/g].
Mill output up to 200 [t/h].
Product temperature high. Cooling by mill ventilation and water injection: Due to limited ventilation often
cement coolers are required.
Sensitive to variation in mill feed grindability and granulometry.
¨ Maintenance
High availability of system.
Simple to maintain and proven wear parts.

Comment
The tube mill in open circuit can not be recommended for new installations (exception combination with
pregrinding unit).
Conversion to closed circuit often recommendable due to more flexibility and reduced energy
consumption.
Figure 5: Tube Mill in open circuit

3.1.2 Tube Mill in Closed Circuit

System with mechanical air separator (Figure 6)

Main Elements
1) Feed bins with weigh feeders
2) Tube mill with two compartments
3) Mechanical air separator
Configurations: 1 or 2 mechanical air separators
Separator with/without dedusting
4) Mill filter: Electrostatic precipitator or bag filter with/ without prededusting in static separator or
cyclone 4a
5) Cement cooler: Not standard outfit

Judgement
¨ Production
Suited for Portland cement, Portland cement with minor additives and composite cements (if equipped
accordingly e.g. hot gas generator).
Product characterized by wide to medium particle size distribution.
¨ Operation
Specific energy consumption medium to high depending on product fineness.
Mill output up to 200 [t/h].
¨ Product temperature medium. Cooling by mill ventilation and water injection: Optionally by fresh
air in separator and/or cement cooler.
Variations in mill feed grindability can be equalized.
¨ Maintenance
High availability of system.
Simple to maintain and proven wear parts.

Comment
Most commonly used system for cement grinding.
Not recommended for new installations due to separator design.
Figure 6: Tube Mill in closed circuit, Mechanical Air Separator

System with rotor type separator (Figure 7)

Main Elements
1) Feed bins with weigh feeders
2) Tube mill with two compartments
3) Rotor type separator
Configurations: 3 rotor type separator with bag filter
3a rotor type separator with cyclones and small
dedusting bag filter
4) Mill filter: Bag type
Cement cooler: Not standard outfit and mainly in combination with rotor
type separator with cyclones

Judgement
¨ Production
Suited for Portland cement, Portland cement with minor additives and composite cements (if equipped
accordingly).
Product characterized by narrow particle size distribution.
¨ Operation
Specific energy consumption medium to low.
Mill output > 200 [t/h].
Product temperature medium:
· Configuration 3 - Product respectively grinding temperature low. Cooling by mill ventilation and
fresh air supply to separator.
· Configuration 3a - Product temperature medium. Cooling by mill ventilation and water injection
and optionally by cement cooler.
¨ Maintenance
High availability of system.
Simple to maintain and proven wear parts.

Comment
Suitable for new installations.
Possibility for conversion of old systems from open to closed or for replacement of mechanical air
separators.
Figure 7: Tube Mill in closed circuit, Rotor Type Separator

3.2 Tube Mill Systems with Pregrinding Unit

3.2.1 Roller Press
The roller press in front of the tube mill takes over a part of the grinding work of the mill. Size reduction in
a press is more efficient than in a tube mill.

Basic configurations are (Figure 8):

¨ Roller press in pregrinding mode
Press independent of tube mill, can serve several mills.
Type of tube mill: Closed circuit with mechanical air separator or rotor type separator.
Power relation: Press : mill ~ 20 : 80 [%].
¨ Hybrid system
Press linked together with tube mill, can serve only one mill.
Type of tube mill: Closed circuit with mechanical air separator or rotor type separator.
Power relation: Press : mill ~ 30 : 70 [%].
¨ Two stage grinding system
Press equipped with separator and desagglomerator, with/without intermediate storage, press could serve
several mills.
Type of tube: Closed or open circuit.
Power relation: Press : tube mill ~ 50 : 50 [%].
¨ Finish grinding system
Press equipped with separator and desagglomerator.
Cement is ground in roller press only.

Rule of Thumb
1 [kW] absorbed in the press replaces 2 - 2,5 [kW] in the tube mill.
If roller press is used as a retrofit for existing systems, capacity increases of 25 up to 100 [%] can be
achieved.
Figure 8: Configurations with Roller Press

3.2.1.1 Hybrid / Pregrinding System

Main Elements (Figure 9)

1) Press feed bins with weigh feeders (e.g. clinker, gypsum)
2) Roller press
3) Overflow bin or dividing gate for slabs
4) Additional mill feed bin (e.g. for wet additive)
5) Tube mill with two compartments
6) Rotor type separator: With bag filter or with cyclones
7) Mill filter: Bag type
8) Overflow bin or dividing gate for separator coarse material (not required if
in pregrinding mode)

Operation of Roller Press

The press is fed by fresh feed, slabs and coarses from the separator. If the latter is set zero the press
works as a pregrinding system with slab recirculation only.

Judgement
Production
Suited for all cement types if equipped accordingly.
Product characterized by narrow particle size distribution.
Operation
Specific energy consumption low.
Mill output > 200 [t/h].
Product temperature depends on selected separator (see chapter 3.1.2: System with rotor type
separator).
System can be operated also without roller press.
¨ Maintenance
Roller press: Low wear but very sensitive to foreign matters (metal etc.) Wear protection reconditioning
rollers still in a development phase.
System: Availability is depending on roller press.

Comment
Suitable for new installations (only pregrinding system).
Possibility for capacity increase of existing systems.
Figure 9: Hybrid System

3.2.1.2 Two Stage Grinding System

Main Elements (Figure 10)

1) Press feed bins with weigh feeders (clinker, gypsum)
2) Roller press
3) Rotor type separator with desagglomerator
Separator with bag filter or cyclones
4) Intermediate bin with weigh feeder
5) Tube mill with one or two compartments (open or closed circuit)
6) Mill filter: Bag type
7) Rotor type separator: with bag filter or cyclones
8) Bin for additive with weigh feeder

Judgement
¨ Production
Suited for Portland cement and also for composite cement; the additive can be fed directly to the tube
mill.
In the first stage (press with separator) the cement is ground 1'000 - 1'500 [cm2/g] below desired product
fineness and in the tube mill to the end fineness.
Product characterized by medium to narrow steep grain size distribution.
¨ Operation
System can only be operated without roller press if two compartment mill
Specific energy consumption low.
Max. mill output given by fineness and available press size ~ 150 - 200 (t/h).
Product temperature medium to low. Cooling by mill ventilation, separator cooling and water injection.
¨ Maintenance
Roller press: Low wear but very sensitive to foreign matters.
Wear protection reconditioning rollers still in a development
phase.
System: Availability is depending on roller press.

Comment
Suitable for new installations (not favoured, complicated).
Possibility for capacity increase of existing systems.
Figure 10: Two Stage Grinding System

3.2.2 Vertical Shaft Impact Crusher

The vertical shaft impact crusher in front of the tube mill takes over a part of the grinding work from the
first compartment of a tube mill. The material is crushed to µ 3 [mm].

Basic configurations are (Figure 11):

¨ Vertical shaft impact crusher in open circuit
Material passes only once through the crusher.
Crusher independent of mill, could serve several mills.
Type of tube mill: Any type of mill.
¨ Vertical shaft impact crusher in closed circuit
System works in closed circuit with vibratory screen. Due to screen sensitive against moisture in feed.
Crusher independent of mill, could serve several mills.
Type of tube mill: Any type of mill.

Comment
The utilization of the crusher is mainly seen as a retrofit for existing systems in order to increase grinding
capacity and not for new installations.
Achievable increase: 15 - 20 [%].
Reduction specific energy consumption: 2 - 3 [kWh/t].
The application of the crusher is only sporadically.
Figure 11: Vertical Shaft Impact Crusher

3.2.3 Vertical Roller Mill

The vertical roller mill, as known from the raw grinding, can be used as pregrinding machine. The basic
mill design is as for raw grinding, however, the grinding tools, hydraulic system and drive are adjusted for
clinker grinding. The mill is supplied with or without separator.
Possible configurations are (Figure 12):
¨ Closed circuit with recirculation
Comparable with roller press with slab recirculation.
¨ Closed circuit with screen
In both cases, the vertical mill can serve one or several tube mills. The feed size to the tube is £ 3 [mm].
¨ Two stage grinding system
Comparable with roller press in two stage mode.

Comment
The achievable results are comparable with the roller press.
If the vertical mill is used as a retrofit for existing systems, capacity increases of 25 up to 100 [%] can be
achieved depending on the configuration.
1 [kW] absorbed in the vertical mill replaces 2 - 2,5 [kW] in the tube mill.
The application of the vertical roller mill can mainly be found in the Far East (Japanese suppliers).
Figure 12: Vertical Roller Mill
3.3 Finish Grinding Systems
3.3.1 Roller Press (Figure 13)

Main Elements
1) Feed bins with weigh feeders
2) Roller press
3) Desagglomerator
Options: Desagglomerator combined with separator
Separate desagglomerator
4) Rotor type separator
Configurations: Separator with bag filter
Separator with cyclones and dedusting bag filter
5) Slab recirculation (if required by process)
6) Cement cooler: Not standard outfit

Judgement
¨ Production
Suited for Portland cement and Portland cement with minor additives.
Product characterized by narrow particle grain size distribution (particles angular shape instead of round
shape as from tube mill).
¨ Operation
Specific energy consumption very low.
Mill output limited by max. available press size and fineness ~ 120 - 140 [t/h].
Product temperature medium to low depending on separator set-up. Cooling only by fresh air supply to
separator. Optionally cement cooler for product.
¨ Maintenance
Since new developed system, long term availability figures not assured. Reconditioning wear protection
rollers still item which must be further developed.

Comments
Possible grinding system of the future for Portland Cement due to simplicity and low energy consumption.
Quality problems could occure if clinker has high C3A content. Not suited for blended cement.
Each new installation needs detailed investigations regarding product quality.
Figure 13: Finish Grinding System with Roller Press

3.3.2 Vertical Roller Mill (Figure 14)

Main Elements
1) Feed bins with weigh feeders
2) Vertical roller mill with integrated rotor type separator
3) Mill filter: Bag type
4) Auxiliary furnace: Not standard outfit, mainly used for composite cement

Judgement
¨ Production
Suited for Portland cement, Portland cement with minor additives and composite cements (if equipped
accordingly).
Product characterized by medium to narrow particle size distribution.
¨ Operation
Specific energy consumption very low.
Product temperature medium to low. Cooling by fresh air supply to mill.
If clinker has high reactivity, possibly hot gas has to be supplied to the mill.
Mill output strongly dependent on wear rate of liners table and rollers (output decrease with increasing
wear rate).
Mill output limited by fineness and available mill sizes ~ 120 - 140 [t/h].
¨ Maintenance
Expensive wear parts table and liners.
Long term availability figures not assured.

Comment
Alternatives to roller press system in finish grinding mode.
Not suited for all clinker types due to possible quality problems.
Good solution for composite cement due to excellent drying possibility.
Figure 14: Finish Grinding System with Vertical Roller Mill

3.3.3 Horizontal Roller Mill (Figure 15)

Main Elements
1) Feed bin mill weigh feeders
2) Horizontal roller mill
3) Rotor type separator with bag filter
a) Rotor type separator with bag filter and flash dryer
4) Auxiliary furnace: not standard outfit, only used for composite cement where the additive has a
high moisture and is fed directly to the flash dryer.

Judgement
¨ Production
Suited for Portland cement, Portland cement with minor additives and composite cements (if equipped
accordingly).
Product characterized by medium to narrow particle size distribution.
¨ Operation
Specific energy consumption very low.
Product temperature medium to low. Cooling by fresh air supply to separator (mill only dedusting).
Mill output limited by fineness and available mill sizes ~120 - 140 [t/h].
¨ Maintenance
Since new developed system, long term availability figures not assured.
Wear problems similar to roller press.

Comment
Alternative to roller press and vertical mill.
Horizontal mills are still in a further development phase.
Figure 15: Horizontal Roller Mill

4. COMPARISON

For selecting a new system basically the following possibilities are given:

1. Tube mill closed circuit with rotor type separator

2. Tube mill closed circuit with roller press

2.1 Hybrid/pregrinding system
2.2 Two stage system

3. Finish grinding system

3.1 Roller press
3.2 Vertical roller mill
3.3 Horizontal roller mill
The following table summarizes important criteria in order to facilitate the selection:
 1 2 3
2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3
INVESTMENT COSTS [%] 100 110 120 100 110 110
SPECIFIC ENERGY [%] 100 85 75 60 70 65
PORTLAND CEMENT
- LOW FINENESS
- HIGH FINENESS
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
LIMITED
YES
LIMITED
YES
LIMITED
COMPOSITE CEMENT YES YES LIMITED LIMITED YES LIMITED
CEMENT QUALITY OK OK OK *PARTLY *PARTLY *PARTLY
OPEN OPEN OPEN
EXPANSION POSSIBILITY YES NO NO NO NO NO

*Partly open: Not recommendable if clinker is very reactive

Cooling and Heating in the Cement Grinding Process

Hp. Fisch
PT 99/14489/E
1. Introduction
2. Cooling and heating possibilities
3. Mill ventilation and dedusting
3.1 Mill air cooling
3.2 Mill heating for blended cements
4. Filter technology
5. Water injection
6. Cooling in the separator
7. Cement coolers
8. Heat balance (energy balance)

1. INTRODUCTION
Cooling and heating in the cement grinding process becomes more and more important. On one hand the
market demands in many areas cool cement (e.g. < 60 °C) and on the other hand the cement
manufacturing process requires an accurate balancing of the material temperature. The grinding process
does not only require cooling but also heating is necessary in many cases to keep the process optimal
and to assure a determined cement quality. Specially with the increasing production of blended cements
with moist additives, the temperature must be neatly monitored and assured to efficiently produce a good
quality product.
The following paper deals with cooling and heating of tube mill systems. Some considerations are also
valid in an adapted way to other mill principles such as roller presses, vertical and horizontal roller mills.
What refers to drying and heat balances for various materials is dealt with in the paper “Drying
Technology PT 96/14027/E”. The heat balance at the end of this paper is adapted for a cement grinding
system.
2. COOLING AND HEATING POSSIBILITIES

There are and were many possibilities for cooling and heating in the cement grinding process. The main
possibilities are:
Cooling
¨ Air cooling of the mill (mill ventilation), where the air has a combined function of cooling and to
some extent material transport through the mill.
¨ Air cooling in the separator by using an adjustable amount of ambient air to cool the mill
discharge product which will be divided into finish product and separator returns.
¨ Water spray into the mill, depending on the conditions into the 1st and/or the 2nd compartment, to
keep the mill discharge temperature within limits.
¨ Cement cooling with a cement cooler. The cement slides over a water cooled cylindrical surface
and is cooled by convection.
Heating
¨ Hot gases/air can be used to evaporate the moisture in the mill feed and to keep the temperature
profile within the mill above determined levels. Hot gas may be supplied by hot gas generators or kiln
exhaust gases as well as clinker cooler exhaust air used.
3. MILL VENTILATION AND DEDUSTING
3.1 Mill air cooling
Purpose
The mill ventilation has 3 main functions
¨ mill (product) cooling
¨ transport of fines through mill
¨ fluidization of material within the mill
System

The mill inlet has to provide sufficient open area to draw in the ventilation air. Preferably stair type inlets
are used.

Diaphragms and mill outlets should be designed to enable an adequate passage of air at reasonable air
speeds to keep the air pressure low.

The mill outlet seal has to minimize the false air inleakage and therefore a pendular flap must be installed.

The static separator is still used in older mill systems. For new installations the static separator is no more
used as the new dynamic separators are more efficient.
Dimensioning of mill ventilation
¨ Air flow rate

The installed air flow rate is only based on the air speed over the ball charge. Fig 2 shows the values
based on nominal mill diameters, 30 [%] ball filling and 15 [%] false air. The air flow rates are therefore
nominal fan volumes.

Air speeds for system dimensioning are:

· closed circuit mills < 1.5 [m/s] over ball charge
· open circuit mills < 1.0 [m/s] over ball charge
¨ Inlet, outlet and diaphragms, maximum air speeds of < 25 [m/s] related to gross open area.
¨ A false air rate of ~15 [%] has to be considered between mill outlet and fan. This results normally
in air temperature of 5 [°C] below cement temperature at mill discharge. Higher temperature differences
point to higher false air rates.
¨ The mill exhaust air temperature must always be kept > 30 [°C] above the dew point temperature
(t) to avoid condensation problems. Excessive false air favors condensation.

3.2 Mill heating for blended cements

In many cases, specially when grinding blended cements with moist additives, heating is required instead
of cooling.
Up to a certain moisture content in the feed, clinker and grinding heat are sufficient to evaporate the
moisture. However often additional heat is required for drying. This heat can be taken from kiln exhaust
gases, clinker cooler exhaust air or be generated by an auxiliary furnace (hot gas generator).
As a general rule it can be said, that the material fed to the mill must be dry at the intermediate
diaphragm. If not, severe operating problems may arrive e.g. clogging of diaphragm, bad material flow
behaviour etc.
The experience has shown, that material temperature below ~100 [°C] at the intermediate diaphragm
reduces the grinding efficiency and the mill production (due to moist material and poor material flow). With
such conditions, due to grinding heat of the 2nd compartment, the mill discharge temperature increases
and must be cooled down again by water injection in the mill outlet to reach the appropriate product
temperature at the mill discharge.

In cases of drying needs, all separating air in the separator must be recirculated to keep the maximum
temperature of the separator grits returning to the mill inlet and keep the maximum heat within the mill
system.
For blended cements with lower moisture contents, drying can take place directly in the first grinding
compartment. With higher moisture contents a drying compartment is necessary or the additives must be
dried before feeding to the mill. The limit for drying in the grinding compartment is approx. 4 [%] mixed
moisture in the mill feed, but depending on the clinker temperature and clinker proportion in the mix, as
well as the available hot gas temperature.
The mill inlet temperature with hot gases should not exceed 300 [°C], as above this temperature adverse
effects on gypsum dehydration will take place.
Special attention should be paid to dimensioning of the hot gas generator. Many times hot gas generators
are sized for the maximum drying needs plus reserve. In these cases the turn down ratio must be such,
that also minor moisture contents can correctly be dried with a good and stable operation of the furnace.
Bag filters for dedusting of the mill system must be insulated and cold spots avoided to eliminate the risk
of condensation.
4. FILTER TECHNOLOGY
For dedusting of mills and separators only bag filters are used today, regardless of the fact that ordinary
portland or blended cements are produced. Electrostatic precipitators are no more applied due to
operational and environmental reasons.
The mill bag filter should only be used for mill ventilation and not additionally dedust other equipment.
Also mill dedusting air drawn through the dynamic separator must be avoided due to operational
difficulties.
Filter sizing

A properly sized and well engineered filter avoids a lot of operating problems and saves costs.
Filter design
There are many different types, makes and philosophies to design and install bag filters. Preferred filters
are pulse jet types. It is important to install a properly sized filter with sufficient compressed air. The
compressed air must have decent air dryers, specially in tropic countries to avoid contact of moist air with
cement and hence clogging of the bags.
In case of higher dew points and installations outside of buildings an insulation of the filter is necessary.
A dust drop-out box can be installed at raw gas dust contents > 300 [g/m3], however not all suppliers
favor such installations.
Walk-in plenums present advantages with regard to tight housings (less false air) and can be installed
outdoors without problems.
Filter operation
Special attention should be paid to the shut down procedure:
¨ Continue cleaning the filter bags for a couple of cleaning cycles before allowing the temperature
to drop below the dew point. As the filter cools, moisture may condense on the bags once the dew point is
reached.
¨ Do not store dust in the hopper. The presence of any moisture will cause it to set, requiring
manual work for its removal.
¨ Allow bags to clean down after dust has stopped entering the hopper, but do not over clean.
¨ Check to see that all components are in the proper shut down mode.
5. WATER INJECTION
Purpose
Tube mills generate a lot of heat and together with hot clinker increase the product /temperature along the
mill axis. Too high material temperatures in the mill may cause
¨ coating (hampering fluidization of material)
¨ false set of cement (by dehydration of gypsum to soluble anhydrite and then recrystallization to
gypsum)
¨ cement storage problems in silo (lump formation).
If the cooling by fresh air and radiation/convection is not sufficient, water injection into the mill is
necessary. The aim of water injection is to evaporate water and so to extract heat from the material.
Water injection systems

Water can be injected into the

¨ 1st compartment
¨ 2nd compartment
· from inlet (co-current)
· from outlet (counter-current)
The co-current injection into the 2nd compartment requires an installation of the water pipe from the
center of the inlet around the shell of the first compartment to the center of the intermediate diaphragm.
The installation is more complex but the cooling effect is more favorable, as the temperature increase is
slight and the temperature level is lower than for counter-current installations (graph. of Fig. 5). The
injection should be in form of a spray rather than a jet to keep the evaporation in the first part of the
compartment.
Counter-current injections are easy installations (except with central drives) and cool down rapidly the last
part of the compartment. In general, the temperature level over the second compartment is higher than
with co-current injections. The injection should be a jet reaching far into the grinding compartment.
Counter-current systems are easy to install in mills with pinion or side drives. With central drives, injection
glands around the central drive shaft have to be fitted. Many poor experiences with the tightness of these
glands have been made and therefore it is not recommended to adopt such solutions.
If ever possible the water spray nozzles should be surrounded by tubes, carrying air from a blower to
keep the nozzle always clean (Fig. 6). Leading compressed air together to the water pipe and to the spray
nozzle is an other solution.
Operation
Every time the cement mill is running or the mill ventilation is on, the cleaning air of the water injection
system must be running. After a mill stop, the air cleaning system must continue for a few minutes.
Water is in general first injected into the second compartment and only when the cement temperature at
the mill discharge exceeds 100 [°C]. Injection into the first compartment is only allowed when feeding hot
clinker (mixed temperature > 100 [°C]). Below these temperatures there is a risk of not sufficient
evaporation of the water and clogging of diaphragms.
Water injection acts like grinding aid in the mill and fluidizes the material. The control of water injection
should therefore always gradually be changed (no steps) to avoid rapid emptying or filling of the mill.
When no water is injected the solenoid valves must be closed and tight to avoid water from dripping into
the mill.
In most cases the max. portion of water injected into the first and second compartment is done according
to their percentage in length e.g. max 1/3 into the first and 2/3 into the second compartment.
Control

The water injection is controlled with a control loop in function of the clinker or cement temperature.
In the first compartment either the clinker temperature of the mill feed or the cement temperature at the
intermediate diaphragm are the process values measured.
In the second compartment either the cement (mill discharge) or the exhaust gas/air temperature can be
taken. The exhaust air temperature is normally min. 5 [°C] below the cement temperature, depending on
the false air rate.
The control loop consists of a water flow meter which value is compared to the set point of the controller
(based on measured temperature). Any change is transmitted the water flow control valve for a
corresponding adjustment.
6. COOLING IN THE SEPARATOR

Cooling of the cement, finish product and separator grits, can be done in the separator, in case the
separator system allows for.
New separators can be fitted with bag filters as single pass separators. The air passes through the
separator, filter and fan. The clean fan exhaust air can be blown to the atmosphere or recirculated to the
separator inlet. Fresh air substitutes the exhausted air and does the cooling in the separator. The more
fresh air with ambient temperature is used the higher is the cooling effect. The more air is recirculated the
lower the cooling.
At least 5 [%] of the total separating air is always fresh air in form of false air inleakage. The cooling level
is adjusted by the recirculating and the fresh air flap.
A cold mill should always be started up with a maximum amount of recirculating air to heat up the mill
system. As soon as the operating temperatures of the mill system are reached then fresh air can be used
to cool down the material to the target temperatures.
A maximum cement cooling capacity of a separator, cooling with fresh air is around 25 – 30 [°C]. For
higher cooling needs, additional cooling facilities e.g. cement coolers have to be used.
Besides cooling the finish cement to the silo, this cooling method also cools down the separator grits
returning to the mill inlet. Cool separator grits have on one hand a cooling effect in the first mill
compartment but can on the other hand cool down too much. At too low material temperatures at the
intermediate mill diaphragm the mill production is reduced. In this case the temperature level of the
separator grits must be increased again by recirculating more warm separating air back to the separator
inlet.
In any case a detailed heat balance must be calculated to give the necessary information for the
prevailing situation and the cooling/heating needs.
Fig. 8 shows a tube mill system with a singlepass separator. The example shows the cooling effect at
maximum fresh air amount used at the separator inlet. As a result, the material temperature at the
intermediate diaphragm is low and leads to reduced mill production rate.
7. CEMENT COOLERS

Purpose
Cylindrical cement coolers are efficient and low energy consuming solutions to cool down the cement
after the grinding process. Reasons for cooling may be
¨ customer requirement
¨ cement bagging and bag handling at low temperature
¨ avoid lump formation in the cement silos (<70 [°C]: reduction of water release from gypsum
dehydration)
Principle
Water cascades in a thin layer over a cylindrical body from the top to the bottom and cools down the
cooler shell. Hot cement is introduced to a type of screw conveyor at the bottom and conveyed up along
the cooler shell to the discharge at the top. Intense heat transfer occurs from the cement powder at the
inside of the shell, through the shell wall to the water layer at the outside. The cooling occurs in counter
current, that means the best cooling is done with the lower water temperature at the cement discharge at
the top of the cylinder.
The cooling water recirculates in a closed water circuit. A water cooler reduces the water temperature
before feeding it again to the top of the cylinder.
Performance
¨ Cement coolers exist up to 200 [t/h] for a single cylinder.
¨ The cylinder size varies with the cement throughput and the cooling capacity.
¨ Cooling the cement from 120 [°C] down to ~60 [°C] is common.
¨ The spec. cooling rate is approx. 1.25 [kJ/m °C h].
¨ Typically the cooing water is heated up from 25 – 40 [°C] along the cylinder.
¨ Spec. electrical energy consumption of cooler and water treatment plant is approx. 1 [kWh/t]
cement.
¨ Increasing ovality of the cylindrical shell decreases the efficiency. A minimum clearance between
screw flights and shell has to be aimed at.
Water treatment
¨ The water must have an acceptable quality, often the water must be softened by decalcifying
units to avoid lime furring on the cooling surfaces.
¨ Lime furring can also be reduced through a cathodic protection of the shell.
¨ The water consumption in a closed water circuit refers only to the make-up water due to the
losses in the water cooling units.
8. HEAT BALANCE (ENERGY BALANCE)

If ever cooling or heating needs must be calculated, the appropriate model is a heat balance calculation.
The aim of such a calculation is to check the temperatures at the critical points and the quantities of
cooling air, water or hot gases needed to fulfil the requirements.
In principle all heat inputs (energy) have to be equal to the heat outputs of the system in question.

Heatbalance:
S Inputs = S Outputs

Procedure
1) Define borders of the system(s); for cement grinding systems it is recommended to define two
systems, separator and mill part.
2) Define inputs and outputs for each system.
3) Compute the balances based on

1) Heat 2) inputs 3) = 4) outputs 5) [kJ/kg product]

1) Air/gas flows 2) inputs 3) = 4) outputs 5) [Nm3/h]

4) Observe the restrictions

- max. gas/air speeds in mill, mill inlet/outlet
- max. gas temperature at mill inlet (available and recommended)
- max. possible water injection rate for 1st and 2nd compartment
- plant altitude (density of air)
Hints
¨ The balance can be equally done for any grinding equipment (tube mill, vertical mill, roller press,
horizontal mill etc.) based on the same principle and adapting the systems according to the features of
the equipment.
¨ The heat is always related to 1 [kg] of finish cement at the system outlet.
¨ The heat balance is based on the reference temperature of 20 [°C], therefore the Dt is always (t-
20) and negative heats are possible.
¨ All grinding heats of the major electrical consumers are referred to their motor shafts and have to
be converted to the mechanical power absorbed of this equipment if necessary.
¨ The evaporation heat of water consists of heating up the water to the operating temperature an
the subsequent portion of evaporation energy.
¨ The radiation/convection losses are often assumed and are related to an estimated surface (e.g.
mill surface times factor x) at an estimated surface temperature (e.g. t-10 [°C]).

Heat balance example

Cement grinding system

System: Tube mill with separator

Mill diameter 4.6 [m]
Mill length 15.5 [m]
Motor power 5000 [kW] abs.
[%] Overall drive eff. 91 [%]
Operating data:
Production 180 [t/h] Pozzolana cement
Composition Clinker 71 [%] gypsum
Gypsum 4 [%] 4 [%] H2O
Pozzolana 25 [%] 8 [%] H2O
Clinker temperature 150 [°C]
Ambient temperature 20 [°C]
Water temperature 15 [°C]
Hot gas temperature 450 [°C]
Mill inlet temperature ~200 [°C]
Mill discharge temp. (cement) 110 [°C]
Mill discharge temp. (gas) 105 [°C]
Finish product temperature 104 [°C]
Mill fan flow rate 33000 [Nm3/h]
Index
G [t/h] mill production
u [-] circulation factor (feed/product)
t [°C] Temperature
Pabs. [kW] absorbed power (counter)
h [-] efficiency of drives
cp [kJ/kg] spec. heat value (related to reference temperature)
[kJ/Nm3]
W [l/h] water to be evaporated
index: in moisture in feed material (incl. water injected)
ev evaporated water
V [Nm3/h] air/gas flow rate
index: g gas
a fresh air
ex exhaust air
s fresh air separator
k [kJ/m2 °C h] radiation/convection factor
A [m2] radiation surface
q [kJ/kg H2O] heat of evaporation

The cp-values are given in Fig. 12.

For the additives pozzolana, fly ash and gypsum the cp-values of raw material can be used.
Fig. 12
Manufacturing of Blended Cement

1. INTRODUCTION
2. PROCESS TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
3. MANUFACTURING POSSIBILITIES
3.1 General
3.2 Drying
3.3 Grinding
3.4 Storage, Proportioning and Blending
4. FURTHER SELECTION CRITERIA
5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Summary
The additive components of blended cements (or masonry cements) are mostly ground together with
clinker in a tube mill (compound grinding). The product specifications (fineness, homogeneity) can thus be
fulfilled without major problems. Disadvantages are high power consumption and limited drying capacity
within the mill.
To overcome these disadvantages the additive components can be ground separately with subsequent
proportioning and blending of the components. Grinding as well as drying represents no problem.
However, attention has to be paid to the selection of the proportioning devices and the blending
procedures to meet the standard specifications.
Small capacities are often produced in compound grinding whereas separate grinding should be preferred
for large capacities.
1. INTRODUCTION
Prior to any manufacturing of blended cements a detailed investigation of the components to be blended
with cement is mandatory.
Figure 1 Manufacturing of Blended Cement and Masonry Cement

MATERIAL INVESTIGATION PROCESS SELECTION

Þ Suitability of component

Þ Mix ratio etc. Þ Þ Grinding system

Þ Drying system etc.

ß
Target:
PRODUCTION OF HOMOGENEOUS CEMENT WITH ADEQUATE QUALITY AT LOWEST
PRODUCTION COSTS

The material investigations shall give some indications with regard to the suitability and the possible mix
ratio of the additive component. These results and further evaluations of the properties of the additive
component and the final product shall serve as a basis for the process selection. The material and
process investigations have the same common target:

‘Production of a homogenous cement with an adequate quality at lowest production costs.’

2. PROCESS TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
The main task of the manufacturing of blended cement is to replace clinker by other hydraulic active
materials.
Figure 2 Process Technological Properties of Blended Cement and Masonry Cement

Type of cement BLENDED CEMENT MASONRY CEMENT

Type of blend component Synthetic
pozzolan Natural pozzolan Limestone
Dolomite
Slag Fly ash Pozzolan
Tuff
etc. Marl
Raw meal
etc.
Chemical properties same as Portland-cement
qualitatively not comparable
Mix. proport. (%) 20 - 70 10 - 30 10 - 30 30 - 70
Grindability (kWh/t) 30 - 40 5 - 20 20 - 30 5 - 30
Moisture cont.
(% H2O) 0 - 20 0 - 35 5 - 15 0 - 20
Process aspects directly ground and dried without further preparation exploitation and/or
crushing prior to grinding - drying required

Hydraulic active materials are synthetic pozzolan (such as slag and fly ash) and natural pozzolan. From
the material technological point of view a strict difference has to be made between blended cements and
the so called masonry cements. The chemical properties of blended cements are comparable to those of
ordinary Portland cement whereas masonry cements have due to their quite specific application not the
same product properties.
As far as the process technological aspects are concerned the additive components used for the blended
cements and masonry cements can be subdivided into materials which can without further preparation
directly be ground to blended cements and into materials which require prior to grinding a further
processing such as exploitation and/or crushing. The first group includes the cements containing
industrial by-products such as slag cement and fly ash cement whereas the second group includes the
pozzolan cement and masonry cement.
Nevertheless, the manufacturing processes of both blended cements and masonry cement are basically
connected with the same problems; i.e. the relevant process technology know-how of blended cements
are within some limits also valid for the masonry cement preparation.
3. MANUFACTURING POSSIBILITIES
3.1 General
As it can be concluded from the rather different properties of the additive components there seems to be
a large number of possible manufacturing possibilities.
It is not the target of this presentation to describe the alternatives in every detail but to summarize the
outcome of an evaluation of a questionnaire concerning the manufacturing of blended cements.
Considering these plant experience and furthermore taking into account the result of different laboratory
tests carried out at HMC/TC the manufacturing of blended cements can roughly be subdivided into two
methods; which are
· compound grinding of the additive components in one mill and
· separate grinding of both, the additive component and the clinker with subsequent blending
Figure 3 Manufacturing Possibilities for Blended and Masonry Cement

In the compound grinding method the components are ground and blended in one single piece of
equipment. Depending on the moisture content of the additive component often also drying can be
effected in the mill. Most of the blended cements and masonry cements in the Holcim Group plants are
produced by compound grinding.
If the additive components have a very different grindability as compared to clinker or in case of elevated
moisture contents of the component a separate grinding is often more advantageous. The component can
either be dried separately or it can be dried in a grinding-cum-drying system. Separate grinding requires
in addition to the grinding and the drying system also intermediate storage, proportioning and blending
facilities. Considering the larger number of equipment required in case of separate grinding, this method
is often only feasible if large quantities of blended cements or masonry cements have to be produced.
Each process step as well as the selection of the relevant equipment has to be carefully evaluated by due
consideration of the prevailing properties of the additive components and the required product
specifications. The most important criteria concerning drying, grinding, storage, proportioning and
blending are dealt with in the following chapters.

3.2 Drying
Most of the additive components have a high moisture content so that they have to be dried. The decision
whether the component can be dried inside the mill or if a separate drying plant is required depends
basically on the prevailing moisture content and the mix ratio of the additive component. To judge the
limits of drying inside a mill a heat balance has to be elaborated.
Figure 4 Drying-cum-Grinding of Blended Cement

The simplified heat balance as shown in figure 4 is based on the following assumptions:
· Grindability of clinker and additive component more or less identical
· Clinker temperature: 130 - 140 ° C
· Cement temperature: 100 ° C
· Mill exit air temperature: 90 ° C
· Air speed inside mill: 2 m/s
The heat balance assumes that the heat output by radiation, convection, cement and mill exhaust air
remains constant independent of the relevant moisture content of the mixture. The heat output by
evaporation is in turn directly related to the moisture content.
As it can be seen in figure 4 the total heat required for drying is only partially covered by the heat input by
hot clinker and by grinding heat; i.e. the additional heat has to be provided by hot gases.
For a moisture content of the mixture of up to 4.0 % a hot gas temperature of 100 - 250 ° C is required.
The hot gases can (if available) taken from a grate cooler. At a higher moisture content of the mixture the
required hot gas has to be supplied by an auxiliary furnace with a temperature in a range of 300 - 800 ° C.
Due to the potential risk of dehydration of the gypsum at these elevated temperatures a drying of the
component in the mill is therefore in such a case often not recommendable.
If a substitution of the gypsum by anhydrite is not possible there are basically two possibilities to avoid the
risk of dehydration; reduce the mix proportion to such a level that a low drying gas temperature is
sufficient or separate drying of the additive component outside of the mill. Whether the first or second
measure should be applied depends on the investment costs of a separate drying plant compared with
the increase of the production costs due to an increase of the portion of clinker to be used.
If no hot gases at all and no separate drying facilities are available the mix proportion has consequently to
be reduced to maintain a moisture content of the mixture which can be dried in the mill by the clinker heat
and by the grinding heat only.
It is obvious that the conclusions as derived from figure 4 can not directly be transferred to every type of
blended cement manufacturing. A heat balance has to be established for each case taking into account
the relevant material properties as well as type and size of the mill equipment.
3.3 Grinding
The grindability of the individual components is of great importance for the decision which type of mill and
which preparation system has to be selected.
The evaluation of the grindability tests are carried out at the HMC/TC laboratories shows considerable
differences between the grindability of the individual components (figure 5).
Figure 5 Specific Power Consumption (Test Mill) of Mix Components of Blended Cement

Slag shows as compared with clinker generally a poorer grindability whereas the pozzolan shows a better
grindability than the clinker. The grindability of the fly ash can be judged as very good.
The grindability of the additive component alone is, however, not a definite indication about the reaction in
the mill when they are ground together with clinker. No specific grinding problems have to be expected, if
the grindability of the slag or of the pozzolan is in the same order of magnitude as the clinker. As soon as
the grindability of the additive component is very different from the clinker an overgrinding of the easier
grindable component has to be expected. This could lead to disturbances of the grinding operation and
therefore result in a capacity drop and in an increase of the specific power consumption.
To avoid these disadvantages it is often recommended to grind components with widely differing
grindabililty in two separate mills. The ball charge composition of each mill could in this case be optimally
adjusted to the relevant additive component.
Fly ashes are due to their very fine granulometry not directly interground with the clinker but they are fed
to the separator. The coarse particles of the fly ash are recirculated to the mill whereas the fine fraction is
going into the final product. The coarse fraction of the fly ash acts depending on its carbon content also
as a grinding aid; i.e. with the addition of fly ashes the mill output can often be increased.
3.4 Storage, Proportioning and Blending
If the additive component is supplied in a very fine granulometry (e.g. fly ash) or in case of separate
grinding, the component is very often fed to the separator where it is blended with the cement.
Figure 6 Storage, Proportioning and Blending of Blended Cement

Experience has shown that for a mix proportion of the additive of up to 30 % no overload of the separator
has to be expected.
If the portion of the additive component is higher than 30 % the blending of the component has to be
carried out in separate blending devices, such as forced mixers, mix screws, homogenizing silos, etc.
For a separate blending of the components, they have to be stored in intermediate storage silos. The flow
properties of the dried and ground materials lead often to the risk of uncontrolled material rushes and
discharge problems.
To prevent material bridges or to avoid a piping effect where only material in the middle is discharged it is
advantageous to design the silos for mass-flow.
As far as the proportioning of the components is concerned it has to be emphasized that an adequate
proportioning is much more important than the subsequent blending process. The best blending device is
not able to compensate proportioning errors.
For small quantities volumetric feeders such as rotary feeders and proportioning screws are often
sufficient. If a high feeding accuracy is required it is recommendable to install gravimetric feeders such as
weigh feeders or impact flow meters.
Depending on the local conditions either batch blending or continuous blending is used. Batch blending
can for example be used where the blended cement is loaded directly into bulk carrier vehicles. Both
blending methods can be used if the blended cements are stored in silos.
4. FURTHER SELECTION CRITERIA
As mentioned previously the selection of the grinding, drying and blending method is principally dictated
by the raw material properties and the product specifications.
Further to these process technological criteria, however, also the relevant standards and regulations, the
market situation, the plant location and last but not least also the production costs have to be considered.
Figure 7 Compilation of Process Selection Criteria

Raw material properties

® Grindability
® Granulometry
® Moisture Content

Product properties
® Fineness
® Homogeneity
Standards
® Process
® Mix Ratio Þ Adequate quality
at lowest costs!

Market / Location
® Product Variability
® Infrastructure

Production costs
® Investment Cost
® Energy Cost

In some countries there are standards which specify the manufacturing of blended cements by compound
grinding only.
If there are several customers who want different compositions of blended cements this demand can
often only be satisfied by separate grinding and separate storage of the components.
The location of the cement plant and the location of the available additive component is of course also of
influence for the selection of the preparation system. It is quite possible that the two locations to be far
apart so that the individual components can for transport reasons only be transported whey they are
already ground, which means that the components would have to be ground separately.
If the blended cement accounts for only a small percentage of the total production of the grinding system
the blended cement can often be manufactured by compound grinding of the components in an existing
mill. Any higher costs of production incurred in this way in comparison to separate grinding are almost
negligible.
On the other hand, if it is intended to change over production from Portland cement to blended cement, or
if the blended cement accounts for a very high percentage of the total production, it is absolutely essential
for a change in the grinding system to be studied in detail so as to ascertain both, the cost of production
and the level of investment and to compare them.
When design work is being carried out for a new grinding system all aspects that have been referred to so
far, must be looked into in detail to ascertain an adequate quality at lowest costs!
5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1) H. Kaiser
Erzeugung von Hüttenzement in getrennter Vermahlung
(Production of Slag Cement by separate Grinding)
Zement-Kalk-Gips 1972, no. 2, p. 67 - 68
2) R. Abthai
Das moderne Schlackenzementwerk der Aria Cement, Iran
(The modern Slag Grinding Plant of Aria Cement, Iran)
Zement-Kalk-Gips 1975, no. 1, p. 36 - 42
3) W. Ambrush and N. Ahrens
Betonbindemittel; Umschlag auf Mischanlage für Flugasche
(Handling and Blending of Fly Ash)
Zement-Kalk-Gips 1974, no. 12, p. 615 - 617
4) G. Hilgard
Das neue Hochofenzement-Mahlwerk, Duisburg-Schwelgern
(The New Slag Grinding Plant Duisburg-Schwelgern)
Zement-Kalk-Gips 1976, no. 11, p. 499 - 505
5) W. Liebler
Erfahrungen mit einer Schlackenzement-Mahlanlage mit Steigrohrtrockner
(Experience with a Slag Grinding Plant with Flash Dryer)
Zement-Kalk-Gips 1980, no. 9, p. 452- 454
6) H.G. Ellerbrock
Mahlbarkeit von Klinker und Hüttensand
(Grindability of Clinker and Slag)
VDZ-Kongress 1977, p. 179 - 184
7) F. W. Locher
Verfahrenstechnik und Zementeigenschaften
(Influence of Process Technology on Cement Properties)
VDZ-Kongress 1977, p. 627 - 640
8) Robertson
Slag Grinding at the Waylite Plant, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, USA
Rock-Products 1979, April, p. 56
9) Alsted Nielsen (F.L. Smidth)
Use of Fly Ash and Slag in the Cement Industry
Pit & Quarry 1981, July, p. 76 - 79
10) J. Decasper
Masonry Cement Preparation
VA 80/29/E
11) K. Breitschmid
Process Aspects and Selection Criteria of Blended Cement and Masonry Cement Manufacturing
MA 82/2859/E
12) W. Osswald
Influence of Material Properties on the Manufacturing Process of Pozzolan Cement at Polpaico
MA 82/2860/E
13) P. Liebl
The Installation for the Manufacture of Blended Cements at Gmundner Zementwerke Hans Hatschek AG
MA 82/2861/E
14) T. Dratva, J. Gebauer, M. Kristmann, P. Zgraggen
Comparative Study on Additives and Blended Cements of the “Holderbank” Group Plants
MA 82/2848/E
1)

Roller Press

1. INTRODUCTION
2. GENERAL DESIGN AND WORKING PRINCIPLE
2.1 General Design (Figure 1)
2.2 Working Principle (Figure 2)
3. DIMENSIONING AND DIMENSIONING CRITERIA (FIGURE 3 AND 4)
4. OPERATIONAL ASPECTS
4.1 Installation of Roller Press (Figure 5)
4.2 Feed Granulometry and Roller Speed (Figure 6)
4.3 Adjustable Feed Gate (Figure 7 and 8)
4.4 Operating Parameters (Figure 9)
5. MECHANICAL ASPECTS (FIGURES 10 AND 11)
5.1 Wear
5.2 Press Protection (Figure 11)
5.3 Movable Feed Bin
5.4 Inspections
6. MAIN SUPPLIERS
6.1 Krupp - Polysius (Figure 12)
6.2 KHD - Humboldt Wedag (Figure 13)
6.3 F.L. Smidth-Fuller (Figure 14)

1. INTRODUCTION
The roller press is a relatively new development in the cement manufacturing process. This efficient
comminution machine is applied mainly for clinker but is also used for raw material and slag. The size
reduction of the material takes place under high pressure between two rotating rollers.
The press can be installed in combination with a tube mill (new installation or expansion of an existing
mill) or as a finish grinding system.
2. GENERAL DESIGN AND WORKING PRINCIPLE
2.1 General Design (Figure 1)
The design of the roller press is dependent on the supplier, however, the basic construction is very similar
for all makes.
The main elements are:
¨ Press frame
¨ Pair of rollers
· One fixed roller
· One movable roller
· Each complete roller consists of the roller body with wear protection, two rolling bearings and two
sliding blocks (bearing housings). The lubrication can either be by oil or grease. The rollers can be
with/without water cooling.
¨ Rollerdrive (two units)
· Planetary gear with torque arm
· Drive shaft (fixed or movable)
· Electric motor (fixed or variable speed)
¨ Hydraulic system
· Cylinders (two or four)
· Nitrogen accumulators (two or several)
· Power pack consisting of oil tank, pump, motor and valves
Figure 1 General Design

· Feed bin with level indicator or load cells (not part of the press)
· Adjustable feed gate
The area around the rollers is covered in order to prevent dust emission.
2.2 Working Principle (Figure 2)
Bulk material is fed to the gap between two rollers which are driven in counter-rotation. The necessary
press force is created by a hydraulic-pneumatic system which works like a spring.
¨ Feed
It is distinguished between choke feed and starved feed.
· Choke feed: A column of material lays over the rollers. In this case, in order to assure smooth
operation, it is very important that the material is deareated before it enters the gap. The choke feed is the
common solution.
· Starved feed: The feed is dosed into the gap (no material column). The advantage is that the air
can easily escape, however, this solution requires a very accurate dosing equipment.
¨ Pressing process (size reduction)
· The compaction of the material with the density ro starts at the nip angle a. The maximum is
achieved at the so called attack angle b (center of pressure) where the material reaches the slab density
rG.
· Between a and b an interparticle comminution takes place where each particle transmits the force
imposed on it to another particle. Best results are achieved with materials of wide particle size distribution
with a maximum filling of the voids. In the pressing process a simple size reduction takes place but also
flaws and fissures within the particles are produced reaching into the micro range.
¨ Product
· The material leaves the press in form of slabs which normally have the gap thickness s. For
further processing these slabs must often be desagglomerated.
Figure 2 Working Principle

3. DIMENSIONING AND DIMENSIONING CRITERIA (FIGURE 3 AND 4)

Of interest for the user of a roller press are the calculation of the press throughput, the press force, the
absorbed power and the specific energy consumption. For projects and comparison of presses further
calculations are used such as specific press force and specific surface load.
¨ Press throughput Œ
The throughput is given by the dimensions of the press and the density of the slab. This density is
dependent on the operating parameters (e.g. pressure) and the feed material. The gap opening is a
function of the material, roller diameter and roller surface and varies between 15 and 45 [mm]. Guide
values for rG are:
· Clinker 2.4 - 2.5 [t/m3]
· Raw material 2.3 - 2.4 [t/m3]
· Slag 2.2 - 2.3 [t/m3]
¨ Press force 
The press force is given by the number and diameter of the hydraulic cylinders and the operating
pressure. The operating pressure varies from supplier to supplier.
¨ Absorbed motor power Ž
The absorbed motor power can be calculated by means of the press force, the circumferential speed of
the rollers and the attack angle b.
The attack angle b is dependent on the roller diameter, the gap opening and the material.
Guide values for b are:
· Clinker 2.3 - 2.85 [°]
· Raw material 2.85 -4 [°]
· Slag 1.7 - 2.3 [°]
Figure 3 Dimensioning

¨ Specific press force 

· The specific press force is the press force divided by the projected roller area. Most suppliers
allow a specific press force of ~ 8500 [kN/m2].
· In order not to overstress the wear protection on the rollers, HMC recommends ~ 6000 [kN/m2]
(to be subjected to further discussion).
¨ Specific surface load 
The specific surface load is the press force divided by the part of the roller surface which is under
pressure. This load should not exceed 250 [N/mm2] (to be subjected to further discussion).
Guide values for a are:
· Clinker 6.9 - 9.2 [°]
· Raw material 9.2 - 12.6 [°]
· Slag 5.7 - 7.5 [°]
¨ Specific energy consumption ‘ ’
· The specific energy consumption E is based on press throughput. Guide values are:
* Clinker 2.5 - 3 [kWh/t]
* Raw material 2.0 - 2.5 [kWh/t]
* Slag ~3 [kWh/t]
· If a press is in closed circuit with a separator (finish grinding) or has a slab recirculation the
specific energy consumption is multiplied by the circulating factor u.
· The specific energy consumption Ec is then based on the material leaving the press circuit.
Figure 4 Dimensioning

4. OPERATIONAL ASPECTS
4.1 Installation of Roller Press (Figure 5)
The roller press can be installed in various configurations.
¨ In combination with tube mill
· Roller press as pregrinding unit
· Roller press as pregrinding unit with slab recirculation
· Two stage grinding system (semi-finish)
¨ Finish grinding system
· The roller press is in closed circuit with a desagglomerator and a separator
¨ The detailed description with advantages and disadvantages is given in the paper VA 93/4014/E,
Cement grinding systems.
Figure 5 Installation of Roller Press

4.2 Feed Granulometry and Roller Speed (Figure 6)

The maximum feed size depends on the roller diameter, the roller surface and the supplier. Up to 50 [mm]
is a normal given maximum size.
A commonly used value is also
¨ max feed size = 2 x gap opening
A strong relation exists between the granulometry of total feed and the circumferential speed of the
rollers. If the feed contains a high amount of very fine material and the speed of the rollers is high (~ 1.8
m/s) the press tends to vibrate and a smooth operation is not possible.
¨ Pregrinding without slab recirculation
Coarse feed to the press, vibration normally not a problem.
¨ Pregrinding with slab recirculation
This is the critical case since the slabs contain a high amount of fine material. Figure 6 shows the relation
between circumferential speed and circulating load. At a circulating load of 2 (total feed : product) the
roller speed should not exceed 1.5 - 1.55 [m/s].
¨ Two-stage and finish grinding system
Not critical since the return from the separator does not contain very fine material.
The speed range of the Holcim roller presses is 1 - 1.55 (m/s).
Figure 6 Circumferential Speed of Rollers

4.3 Adjustable Feed Gate (Figure 7 and 8)

An important influence on the press operation (material intake, gap opening) has the feed gate. All press
manufacturers supply their presses with adjustable feed gates. A very sophisticated gate is shown in
Figure 7.
Functioning
¨ Lower gate 1: The two tongues have only an open or closed position. With this feature the feed to
the press can be interrupted and the press be stopped with a full feed bin. (hydraulically or pneumatically
activated).
¨ Upper gate 2: This is the real adjustable feed gate which allows:
· Flow regulation to the press (changing chute opening)
· Excentrical distribution of the material
· This part of the gate can also be motorized or kept manually, e.g.:
* fixed roller side manually
* movable roller side motorized
Figure 8 shows a typical example how the gap opening can be influenced by the position and the opening
of the gate. Very often best results are achieved if the opening is moved towards the fixed roller and with
this position also equal power draw of the rollers is achieved.
The best position must be found by trials.
Figure 7 Adjustable Feed Gate

Figure 8 Influence on Gap Opening

4.4 Operating Parameters (Figure 9)

The degree of comminution depends on the specific energy which is transmitted into the material. As
shown in chapter 3 - Dimensioning - the absorbed power of the press is linear to the press force applied
and the latter is linear to the operating pressure. The operating pressure can mainly be influenced by 3
parameters which are:
¨ Accumulator, nitrogen charge setting (initial)
¨ Hydraulic system, set point pressure
¨ Initial gap, zero setting of gap
The following relations exist:
¨ Initial nitrogen pressure < set point pressure hydraulic system < operating pressure
¨ If a large difference exists between initial nitrogen pressure and set point pressure hydraulic
system the accumulators work like a hard spring.
If a small difference exists between initial nitrogen pressure and set point pressure hydraulic system the
accumulators work like a soft spring.
The press force (operating pressure) can be increased by (or vice versa):
¨ Reduction of initial nitrogen pressure
· Set point hydraulic pressure kept constant
· Zero gap setting not changed
¨ Increase of set point hydraulic pressure
· Initial nitrogen pressure kept constant
· Zero gap setting not changed
¨ Zero gap setting increased
· Initial nitrogen pressure kept constant
· Set point hydraulic pressure kept constant
The most efficient working point (absorbed power, hard or soft spring) must be found during
commissioning by trials.
Figure 9 Operating Parameters

5. MECHANICAL ASPECTS (FIGURES 10 AND 11)

5.1 Wear
Wear on a roller press mainly occurs in the feed chute on the roller surface and on the cheek plates. The
wear rate depends on the feed material (abrasiveness, moisture etc.) and on the operating parameters of
the press.
5.1.1 Rollers
The wear rate itself on the rollers is low (for clinker 1-2 g/t) and does not present a problem, however, the
entering of foreign matters (grinding balls, metal pieces etc.) can lead to the destruction of the roller
surface. The improvement of the resistance of the roller surface is still an ongoing process and no final
solution is found.
5.1.1.1 Welded protection (common solution)
The welding consists of buffer layers and hard facing. The so called "peeling off" takes often place if metal
pieces enter the press (large pieces of welding are falling off). Smaller repair work can be done in the
press. Reconditioning should be made in a workshop.
5.1.1.2 Stud lining
KHD introduced this type of protection.
Wear resistant studs are welded onto the rollers.
The roller body is protected by the feed material which is pressed into the voids between the studs. The
reliability of this solution must still be proven.
5.1.1.3 Clamped on tyres
No experience available
5.1.1.4 Clamped or bolted on segments
This solution reduces mainly the down time of the press if a damage occurs.
This is a fairly new approach and not enough experience is available. However, a trend can be seen
towards this solution.

5.1.2 Cheek plates

The function of the plates is to avoid the escape of material sidewards from the rollers. They are made
from wear resistant material and are easily exchangeable.
Figure 10 Mechanical Aspects

5.2 Press Protection (Figure 11)

In order to keep the risk of roller surface damages as low as possible all foreign matters must be removed
from the press feed (fresh feed and recirculating material). The feed material must pass below an
electromagnet and a metal detector. The detector is linked to a by-pass gate. Metals which are not
removed by the magnet will be detected by the metal detector and will by-pass the roller press.
Some presses have in addition a screen between clinker storage and press feed bin for a first separation
of large foreign matters and oversized feed.
5.3 Movable Feed Bin
In order to simplify the disassembly of the rollers and to do major repairwork on the press the installation
of a movable feed bin is advantageous.
5.4 Inspections
A continuous operation of a roller press can only be achieved if the critical areas or parts of the press are
regularly inspected and serviced.
¨ During operation
· Vibrations of press and press drive
· Bearing and oil temperatures (if oil lubricated)
· Lubrication system
¨ During stop
· Wear parts (rollers, cheek plates, inside feed chute)
· Bearings and bearing sealings
· Lubrication system, water cooling system
· Hydraulic system, pressure setting accumulators
· Drive including gear boxes, shafts, clutches, electrical motors
Figure 11 Press Protection

6. MAIN SUPPLIERS
6.1 Krupp - Polysius (Figure 12)
6.1.1 General
Krupp - Polysius, besides KHD, is mainly responsible for the design, application and further development
of the roller press.
6.1.2 Make:
Make Polycom 10 / 4

6.1.3 Standard sizes: 9

Power range: 300 - 2500 [kW]
Throughput: 90 - 700 [t/h] clinker
Specific press force: ~ 6500 [kN/m2]
6.1.4 Design features
Frame: Bolted design, on the fixed roller side a slide block can be added to the press in order to remove
the rollers (both on one side).
Rollers: Wear protection by hard face welding, tyres or segments, water cooling of shaft standard outfit.
Roller bearings: Self aligning spherical roller bearings with grease lubrication.
Hydraulic system: 2 x 2 hydraulic cylinders and on each side one nitrogen accumulator.
Drive system (both rollers identical): Shaft mounted planetary gear with torque arm, safety coupling;
universal joint and electrical motor.
6.1.5 Experience
Very experienced supplier, wear protection rollers still in a development phase.
Figure 12 Krupp Polysius

6.2 KHD - Humboldt Wedag (Figure 13)

6.2.1 General
Same comment as for Krupp-Polysius
6.2.2 Make:
Make RP 13.0 - 140 / 140
6.2.3 Standard sizes: 7 (various speeds within each size)
Power range: 150 - 4200 [kW]
Throughput: Not specified
Specific press force: £ 7000 [kN/m2]
6.2.4 Design features
¨ Bolted design: Feed chute and top girders must be dismantled for removing rollers.
¨ Rollers: Wear protection by hard face welding, welded on studs or segments with welded on
studs, water cooling of shaft standard outfit.
¨ Roller bearings: Cylindrical roller bearings with oil lubrication.
¨ Hydraulic system: One large hydraulic cylinder on each side including three nitrogen
accumulators (2 large, 1 small).
¨ Drive system (both rollers identical).
Shaft mounted planetary gear with torque arm, fluid coupling, universal joint and electrical motor.
6.2.5 Experience
Very experienced supplier, wear protection rollers still in a development phase.
Figure 13 KHD Humboldt Wedag

6.3 F.L. Smidth-Fuller (Figure 14)

6.3.1 General
In earlier days FLS sold the Köppern roller press. Fuller manufactured their own roller press.
The newest design is a combined FLS-Fuller press
6.3.2 Make:
HRP 1.25
Projected roller area
Standard sizes: 8
Power range: 503 - 3024 [kW]
Throughput: 167 - 995 [t/h] (clinker)
Specific press force: 8000 [kN/m2]
6.3.3 Design features
¨ Frame: Bolted design, one side can be hinged down for removing the rollers.
¨ Rollers: Wear protection by hard face welding or segments, optional with water cooling for shaft.
¨ Roller bearings: Self aligning spherical roller bearings with oil lubrication.
¨ Hydraulic system: 2 x 2 hydraulic cylinders.
¨ Drive system movable roller: Shaft mounted planetary gear with torque arm, universal joint shaft,
mechanical torque limiting coupling, electrical motor (preferred SC motor slip ring type).
¨ Drive system fixed roller: Double gear type transmission shaft, foot mounted planetary gear,
torque limiting coupling, electrical motor.
6.3.4 Experience
New press, however, proven standard elements are used.
Figure 14 F L Smidth - Fuller

B05 - PT II

C01 - Kiln Systems

Kiln Systems - Overview

Urs Gasser
PT 99/14501/E
1. PROCESS REQUIREMENTS FOR KILN SYSTEMS
2. PROCESS TYPES
2.1 General
3. WET PROCESS
3.1 General
3.2 Long Wet Process Kilns
3.3 Wet Process Kilns with Slurry Preheaters
4. SEMI WET PROCESS
4.1 General
4.2 Semi Wet Process Long Kilns
4.3 Semi Wet Grate Preheater Kilns
4.4 Semi-Wet Suspension Pre-heater Kiln
5. SEMI DRY PROCESS
5.1 Semi-Dry Process Long Kilns
5.2 Semi-Dry Process Grate Pre-heater Kilns
6. DRY PROCESS
6.1 Long Dry Kilns
6.2 Raw Meal Suspension Preheater Kilns
6.2.1 General
6.2.2 One and two Stage Cyclone Pre-heater Kilns
6.2.3 Four Stage Cyclone Pre-heater Kilns
6.2.4 Precalciner Kilns

SUMMARY
Today’s kiln systems for burning cement clinker of major importance use a rotary kiln. Exceptions are
vertical shaft kilns still used in certain geographical areas. With very rare exceptions, new plants use the
dry process. However, there are still important markets where older wet process plants are predominant
(USA, Russia).
A first classification of the process can be made based on the water content of the kiln feed:

< 1% water dry-process

10 ... 12% water semi-dry-process
17 ... 21% water semi-wet-process
25 ... 40% water wet-process

¨ Dry-Process
· Precalciner kiln with 4 to 6 cyclone stages (contemporary technology):
* Separate tertiary air duct
* 50 - 60% fuel to the precalciner
* Large capacities possible > 10000 t/d
* Up to 4000 t/d in 1 string
* Heat consumption < 3000 kJ/kg possible (6 stages)
* Sensitive to circulation phenomena (-> kiln gas bypass!)
· 4-stage cyclone pre-heater kiln (standard technology 1970 to 1980):
* Cyclone stages (co-current flow) for raw meal preheating
* Large application world wide
* Capacities of up to 4500 t/d technically possible
* Heat consumption: 3150 to 3350 kJ/kg cli
* Sensitive to circulation phenomena (-> kiln gas bypass!)
· 2-stage cyclone pre-heater kiln:
* Less sensitive to circulation phenomena than 4-stage pre-heater
* Higher heat consumption than pre-heater with more stages
· Shaft pre-heater kiln:
* Counter current heat exchange between hot gas and raw meal
* Practical efficiency inferior to cyclone pre-heater
· Long-dry-kiln:
* Rather simple equipment
* High dust emission from kiln tube
* Without heat exchange internals: high heat consumption of up to 5100 kJ/kg cli
* With chains and/or crosses: 4200 kJ/kg cli achievable
¨ Semi-dry and semi wet process
· Grate pre-heater kiln (LEPOL, ACL):
* Raw meal must be suitable to be nodulised with water (semi-dry)
* 3450 kJ/kg cli (no waste heat available for primary raw material drying)
· Long rotary kiln and suspension preheater:
* Filter cakes fed or slurry injection into vertical dryer; rather rare cases
¨ Wet-process
· Long wet kiln:
* Fed with raw meal slurry of approx. 32 - 42% water content
* Internal heat transfer improved by chains
* High heat consumption of 5300 to 6300 kJ/kg cli due to evaporation of water
* Heat consumption reduced by slurry thinners for a slurry with 25 - 30% H2O
* Slurry preheaters can reduce kiln size and improve heat exchange
1. PROCESS REQUIREMENTS FOR KILN SYSTEMS
The kiln system has to be designed to cope with the requirements of the chemical process during which
the kiln feed material is converted into cement clinker.
This process as a whole is endothermic and takes place at maximum material temperatures of 1450°C.
Receiving its thermal energy from hot gases of up to 2000°C generated by combusting fuels, it is also
referred to as pyroprocess.
Type of reaction and temperature development are compiled in “sequence of reactions occurring in a
rotary kiln” (table 1) and graphically as the “quasi-qualitative variation of minerals with temperature”
(figure 1).
The chemical process taking place in the kiln system where raw meal (input) is converted to cement
clinker (output) can be subdivided into the following five steps:

1. Drying
2. Preheating
3. Calcining
4. Sintering
5. Cooling

Process and equipment has been developed and improved with the aim at performing these steps forever
improved economy, which means
· High availability
· Low heat consumption
· Low power consumption
· Higher unit capacity
· Stable kiln operation
· Good, uniform clinker quality
Table 1 Sequence of Reactions occurring in a Rotary Kiln

Temperature
range (°C) Type of reaction
Heating Up
20 - 100 Evaporation of free H2O
100 - 300 Loss of physically absorbed water
400 - 900 Removal of structural H2O (H2O and OH groups) from clay minerals
> 500 Structural changes in silicate minerals
600 - 900 Dissociation of carbonates CO2 driven out)
> 800 Formation of belite, intermediate products, aluminate and ferrite
> 1250 Formation of liquid phase (aluminate and ferrite melt)
approx. 1450 Completion of reaction and re-crystallisation of alite and belite
Cooling
1300 - 1240 Crystallisation of liquid phase into mainly aluminate and ferrite

2. PROCESS TYPES
2.1 General
The criterion normally used to distinguish the process types is the moisture of the kiln feed material. Four
basically different process types for clinker burning can be defined:

Process Type Feed Material Cons. Feed Moisture Feed System

Dry process Raw meal Dry < 1% H2O Mechanic, pneumatic
Semi dry process Nodules Moist » 10 ... 12% H2O Mechanic, pneumatic
Semi wet process Filter cake, nodules Moist » 17 ... 21% H2O Mechanic, pneumatic
Wet process Slurry Liquid » 25 ... 40% H2O Hydraulic

Table 1 gives a general survey of the various rotary kiln systems in operation for industrial clinker
production. Shaft kilns, which are still used in China or experimental systems such as sintering grates or
fluidised beds, are not considered in the scheme.
We can distinguish two main groups of kiln systems:
a) Long kilns with or without internal heat exchanging installation
b) Short or medium kilns with external preheaters
(e.g. suspension preheaters, grates or external slurry preheaters)

The heat consumption of burning depends strongly on the water content of the kiln feed

This can be illustrated by the typical specific heat consumption: The fuel consumption of wet kilns is
nearly twice as high as for modern dry process suspension pre-heater kilns.
The comparison of the heat economy within each process group (dry or wet) shows clearly:

The more intensive the heat-exchange for drying and preheating, the lower the heat consumption.

Other than based on the feed moisture, kiln systems can be grouped in different ways:

Process Type wet

semi wet
semi dry
dry >25% H2O in feed
17 - 21% H2O in feed
10 - 12% H2O in feed
< 1% H2O in feed Slurry
nodules from slurry
nodules from meal
raw meal
Production Mode batch+cont.
continuous < 200 t/d
300 t/d – 10’000 t/d shaft kilns
rotary kilns
Heat Consumption 2900 kJ/kg cli
( 700 kcal/kg cli)

> 6000 kJ/kg cli

(> 1400 kcal/kg cli) state of the art system
long wet or dry kilns,
not optimum operation
Power Consumption 20 to 65 kWh/t cli kiln feed to clinker cooler

OVERVIEW OF KILN AND PROCESS TYPES

When the concept for a new plant is developed, not only the present situation but also the possible future
developments of all relevant factors must be taken into account.
The following main parameters must be considered when selecting the kiln system:
· Raw material:
* moisture content
* grindability
* homogeneity of deposit
* number of components for raw mix
* chemical composition (sulphur, chlorides, alkalis, organic compounds etc)
* filtration properties of slurry (for semi-wet process only)
· Plant installation and operating costs
· Requirements for clinker quality (e.g. low alkali clinker)
· Aspects of environmental protection (emission of dust, SOx, NOx, etc)
· Technical standard of the country
Long wet (and dry) rotary kilns are the oldest and most simple type of installation to produce cement
clinker. The pyroprocess takes place in a long rotating tube, which has usually internal equipment to
improve heat transfer, and, in wet kilns, to reduce dust loss. Unit capacities of up to 2000 t/d are typically
achieved, higher outputs are possible, however, they require kilns of gigantic dimensions.
Today, economy requires plants for 3000 to 10’000 t/d. Therefore new plants are almost always based on
the dry process with preheater, pre-calciner and reciprocating grate cooler. The semi wet process for a
new plant could be preferred in special cases, e.g. where raw material with a high natural moisture must
be used (e.g. quarry below water level).
The three following graphs illustrate the development of the significance of the various processes within
the Holcim group, which can be considered representative of the global situation.

3. WET PROCESS
3.1 General
The wet process was the most important process for clinker burning in the past and almost all plants were
wet. Heterogeneous quarries and corrective addition were no problem; stirring of the liquid slurry in the
slurry tanks provides very good batch-wise blending. Grinding was done in slurry mills, which consume
30%, less energy than dry ball mills, but at higher lining wear rates.
The disadvantage of the wet process is the high heat consumption. Compared to e.g. a suspension
preheater kiln, the difference is more than 2000 kJ/kg clinker or 60 to 70%!
Today, with efficient dry homogenising technology available, the wet process is no longer applied for new
plants. Investments as well as operating costs of a wet system are higher than for dry systems of the
same output. Technical development allows using more efficient kiln systems even where wet plants
would have been built in earlier times.
Another reason for preferring the wet process in the past was the production of low alkali cement (alkali
content < 0,6%) and the fact that difficult circulation problems are easier to control in wet kilns. Today
secondary firing or efficient bypass installations with precalciner are possibilities to keep these problems
under control also in modern kiln systems.
Because of the lower specific gas volume and the shorter rotary part, rotary kiln dimensions as well as
gas handling, dedusting and fuel preparation can be designed accordingly smaller. Although new wet kilns
are no longer considered for new plants, they still play an important role in the US as well as in many
countries of Eastern Europe and Central Asia.
3.2 Long Wet Process Kilns
Long wet kilns have been the most commonly used burning reactors for a very long time, but because of
the high water content of the feed, their heat consumption is up to twice as high as for modern dry
systems.
The milled and homogenised raw material is a slurry with a water content of typically 32 to 42% and is
pumped to the kiln inlet.
In the first zone heat transfer for the evaporation of water is always increased by means of chain systems
(extended surface, higher relative velocities, increase of turbulence). The chain systems should also
reduce the dust losses and clean the kiln shell. These internal heat exchanger installations require very
special know-how, based to a large degree on experience (see separate paper ‘chain systems’).
In order to decrease fuel consumption the water content should be kept as low as possible. The limit is
normally the pumpability of the slurry. It is basically possible to further reduce the slurry moisture by using
slurry thinners. This technology has been successfully applied and will provide an economical advantage
if adequate quantities are available at low cost, e.g. as industrial by-product.
Example: Beauport (Canada): 28% feed moisture

Wet kilns are relatively insensitive to circulation problems because the critical temperature ranges are in
the rotary part of the kiln (see also ‘circulation phenomena’).
Low alkali clinker can be produced from high alkali raw material simply by selectively wasting of dust: The
highest enriched kiln dust (e.g. from the last precipitator compartment) is removed from the process (i.e.
dumped onto a dust pile) as necessary. The rest of the dust can be reintroduced to the kiln by dust
scoops or insufflation into the burning zone.
Today, discarding dust creates increasing problems because of restrictive permitting of dust piles.
Note:
Kiln dust cannot just be blended to the slurry because it would react and thicken the slurry.
Typical technical data for long wet kilns with chains:

Heat consumption q 5’000 ... 6’300 kJ/kg cli (1’200 ... 1’500 kcal/kg cli)
Kiln exit gas temperature 150° ... 250°C
System pressure drop 0,5 ... 1,0 kPa
Dust emission in % of clinker production 5 ... 100%

Probably the largest wet process kiln in the world is installed at Holnam’s Clarksville plant (Michigan
USA). This kiln has a diameter of 7,6 m and a length of 232 m with a daily capacity of about 3’600 t.
3.3 Wet Process Kilns with Slurry Preheaters
External Slurry Preheaters
In order to improve the heat exchange between gas and slurry and to reduce the kiln size, external slurry
preheaters have been developed by MIAG (Kalzinator) and Krupp (Konzentrator). Both of them are
revolving drums with special internal packing. These drums have about the same diameter as the kiln, its
length being slightly smaller than the diameter. The capacity of these machines is limited to 800 -1000 t/d
and frequently operating problems arise. Very often, external preheaters were large sources of false air.
Internal Slurry Preheaters
F.L. Smidth designed a slurry pre-heater system integrated into the kiln compartment, which should avoid
the disadvantage of external slurry preheaters. In practice, this construction turned out to be very
sensitive to clogging.
A better system developed by Fives Cail Babcock is installed in the three kilns at Obourg. Lifting buckets
and chain curtains produce a slurry curtain that keeps back a high amount of dust and improves heat
exchange.
4. SEMI WET PROCESS
4.1 General
A process is considered semi-wet if the kiln feed is produced from wet slurry. A mechanical water
extraction process reduces the water content of the kiln feed to 17 to 21%. A number of filter presses
operating batch-wise are commonly used, but also continuous filter band presses or similar equipment
would be possible.
4.2 Semi Wet Process Long Kilns
Principally, long kilns with heat exchanger crosses can be fed with slurry, filter cakes or dry meal. Feeding
filter cakes is a straightforward and simple solution and is used by Italcementi in some cases.
4.3 Semi Wet Grate Preheater Kilns
Most of the semi-wet systems use a grate preheater kiln fed with filter cakes.
A grate preheater system includes a short rotary kiln (similar to a four stage preheater kiln) where only
calcining and sintering take place. For drying, preheating and partial calcining, a travelling grate is
installed in front of the kiln, where heat of the kiln exhaust gases is used.
For the semi-wet grate kiln, the slurry must be prepared in a special way so it can be fed to a travelling
grate:
The pumpable slurry as starting material is fed to filter presses where the moisture content is reduced to
approx. 20% applying a filtration pressure of 15 to 20 bar. In a special type of extruder (Siebkneter), the
filter cakes are converted into cylindrical nodules (diameter 15 ... 20 mm, length 30 ... 50 mm) and then
fed to the preheater-grate. The economy of this way of preparation depends strongly on the filtration
properties of the slurry.
Operating and performance data are similar to the semi-dry grate preheater systems described under 5.2.
Characteristic data of a semi-wet grate pre-heater system:

Feed Nodules made from

Moisture Content of the Feed Slurry Filter Cake
10 ... 12%
Heat consumption q 3770 kJ/kg cli (» 900 kcal/kg cli)
Exit gas temperature after grate 100° ... 120°C
System pressure drop 2,6 kPa

Example of a semi-wet LEPOL kiln:

AB’s kiln 10 at the Lägerdorf plant (Germany)
Maximum kiln capacity: 3’600 t/d
Kiln dimensions: f 6.0/5.6 m x 90 m
Grate dimensions: 5.6 x 61.7 m
Secondary firing with Fullers earth (special)
(Shut down; replaced by semi wet precalciner kiln in 1996)

4.4 Semi-Wet Suspension Pre-heater Kiln

The suspension preheater kiln is normally fed with dry meal (details see separate paper). However, there
are some rare cases where suspension preheater kilns are fed with nodules prepared from slurry. These
nodules should not be too strong because they must be cracked by thermal shock or abrasion before
being fed to the kiln system via top stage of the pre-heater.
A two-stage pre-heater kiln operated with semi-wet nodules was e.g. the Liesberg plant. There, the
nodules were cracked in a vertical dryer before being fed to the preheater.
The first modern kiln system using this principle has been built in the late 1980’s by FLS in Aalborg
Cement’s RORDAL plant. It is a three stage two string kiln system with precalciner for a capacity of 4000
t/d. The high operating cost of the filter presses has been avoided by directly injecting the slurry into a
drier-crusher followed by a vertical drier. The semi-wet process was selected because the raw material
(chalk) is mined under water and has very high natural moisture.
From the Holcim group:
Example of a semi-wet pre-heater/pre-calciner kiln:
AB’s kiln 11 at the Lägerdorf plant (Germany)
Maximum kiln capacity: 4’500 t/d at 3900 kJ/kg
Kiln dimensions: f 4.8 x 65 m; 2 supports, gearless friction drive
Preheater: 3 stages, 2 strings
Utilisation of various alternative fuels in both firings
Supplied by Polysius; start-up: 1996
Filter cakes produced in already existing filter-presses

5. SEMI DRY PROCESS

The semi-dry process is characterised by the fact that kiln feed nodules are made from dry raw meal.
Water is added in order to produce nodules with 10 - 12% moisture.
5.1 Semi-Dry Process Long Kilns
There are long kilns with heat exchanger crosses fed with nodules. This system was applied by
Italcementi and looks very similar to an installation for semi-wet feed material.
5.2 Semi-Dry Process Grate Pre-heater Kilns
The grate preheater kiln is by far the most popular semi-dry system.
The principle of the grate preheater system for the semi-dry process is identical to the one used for the
semi-wet process. What is different is the feed preparation:
The dry raw material is mixed with water (10 ... 12%) and nodulised in a drum or preferably on a rotating
plate (pan noduliser). This system can be used only for raw materials containing plastic components
enabling the formation of nodules that are resistant against thermal shock and abrasion. The main factor
influencing plasticity is the mineralogical composition, especially the presence of montmorillonite.
On the grate, heat exchange from the gas to the nodules forming a fixed bed layer of approx. 20 cm
thickness is excellent. In some grate preheaters, precalcination is done successfully, often using even
waste fuels (such as Fullers earth, acid sludge, waste lubricating oils etc.) utilising secondary firing.
The only successfully working travelling grate pre-heater was available from Polysius and became known
under the name LEPOL system (American licensee: Allis-Chalmers, ACL system).

This principle sketch shows a LEPOL kiln fed with nodules made out of dry raw meal. LEPOL kilns built
after 1945 are equipped with two-pass grates; i.e. the exhaust gas is led twice through the nodule bed
from top to bottom:
The hot kiln gas passes first through a bed of dry and preheated nodules and subsequently, after an
intermediary dedusting once again trough a layer of moist incoming nodules. It is believed that the
nodules survive throughout the process resulting in a clinker with very uniform size.
Furthermore, dust loads in the kiln atmosphere and dust emission out of the system are low. The nodules
on the grate let only pass the fine dust while the coarse particles are retained.
In cases of increased trace compound concentrations (especially alkali) in the raw material, the fine dust
separated in the electrostatic precipitator is largely enriched with them. Only a small amount of dust has
to be discarded to reduce the balance of these compounds in the kiln system. This effect makes the
LEPOL kiln quite suitable to produce a low alkali clinker with rather low heat consumption. For this
reason, it has been chosen in many cases, particularly in the USA.
The following limits and disadvantages have to be considered:
· Only raw materials with good plastic properties can be used
(semi-wet: filter cake nodules -> good filtration properties are required)
· The grate chain is subject to wear.
· Uneven temperature distribution across the grate can cause difficulties.
· Additional theoretical heat consumption due to the water content of the feed (partially
compensated by a low exit gas temperature).
· Exhaust gases cannot be used in drying and grinding systems.
Characteristic data of a semi-dry grate pre-heater systems:

Feed nodules made from dry raw meal

Moisture content of the feed nodules 10 ... 12%
Specific heat consumption q 3450 kJ/kg cli (= 820 kcal/kg cli)
Exit gas temperature after grate 100 ... 120°C
System pressure drop 2.6 kPa

6. DRY PROCESS
6.1 Long Dry Kilns
Without internal heat exchange equipment
The simplest kind of dry process installation is the long dry kiln without any internal heat exchange
equipment (empty tube). With a heat consumption of 5100 kJ/kg cli (1200 kcal/kg cli) or about 90% of the
wet process it must be considered very uneconomical. Advantages might be its simplicity and insensitivity
to heavy circulation problems.
This kiln type is suitable to be used in combination with waste heat recovery steam boilers for power
generation. In that case, the waste heat contained in the hot kiln exhaust gases is further used to produce
valuable energy.
Characteristic kiln data:

Heat consumption q 4500 ... 6000 kJ/kg cli (1075 ... 1430 kcal/kg cli)
Kiln gas exit temperature 450° ... 500°C
System pressure drop 0,5 ... 1,0 kPa

With internal heat exchange equipment

Long dry kilns with internal heat exchange equipment (chains or crosses from steel or ceramic material)
represent a more economical solution. Heat consumption of 4200 kJ/kg or even less can be achieved.
Other typical operating figures are contained in annex 10.
Characteristic kiln data:

Heat consumption q 3800 ... 4500 kJ/kg cli (910 ... 1075 kcal/kg cli)
Kiln gas exit temperature 400° ... 450°C
System pressure drop 1,0 ... 1,5 kPa

6.2 Raw Meal Suspension Preheater Kilns

6.2.1 General
During the last thirty years, the suspension preheater kiln became the dominant clinker manufacturing
system. This system is fed by dry raw meal that is preferably prepared in a grinding and drying plant,
using the kiln waste gases as a drying medium. This ground and dried raw meal is homogenised and then
fed to the preheater where it is suspended in the kiln gas flow, where an extremely effective heat transfer
takes place. More information is contained in the special section “Suspension Preheaters”.
6.2.2 One and two Stage Cyclone Pre-heater Kilns
Characteristic kiln data:
one stage: Heat consumption q 3750 ... 4000 kJ/kg cli (900 ... 950 kcal/kg cli)
Kiln gas exit temperature 400° ... 500°C
System pressure drop 1,5 ... 2,5 kPa

two stages: Heat consumption q 3500 ... 3750 kJ/kg cli (850 ... 900 kcal/kg cli)
Kiln gas exit temperature 400° ... 450°C
System pressure drop 1,5 ... 2,5 kPa

6.2.3 Four Stage Cyclone Pre-heater Kilns

Until the mid 1980s, this arrangement belong to the systems with the lowest fuel consumption. It was
offered in several configurations with capacities up to 4500 t/d, most of them being combinations of single
or twin cyclone stages.
The kiln exit gas includes still enough heat to dry raw material up to moisture content of 8% if the mill is
running during all the kiln operation time. From this point of view, the remaining relatively high exit gas
temperature cannot be considered fully as a loss, because it can substitute an auxiliary firing for raw
material drying.
The preheater system is installed in a steel or concrete tower with a height of about 60 to 120 m (6
stages) above the kiln inlet, depending on capacity and concept.
The four to six stages preheater is most susceptible to circulation problems at presence of excessive
concentration of circulation compounds causing clogging problems in the pre-heater system.
The sketch shows a conventional four stage cyclone preheater system. In the 1970’s, production lines
with more than approx. 2000 t/d had to be built with two parallel preheater strings. Today, one-string
installations are possible for up to 4000 t/d.
Characteristic operating figures of 4-stage pre-heater kilns:

Heat consumption q
small units 3350 ... 3550 kJ/kg cli
(= 800 ... 850 kcal/kg cli)
large units 3150 ... 3350 kJ/kg cli
(= 750 ... 800 kcal/kg cli)
kiln exit gas temperature 320° ... 350°C
kiln exit gas volume approx. 1,5 Nm3/kg cli
System pressure drop 4 ... 6 kPa
Dust loss relative to clinker 8 ... 15%

Transition chamber
kiln gas temperature approx. 1100°C
Material temperature approx. 800°C

6.2.4 Precalciner Kilns

For larger production capacities, a larger portion of the pyroprocess had to be relocated out of the rotary
kiln in order to maintain reasonable kiln diameters without excessive thermal load of the burning zone.
The process of dissociation of CO2 (calcination) is suitable to take place in a static reactor outside of the
rotary kiln. Of the total heat consumption, 60 to 65% are required to achieve about 90% of calcination.
100% calcination must be avoided because clogging problems will seriously disturb kiln operation
(beginning of clinker formation).
The development of this reactor started with a secondary firing in the kiln riser duct sufficient for 35 to
40% calcination of the meal, combustion air still pulled through the kiln tube (=air through). It was
therefore referred to as precalciner (PC) type AT. Only when hot cooler air (= tertiary air) for the PC fuel (=
secondary fuel) was taken to the calciner in a separate duct, the so called tertiary air duct, the full benefit
of this technology could be used. Today, only this type called PC-AS (=air separate) is considered a real
precalciner. The elements of a precalciner kiln system are explained in the sketch.
The strongest boost of calciner development was in the seventies in Japan, initiated by the demand for
very large units exceeding the potential of conventional kilns with suspension preheaters. Only
precalciner technology makes today’s largest units of 10’000 t/d possible.
Two process alternatives of precalciner are used:
· in-line calciner (calciner installed in kiln gas flow)
· separate-line calciner (calciner not passed by kiln gases)
More details on calciner technology are contained in a separate section.
The operating data are very close to the ones of the corresponding preheater kiln system. In-line calciners
have a tendency to higher gas exit temperature and system pressure drop; however, modern units are
equipped with 5 or 6 preheater stages to compensate for this.
Characteristic operating data of 4 to 6 stage precalciner kilns:

Heat consumption q
small units, 4 stage SP 3350 ... 3550 kJ/kg cli
(= 800 ... 850 kcal/kg cli)
large units, 5 stage SP 2900 ... 3200 kJ/kg cli
(= 700 ... 800 kcal/kg cli)
SP exit gas temp. 6 to 4 st. SP 290° ... 370°C
SP exit gas volume approx. 1.3 to 1.5 Nm3/kg cli
System pressure drop 4 ... 6 kPa
Dust loss relative to clinker 8 ... 15%

Transition chamber:
kiln gas temperature approx. 1100°C
Material temperature approx. 800°C

More data of precalciner kiln systems are shown in the section “Precalciners”.

HEAT BALANCE
WET / SEMI-DRY / 4-ST. PREHEATER / 5-ST. PREHEATER-PRECALCINER

WET PROCESS SEMI-DRY LEPOL 4-STAGE SP 6-STAGE SP-PC

Input kJ/kg cli% kJ/kg cli% kJ/kg cli% kJ/kg cli%
Fuel kiln combustion 5560 96.7% 3343 97.6% 3150 97.7% 1180 39.2%
sensible heat 25 0.4% 15 0.4% 13 0.4% 5 0.2%
Fuel PC combustion 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1775 58.9%
sensible heat 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 8 0.3%
Kiln feed sensible heat 25 0.4% 30 0.9% 54 1.7% 45 1.5%
sensible heat of water 73 1.3% 17 0.5% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
Insufflated air (PA, cooler) 67 1.2% 20 0.6% 6 0.2% 0 0.0%

Total inputs 5750 100% 3425 100% 3223 100% 3013 100%
Output kJ/kg cli% kJ/kg cli% kJ/kg cli% kJ/kg cli%
Heat of formation 1750 30.4% 1750 51.1% 1750 54.3% 1750 58.1%
Water evaporation 2370 41.2% 506 14.8% 13 0.4% 8 0.3%
Exhaust gas sens. heat 754 13.1% 314 9.2% 636 19.7% 553 18.4%
Exhaust gas dust sens. heat 25 0.4% 21 0.6% 18 0.6% 29 1.0%
Clinker 59 1.0% 50 1.5% 63 2.0% 83 2.8%
Cooler waste air 100 1.7% 276 8.1% 423 13.1% 288 9.6%
Radiation and convection :
- Preheater 0 0.0% 160 4.7% 77 2.4% 60 2.0%
- Precalciner (or bottom stage)0 0.0% 0 0.0% 20 0.6% 20 0.7%
- Kiln (+tertiary air duct) 530 9.2% 200 5.8% 200 6.2% 200 6.6%
- Cooler 10 0.2% 92 2.7% 10 0.3% 10 0.3%
Water cooling 0 0.0% 42 1.2% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
Other outputs 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
Rest 152 2.6% 14 0.4% 13 0.4% 12 0.4%

Total outputs 5750 100% 3425 100% 3223 107% 3013 100%

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT Annex 1

The word cement is more than 2000 years old, but impure lime has been used much longer as a building
material. It is historically established, that the Phoenicians used a pozzolanic lime about 700 B.C. and
also the Romans produced some sort of cement or hard burned lime. From the medieval ages, it is known
that in Holland a type of hydraulic cement was formed out of lime and tuff in dome shaped kilns.
Our cement, as we know it today, is now more than 200 years old, “invented” by the Englishman John
Smeaton in 1756. It was burned in bottle kilns. The better known inventor of Portland cement was Joseph
Aspdin, who patented his burning process in 1824. He also used dome kilns of approx. 36 ft height and
17 ft diameter with a production of 90 bbl (= 15 t) per charge, each of which took several days to produce.
Fuel consumption was 50% of clinker weight in coal which corresponds to 15’500 kJ/kg cli (= 3’700
kcal/kg cli).
In 1880 an important step forward was made with the development of the continuously working shaft kiln,
which had a much better heat economy. An example of such a kiln was the “Dietzsche Etagenofen” which
is shown in Annex 1.
From 1877 experiments have been conducted with rotary kilns. In 1897 Hurry and Seaman developed the
first successfully operating unit of this type in America.
These first rotary kilns were wet process kilns with a daily capacity of 50 to 100 tons. Their heat
consumption was again very high (about 30% of clinker in coal = 9’500 kJ/kg cli) and they had an
incredible dust emission (usually more than one third of the whole production). In order to decrease heat
consumption, chain systems were installed in wet kilns to improve heat transfer during drying. Behind
long dry kilns, waste heat steam boilers were arranged for the same purpose.
It took almost another 30 years, before a further substantial reduction of heat consumption could be
achieved by reducing the water content of the feed and by a better heat exchange in the preheating a
calcining zone. In 1930 an officer of the army of the tsar, Dr. Lellep, took an important step in this
direction. He developed the travelling grate pre-heater, which is fed with moist nodules. This invention
was taken over by Polysius and got the name LEPOL kiln. Some years later, there was a Czech patent of
a cyclone raw meal pre-heater, and in 1953 Kloeckner-Humboldt-Deutz AG in Germany installed the first
suspension pre-heater system for raw meal. This type of kiln now became dominant because of its heat
economy and nowadays other systems are only chosen in special cases. In former years, the main
reason for the selection of the wet process was, that effective homogenisation of ground raw material was
not possible except in the form of slurry. In developing special techniques for dry material homogenisation
such as mix beds, mixing chamber silos etc., this factor could be eliminated.
Utilising a rather old idea, since about 1966 especially Japanese cement machine manufacturers have
designed several successfully working precalcining kiln systems. Calcination is already done in a
stationary calciner system, where secondary firing is installed. By this means, it is possible to design kiln
systems with a comparatively small rotary part diameter but a very large capacity up to more than 10’000
t/d.
Kiln systems built after 1990 include 6-stage preheaters with up to 4000 t/d per string, pure air calciners,
designed for a variety of fuels and emission control. Using modern low primary air burners, low pressure
drop cyclone designs and high recuperation efficiency coolers allow further reduction of heat and power
consumption.

Rotary Kilns
U. Gasser
PT 98/14362/E
1. General
2. Kiln Dimensioning
3. Mechanical Aspects of Rotary Kilns
3.1 Riding Ring Fixation, Kiln Shell Ovality
3.2 Kiln Seals
3.2.1 Kiln Inlet Seal
3.2.2 Kiln Outlet Seal
3.3 Kiln Drive

SUMMARY
After over 100 years, the rotary kiln is used in all cement plants for clinker production.
The following properties made it superior to other principles:
¨ suitable to cope with high temperatures
¨ easy to be lined with refractory bricks due to its shape
¨ material transport behaviour
¨ tight to ambient
¨ mechanically relatively simple
¨ large units possible
The rotary kiln must be designed for process, combustion and mechanical requirements.

Characteristic figures: Length L [m] , diameter D [m] and their ratio L/D [-]
Slope [°], speed range [min-1] and drive [kWh]
Dimensioning criteria: Volume load [t/(d m3)]
Burning zone load [t/(d m2)]
Thermal burning zone load [MW/m2]

Important mechanical features are:

¨ riding ring fixation
¨ roller station / alignment
¨ seals at inlet and outlet
¨ drive

With modern precalciner technology, outputs exceeding 10’000 t/d per kiln are possible with diameters
still below the 6.5 m of the largest wet kilns.
There is a trend towards short L/D kilns with only two piers mainly because of lower investment.
1. GENERAL
Today, all clinker producing installations of industrial size use a rotary kiln. The rotary kiln is still the only
feasible way to manage this high temperature process with process material of varying behaviour.
One exception is the vertical shaft kiln still used in some parts of the world, e.g. China, however, for small
unit capacities only. The other exceptions are few pilot installations based on sintering in a fluidized bed
reactor.
Like many other great ideas, the rotary kiln was invented towards the end of the 19th century and has
found application in many different industries. In 1987, Hurry and Seaman in the USA developed the first
successfully working rotary kiln to produce cement clinker.
The first rotary cement kilns were using the wet process with one very long kiln tube, making it the
dominating single piece of equipment of a plant. With technological progress, the kiln sections used for for
drying, heating-up and calcining have gradually been replaced by other types of equipment, the rotary kiln
remains to be the most suitable type of machine for the clinkerization process.
The rotary kiln has to satisfy three types of requirements:

Combustion: as a combustion chamber for burning zone fuel

Process: as a reactor for the clinker burning process (® retention time)
as a material conveyor (® slope, speed)
Mechanical: stability of shape, carrying load, thermal flexibility, tightness

Remarks:
¨ Even though the rotary kiln is a relatively simple piece of equipment, nobody has developed a
complete theoretical/mathematical model of its behaviour and process which would allow correct process
simulation and equipment design.
¨ The rotary kiln is still the “heart” of the entire production line. Its OEE (overall equipment
efficiency) depending mainly on hourly output and availability, is decisive for the success of a plant.
¨ The rotary kiln is designed to operate 24 hours a day, and the rest of the equipment upstream
and downstream has to follow.
¨ Being a major cause for production cost (mechanical maintenance, refractories), a well managed
kiln is vital for a successful plant.
Figure 1: Old and new kiln

2. KILN DIMENSIONING
The kiln dimensions are defined with diameter D (for kilns with different diameter: burning zone D) and
length L:

L [m] and D [m] resp. L/D [m]

¨ For cement kilns, the actual L/D ratio range is:

from 40 (for long wet kilns) to 11 (for modern short kilns with precalciner)
¨ The diameter D is the inner diameter Di of the kiln (steel-) shell.
¨ Process technological dimensioning of a kiln is based on empirical figures and experience from
existing installations
One limiting factor for the diameter is the mechanical stability of the ‘arch’ of the brick lining. Maximum
diameters which can be safely realised with standard size bricks are about 6,5 m. The largest kiln in the
Holcim group is 232 m (wet process, 3750 t/d).
The following process technological dimensioning criteria are mostly used:

Specific Volume Load

[t/(d m3)]
Specific Zone Load
 [t/(d m2)]
Thermal Burning Zone Load
[MW/m2)]

Specific volume load and thermal burning zone (BZ) load have no physical significance. They are merely
defined to make existing installations comparable.
The specific load is indirectly a gas velocity, because generating a certain amount of thermal energy by
fuel combustion results in a proportional gas flow which can be calculated.
The thermal BZ load per cross section is considered the limiting factor for a modern kiln system. For a
certain length/diameter ratio, which is typical for each kiln type, the thermal BZ load it is proportional to
the heat load on the inside of the lining surface which is one of the main influencing factor on brick life.
The limit usually respected is:

Max. Thermal BZ Load = 6 MW/m2 (=5.16 x 106 kcal/m2 h)

Other absolute limiting values of all the three factors are not known. Each supplier seems to have his own
rules of kiln dimensioning. Since no theoretical formulas have been derived to calculate the kiln size on an
analytical basis, it is possible, that the present limits of the dimensioning criteria may be surpassed even
for the conventional processes.
Figure 2: Long and short L/D kilns

3. MECHANICAL ASPECTS OF ROTARY KILNS

The following aspects of kiln mechanical design are relevant for the process:
¨ Riding ring fixation, kiln shell ovality
¨ Kiln seals
¨ kiln drive
¨ refractory lining (separate paper)
¨ nose ring (covered in “refractory lining”)
3.1 Riding Ring Fixation, Kiln Shell Ovality
A rotary kiln should be designed as cheaply as possible, yet it must still be rigid to guarantee minimum
wear of the lining. This requirement can be met, if the deformation of the kiln shell is reduced to a
tolerable limit.
The parameter expressing shell deformation at a certain point is the kiln shell ovality :

Definition of : w=2 (a - b) with 2a and 2b as the main axis of an ellipse

Investigations have shown, that generally a maximum relative ovality of 0,3% is allowed This ovality may
be subdivided into two amounts:

a) Ovality of the riding ring 3 cm due to external forces allowed value:

a) Ovality of the kiln shell due to deformations by its own weight in loose riding rings and due to
increased temperature.
The following two requirements must be met to keep the kiln ovality within the tolerable limits:
¨ The riding rings must be rigid enough
¨ The clearance between the ring shoes and the riding ring should be minimum during operation.
The following table shows some practical values:

Riding Ring No. 1 2 3 4

Clearance during operation [mm] 3-4 3-4 4-6 5-6
maximum [mm] 10-15

Riding rings with splined fixation provide much better support of the kiln shell. Because the kiln shell is
laterally suspended in adequately designed carrying bars, ovality is much reduced resulting in noticeably
better brick life.

Such systems are currently available from Polysius and FLS, the latter one is lso offered as retrofit.
Splined tire fixations are integral part of gearless kiln drive systems.
Figure 3: Tire fixations

3.2 Kiln Seals

In order to avoid the danger of hot gases and dust leaking into the atmosphere, the entire kiln system is
operated at negative pressure. The pressure profile starts at ambient (grate cooler: above first grate,
satellite and tube cooler: fresh air inlet) and becomes increasingly negative towards the kiln induced draft
(ID) fan.
Instead of leaking out from within the process, there is now a problem with ambient air being sucked into
the system, called false air. Depending on the point of entry, false air has different undesired effects. That
is why a lot of effort is made to keep process systems tight.
3.2.1 Kiln Inlet Seal
The kiln inlet seal (inlet: referring to material flow) is at point with negative pressure of less than 10
mmWG (modern 2-support kilns) up to 100 mmWG (long wet kilns with chains).
Modern kilns with low suction have high temperatures (up to 1300°C) instead.
False air entering the system causes
¨ Additional gas to be handled by kiln ID fan and dedusting system
¨ Unnecessary cooling of hot process gases reducing value of heat
Kiln inlet seals:
¨ Sealing force by pneumatic cylinders (pneumatic); sealing-rings
¨ Sealing force by coil springs/levers or weights (mechanical); sealing-segments
¨ Sealing force by leaf springs and rope with weight; lamella (fish scale)
Kiln inlet seals must be equipped with a dust return scoop ring to avoid spillage of kiln feed.
Note:
The inlet seal is designed to seal against cold fresh air from outside, but it can be damaged if it must seal
hot gas from inside to ambient in case of system overpressure! (this happens sometimes during the
heating-up phase)
3.2.2 Kiln Outlet Seal
With grate and tube coolers, the kiln outlet seal is installed between kiln head and rotary kiln where
pressure should be slightly negative. Kiln outlet seals used with grate coolers must be designed to cope
with pressure pulsation with occasional positive pressure. Outlet seal and nosering (brick retainer) with
cooling air fan can be considered one system.
Here, the loss generated by false air reduces recuperation from the clinker cooler. Cold ambient air
replaces hot secondary air from the cooler which has to be vented.
Outlet seals designed specifically for this application of the following type are available:
¨ Pneumatic
¨ Mechanical
¨ Lamella (fish scale)
¨ Labyrinth (outdated)
With planetary coolers, false air reduces the amount of cooling air resulting in higher clinker temperatures.
The outlet seal is smaller, at lower temperature and negative pressure only.
Figure 4: Kiln seals

3.3 Kiln Drive

Kiln drives are designed for speeds between 1.0 and 4.0 min-1, depending on slope, process and kiln
dimensions. Long wet kilns are typically operated at the low end of this speed range where some new
high performance kilns (short L/D with precalciners) are running at the upper end.
For over 10 years, rotary kilns have been driven by girth and pinion type drives. Decisive for their
performance are:
¨ Correct dimensioning
¨ Correct alignment (even load distribution on the flanks of the teeth; no peaks)
¨ Adequate lubrication system and lubricant quality
With the new two support short kilns (L/D < 13) with long overhangs, kiln shell deformation and burning
zone much closer to the drive, it became more difficult to ascertain correct alignment. Because of the
determined load distribution on two piers, it became possible to avoid the girth drive by using the kiln
rollers to transfer the torque to the riding ring: the gearless drive (=friction drive) was introduced. It is
currently available from Polysius (POLRO) and FLS-Fuller (ROTAX).
The following elements are part of this system:

· Two supports for defined load on the driven tire

· Splined tire fixation for safe torque transmission to the shell
· Self-aligning roller station for linear load pattern between roller and tire (friction)

Today, there are only few kilns with friction in operation; the first one was Lägerdorf 11 by Polysius. Detail
optimization and long term experience are yet to be awaited.
Most systems have hydraulic drives for two rollers. This provides smooth operation, but is expensive,
rather complex (hydraulic unit) and has higher power consumption. Electric direct drive of only one roller
has been installed in one case.
Figure 5: Kiln drives

Suspension Preheater
U. Gasser
PT 98/14363/E
1. General
1.1 History
1.2 Trend
2. Heat Exchange in a Suspension Preheater
2.1 Counter-Current Heat Exchange (Shaft Stage)
2.2 Co-Current Heat Exchange (Cyclone Stage)
2.3 Thermodynamic Limits
3. Preheater Types
3.1 Preheaters with Shaft Stages
3.1.1 Pure shaft preheaters:
3.1.2 Hybrid preheaters:
3.2 Preheaters with Cyclone Stages
3.3 Economical Number of Stages for Cyclone Preheaters
3.4 Minimum Gas Velocity
4. Design Features of Preheater-Cyclones
4.1 General
4.2 Dust Cycles
4.3 Features
4.3.1 Splash Box
4.3.2 Dip Tube (Immersion Tube, Vortex Finder, Thimble)
4.3.3 Meal Flap
4.3.4 Cyclone Shapes
5. Preheater Operation
5.1 Operating Problems of Suspension Preheaters
5.1.1 Circulation Phenomena.
6. New Developments
6.1 Horizontal Cyclone
6.2 TRS

SUMMARY
Practically all modern kiln systems are equipped with a cyclone suspension preheater.
New installations include a precalciner with tertiary air duct, so that the preheater and precalciner have
become one unit. However, the preheater has a specific task and is not principally connected to the
precalciner.
Modern low pressure drop cyclones are the result of a development which started in 1932.
¨ Shaft Preheaters:
· Counter-current heat exchange
· Limited production (around 1000 t/d)
· Disappointing heat exchange mainly due to poor meal distribution
¨ Hybrid preheaters:
· Combination of shaft and cyclone stages
· Bühler-Miag, Polysius, Prerov, Humboldt
· Shaft stages often replaced by cyclone stages
¨ Cyclone preheaters:
· Co-current heat exchange
· Successful concept, predominantly used
¨ Industrial installations of cyclone preheaters:
· Precalciner kiln with 4 to 6 cyclone stages (contemporary technology):
* Large capacities possible > 10000 t/d
* Up to 4000 t/d in 1 string
* Heat consumption < 3000 kJ/kg possible (6 stages)
* Sensitive to circulation phenomena (-> kiln gas bypass!)
· 4-stage cyclone pre-heater kiln (standard technology 1970 to 1980):
* Cyclone for raw meal preheating
* Large application world wide
* Capacities of up to 4500 t/d technically possible
* Heat consumption: 3150 to 3350 kJ/kg cli
* Sensitive to circulation phenomena (-> kiln gas bypass!)
· 2-stage cyclone pre-heater kiln:
* Less sensitive to circulating elements than 4-stage pre-heater
* Higher heat consumption than pre-heater with more stages
¨ Most recent innovations:
· Horizontal cyclone for “low profile” preheaters (Polysius)
· Dip tube add-on RTS for 30% lower cyclone pressure drop
1. GENERAL
1.1 History
With dry process, the heat exchange for heating up and calcination takes place between hot kiln gas and
dry powder. Since the high dust losses from long dry kilns made it almost impossible to achieve
acceptable heat consumption: other heat exchange principles had to be applied.
Since the temperature range to be covered is below 1000°C, where the meal behaves normally like dry
powder, stationary reactors where the meal is in suspension with the hot gas can be used.
The first patent for a suspension preheater using four co-current cyclone stages was applied for in 1932
and issued in 1934 by the patent office in Prague to a Danish engineer employed by FLS. Even though
the concept was entirely described in the patent, it took another 20 years for industrial application in 1951
by the company Humboldt, now KHD.
Other developments using shaft stages have been abandoned and today, a suspension preheater is
actually a cyclone preheater.
1.2 Trend
All new kiln systems and the majority of the ones with start-up date after 1970 are equipped with cyclone
pre-heaters. Gradually, older plants with wet kilns or long dry kilns are shut down for good due to their age
as well as their high specific production cost
The portion of world’s cement produced with kilns using suspension pre-heaters is still growing, as can be
seen by the development of the Holcim plants. It looks as if it will exceed 95% one day because no
feasible alternative solution changing this development is in sight.
In combination with pre-calciners, units of 10’000 t/d have been built using up to four strings, five stages.
Typically, 3500 t/d can be handled in one string, in a recent project even 4000 t/d have been proposed.

Figure 1:

Figure 2:

2. HEAT EXCHANGE IN A SUSPENSION PREHEATER

2.1 Counter-Current Heat Exchange (Shaft Stage)
The most efficient type of heat exchange is the counter-current principle. The flows of the heat releasing
media and the heat absorbing media are in opposite directions. This provides optimum the temperature
difference (=temperature gradient, in theory allowing almost complete heat exchange.
In case of a suspension preheater, where powder is suspended in a gas, the heat exchange takes place
in a “reactor” vessel where the hot gas enters from below and leaves at the top. The meal to be preheated
is fed at the top. The meal retention time depends on distribution across the gas flow and the retention
time, which is determined by the gas velocity.
In industrial installations, the heat exchange proved to be far below expected, because even distribution
of the meal was not achieved, particularly not with large units.
2.2 Co-Current Heat Exchange (Cyclone Stage)
Co-current heat exchange takes place if both heat exchanging media flow in the same direction. Because
of the rapidly decreasing temperature difference, the meal can never reach gas inlet temperature.
Good and reproducible results in industrial installations with this type lead to the predominance of this
principle in the cement industry. The heat exchanger is a gas duct with velocities from 10 to 20 m/s,
equipped with good meal dispersion devices. The purpose of the cyclone is primarily to separate meal
from gas, and not to exchange heat!
2.3 Thermodynamic Limits
Regardless of the type of heat exchange, there is always a thermodynamic imbalance between hot gases
from kiln and calciner and cold raw meal. The heat contained available in the hot gas leaving the rotary
kiln exceeds the heat required for heating the meal to the temperature levels required for calcination.
Another limit must be observed: Because the temperature gradient between gas and meal (T gas > T
meal) must always be maintained, a higher calcination degree than 30% cannot be achieved without
additional heat input.
The following heat balance estimate shall illustrate this:

Heat contained in the gas: 2300 kJ/kg cli

(1100°C; 1.3 Nm3/kg cli)
Heat to preheat meal to 850°C: 1300 kJ/kg cli
(1.6 kg meal /kg cli)
Heat required for 30% calcination: 650 kJ/kg cli
Rest (ideal heat exchange): 350 kJ/kg (corresponding to 200 °C)

This shows that even if the heat of the gas above 850°C is used for partial calcination (about 30%), there
is still excessive heat in the gas which would correspond to 200°C gas temperature.
It is obvious that even with a very large number of stages (with accordingly small temperature gradients),
there will always be excess heat! This waste heat is lost only for the kiln system, but not for the plant,
since it can be used for raw material drying in the mill.

Figure 3:
3. PREHEATER TYPES
3.1 Preheaters with Shaft Stages
The rather disappointing performance of the shaft stage made it virtually disappear from the market.
Many hybrid preheaters were equipped with one or two cyclone stages replacing the shaft stage.
Shaft stages at the kiln inlet have the advantage to be less sensitive to build-ups. This could be an
advantage in cases where elevated sulfur input in the kiln system must be expected.
Several Suppliers built preheaters using shaft stages. Two groups can be distinguished:
3.1.1 Pure shaft preheaters:

Polysius: · GEPOL
· Self-supporting structure (no tower required)
· Vertical tube with restrictions
· For small capacities (up to ca. 1000 t/d)

ZAB Dessau: · Some applications in Eastern Europe

· Similar to GEPOL, but not self-supporting
· The Deuna plant had originally 4 ZAB shaft preheaters

3.1.2 Hybrid preheaters:

Several suppliers used a combination of shaft and cyclone stages:

Polysius: · DOPOL preheater (first generation)

· The central swirl-pot (second lowest stage) was shaft stage
· Replaced by DOPOL 90 from 1990
· Gradually developed into a cyclone preheater
· Up to ca. 3000 t/d

Bühler-Miag: · Lowest stage was shaft stage

· Later often replaced by cyclone stage

Prerov: · One large shaft stage with dedusting cyclone

· Shaft stage selfsupporting
· Additional cyclone stage possible
· Separate meal duct to kiln
· As sensitive to circulation phenomena as a cyclone type

MBM: · Bottom shaft stage with 4 cyclone stages

· Only hybrid design still on the market

Figure 4:

3.2 Preheaters with Cyclone Stages

A quasi counter-current heat exchange can be achieved by serial installation of several co-current stages.
The result is the multi-stage cyclone preheater as it is generally applied in modern cement plants.
In the early years, one and two stage systems have been installed with long kilns, often to avoid problems
caused by circulating phenomena. A large number of plants are equipped with four stages; the majority of
them were built before 1990.
Today, five stage preheaters represent the economical optimum. High raw material moisture leads
occasionally to fewer stages, in combination with low temperature dedusting systems, or in areas with
high fuel cost, six stages can be more economical. Number of stages depends thus on:
¨ Raw material moisture (i.e. drying heat requirement)
¨ Cost of thermal energy
¨ Cost of electrical energy
¨ Gas handling system (temperature limit, dew point)
¨ Soil conditions (foundations, earthquake zone -> height of structure)
If raw material moisture shows significant seasonal variations, it can be economical to equip preheaters
with “variable stages”. This is achieved by feeding all or part of the meal to the second highest stage or by
skipping a stage.

Note: Numbering of stages is always from top to bottom: top stage = stage 1.
Exception: Polysius: bottom stage = stage 1

Figure 5:

3.3 Economical Number of Stages for Cyclone Preheaters

For many years, the pressure drop across one preheater stage was up to 1,5 kPa (15 mbar). The reason
for the 4-stage pre-heater being so widely used is, that it represented an optimum between investment
cost (structure height, foundation), pressure drop and heat consumption. . The performance of
comparable systems built in about the same period are within a relatively narrow range.
About two third of the pressure drop of a stage occurs in the cyclone and depends on its shape/design
and the size, the latter being the determining cost factor.
New cyclone designs are now on the market with only 0,5 to 1,0 kPa (5-10 mbar) pressure drop per
stage. Considering increasing energy cost, it is justified to install 5 or 6 pre-heater stages for new or
modified kiln systems.
The following table indicated the estimated effect of a 5th and a 6th cyclone stage:

4 to 5st 5 to 6st
Heat consumption kJ/kg cli- 80 - 50
Exhaust gas temperature °C - 40 to -50 - 20 to -30
Exhaust gas quantity Nm3/kg cli - 0,03 - 0,015
Drying capacity in RM % H2O from 8 - 6,5 From 6,5 - 5,5

3.4 Minimum Gas Velocity

Dimensioning of a cyclone preheater is a careful consideration of the importance of separation efficiency,
pressure drop, part load operation capability, size of the preheater and cost of the project.
It must be mentioned that there is a lowest gas velocity in a cyclone preheater. If operation results in
lower figures, the meal will not be lifted by the gas anymore, resulting in poor heat exchange and
consequently high heat consumption, but also excessive temperatures .
Large dimensions give lower velocities with low pressure drop, but also limit the lowest possible
economical production.
Figure 6: Polysius

Figure 7: FLS

4. DESIGN FEATURES OF PREHEATER-CYCLONES

4.1 General
Modern preheaters are designed for low pressure drop using the new cyclone design which must still
provide good separation efficiency, particularly in the top and the bottom stage. Cyclone inlet velocities
are designed in the range of 10 to 15 m/s.
It has been found that the total pressure drop of one cyclone stage is caused by about 1/3 by the gas duct
(i.e. lifting of the meal) and 2/3 by the cyclone. Since not much can be done regarding lifting of the meal,
efforts have been made to improve the cyclone design in order to reduce total pressure drop: the low
pressure (drop) cyclone was designed.
Cyclone design means to optimize between high separation efficiency, low pressure drop and low cost
(i.e. small size).
Other than having the correct design parameters, all stages should be equipped with
¨ Dip Tubes (also called ‘immersion tubes’, ‘thimbles’ or ‘vortex finders’)
¨ Meal flaps
¨ Splash boxes (or splash plates).
4.2 Dust Cycles
The entire kiln system is subject to dust cycles. Precondition is gas flow in opposite direction of pulverized
process materials. This causes wear, unnecessary material transport and heat losses due to heat
exchange in the wrong direction.
In the preheater, internal dust cycles due to poor separation efficiency of the cyclones result in less than
optimum preheating of meal. Unfortunately, it is almost impossible to measure dust loss from lower
cyclones in normal operation. The only indicator is the temperature profiles of gas and meal, but even the
meal temperature is not always easy tp measure.
4.3 Features
4.3.1 Splash Box
Early cyclone preheater designs had no splash boxes. Instead, the meal was fed into the gas at a higher
point against the gas flow, creating some turbulence with a certain distribution effect.
Modern cyclone preheaters must be equipped with correctly designed splash boxes for optimum meal
distribution across the gas duct cross section. The principle is based on impact on a plate. In some
installations, the bottom plate of the splash box can be adjusted.
Note: No splash box must be installed at the kiln inlet! The hot meal from the bottom cyclone must enter
the rotary kiln as smoothly as possible. Meal is easily picked up by the kiln gas and will create a dusty
transition chamber.
Figure 8:

4.3.2 Dip Tube (Immersion Tube, Vortex Finder, Thimble)

This integral element of the cyclone has a decisive influence on separation and pressure drop. It makes
the gas to follow a 180 to 360° rotation thus creating the desired centrifugal force for the separation effect.
In the colder upper stages (stage 1 to 3) it can be designed as simple extension of the outlet gas duct,
made from steel plate. These upper stage dip tubes create usually no problems except when the
preheater gets overheated, e.g. during start-up. Then, the dip tube can collapse, causing excessive
pressure drop.
In the hotter lower stages, mild steel ducts from one piece are not suitable. Several segmented designs
made from heat resistant steel or ceramic material (Hasle) are available on the market. It is standard
today that all stages are equipped with dip tubes.
Note: It appears that some designs of segmented dip tubes have a tendency to unhook enabling
individual elements to drop and to block the cyclone outlet!
For older plants, installing a segmented dip tube in the lower stages is a optimization possibility which is
often applied.
4.3.3 Meal Flap
In order to understand the purpose of the meal flap, the following two aspects must be mentioned:
¨ There is a pressure difference across a cyclone stage, i.e. between two subsequent cyclone gas
outlets (maintained by the ID fan).
¨ Without meal, there are two ways the gas can flow from one stage to the next: through gas duct
and through meal duct
If there was an ideal kiln system, i.e. a system with 100% constant meal flow and never changing
operation parameters, the meal duct diameter could be designed for just the meal. The meal would then
fill the entire cross section, leaving no opening for the gas. In reality, there are fluctuations of meal and
dropping build-ups, requiring oversized meal ducts.
It is the purpose of the meal flap to close the free cross section not used by the meal, to avoid gas
bypass. There are designs that open only when a certain weight pushes them open, thus creating meal
fluctuations. Other designs (see figure) are adjustable so that they move only in case of meal peaks or
lumps.
Not operational meal flaps cause heat loss and allow build-up formation in meal ducts (circulating
elements)!
4.3.4 Cyclone Shapes
The separation efficiency of a cyclone gets better with longer dip tube and increasing distance between
swirl (cylinder) and dust collecting cone, i.e. with high and slim shapes.
The top stage of preheaters is designed for high separation efficiency. In order to save height, most
suppliers install twin cyclones with the drawback that meal and gas have to be split. There are a few
plants from FLS with only one top cyclone, avoiding this drawback.
Figure 9:

5. PREHEATER OPERATION
The performance of a preheater is assessed based on the criteria:
¨ Temperature profile (first indicator: exit gas temperature)
¨ Pressure profile
¨ Oxygen profile
Table Typical Gas Temperature Profiles

4 stages 5 stages 6 stages

SP PC SP PC SP PC
Stage 1 °C 350 360 300 310 270 280
Stage 2 °C 540 570 490 500 440 460
Stage 3 °C 710 740 630 650 580 600
Stage 4 °C 840 870 750 770 690 710
Stage 5 °C - - 840 870 770 800
Stage 6 °C - - - - 840 870

5.1 Operating Problems of Suspension Preheaters

Some reasons for poor preheater performance frequently experienced:
¨ Worn out or non existing immersion tubes (often in bottom stage)
¨ Open inspection doors, leaky gaskets or holes in the pre-heater (cold false air leaks in, can be
detected by hissing sound)
¨ Blocked or non existing meal flaps
¨ No splash boxes (specially older preheaters), combined with not optimum position of meal feed
point (e.g. old DOPOL)
¨ Excessive dust circulation due to poor separation efficiency of cyclones
5.1.1 Circulation Phenomena.
Cyclone preheaters are sensitive to circulation phenomena. Cyclone blockages cause kiln stops resulting
in production loss and dangerous cleaning actions. Possible causes are:
¨ Excessive input via feed or fuel (Cl, S, 1 Na, K)
¨ Chemical unbalance (sulphur, alkali ratio)
¨ Unfavourable kiln/burner operation
¨ Unfavourable design geometry of bottom stage and kiln gas riser duct area
Countermeasures known today allow to solve the problems are:
¨ Change feed composition or fuel quality
¨ Improve burning conditions
¨ Install automatic cleaning (air cannon, big blasters) at critical locations
¨ Change temperature profile by installing a small secondary burner
¨ Install a kiln gas bypass* system
*A bypass system is not desirable since it is expensive and causes loss of heat and material. It is
therefore the last solution left and should be only considered if all other measures are not sufficient.
The paper ‘circulating phenomena’ contains more details on this rather complex subject.
6. NEW DEVELOPMENTS
6.1 Horizontal Cyclone
Polysius have developed a “horizontal cyclone”. (not to be mixed up with earlier designs of Kawasaki!)
This cyclone is a modified version of the conventional cyclone with the major difference that the gas outlet
is also at the bottom, encircling the meal outlet.
The heat exchanger duct is still from bottom to top, but the stages can be arranged next to each other
instead on top of each other. This allows a significantly lower height of the preheater structure.
It is expected that savings in civil cost can be achieved. Additional benefit is possible in cases where the
maximum height is restricted (earthquake zones, scenery protection).
Only top cyclones on conventional preheaters are in industrial operation, however. Any other experience
is yet to be made.
6.2 TRS
The Austrian company Zyklontechnik have introduced a dip tube add-on device which will reduce
pressure drop across the cyclone (not the entire stage!) by 30% at otherwise unchanged performance.
The principle is to avoid the flow around the edge of the dip tube. Instead, the horizontal swirl from the
gas inlet is maintained and can continue into the dip tube through an accurately shaped slot in the TRS.
Prerequisite is aerodynamically correct cyclone design and very accurate manufacturing of the TRS,
which cannot be made locally.
The device can be mounted to the bottom of a shortened dip tube. If the inspection opening is large
enough, the whole unit can be installed in one piece, otherwise it comes in pieces.
Several TRS are in operation (not in preheaters, however) with performance equal to or exceeding the
predicted figures.
Figure 10:

Figure 11:

Precalcining Systems
U. Gasser
VA 93/4055/E
1. INTRODUCTION
2. THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF PRECALCINING
2.1 2.1 Calcining of Raw Meal
2.2 Combustion in Precalciner
2.3 Specific Heat Consumption
2.4 True and Apparent Calcination Degree
3. BASIC ARRANGEMENTS OF PRECALCINING SYSTEMS
3.1 AS and AT Systems
3.2 In-Line, Off-Line and Separate Line Calciners
4. FEATURES OF PRECALCINERS
4.1 Main Benefits of Precalciner Technology
4.2 Limitations and Restrictions
4.3 Tertiary Air Damper and Kiln Riser Orifice
4.4 Circulation Problems and Bypass with PC Kilns
5. PRESENT STATE OF PRECALCINER DEVELOPMENT
5.1 Calciners from FCB
5.2 Calciners from FLS - FULLER
5.3 PYROCLON Calciners (KHD)
5.4 PREPOL® Calciners (Polysius)
5.5 Prerov-Calciner
5.6 Conclusion
6. SYNOPSIS OF PRECALCINERS
7. TEST QUESTIONS

SUMMARY
When burning cement clinker in a suspension preheater kiln, about 2/3 of the total heat consumed or
about 2000 kJ/kg are required for the dissociation of CaCO3 also known as calcination.
The idea of precalcination is, to let this process take place before the meal enters the rotary kiln by
introducing that part of the fuel, i.e. up to 65%, into a stationary reactor.
Because the combustion air (tertiary air) is drawn through a separate duct parallel to the kiln directly from
the cooler, the rotary kiln operates at significantly lower specific thermal load and gas flow.
The main advantages of precalcination are:
¨ More stable kiln operation due to better kiln control via two separate fuel feed/control points
¨ More stable kiln operation due to controlled meal conditions at kiln inlet
¨ Reduced thermal load of burning zone
¨ Higher kiln availability
¨ Longer life of burning zone refractories
¨ Larger capacity with given kiln dimensions, resp. smaller kiln for given capacity
¨ Possibility of increasing capacity of existing kilns
¨ More favorable conditions regarding circulating element problems
¨ Allows shorter kilns (L/D <12, 2 supports)
¨ Lower NOx emissions
The drawbacks of higher gas exit temperature after the bottom cyclone and the preheater higher pressure
drop can be compensated by five preheater stages and modern low pressure drop cyclones.
There are three basic precalciner arrangements available from several suppliers: in-line, off-line and
separate line, all with separate tertiary air duct.
Being the key for complete combustion, the main design criteria is gas retention time: 2 to 3.5 sec
minimum, depending on fuel reactivity, 0.5 to 1 sec more for in-line calciners.
Systems where 10 to 20% of the fuel is introduced to the riser duct are considered secondary firings (SF)
and not precalciners.
1. INTRODUCTION
The idea of separating the calcining process from the burning process was already described in a patent
as early as 1912.
However, the first industrial precalciner was built by Humboldt-Wedag (KHD) only in 1966 (Fig. 1). It was
the Polysius kiln in Dotternhausen (Germany) which was equipped with a special 5-stage suspension
preheater with extended riser duct. This riser duct had a larger diameter and the shape of a gooseneck to
provide more length thus more gas retention time enabling combustion of oilshale, a locally available fuel
containing raw material. The combustion air (tertiary air) was still drawn through the rotary kiln. Additional
burners were installed later at the bottom of the precalciner chamber.
Tube type calciners using the gooseneck design are still being used by KHD (Pyroclon) and Polysius
(Prepol).
So it is obvious that the precalciner (PC) kiln was developed from a straight suspension preheater (SP)
kiln. The process characteristics (heat balance etc.) of both SP and PC kiln systems are quite similar, the
main difference being the fact that in case of the PC kiln, 50 to 60% of the fuel (heat) is introduced via a
chamber between kiln inlet and bottom cyclone. This allows to match the process heat requirements more
evenly leading to significant improvements.
Since true precalciners with 50 to 60% PC fuel ratio require a separate tertiary air duct, almost all PC kilns
feature a grate cooler.
The demand for larger and larger capacities which started back in the 1970ies led to a rapid development
of the new precalciner technology. The fastest growing market asking for the largest units was in Japan
where most of the clinker is produced in PC kilns.
During that period, 12 competing suppliers developed their own precalciners, 8 of them were Japanese
(see para „synopsis of precalciners“).
After the home market for cement plants started to stagnate, the Japanese suppliers exported their know-
how via licenses as well as entire plants. During the late 1980ies, where only few new plants have been
constructed world-wide, the Japanese activities came to a stop.
The latest development of precalciner technology was aimed at
¨ Complete combustion, also for low reactivity fuels
¨ Suitability for a wide range of fuels
¨ Low emissions of NOx
Since the Japanese competitors have virtually disappeared on the international market, the variety of
precalciner systems is reduced. Five European suppliers (FCB, FLS-Fuller, KHD, Polysius and Prerov)
offer precalciners, some even a choice of alternative solutions.
2. THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF PRECALCINING
2.1 2.1 Calcining of Raw Meal
Among all reactions taking place when burning clinker, the calcining - also called decarbonisation -
requires the highest amount of energy: the dissociation of carbonates, primarily calciumcarbonate
according to the reaction

CaCO3 + heat ® CaO + CO2

in the raw meal requires approx. 1.3 MJ/kg raw meal corresponding to 2.0 MJ/kg cli. The DTA-curves
(Fig. 2) illustrate very well the importance of calcining within the clinker burning process.
Fig. 2 Differential Thermo-Analysis (DTA)-curves of a typical cement raw meal

During the process of heating up a raw meal, the calcining does not happen suddenly at a well defined
temperature, but starts at about 600 - 700°C and ends between 900 and 1000°C, following a so-called „S
curve“ (Fig. 3). Exact shape and position of this curve vary from raw meal to raw meal.
Fig. 3 General aspect of the calcining curve of a cement raw meal

Not only the temperature, but also the retention time of the raw meal is an important parameter of
calcining. While the heat transfer from gas to suspended raw meal in a preheater stage is achieved a
fraction of a second, the complete calcination at a temperature of about 900°C in suspension requires a
reaction time in the range of 2 to 12 seconds. However, as only 90 to 95% of the calcining should take
place in the precalciner in order to avoid clogging problems, a residence time of about 1 to 3 seconds has
proven to be sufficient.
To perform both above mentioned tasks, i.e. to keep raw meal in suspension for a few seconds at 850 to
900°C in a stationary vessel without clogging, is the common process target of all PC systems.
2.2 Combustion in Precalciner
The combustion in the precalciner takes place under quite different conditions compared to the main firing
because:
¨ The temperature of the combustion environment is in the order of 850 to 900°C (flame
temperature of the main firing: around 2000°C).
¨ Some PC systems (in-line systems) use an air-gas mixture for combustion (main firing: pure
primary and secondary air) while others use pure air (off-line and separate line systems).
¨ In all PC systems preheated raw meal is suspended in the combustion air or air-gas mixture
respectively in order to absorb the heat released thereby maintaining the temperature at a comparatively
low level. By all means must Sintering of material avoided, as this would lead to clogging in the
precalciner stage.
On the account of the less favorable combustion conditions complete combustion is not always readily
obtained, it requires a certain experience to achieve optimum performance. Of the various parameters
influencing the combustion performance, the following are perhaps the more important ones:
¨ Good mixing of the fuel with the available oxygen. (This is particularly difficult to achieve with in-
line calciners.) Optimum fuel dispersion into the gas flow (liquid fuel: atomization) is essential.
¨ Retention time for combustion has to be sufficient. The combustion must be completed in the PC
stage. Otherwise, it will continue in the next stage (post-combustion) where the temperature level is lower
and therefore less favorable for the calcination (see S-curve). This results in not optimum utilization of the
heat which leads eventually to higher fuel consumption.
¨ The flow pattern of the air/gas mixture (resp. tertiary air) has to be favorable for the combustion.
¨ The meal distribution in the combustion zone has to be optimum, i.e. causing minimum distortion
of the combustion. (CaCO3 as well as CO2 can also react with C - carbon from the fuel - to produce CO!).
It is known from experience that too high concentrations of raw meal can seriously impede the complete
combustion.
With the introduction of the separate air duct for the combustion air for the calciner, the new term of
tertiary air had to be introduced:

Primary air: Air introduced via kiln burner

Secondary air: Air from cooler to kiln burning zone
Tertiary air: Air from cooler to PC for combustion
Introduction of fuel between kiln inlet and bottom cyclone - as secondary firing or via precalciner -
necessarily increases the temperature level. The gas exit temperatures from the lowest stage of a straight
preheater kiln is only 790 to 820°C as compared to precalciner kilns where this temperature increases by
some ten degrees to 840 to 870°C. Therefore, the preheater exit temperature is also somewhat higher
entailing an increased heat loss, which is more pronounced with 4-stage preheaters.
The performance of PC systems can primarily be judged on two characteristic values:
¨ The temperature difference between gas and material ex precalcining stage should be as low as
possible, so as to minimize the heat losses of the exit gas. The reaction temperature in the precalciner
depends of course on the raw meal and the required precalcining degree as well as tolerated NOx level.
¨ Complete combustion must be achieved as this directly influences the overall heat consumption
of the system. It must be mentioned that this is strongly influenced by the excess of air.
· Note: Stating the amount of unburned matter in the gas is therefore only meaningful to assess a
calciner system, if the amount of oxygen in the gas is indicated as well.
Solid, liquid and gaseous fuels are successfully fired in PC kiln systems. However, the location and
position of the burners in the precalciners have to be adapted to the fuel particularities. This is specially
important for gaseous fuels, which seem to be more difficult to burn in the PC chamber than other fuels.
2.3 Specific Heat Consumption
From the above mentioned it can be concluded that PC systems have a tendency to slightly increased
heat consumption, unless countermeasures are taken such as:
¨ Although equipping existing preheater kilns with precalcination usually results in a slight increase
of the heat consumption, the average (annual) heat consumption may be equal or even lower on account
of a more regular kiln performance.
¨ Also for new installations the heat consumption is about 50 - 100 kJ/kg cli higher than for
conventional preheater kilns with 4 stages.
Where the somewhat higher exit gas temperature cannot be fully used, say for raw material drying - then
it has become standard to install one or two additional preheater stages to reduce the heat consumption
to a figure slightly, for 6 stages noticeably, below that of a conventional 4st SP kiln. The first PC kiln in
Dotternhausen was in fact equipped with a 5-stage preheater.
2.4 True and Apparent Calcination Degree
An important parameter for controlling the precalciner operation is the calcination degree. It is important to
know the meaning of the true and the apparent calcination degree.
True calcination degree:
Degree to which the calcination is completed, i.e. extent to which the CO2 is dissociated from the CaCO3.
Extremes: Raw meal 0% (LOI = 35%)
Clinker 100% (LOI = 0%)
In reality, the calcination degree is determined using a hot meal sample taken from the meal duct of the
bottom cyclone. Because of always present dust cycles between kiln / kiln inlet / kiln riser / bottom
cyclone, this sample contains a certain amount of dust which was already in the kiln calcining zone and is
higher or even fully calcined. This sample is therefore a mixture consisting of „fresh“ meal and dust
circulated back and has a higher calcination degree than the pure „fresh“ hot meal.
This means: The higher the dust concentration near the kiln inlet resp. the dust cycle, the higher the
apparent calcination degree.
Apparent calcination degree:
The calcination degree determined from a hot meal sample taken from the meal duct of the bottom
cyclone.
Fig. 5 True and Apparent Calcination Degree, PC Fuel, Dust

3. BASIC ARRANGEMENTS OF PRECALCINING SYSTEMS

3.1 AS and AT Systems
The first precalciner in Dotternhausen used combustion air which was drawn through the kiln as excess
air. This technology was maintained for several years and is known as AT System. However, in reality only
up to 35% fuel could be introduced to the precalciner thus limiting its benefits. The AT type is thus no
longer considered a precalciner; it is rather used for secondary firings where a high calcination degree at
the kiln inlet is not the main target.
Fig. 7 AS and AT Systems

Today, all precalciners are AS Systems using tertiary air which is extracted from the kiln hood or from the
cooler roof and drawn via a separate tertiary air duct parallel to the kiln to the precalciner. This means that
planetary coolers are not compatible with precalcination technology (i.e. AS systems).
Table 1 Comparison of AS and AT System

Item AS AT
Portion of fuel to the precalciner up to 65% max. 35%
Largest kiln in operation 8500 t/d, f 6.2 x 105 m 4700 t/d, f 5.2 x 80 m
Kiln f for given capacity (st SP = 100%) approx. 75-80% approx. 85-90%
Suitable type of cooler only grate or rotary all types
Suitable for extension of existing SP kiln poor (cooler, tertiary air duct) very good for low PC rates
Burning conditions in rotary kiln normal flame temperature (normal excess air) lower flame temperature
and stable operation due to high excess air
Thermal load in burning zone (4st SP = 100%) approx. 60-70% at 60% PC approx. 85-90% at 30%
PC
Behavior regarding circulating elements like 4st SP kiln due to the high O2-content of the kiln
atmosphere, reduced volatility of sulfur and therefore decrease of encrustation in transition zone and riser
pipe
Heat loss at 10% bypass (4st SP = 100%) approx. 40% (bypass will be smaller than in 4st SP kiln)
approx. 90% (bypass will have same size as in 4st SP kiln)
Exhaust gas temperature (4st preheater) higher than 4st SP higher than 4st SP
Heat consumption slightly higher than 4st SP slightly higher than 4st SP
Pressure loss over preheater higher than 4st SP slightly higher than 4st SP

3.2 In-Line, Off-Line and Separate Line Calciners

This criteria refers to the position of the precalciner in the kiln system installation and is illustrated with
Fig. 8 below.
¨ In-Line Calciners are installed in the kiln exhaust gas flow which means that the combustion takes
place in an air/kiln gas mix. This precalciner can be considered an enlarged kiln riser duct.
¨ Off-Line Calciners are installed off the kiln exhaust gas flow. The combustion takes place in pure
(tertiary) air which is also responsible for lifting up the meal.
¨ Separate Line Calciners are off-line calciners with a separate preheater string.
Fig. 8 Precalciner Arrangements

Table 2 Comparison of Calciner Arrangements

In-Line Off-LineSeparate Line

PC arrangement Extended riser duct Parallel to riser duct Parallel to riser duct
Combustion atmosphere Kiln gas and air mix Pure air Pure air
Preheater string1 to 4 of same size 1 to 4 of same size 2 to 4, 2 different sizes
Advantages Low NOx version (reducing kiln NOx) Suitable for modification Two independent
combustions ® Easy combustion control
Excess air used for combustion Good combustion Good combustion
Suitable for lump fuel Suitable for modifications Suitable for modifications
Weak points Mixing of air with gas Higher peak temperature (NOx!) Higher peak temperature (NOx!)
Larger volume required PC drop-out can fill TAD PC drop-out can fill TAD
Incomplete combustion Asymmetry regarding circulating elements
Height requirement (depending on type/design) Requires 2 strings (not feasible for
<3000 t/d)
Strings of different sizes (problem >7000 t/d)
4. FEATURES OF PRECALCINERS
4.1 Main Benefits of Precalciner Technology
There are many advantages of precalciner technology which made it state of the art today. Some of them
are listed here:
1) More stable kiln operation due to better kiln control via two separate fuel feed/control points.
2) More stable kiln operation due to controlled meal conditions at kiln inlet.
3) Reduced thermal load of burning zone.
4) Lower brick consumption as a result of 1. and 3.
5) More than double capacities possible with given kiln (10’000 t/d with 6 m x 95 m kiln).
6) Possibility of increasing capacity of existing kilns.
7) Reduced volatilization of circulating elements.
8) Reduction of cycles (S, Cl, Na20, K2O) with smaller bypass rate, i.e. lower losses.
9) Makes short kilns possible with 2 stations, L/D < 12
10) Possibilities of NOx reduction.
11) Lump fuel utilization in some cases.
4.2 Limitations and Restrictions
Even though the advantages of precalciner systems are doubtlessly convincing, not all types can be used
in all cases. Limitations are:
¨ Additional installation (fuel dosing, calciner, tertiary air duct) as well as the relatively smaller rotary
kiln sets a lower economical limit to PC systems for new plants at around 1200 t/d.
¨ Alternative fuels containing hazardous components can only be used in the main firing due to the
high temperature level there. The potential to use such fuels is then lower for PC kilns.
¨ Higher exhaust gas temperature and higher pressure drop can be a drawback in specific cases.
¨ Separate line calciners for new installations are only feasible if a 2-string arrangement is required
for the capacity, i.e. above 3500 t/d.
Fig. 9 Comparison of wet, SP and PC Kilns (average curves)

4.3 Tertiary Air Damper and Kiln Riser Orifice

Off-line calciners as well as in-line calciners are usually equipped with one kiln ID fan. In order to allow
control of the tertiary air/secondary air ratio, there must be a control device in at least one of the two gas
paths (kiln resp. tertiary air duct).
For efficient warming up of the preheater, a damper is usually installed in the tertiary air duct to avoid
fresh air to bypass the main flame. Very often, this damper is used also, for controlling the tertiary air flow
(Fig. 10a). However, experience shows that high temperature and clinker dust require a quite refined
design of this tertiary air damper. In many cases, this damper operates only for a short period without
problems.
Another approach is to install the control device in the other path. Some suppliers (e.g. FLS and
Kawasaki) have developed a kiln riser orifice which is successfully operating in several plants. This
solution (Fig. 10b) is generally more expensive than the TA damper above, but performs well.
Fig. 10 TA Damper and Kiln Orifice

4.4 Circulation Problems and Bypass with PC Kilns

Precalciner kiln systems have two major advantages regarding circulation problems.
¨ Reduced volatilization in the rotary kiln because less than 50% of the heat is introduced in the
burning zone.
¨ Less than 50% thermal and dust losses in case of a bypass compared to a straight SP kiln.
The volatilization of circulating elements occurs primarily in the rotary kiln. The percentage of the
volatilized elements which can be extracted with a bypass depends on
¨ volatilization rate in the kiln, and
¨ amount of kiln gas extracted via bypass (= bypass rate) which is expressed by the ratio:
bypass gas
gas at kiln inlet
The highest possible reduction of circulating elements at a given volatilization rate would be if 100% of the
gases at the kiln inlet could be extracted. this is only possible in the case of a precalciner but not with a
straight preheater kiln. Accordingly are the heat losses approx. 50 to 60% lower at a given reduction
because the concentration of volatilized circulating elements in the gas at the kiln inlet is much higher
than for a SP kiln.
Fig. 11 Bypass for PC Kilns

5. PRESENT STATE OF PRECALCINER DEVELOPMENT

5.1 Calciners from FCB
FCB have been IHI licensees since the mid seventies for in-line calciners resulting in 8 operating
installations and 6 under construction. The highest capacity is 3300 t/d (Tourah, Egypt).
Together with Ciments Français FCB have designed a new type of calciner with low emissions suitable for
low grade fuels called the FCB low NOx PC (Fig. 12).
In combination with a low NOx kiln burner, FCB expect to achieve 150 - 350 ppm NOx at the stack with
their new calciner. The first industrial prototype is scheduled for 1992.
The FCB calciner looks like a vertical reactor with one three channel burner on the top. Tertiary air is
introduced from the top as well as with the meal on two sides. Flow is vertical from top to bottom. Meal
can be proportioned via three points on two levels. FCB claim to achieve:
¨ Hot spot
¨ Reducing atmosphere zone ® NOx reduction
¨ Controlled flame
¨ No separation of coal and meal
5.2 Calciners from FLS - FULLER
The FLS range of calciners will be marketed by both FLS and FULLER.
Three basic air separate calciner systems are available: ILC, SLC-S and SLC (Fig. 13).
All these use a vessel type calciner which provides retention time by means of volume. Experiences with
this system made no conceptual changes necessary.
The only modification to be mentioned is the new tangential tertiary air inlet for the ILC system which
allows larger calciner volume without requiring more height.
Main features of the FLS calciner systems presently available are:
¨ Variable kiln orifice (Fig. 14) for the SLC-S calciner to control the ratio of secondary to tertiary air
in place of the often troublesome damper in the tertiary air duct.
¨ Low NOx version by splitting the tertiary air creating a controlled area of reducing atmosphere in
the lower part of the PC which is horizontally divided in two zones by an orifice.
¨ Variation of the calciner outlet temperature with the SLC-S system without changing the preheater
temperature profile providing a „temperature window“ for NH3 injection.
5.3 PYROCLON Calciners (KHD)
The calciner systems by KHD (and Polysius) are based on the 1965 Dottenhausen „goose neck“ design,
a tube type calciner. As PYROCLON-R, a whole range of versions has been developed (Fig. 15).
A low NOx version of the RP version is not available. KHD tackle the problem of CO from incomplete
combustion with coal firing by focusing on improved coal dosification.
Incomplete mixture of waste gases from kiln and calciner is often found with tube type calciners. In order
to achieve a good mixture, an essential prerequisite for low NOx systems using excess fuel zones in the
precalciner, the 180°C elbow is substituted by a new reaction chamber, called PYROTOP (Fig. 16).A
PYROCLON-R Low NOx with PYROTOP allows:
¨ Complete combustion of the calciner fuel
¨ Temperature controlled zones (NH3 injection)
¨ Improved mixing of gases
¨ Reduction of NOx
5.4 PREPOL® Calciners (Polysius)
Polysius calciners are all of the air separate (AS) h-line-type. It is generally accepted today that the
calcination process takes place within a few seconds making the fuel reactivity the decisive design criteria
for the calciner size.
The „goose neck“-tube type calciner PREPOL by Polysius is presently available in three basic
configurations (Fig. 17).
Several Polysius calciners have been modified by the company CLE who added an RSP type pre-
combustion chamber. The same principle is now incorporated in the PREPOL AS-CC calciner by
Polysius.
Polysius started in 1985 to develop their NOx reducing technology called MSC based on experience
available from power stations with staged combustion. They have adapted this method to the
requirements of the clinker burning process. Trial operation on cement plants have shown 35 - 45%
reduction of NOx.
The idea is to create a limited zone of reducing atmosphere near the transition chamber by adding a small
amount of fuel to the rotary kiln exhaust gas via a small burner in the riser duct. For the NOx from the
calciner fuel, the same principle is applied resulting in a second reducing zone. Such a system would
have the following fuel inputs:
¨ < 50% main burner
¨ < 10% via primary DeNOx burner
¨ > 30% via precalciner
¨ < 10% via secondary DeNOx burner
Experience on an industrial scale only will prove the capability of this system. One of the difficulties is how
to control the kiln atmosphere without the gas analysis sampled near the kiln inlet.
5.5 Prerov-Calciner
The Czek company Prerov have developed a new precalciner (Fig. 18). It consists of a precombustion
chamber (KKS) and a reaction chamber (KKN) with a vortex chamber and is comparable to Polysius’
PREPOL-AS CC. During 1992, the first installation will be commissioned in Southern Italy.
5.6 Conclusion
The development of tube type calciners and vessel type calciners has moved them closer to each other.
The tube type calciners have received a swirl pot or a pre-combustion chamber for improved mixing and
fuel burning and the vessel type calciners have become longer.
The calciner without separate air duct also known as „air through“ actually operating only with 10 - 20% of
the total fuel never fulfilled the expectations and has virtually disappeared, together with the planetary
cooler.
Low NOx calciners have been developed based on the principle of locally reducing atmosphere by means
of fuel excess zones. It can be expected that NOx from precalciner combustion can be reduced to around
700 - 800 ppm. Calciners can be designed to reduce NOx generated in the burning zone, or to keep NOx
generated in the calciner low, or both.
Since further NOx reduction to lower levels require methods such as NH3 injection, temperature control is
very important.
A modern calciner can be described as follows:

Type: in-line with pre-combustion chamber

Fuel ratio: 50 - 60% (include. low NOx fuel in case of staged combustion
Fuel dosing: low fluctuation
Fuel types: various, including alternative fuels
Combustion environment: pure air or air/kiln gas mix
Calciner size criteria: fuel reactivity
gas retention time (up to 4 - 5 sec.)
Feature: enhanced turbulence
Tertiary air: staged for reducing zone

6. SYNOPSIS OF PRECALCINERS
The different PC systems as well as their developers and suppliers are summarized in Table 3. During the
1970ies the cement manufacturers greatly contributed to the development of the Japanese PC systems:
Until 1985, ot 304 kilns with PC, 83 were located in Japan, totaling 35% of the capacity. This shows the
explosive expansion of PC systems in Japan back than. Today, all new kilns have precalciner with tertiary
air duct.
Table 3 Synopsis of PC Systems

Trade Name Signification Developer & Licenser Plant Supplier & Licensee
PASEC Voert Alpine / SKET ACT
SLC Separate Line Calciner F.L. Smidth F.L. Smidth
SLC-S Separate Line Calciner Special
ILC In-Line Calciner
ILC-D In-Line Calciner Downdraft
ILC-E* In-Line Calciner, Excess Air
Prepol AS Air Separate Krupp-Polysius Krupp-Polysius
Prepol AS-CC Controlled Combustion
Prepol AS-MSC Multi Stage Combustion
Prepol AT* Air Through
Pyroclon R Regular = Air Separate KHD Humboldt Wedag KHD Humboldt Wedag
Pyroclon RP Regular Parallel
Pyroclon R Low NOx
Pyroclon R Low Nox with Pyrotop
Pyroclon S* Special = Air Through
EVS-PC
(only fuel - oil) Echangeur à voie sèche avec précalcination Fives-Cail Babcock Fives-Cail
Babcock
KKS-KKN n.a. Prero Prerov
SF
Suspension Flash Calciner Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Ind.
Chichibu Cement Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Ind.
Fuller Company /
Fives-Cail Babcock
NSF New SF
RSP Reinforced Suspension Preheater Onoda Cement Onoda Engineering & Consulting
Kawasaki Heavy Industries
Allis-Chalmers
CLE-Technip
KSV
Kawasaki Spouted Bed and Vortex Chamber Kawasaki Heavy Industries Kawasaki
Heavy Industries
NKSV New KSV
MFC Mitsubishi Fluidized Calciner Mitsubishi Mining & Cement Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
GG Reduction Gas Generator Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
DDF Dual Combustion and Denitration Furnance Nihon Cement Kobe Steel
CSF (CFF) Chichibu Suspension Flash Calciner Chichibu Cement Chichibu Cement (own
plants)
SCS Sumitomo Cross Suspension Preheater and Spouted Furnace Process Sumitomo Cement
Kawasaki Heavy Industries
Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries
*Air through: secondary firing systems

7. TEST QUESTIONS
1) Which is the chemical reaction with the highest heat consumption within the clinker burning
process? How much does it consume in absolute terms (kJ/kg clinker) and in percent of the total heat
consumption of a modern kiln system?
2) Which are the three basic precalciner arrangements and what are their differences?
3) At what temperature does the calcination take place and how much CO2 is totally dissociated
from the CaCO3?
4) Which are the benefits of precalciner technology?
5) Which is the most important design criteria for precalciner dimensioning?
6) Explain the term „apparent calcination degree“. How can it be determined and what is its
significance?
7) How do the effects of a bypass compare in case of a straight preheater kiln and a precalciner
kiln?
Fig. 1 Sketch of Dotternhausen Kiln, the first Precalciner (KHD, 1966)

Table 4:Temperatures and Process Steps for Clinker Burning

Temperature [°C] Process Step, Type of Reaction Heat

20 - 100 Evaporation of free H2OEndo
100 - 300 Loss of physically absorbed H2O Endo
400 - 900 Removal of structural water Endo
> 500 Structural changes in silicate minerals Exo
600 - 900 Dissociation of CO2 from CaCO3 Endo
> 800 Formation of intermediate products Belite, Aluminate and Ferrite Exo
> 1250 Formation of liquid phase (aluminate and ferrite melt) Endo
Formation of alite Exo
1300 - 1240 Crystallization of liquid phase into mainly aluminate and ferrite Exo

For numerical calculations, an approximate quantity of CO2 from the raw material (dissociated from the
calcites) can be used, regardless of the exact chemical composition.
CO2 from raw mat = 0.28 Nm3/kg cli

Table 5:Energy Balance of Process Steps for Clinker Burning

Endothermic Processes: kJ/kg clikcal/kg cli

Dehydration of clays 165 40
Decarbonisation of calcite 1990 475
Heat of melting 105 25
Heating of raw materials (0 to 1450°C) 2050 490
Total endothermic 4310 1030
Exothermic Processes: kJ/kg clikcal/kg cli
Recrystallization of dehydrated clay 40 10
Heat of formation of clinker minerals 420 100
Crystallization of melt 105 25
Cooling of clinker 1400 335
Cooling of CO2 (ex calcite) 500 120
Cooling and condensation of H2O 85 20
Total exothermic 2550 610
Net Theor. Heat of Clinker Formation: kJ/kg clikcal/kg cli
Endothermic - exothermic 1760 420

Heat consumption of Kiln System: kJ/kg clikcal/kg cli

Average 4-stage SP system 3300 790
Modern 6-stage SP system 3000 720
Rel. Heat Requirement of Calcination:
Average 4-stage SP system 60%
Modern 6-stage SP system 66%

Fig. 12 FCB Low-NOx Precalciner

Fig. 13 FLS

Fig. 14 FLS Adjustable Kiln Orifice

Fig. 15 Pyroclon

Fig. 16 Pyrotop

Fig. 17 Polysius

Fig. 18 Prerov

Fig. 19 EVS-PC

Features of EVS-PC PC system

Supplier: Fives-Cail Babcock
Fig. 20 SF / NSF

Fig. 21 RSP

Features of RSP PC system

Suppliers: Onoda Engineering & Consulting
Kawasaki Heavy Industries
Allis Chalmers
Creusot - Loire Entreprises
Fig. 22 KSV / NKSV

Features of KSV/NKSV PC system

Supplier: Kawasaki Heavy Industries
Fig. 23 MFC

Fig. 24 GG

Features of GG PC system
Supplier: Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
System abandoned
Fig. 25 DD

Fig. 26 CSF

Features of CSF PC system

Supplier: Chichibu Cement in own plants
Fig. 27 Voest Alpine PASEC System

Fig. 28 FLS
Clinker Coolers
U. Gasser / D. Brassel
PT 97/14232/E (Revision 1, February 1999)
1. INTRODUCTION
2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 Heat Flow in a Kiln System
2.2 Definitions
2.3 Calculations
3. GRATE COOLERS
3.1 The Reciprocating Grate Cooler
3.1.1 Principle
3.1.2 History
3.1.3 Conventional Grate Coolers (1980’s)
3.1.4 Typical Grate Cooler Problems
3.1.5 Modern Grate Coolers (1990’s)
3.1.6 Design Highlights of Modern Grate Coolers
3.1.7 Clinker Crushers
3.1.8 Cooler control
3.1.9 Cooler Dedusting
3.1.10 Developments
3.2 The Cross Bar Cooler
3.2.1 Principle
3.2.2 Main features
3.2.3 Strengths and Weaknesses
3.3 The Travelling Grate Cooler
3.3.1 Principle
3.3.2 Strengths and Weaknesses
4. ROTATING COOLERS
4.1 The Rotary Cooler or Tube Cooler
4.1.1 Principle
4.1.2 Design Features
4.1.3 Cooling performance
4.1.4 Strengths / Weaknesses
4.2 The Planetary Cooler
4.2.1 Principle
4.2.2 Historical
4.2.3 Design features
4.2.4 Internal heat transfer equipment (see Fig. 26)
5. VERTICAL COOLERS
5.1 The Gravity Cooler (G - Cooler)
5.2 The Shaft Cooler

SUMMARY
Clinker coolers have two tasks to fulfil:
¨ Recuperate as much heat as possible from the hot clinker by heating up the air used for
combustion
¨ Cool the clinker from 1400°C to temperatures adequate for the subsequent process equipment,
normally to 100 - 200°C.
There are mainly two different types of clinker coolers in operation with the following features:
Grate coolers
¨ Crossflow heat exchange through horizontal clinker bed with cold air from below.
¨ Cooling airflow exceeding combustion air requirement allows low clinker temperatures, but
necessitates excess (waste) air dedusting.
¨ Modern cooler technology with sophisticated plates and forced aeration systems allow
combustion air temperatures exceeding 1000°C.
¨ Trend to wider and fewer grates, less cooling air and fixed inlets
¨ Largest units: 10’000 t/d
¨ Travelling grate (Recupol): last unit built around 1980
Rotating coolers
¨ Rotary tube coolers with separate drive or planetary cooler attached to kiln shell
¨ Quasi counter-current flow heat exchange
¨ Cooling air determined by combustion air, no waste air
¨ Heat exchange (recuperation) determined by condition of internal heat transfer equipment
¨ Limited unit size, up to 3000 t/d
¨ Planetary cooler not suitable for precalciner technology
¨ Practically no new installation built anymore
1. INTRODUCTION
The clinker cooler is a vital part of the kiln system and has a decisive influence on the performance of the
plant. Three key indicators characterize a good cooler:
¨ Maximum heat recuperation
¨ Minimum cooling air flow
¨ Unrestricted availability
There have been periodic changes in trends during the past decades. Grate coolers were first introduced
by Fuller Company (USA) around 1930. While its design was continuously being optimized, the grate
cooler became the predominant type in the 1950's. In the late 1960's, the planetary cooler gained
popularity which reached its peak in the 1970's, mainly due to its simplicity. Larger unit capacities with
precalciner technology made the grate cooler the preferred solution again. A wave of grate cooler
reengineering starting in the mid 1980's has generated a much improved grate cooler technology as well
as a new situation on the suppliers' side. New problems were experienced and have been or are being
solved.
Since cement plants have life cycles of 40 years and more, numerous units of each cooler type, planetary,
rotary or grate cooler of old or new designs, will remain in operation for many more years.
2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The clinker cooler has the following tasks to fulfil:
¨ Process internal heat recuperation by heat transfer from clinker to combustion air
¨ Reduce clinker temperature to facilitate clinker handling and storage
¨ Provide maximum cooling velocity to avoid unfavorable clinker phases and crystal size
2.1 Heat Flow in a Kiln System
The importance of the cooler as a heat recuperator can be well demonstrated with a heat flow (Sanki)
diagram.
Figure 1 Clinker cooler and kiln system

Figure 2 Energy turnover (Grate cooler)

2.2 Definitions
¨ As for other components of the kiln system, specific figures for clinker coolers refer to 1 kg of
clinker. This eliminates the influence of plant size and allows direct comparison of clinker coolers of
different types and sizes.
¨ Cooling air is the air which passes the clinker thus being heated up while cooling the clinker. It
corresponds approximately to the combustion air requirement, only grate coolers allow additional air for
better cooling.
¨ Primary air is the air which is required for proper functioning of the burner. Ambient air insufflated
by a separate small fan plus the air from a pneumatic transport system, amounting from < 10% up to >
30% of the air required to combust that fuel. Some precalciner burners are equipped with primary air fans
(for cooling) as well.
¨ Secondary air is the hot air entering the rotary kiln via clinker cooler. Its flow is determined by the
combustion of the burning zone fuel. While cooling the clinker, it reaches temperatures of 600 to over
1000°C, depending on type and condition of the cooler.
¨ Tertiary air is that part of the combustion air which is required for combusting the precalciner fuel.
It is extracted from kiln hood or cooler roof, and then taken along a duct (=tertiary air duct) parallel to the
kiln to the precalciner. It reaches temperatures near or equal to the level of the secondary air.
¨ Middle air (grate cooler only) is extracted from the cooler roof if drying of process materials
requires a temperature level which is higher than the waste air. If the quantity is small, up to 450°C can be
expected at normal cooler operation.
¨ Waste air (grate cooler only) is also called cooler exit air or cooler excess air. The total cooling
airflow from the fans is normally higher than the flow required for combustion (=tertiary + secondary air).
The extra air, which has normally a temperature of 200 to 300°C, must be vented to ambient via a
dedusting system.
¨ False air is cold air entering the system via kiln outlet seal, burner opening, casing or clinker
discharge. It either dilutes secondary air thus reducing recuperated heat or adds load to the waste air
system of grate coolers.
¨ Specific air volumes are airflows per kg of clinker (m3/kg cli, Nm3/kg cli). Independent of the kiln
size, airflows of cooler systems can be directly compared.
¨ Specific loads express the relation of clinker production to a characteristic dimension of the cooler
(t/d m, t/d m2, t/d m3). Exact definitions vary with cooler type.
¨ Radiation losses from the cooler casing/shell are particularly important for planetary coolers,
where they actively support the cooling of the clinker.
¨ Efficiency expresses the quality of heat transfer from clinker to the air which is used for
combustion in the burning zone and precalciner firing.
Remark: Since the heat recuperated is proportional to hot air used for combustion and
temperature, an efficiency figure is only meaningful if it is related to a heat consumption figure (resp. a
combustion airflow).
Figure 3 Clinker coolers - Definitions

2.3 Calculations
The calculations below are examples of heat balance investigations:

· Heat in hot clinker Qcli :

Qcli = mcli* cpcli* (tcli - t ref) Example with mcli =1 kg/h:
tcli = 1400°C:
Qcli = 1 kg/h * 1.090 kJ/kg°C * (1400°C-20°C) = 1504 kJ/h
· Heat in hot air Qair :
Qair = Vair* cpair* (tair - t ref) Example with V air = 1Nm3/h:
tair = 1066°C:
Qair = 1 Nm3/h * 1.421 kJ/Nm3°C * (1066°C-20°C) = 1486 kJ/h
· Radiation loss Qrad :
Q rad =CR * e * A {(t/100)4 - (t0/100)4} Grate cooler
Qrad = 20 kJ/kg cli (from experience)
Cooler efficiency hcooler

The secondary (+ tertiary) air requirements are dictated by the amount of fuel fed to the burners. Per this
definition, the efficiency of a cooler is getting better with increasing kiln heat consumption. It is thus
obvious that a cooler efficiency figure is only meaningful if the corresponding heat consumption (or
airflow) is indicated.

Example: production 5000 t/d

 heat consumption 3000 kJ/kg cli
secondary and tertiary air temperatures 1066°C
Primary air main burner 10%
PC fuel ratio 60%
False air and excess air neglected (not realistic!)

Q comb air:
V Comb air = 3000 MJ/kg cli * 0.26 Nm3/MJ * 5000/24*103 kg/h * (1-0.4*0.1)
= 156'000 Nm3/h
t comb air = 1066°C ® q combustion air = 1.421 kJ/Nm3° * (1066-20)° = 1486 kJ/Nm3
Q comb air = V comb air * q comb air = 1486*156'000 kJ/h = 231'816 GJ/h

Q clinker:
m clinker = 5000 t/d /24 h/d *103 kg/t = 208'333 kg/h
t clinker from kiln = 1400°C ® q clinker from kiln = 1.09 kJ/kg° * (1400-20)° = 1504 kJ/kg
Q clinker = 208'333 * 1504 kJ/kg = 313'333 GJ/h
Efficiency h = 231'816 / 313'333 * 100% = 74.0%

Figure 4 Clinker cooler typical data (4-stage SP Kiln, 2’000 t/d)

3. GRATE COOLERS
3.1 The Reciprocating Grate Cooler
The reciprocating grate cooler is the most widely applied type and is exclusively used for new plants.
3.1.1 Principle
¨ The following major system components can be distinguished:
· Casing with kiln hood and connections for air at different temperature levels
· Reciprocating grate with drive system
· Aeration system with fans, undergrate compartments and direct air ducts
· Riddling (= fall through) extraction system with hoppers, gates and transport
· Clinker crusher
¨ Material transport
The clinker is pushed by the vertical part of the front edge of the preceding plate. The entire grate
consists of a combination of fixed and moving rows which results in a quasi-continuous motion of the
clinker bed.
¨ Heat exchange
Heat exchange from clinker to air is according to the cross current principle. The cooling air penetrates
the clinker bed which is laying on the grate from underneath and leaves it at the surface. While passing
through the hot clinker, the air is accumulating heat which is transferred from the clinker.
¨ Cooling air
Normally, ambient air is blown to underneath of the grate plates loaded with clinker by a number of
cooling air fans. Delivery pressure must be sufficient to penetrate the clinker bed and to compensate for
the expansion (increase of actual volume) of the air from heating it up
Under ideal conditions, the required cooling air depends directly from the desired clinker temperature.
One part of the cooling air is used for combustion in the kiln, the rest is cleaned and vented to ambient,
unless it is further used, e.g. for drying.
¨ Cooling curve
A simplified mathematical model for clinker cooling in a conventional, optimized grate cooler gives the
relation between cooling air quantity and clinker temperature as follows:

with T cli in = clinker temperature at cooler inlet °C

T amb = ambient temperature °C
V air = cooling air quantity Nm3/kg cli
The above approximation (curve Fig. 17: Tcli = 1400°C) has been found to give satisfactory results for
conventional grate coolers from various suppliers.
Figure 5 Reciprocating Grate Cooler: Design Features

3.1.2 History
It was the Fuller Company (USA) who introduced the first reciprocating grate cooler in the late 1930's with
a grate slope of 15°.
Fluidized material running down the grate leads to 10° grate inclination. The 10° cooler was
predominantly used until the mid 1950's. Problems were encountered with those 10° coolers when the
clinker was fine and started to fluidize. As an attempt to solve this problem, wedge grate plates were
used. Another drawback of those 10° coolers was the building height required for larger units.
In the mid 1950's, the first horizontal grate coolers were introduced. They were initially just 10° grates
installed horizontally with accordingly reduced conveying capacity. Some of these coolers were severely
damaged by overheating, due to fluidization and accumulation of hot fine clinker at the feed end.
This drawback of the horizontal cooler lead to the development of the so-called combi cooler. Is has one
(or formerly two) inclined grates with normally 3° slope, followed by one or two horizontal grates. Not all
suppliers followed the same philosophies, so all three concepts (all horizontal, combi and all inclined) can
be found all over the world.
The planetary cooler boom period in the 1970's came to an end, when large production capacities were in
demand. Precalciner technology required grate coolers which eventually needed to be reengineered
again. Problems related to the clinker distribution, growing awareness of heat and power consumption as
well as the demand for higher availability forced the suppliers to introduce new solutions. Initiated by the
new company IKN, the grate cooler technology underwent significant changes since the mid 1980's.
Modern grate plates, forced (direct) aeration and better gap design were introduced by all cooler makers
helping to reduce cooling airflow and cooler size.
The new approach lead to better recuperation in most cases. However, serious wear problems with the
new systems forced most of the companies to modify their solutions once again. Today, in the mid 1990's,
we are still gaining experience with latest designs.
The ultimate solution would be the waste air free grate cooler with unlimited flexibility and availability.
However, right now the cement industry would be happy with smooth operation, high recuperation, low
cooling air and no cooler related kiln stops.
Figure 6 Various configurations of reciprocating grate coolers

3.1.3 Conventional Grate Coolers (1980’s)

3.1.3.1 Typical Design Features
¨ Grate plates with round holes
¨ Two to three grates, depending on size
¨ Grate slope 0° or 3° or both, depending on supplier
¨ Mechanical excenter drives for reciprocating grate
¨ Chamber aeration
¨ Fan pressure 45 mbar (first) to 25 mbar (last)
¨ Smaller compartments at inlet, larger towards outlet
¨ Clinker riddling extraction with hoppers, gates and dragchain (some earlier designs: internal drag
chain without hoppers)
¨ Hammer crusher at cooler discharge
World’s largest kilns (10'000 t/d in Thailand) are equipped with conventional grate coolers from CPAG with
4 grates.
3.1.3.2 Strengths and Weaknesses of Conventional Grate Coolers

Strenghts Weaknesses
· Lower clinker end temperature due to higher amount of cooling air
· Possibility of adjusting cooling air and grate speed provides higher flexibility
· Optimization possibilities during operation
· Waste air handling system (dedusting, fan) required
· More complex cooler requires higher capital investment
· Higher power consumption than planetary or tube cooler
· Uneven clinker discharge / segregation leads to several problems
· Red river
· Snowmen
· Air breakthrough (bubbling, geyser)
· Reduced plate life
· Excessive clinker fall through between gaps

Causes and mechanism of those problems are further explained in the next paragraph.
Figure 7 Conventional grate coolers: Design features

3.1.4 Typical Grate Cooler Problems

Most grate coolers show a tendency to one or more of the system inherent problems, and in many cases
there is no real cure. Investigations of the causes lead to the development of the modern cooler
technology.
¨ Segregation:
Due to its physical properties, the clinker is lifted by the kiln rotation before it is discharged into the cooler.
Installation of the grate axis offset from the cooler axis should compensate for this effect. However, since
discharge behavior of finer and coarser clinker particles differ from each other, the clinker fractions are not
evenly distributed across the grate. Fines are discharged later and are thus found predominantly on the
rising side of the kiln shell (Fig. 8a).
¨ Thin clinker bed in recuperation zone:
With a conventional grate cooler with chamber aeration, the clinker bed thickness is limited directly by the
installed cooling fan pressure and indirectly by the quality of compartment seals and distribution of the
clinker across the width. In order to avoid overheated plates, the operator will set the bed not higher than
allowed to guarantee airflow through the plate carrying the clinker with the highest bed resistance.
Thin bed operation leads to unfavorably high air to clinker ratio and poor heat exchange on the sides with
consequently low recuperation efficiency.
¨ Red river:
The infamous red river is one of the most feared problems with grate coolers.
Due to segregation, fine clinker has always its preferred side (see above).
Different bed resistance on either side and only one air chamber across the entire width often cause
fluidization of the fine clinker laying on top. This fluidized clinker does no longer follow the speed of the
grate, but shoots much faster towards the cooler discharge end. Because the residence time of that fine
clinker is much reduced, it does not follow the general cooling curve and forms a red hot layer on top of
the regularly cooled, already black clinker. Hence the term "red river".
It is not the missed heat recuperation, but the red hot material being in touch with cooler walls, plates and
side seals in the colder area where such temperatures should normally not occur. Premature destruction
of those pieces results in poor availability, high maintenance and ultimately in loss of production and sales
revenues.
¨ Snowman:
The sticky consistence of the hot clinker leaving the kiln combined with the compaction at the drop point
often leads to formation of solid clinker mountains on the grate. Not permeable for cooling air, they grow
larger and disturb the flow pattern of the clinker in this anyway critical inlet area.
¨ Air breaking through:
Due to the different resistance of the clinker bed and the fear of overheated plates, too much air is put on
the first grate compared to the clinker bed. The result is air shooting through the bed, hardly taking any
heat and thus not contributing to the heat exchange.
In addition to that, the clinker is mixed which can be seen by the bubbling action, and the layered clinker
bed (colder clinker below, hotter on top) is destroyed thus disturbing the cross flow heat exchange
pattern.
The results are low recuperation and too much heat going to the aftercooling zone.

Figure 8a: Segregation at cooler inlet Figure 8b: Clinker bed depth effect on cooling

[B05C01D5FIG08b.tif]

Figure 8c Red River Figure 8d Snowman

[B05C01D5FIG08d.tif]

3.1.5 Modern Grate Coolers (1990’s)

3.1.5.1 Design Features
The successful clinker cooler has:
1) À Correct allocation of cooling air to clinker
Á Sustainable gap widths in the entire cooler
All new or redesigned clinker coolers are aiming at the above two goals:
¨ Modern grate plates, designed to cope with high temperature differences
¨ Inclined inlet section without moving rows
¨ Pattern of zones for individually adjustable aeration in recuperation zone
¨ Modern plates for a tight grate in the after cooling zone
¨ New, improved side seal plate design for tight gaps and low wear
¨ Careful undergrate compartment sealing
¨ Adequate seal air system with correct control
¨ Wider and shorter coolers; lower number of grates
¨ Improved and wear protected moving grate support and guidance
¨ Hydraulic grate drive with optimized control system
¨ Cooling air fans with inlet vane control and inlet nozzle for measuring flow
¨ Roller crusher
3.1.5.2 Strengths and Weaknesses of Modern Grate Coolers

Strenghts Weaknesses
· More constant heat recuperation ® improved, smoother kiln operation
· Cooler inlet: improved clinker distribution across grate width
· Elimination / control of red river
· Significantly reduced grate riddlings (clinker fall through)
· Higher waste air temperature (valuable for drying)
· Lower heat consumption due to higher heat recuperation (cooler efficiency)
· Reduced power consumption due to less waste air
· Lower civil cost due to more compact cooler
· Lower investment due to smaller waste air system
· Reduced cost for maintenance · More complicated mechanical installation (varies with
supplier)
· Higher secondary air temp. increases wear of nose ring and burner refractories
· Higher actual (m3/h) tertiary air flow can increase dust entertainment at take off point
· Teething problems with new designs -> design changes still in progress

Figure 9 Modern Grate Coolers: Design features

3.1.6 Design Highlights of Modern Grate Coolers
3.1.6.1 Modern Grate Plates
In the mid 1980's, the first modern grate plates were installed in grate coolers by IKN and CPAG. They
were designed for the following targets:
¨ Allow for lower air/clinker ratio in the recuperation zone for higher recuperation
¨ Improve clinker distribution across the grate width
¨ Assure that all grate plates are always sufficiently cooled by air
The above targets were reached using the following ideas:
· Higher built-in pressure drop
Similar to the effect of thick bed operation, a higher pressure drop across the plate reduces the relative
influence of variations in permeability of the clinker bed.
· No more fine clinker falling through
Fine clinker falling through means loss of heat and thermal stress on the drag chain. For forced aeration
(below) it is mandatory that no material can fall in the air ducts where it would cut off the air supply.
· Forced (direct) aeration via air ducts
In order to ensure that all plates get enough air, to allow individual allocation of air to different areas and
to avoid that air escapes through gaps, groups of plates are supplied with air directly via a special duct
system
· Tight gaps between plates and plates/casing
Not only through the grate surface, but also through gaps between plates within the same row as well as
from one row to the next, fine clinker can fall through. Those gaps have to be sealed as well, e.g. by
interlinked steps in the plate sides (Fuller, Polysius) or by bolting them together as packages (IKN).
The modern grate plates are the basis of modern cooler technology. Problems experienced with the first
generation of modern grate plates lead to several detail modifications:
¨ Cracks in corners of air outlet openings
® Solution: modified shape
¨ Plastic deformation caused premature failure with many designs
® Solution: thermally flexible plates built from two or more pieces
¨ Preferred plate internal airflow left plates locally uncooled
® Solution: plate internal guide vanes, optimized air channelling

Modern grate cooler, as the IKN Pendulum Cooler, use also Pneumatic Hopper Drains (PHD) to withdraw
the fine clinker fall through.
Figure 10 Modern grate plates

3.1.6.2 Air Ducts

The concept of forced aeration, i.e. the idea to bring the air directly to the grate plates requires a flexible
air connection between the (stationary) fan and the moving rows.
Initially, the most obvious and simple approach was chosen: flexible hoses or bellows. IKN, CPAG,
Polysius and Fuller used this solution at the beginning.
However, experience showed that those hoses were sensitive to design (geometry), installation and
material qualities. While many coolers operated without any problem, others showed frequent rupture of
those hoses, very often causing severe plate damage and consequently kiln downtime.
Meanwhile, all suppliers developed new solutions. Only KHD avoided these problems by using telescopic
ducts from the beginning.
The individual suppliers are now using the following standard solutions:
¨ Telescopic air connector (BMH-CPAG, KHD)
¨ Ball and socket type air connector (FLS, Fuller)
¨ Gate type air connector (Polysius)
¨ Open air beam (IKN)
Figure 11 Forced (direct) aeration to moving rows: Flexible ducts
3.1.6.3 Aeration Concept
It was soon recognized that only a few (6 to 8) rows of direct and individual aeration are not sufficient to
improve clinker distribution or to eliminate/control red river formation. The number of rows with direct
aeration was gradually increased and soon the suppliers started to equip the entire recuperation zone or
even the entire cooler with direct aeration. Indeed, this improved the control possibilities, but created the
following new drawbacks:
¨ Complicated and expensive equipment
¨ More parameters to control
¨ Difficult access underneath grate
¨ High number of potential problem areas (flexible hoses!)
Ways had to be found to reduce the number of air ducts to the individually aerated cooler zones. There
are two ways to achieve this:
¨ Reduce number of individually aerated zones
¨ Modify the air duct system
Today, the following different solutions with varying degrees of experience are presently available from the
suppliers:
¨ No moving rows requiring flexible air connectors in inlet section
¨ Longitudinal structural beams designed as air ducts
¨ Short air ducts from one moving row to the next (“Air bridge“)
¨ Direct aeration for fixed rows only (“hybrid aeration“)
¨ Full chamber aeration with modern grate plates
Figure 12 Aeration patterns

3.1.6.4 Seal Air (Confining Air)

When direct plate aeration was introduced, the significance of the seal air or confining air was not
properly investigated. It was expected that direct individual aeration of the plates alone would be enough
to get the desired improvement due to better air to clinker allocation.
If the cooler grates were tight and had no or very narrow gaps between moving and fixed rows or between
grate and cooler casing, this would indeed be true. However, real grates have large gaps, which is one of
the reasons why direct aeration was introduced.
The effect of insufficient seal air pressure for direct aerated grates can be explained as follows:
¨ High resistance in clinker bed (bed thickness, kiln upset, granulometry)
¨ Cooling air sneaks around plate edge to undergrate compartment instead
¨ Clinker dust carried in this air ® abrasion / wear
¨ Gap becomes larger ® seal air can escape ® more “sneak“ air
¨ Stops for repair reduce availability and increase operating cost
Today it is generally accepted that partition, sealing and pressurizing of the undergrate compartments is
even more important than with chamber aerated coolers.
Ideally, the partition of the undergrate compartments should repeat the pattern of the individually aerated
grate zones of the grate itself. Since this would lead to very complicated and expensive designs with
difficult access, simpler solutions had to be found.
One of the most common countermeasures is, to install larger seal air fans. It was interesting to observe
the installed cooling air to be gradually increased with each new project. This did not only lead to larger
waste air systems but also to higher cooling fan motor power which partially offset the savings expected
from modern coolers.
The suppliers have proposed the following improvements:
¨ Larger seal air fans
¨ Seal air branched off from cooling air fans
¨ Seal air from booster fan using air from cooling air fans
¨ Undergrate pressure controlled by cooling air fan pressure
¨ Careful sealing of undergrate compartments
¨ No more moving rows in hot inlet zone
Figure 13 Seal air systems

3.1.6.5 Side Seal Systems

Extremely serious wear problems occurred along the side seal plates on each side of the grate.
Excessive fall through along the sides and shockingly short lifetime of the side seal plates, mainly in the
recuperation zone, were the result. The main reasons for this problem can be listed as follows:
¨ The same seal element used for lateral and longitudinal movement
¨ Side seal plates fixed to cooler casing
¨ Entire thermal expansion to be compensated by (cold) gap on each side
¨ Side plates used for lateral guidance of the grate (older designs)
¨ More lateral thermal expansion of wider grates for large units
The following new solutions have been developed and are now part of the contemporary standards:
¨ Entirely new side seal plate concepts
¨ Side seal plates bolted to cross beams of fixed rows (no longer to cooler casing)
¨ Joints for thermal lateral expansion and mechanical longitudinal movement between moving rows
and casing separated
¨ Center grate guide for large coolers
Figure 14 Side seal designs

3.1.7 Clinker Crushers

All kiln systems produce larger than normal clinker lumps more or less frequently. Large balls of material
enter the cooler when coating drops during kiln upsets.
Such large clinker masses can only be cooled superficially and contain a lot of heat. Before being
discharged to the clinker conveyor, they must at least be crushed to smaller particles.
All clinker coolers, regardless of the type, are equipped with a clinker crusher. Traditionally, this is a
hammer crusher which has proven to be reliable.
In order to cool large clinker lumps, they must be crushed within the cooler. In reality, this means installing
the crusher before the last grate. Early trials with hammer crushers were not successful, however.
Based on the idea and experience with roller grate bottoms in shaft kilns (and shaft coolers), CPAG
developed the roller crusher to be used as intermediate crusher in a step cooler.
The advantages of the roller crusher make it also superior at the cooler outlet. Hydraulic or electric drives
as well as different combinations of reversing rollers are available from various suppliers.
Compared to the hammer crusher, the roller crusher is rated as follows:

Strengths Weaknesses
· low speed
· low wear
· low dust generation
· equalization of material rushes
· suitable for high temperatures
· lower power consumption · higher initial investment
· chokes easier
· more difficult to design

Figure 15a Hammer crusher

Figure 15b Roller crusher

Figure 16 Heat and air balance of a modern Grate cooler

Figure 17 Optimization

3.1.8 Cooler control

One of the advantages of the reciprocating grate cooler is its high flexibility, due to operating variables
adjustable independently from kiln operation. Usually three main variables are controlled automatically.
a) Grate speed
In order to prevent the clinker bed resistance from exceeding the pressure capabilities of the cooling fans
(which would mean too little cooling air and danger of heat damage), the bed resistance on the grate
should be kept constant.
To do this, each grate section drive is controlled by the undergrate pressure of the first or second
compartment in each grate section. An increase in pressure indicates an increase in bed resistance
(either more material in the cooler or finer material). The reaction is an increase of the grate speed,
causing the bed to become thinner. If the undergrate pressure decreases, the drive slows down and the
bed becomes thicker.
Another possibility is to control only the first grate by the undergrate pressure, and to keep the speed of
the following grates proportional to the speed of the first grate.
More sophisticated control systems use the weighted average of several undergrate pressures to control
first grate speed. In many cases, however, control systems amplify fluctuations from the kiln instead of
smoothening them. Increasing the bandwidth of the control system has shown good results in several
cases.
b) Airflow
This control is complementary to the grate speed control. It maintains a constant volume of cooling air
entering the cooler independently from the grate underpressure.
Each cooling fan is equipped with a piezometer sensor which will recognize an increase or decrease of
the airflow and cause the cooling fan damper to close or open (in case of inlet vane damper control) or
the fan motor speed to decrease or increase (in case of variable speed fan drives).
During normal conditions the cooling fans operate at about 2/3 to 3/4 of their maximum performance so
that enough spare capacity is left to cope with eventual kiln rushes.
Together, grate speed and air flow control will on one hand ensure a sufficient cooling air supply to the
cooler and, on the other hand, tend to provide more uniform combustion air temperature to the kiln.
c) Hood draft
The third component of the cooler control system is the hood draft control.
An automatically controlled grate cooler can improve the whole kiln operation and allows the operator to
concentrate on other problems.
The kiln hood pressure is used to regulate the cooler vent air fan speed to maintain a constant pre-set
draft. As the draft tends to become positive, the cooler vent fan speed is increased. This takes more air
from the cooler and maintains the draft setpoint. As with the other controls, reaction in the opposite
direction is just as important.
Coolers with radiation walls (IKN) allow hood draft control by one of the first cooling air fans.
Figure 18 Cooler control

3.1.9 Cooler Dedusting

While dedusting of kiln exhaust gas can be commonly solved by using one type of dust collector only
(electrostatic precipitator), the choice of the most adequate system for dedusting clinker cooler vent air
raises quite often many discussions. This choice problem is basically a result of the special and
fluctuating conditions of the vent air to be dedusted:

normal operation kiln upset

airflow (actual volume) % 100 up to 150
air temperature °C 200 - 250 up to 450
air dew point °C 5 - 20 5 - 20
dust load g/Nm3 5 - 15 25 - 35

The dust particle size distribution can vary in a wide range depending on the burning conditions in the
kiln.
Dimensioning of the dedusting equipment must take into account the worst conditions, in order to
maintain the required clean gas dust content even at kiln upset condition.
The types of dust collectors for this application are compared below. Today's trend is:
¨ multiclones will no longer be tolerated in new and many existing plants
¨ gravel bed filters have proved to be inefficient and expensive
¨ use of electrostatic precipitators is possible without restriction
¨ bag filters with cooling of the vent air in a heat exchanger are often used nowadays

Type of collector Strengths Weaknesses

multiclone simple
low investment cost
low space requirement
not sensitive to temperature peaks poor efficiency for particles < 20 µm
efficiency sensitive to gas flow fluctuation
comparatively high pressure loss
high operating cost
electrostatic precipitator low pressure loss
low operating cost
low maintenance cost big unit required or use of pulse generator -> high investment cost
possibly water injection required
gravel bed filter not sensitive to temperature peaks highest investment cost
highest pressure loss
high operating cost
bag filter high efficiency
relatively low investment cost no bags for temperatures up to 450°C Õ precooling required
high pressure loss
high operating cost
high maintenance cost

Figure 19 Grate cooler dedusting

3.1.10 Developments
Air recirculating (Duotherm) cooler
A patent has been taken out in 1970 by the "Société des Ciments Français" concerning the recirculation
of the vent air after sending it through a heat exchanger.
The first application of the unconventional system has been realized in 1970 at the Beaucaire plant of the
above mentioned company, on a 1500 t/d Fuller cooler.
Initial experience gained with this installation was very satisfactory.
Only few installations using this principle have been realized, e.g. in the Ulco plant. The main advantages
and disadvantages of this system are:
Strengths Weaknesses
· no dust emission at all
· simple
· low investment cost
· heat recovery possible (at various temperature levels)
· extension possible by adding further heat exchange units · possible wear of fan
blades (preventative measures necessary)
· maintenance and operating costs higher than conventional cooler dedusting system with EP

Modern cooler technology and problems in some cases have pushed this idea in the background.
However, it might be reactivated if it can be combined with modern cooler systems.

Dual pass cooler

A completely new principle of cooling in a grate cooler has been introduced by Polysius in 1994: the dual
pass cooler or REPOL-ZS.
This cooler can be considered a two-grate cooler with intermediate crusher where grate 1 and 2 are
identical.
The hot, 1400°C clinker from the kiln is fed on top of a layer of colder clinker already laying on the cooler
grate. At the end of the grate, the now cold lower clinker layer is extracted via a special system consisting
of reciprocating bars and a hopper. The upper layer which has reached about 500°C passes a roller
crusher and is then returned to a intermediate hopper below the kiln from where it is fed onto the empty
grate to pass the cooling air a second time, this time below the fresh hot clinker.
One 1400 t/d unit is in operation in Germany using Jet-Ring technology. With less than 1.6 Nm3/kg
cooling air, extremely low clinker temperatures have been reported. The crucial problems of this solution
are intermediate transport and storage.
In spite of the compact size, high cooling degree with low air flow and low plate temperatures, this cooler
will only be successful if the intermediate temperature level can be increased and the heat losses
reduced.

Figure 20a Non venting cooler

Figure 20b Dual pass cooler (Polysius)

3.2 The Cross Bar Cooler

3.2.1 Principle
F.L.Smidth and Fuller developed together the new SF (Smidth - Fuller) Cross Bar Cooler representing a
completely new concept.
The basic idea was to develop a cooler in which conveying of clinker and air distribution systems are
separated. The SF cooler has a clinker conveying device installed above an entirely fixed grate.
In addition the cooler should be less complicated, more efficient and easier to operate than other grate
coolers on the market. Sealing air is eliminated and the distribution of air is optimized for all modes of
operation
The thermal behavior of the SF cooler (e.g. heat balance, recuperation) is similar to the other grate
coolers.
3.2.2 Main features
· One inclined fixed grate.
· Clinker conveying by cross bars, separate from air distribution.
· No thermal stress of grate.
· Minimum wear on grateplates due to a dead layer of clinker (50 mm) protecting the grate surface.
The thickness is given by the space between the cross bars and the grate. (Anticipated service life time at
least 5 years)
· Dynamic flow control unit (mechanical flow regulator) for each grate plate. The mechanical flow
regulator maintains a constant airflow through the grate and clinker bed, irrespective of the clinker bed
height, particle size distribution, temperature, etc.
· No fall through of clinker to the undergrate compartment.
® Eliminating undergrate clinker transport resulting in low installation height
for new plants.
· Easy cooler operation by elimination of sealing air and automatic control of air distribution.
· Modularized cooler concept ® short delivery and installation time.
· Different drive speeds across the cooler possible.
® Additional control of clinker distribution.
· Fewer and less expensive wear parts (easy to replace).
· Easy visual inspection of undergrate compartment (clean undergrate, windows).
· Sustainably high thermal cooler efficiency throughout the lifetime of the cooler.
® Reduced system heat consumption.

Figure 21a: SF Cross Bar Cooler

Figure 21b: SF cooler grate with cross bars

3.2.3 Strengths and Weaknesses

Strengths Weaknesses
· No clinker fall through (no hoppers, no dragchain).
· The grate is protected from overheating.
· Very high availability is expected.
· Wear and tear affects only the conveying system and not the air distribution system.
· For each plate, the cooling air is individually controlled.
· The amount of cooling air is about 1.6 to 1.8 Nm3/kg.
· Reduced height and maintenance required since the undergrate clinker transport can be dropped.
· Time for installation is short due to modular concept. · The clinker bed seems to be
influenced by the conveying reciprocating cross bar, resulting in disturbed clinker layers.
· In case of fine clinker and coating drops, air breakthroughs can occur.
· The performance of the mechanical flow regulator (amount of cooling air) and its distribution is yet
to be assessed.
· Airflow through the fixed grate at the cooler inlet (CIS) can generate dust and dust cycle.

Remark: So far, no SF Cross Bar Cooler is in use within the Holcim group and therefore no first
hand experience is available. Worldwide, there are only three SF cross bar coolers installed. Two of a
capacity of 450 t/d and one of 2000 t/d. (as of January 1999)

Figure 22a: Cross Bars: Easy to replace wear parts

Figure 22b: Mechanical flow regulator

[B05C01D5FIG22b2.tif]
Figure 22c: Modular concept: One module

3.3 The Travelling Grate Cooler

3.3.1 Principle
The traveling grate cooler (Recupol) was originally developed by Polysius for use in combination with
grate preheater (Lepol) kilns. Using the same principle and similar technology, it uses the same wear
parts. The following main components can be distinguished:
· Casing with kiln hood and connections for air at different temperature levels
· Inlet with water cooled chute (2nd generation) and pulsator
· Traveling grate with return carrying idlers and drive system
· Aeration system with fans, undergrate compartments
· Riddling extraction system with chutes, flap gates, hoppers and transport
· Clinker crusher
¨ Material transport
The clinker is carried by a horizontal traveling grate which works like a stationary caterpillar chain with
perforated chain plates. In contrast to the reciprocating grate cooler, the clinker does not tumble over
plate edges, but remains as undisturbed layered bed from inlet to discharge.
¨ Heat exchange
Heat exchange takes place, like for the reciprocating grate according to the cross current principle.
Because the layers remain, it should be even better, at least theoretically.
¨ Cooling air
Ambient air is blown by a number of cooling air fans to underneath of the travelling grate plates carrying
the clinker. Pressure and flow criteria of cooling air are basically as for the reciprocating grate cooler.
¨ Water cooled inlet chute
In order to achieve rapid cooling in the inlet section, but also to protect the travelling grate from the
highest clinker temperatures, Recupol coolers were equipped with a water cooled inlet chute.
¨ Key figures / KPI
Specific grate loading: 25 - 30 t/d m2 (design)
Largest units: 3000 t/d (Lägerdorf kiln 10)

Figure 23 Travelling grate cooler

3.3.2 Strengths and Weaknesses

Travelling grate cooler compared to reciprocating coolers:

Strengths Weaknesses
· Possibility of replacing grate plates during operation (on the returning part)
· Undisturbed, layered clinker bed is better for optimum heat exchange · Larger machine
for the same grate area equipment requiring more space and higher civil cost
· Lower specific grate loadings adding further to overall size
· More expensive to build than a reciprocating grate cooler
· The absence of clinker movement (see above) was often considered a disadvantage because of
cases where a solid (fritted) layer on top of the clinker bed made it impermeable for air. For this reason,
pulsators were installed for first cooling fans.
· Much higher maintenance requirement with ageing equipment
· Heat loss via cooling water for inlet chute

Due to the mentioned weaknesses, Polysius eventually decided to develop their own reciprocating grate
cooler (Repol) around 1980:
Figure 24 Travelling grate cooler: Design details
4. ROTATING COOLERS
4.1 The Rotary Cooler or Tube Cooler
4.1.1 Principle
The rotary cooler consists mainly of a rotating cylinder, similar to a rotary kiln.
The clinker is fed through the inlet chute and is then cooled by air while being transported towards the
outlet end. Cooling is performed in countercurrent flow. The tube is equipped with internal lifters which
improve the heat transfer. About 2/3 (66%) of the cooler length is lined with refractory bricks.
The rotary cooler is of simple design and is the oldest type of clinker coolers. It was seldom used for
modern, large kiln systems. Therefore comparatively little design and operating experience is nowadays
available for rotary coolers above 2000 t/d. However, the application of rotary coolers still offers certain
advantages. Presently units up to 4500 t/d (dimensions dia 6.3/6.0 x 80 m) are in operation. It will be
interesting to follow the future development of large rotary coolers.
4.1.2 Design Features
¨ Arrangement of the rotary cooler is normally in the extension of the kiln axis; in many cases the
reverse manner (underneath the kiln) has been applied.
¨ The diameter of the cooler is similar to that of a corresponding suspension preheater kiln.
Likewise the rotating speed is in the same range as for the kiln (max. 3 rpm). Length/diameter ratio: L/D ~
10.
Many cooler tubes are designed with an extension in diameter in order to reduce air velocity.
¨ The inclination is comparatively high (in the order of 5%).
¨ Like for all rotating coolers, the internal heat transfer equipment is an important part of the rotary
cooler. Its task is to generate additional area by scattering the clinker without generating too much dust.
Basically a similar design may be applied as in a planetary cooler tube (see next chapter) however the
following differences must be considered:
· The clinker falling heights are larger. Wear protection of shell and lining is essential.
· At a comparative length position the clinker in a rotary cooler is hotter than in a planetary cooler.
Figure 25 Rotary cooler

The following zones can typically be distinguished in a rotary cooler (simplified):

A Lined inlet zone

B Lined crushing teeth zone
(metallic teeth)
C Lined cast lifter zone, lining protected by wearing plates
(at least in the second half)
D Cast lifter zone, shell protected by wearing plates
(having air gap, giving also insulating effect)
E Sheet metal zone with wearing plates

Construction materials have to be selected according to the high temperature and wear requirements.
4.1.3 Cooling performance
Depending on the design and the shape of the lifters clinker outlet temperature usually tends to be high.
In many cases it is necessary to enhance the cooling by injecting water into the tube (up to 60 g/kg
clinker) in order to reach reasonably low clinker temperatures of 100° to 150°C.
The cooling efficiency (heat recuperation) is equal or even slightly better than on a planetary cooler.
4.1.4 Strengths / Weaknesses

Strengths Weaknesses
· Simplicity of cooler design, robust piece of equipment.
· No special mechanical problems comparable to a rotary kiln.
· No control loops.
· Easy commissioning.
· No waste air and therefore no dedusting equipment required
· Electrical energy consumption up to 5 kWh/t lower compared to grate cooler.
· Rotational speed can be adjusted and therefore upset kiln conditions can be handled easier than
with a planetary cooler.
· Suitable for AS type precalcining system tertiary (extraction of hot air is possible). · Not
recommended for large units (above 2000 t/d)
· Formation of build-ups ("snowmen") in the inlet chute. A water-cooled chute or a dislodging
device is required in such case.
· Clinker outlet temperatures tend
to be high and therefore water injection is usually required.
· Due to large falling height wear protection in the tube must be reinforced (compared to a
planetary cooler).
· High kiln foundations are required.
· Cooler inlet seal can contribute to additional false air inlet.

Figure 26 Internal transfer equipment for rotary and planetary coolers

4.2 The Planetary Cooler

4.2.1 Principle
The planetary cooler is based on the same cooling principle as the rotary cooler in the preceding chapter.
However, the essential difference of a planetary cooler is the number of individual cooling tubes. The flow
of clinker is subdivided into 9 to 11 (usually 10) cooling tubes which are installed around the kiln
circumference at the kiln outlet (see Fig. 15). Therefore the planetary tubes follow the kiln rotation.
Because of their connection to the kiln rotation, planetary coolers do not need a separate drive. This fact
already illustrates one main advantage of the planetary cooler: its simplicity in operation.
Strictly speaking the cooling of clinker does not only start in the cooling tubes but already in the kiln. In the
case of a planetary cooler the kiln burner pipe is always inserted into the rotary kiln so that a cooling zone
behind the flame of 1.5 to 2.5 kiln diameters is created. This zone is called the "kiln internal cooling" zone
and must be considered as an integral part of any planetary cooler. In this zone the temperature of the
clinker drops from 1450° to 1200 - 1300°C. This temperature reduction is important for the protection of
the inlet opening, the elbow and the first section of the cooling tubes.
After this first cooling in the kiln internal cooling zone the clinker falls into the elbows when they reach
their lowest point of kiln rotation. The hot clinker is then cooled by air in counterflow (the amount of air
equals the amount of secondary air). The air is heated up to approx. 700°C. The clinker reaches final
temperatures which are typically in the range of 140° to 240°C.
A considerable amount of heat is also transferred to ambient by radiation and convection since approx.
75% of the cooler shell is not insulated.
4.2.2 Historical
Planetary coolers have been used since 1920. When large kiln units and grate coolers were developed
planetary coolers were abandoned for many years. But about 1966 planetary coolers of large capacities
were introduced. At that stage serious mechanical problems occurred on these first large planetary
coolers. As a consequence a lot of work had to be done in order to improve the mechanical design of
planetary coolers. As a result of extensive computer calculations and operating experience the planetary
cooler became a mechanically reliable piece of equipment.
In the late 1970's, the design had reached a high standard and a considerable level of perfection. Units of
up to 5000 t/d were envisaged. With the demand for permanently larger units using precalciner
technology with separate tertiary air dusts, the boom period of the planetary coolers came to an end.
Figure 27 Planetary cooler

4.2.3 Design features

Planetary coolers in the late 1970's had the following design features:
¨ Shell extension:
The kiln shell is extended beyond the cooling tube outlets and is supported by an additional roller station.
¨ Fixation of cooling tubes:
Fixed support of cooling tubes near inlet and loose support near outlet end.
With larger coolers, the cooling tubes can consist of two separate sections requiring three supports. In
that case two fixed supports are located near inlet and near outlet and a loose support is located at the
interconnection point in the middle.
¨ Design of cooler supports:
The kiln shell is reinforced (high thickness) where the cooler support structure for the cooler is welded on.
The support structure (base and brackets) itself is of heavy design consisting of reinforcement ribs and
box beams.
¨ Cooler length:
Length/diameter ratio of tubes is approx. 10:1
¨ Inlet openings:
The inlet openings to the cooler elbows weaken the kiln shell and high mechanical and thermal stresses
occur in that zone.
The openings are made of oval shape and the kiln shell is considerably reinforced in its thickness (up to
140 mm in large kilns) in order to compensate for the weakening.
In some cases a diagonal retaining bar (made of high heat resistant steel) is incorporated in the opening
in order to avoid that large lumps can enter the cooler.
¨ Kiln-to-elbow joint:
This joint is designed in a manner that no forces due to thermal expansion and deformation are
transmitted from elbow to kiln.
¨ Elbow:
In order to prevent that clinker is falling back into the kiln while the opening is on top position, the position
of the cooling tube is displaced back against the direction of rotation. The elbow design must avoid
excessive dust backspillage and wear.
4.2.4 Internal heat transfer equipment (see Fig. 26)
Cooling performance depends strongly on efficient lifters of solid and durable design. Since high heat
resistant metallic lifers are available on the market also the high temperature zones can be adequately
equipped. Special high temperature alloys can be used for this purpose. They can withstand maximum
temperatures of up to 1150°C. These alloys are usually characterized by a high chromium content of
approx. 30% Cr. Other elements as Ni or Mo can occur in various proportions. Fig. 26 shows a typical
arrangement of heat transfer internals. Breaking teeth are applied in the hottest zone. They are able to
crush large lumps of clinker and create also a tumbling effect, which improves the heat transfer. They are
of heavy design and mounted on separate supports.
The first rows of lifters must be carefully selected regarding design and material. Their functioning is very
important since they also protect the following lifters from overheating.
Figure 28a Temperature profile in planetary cooler

Figure 28b Water cooling for planetary coolers

5. VERTICAL COOLERS
5.1 The Gravity Cooler (G - Cooler)
The Claudius Peters Company have developed the “g-cooler”. The letter "g" stands for gravity since
clinker movement is performed by gravity.
This cooler is designed as an after cooler and can therefore only be used in connection with a primary
cooler such as a short grate cooler or a planetary cooler. The installation together with a grate cooler is
shown in Fig. 29.
An intermediary crusher reduces the clinker size to 20 - 30 mm. The material of approx. 400°C is then
filled by a drag chain into a vertical shaft. Cooling is performed by horizontal rows of tubes which are
cooled by internal air flow. The heat is therefore exchanged indirectly and the air remains dust-free. The
clinker slowly drops down (at a speed of 20 – 30 mm/s) and reaches final temperatures of approx. 100°C
at the discharge.
There is no dedusting equipment required for the cooling air. However, the system according to Fig. 29 as
a whole is usually not free from dusty waste air. In case of a suspension preheater kiln system there is still
some waste air required on the grate cooler since the kiln cannot take all the hot air produced during the
first cooling step. In addition, a marginal amount of dusty air is produced by the g-cooler itself (top and
discharge).
The application of this cooler type is often considered for kiln extension projects. If an existing grate
cooler (or a planetary cooler) has to be operated at higher capacity the new clinker outlet temperature can
become too high. In this case the clinker temperature can be reduced by a g-cooler used as an
aftercooler.
5.2 The Shaft Cooler
A shaft cooler can be operated waste-air-free and theoretically offers an ideal countercurrent heat
exchange and thus high recuperating efficiency. Based on the idea the first large shaft cooler was
designed and constructed on a 3000 t/d kiln in 1973.
The experience gained in the plant shows that it is possible to operate such equipment but some serious
disadvantages have to be taken into account:
¨ All depends of the clinker granulometry! Theoretically, an extremely uniform clinker granulometry
having no fines and no coarse material would be required. This is hardly achievable in a cement kiln.
Therefore, fluctuations occur.
¨ High cooling air quantity (= secondary air) of 1.05 Nm3/kg cli is required but even so the clinker
exit temperature of 350°C is very high.
¨ High power consumption (10 kWh/t)
For the above reasons, the technical realization is not yet solved. The shaft cooler so far is not a
reasonable alternative to the conventional clinker coolers.
Figure 29 Gravity cooler (g-cooler, CPAG)

Figure 30 Shaft cooler

Figure 31 Claudius Peters CPAG: Combi Cooler

Figure 32 FLS: Coolax Grate Cooler

Figure 33 Fuller: Controlled Flow Grate (CFG) Cooler

Figure 34 IKN: Pendulum Cooler

Figure 35 KHD: Pyrostep Cooler

Figure 36 Polysius: Repol RS Cooler

C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings

Kiln Chain Systems

A. Obrist
PT 96/ 14036 / E
1. INTRODUCTION
2. Functions of a Kiln Chain System
2.1 Heat Exchange
2.2 Cleaning of the Kiln Shell
2.3 Transport of Material
2.4 Reduce Dust Emissions
3. Individual Zones of a Chain System
3.1 Free Zone of the Kiln Inlet
3.2 Dust Curtain Zone
3.3 Plastic Zone
3.4 Granular Zone (Preheating Zone)
3.5 Heat Resistant Zone
1.6 Main Characteristic Data of the Individual Chain System Zones
4. Arrangement of Chains
4.1 Straight Curtain
4.2 Spiral Zone
1.3 Multiple Spiral Curtain
1.4 Triangular Curtain (Z-Curtain)
1.5 Garlands
1.6 Festoons
1.7 Spiral Garlands
1.8 Thermochains
5. Types of Chain Links
5.1 Round Links
5.2 Long Links
5.3 Oval Links
5.4 Other Types of Chain Links
6. Chain Material
6.1 Mild Steel Chains
6.2 Heat Resistant Alloy Chains
7. Chain Hangers
8. Main Characteristic Data of Chain Systems
9. ANNEXES
10. LITERATURE
11. Test Questions

Summary:
A kiln chain system has four main functions:
¨ It helps to increase the heat exchange between gas and raw meal
¨ It keeps the kiln shell (lining surface) clean
¨ It assists the transport of material through the kiln tube
¨ It helps to reduce the dust emission
A properly designed chain system must respect the changing properties of material passing through the
kiln tube. In a wet process kiln the material is fed as a liquid slurry and changes it properties subsequently
in several steps inside the chain system to dry preheated granules. In accordance with the changing
material properties different arrangement of chains (straight curtains, spirals, garlands, etc.) have to be
used for individual parts of the system to satisfy the specific requirements. Also the chain densities and
the height of the free tunnel below the chains have to be selected carefully in order to reach the maximum
efficiency.
The chain links can have different shapes (round, long, oval etc.), preferably round links. The chemical
composition of the chains' alloy and its physical treatment (hardening) strongly influence the life time of
the system.
Different types of chain hangers can be used (single or multiple hangers, with or without shackles etc.).
They have to guarantee a sufficient stability, to enable an easy installation and they should as far as
possible assist the function of the chains.
NOMENCLATURE
Just a few symbols and names are to be explained before starting this lecture, the other ones will be
explained in the respective chapters.
Figure:

Dis Diameter inside kiln steel shell

DIL Diameter inside kiln lining
hfr Theoretical free height under the chains (see attached sketch), expressed in mm or as % of DIL
density of chains m2/m3is calculated for individual parts (zones) of the system as the total surface area of
chains in the respective zone divided by the volume inside lining of this zone
density of chains kg/m3 similar to the above mentioned density, but concerns the weight of chains instead
of their surface

1. INTRODUCTION
Wet process kilns cannot be successfully operated without internal kiln fittings, among which the kiln
chains are the most typical and most frequently used ones. The number of existing wet process kilns is
still high (~33% in Holcim Group) and a conversion from wet to dry process is very expensive. By
improving the existing chain systems or, where necessary, by installing a completely new chain system,
the kiln operation can be upgraded considerably with relatively moderate investment costs.
2. FUNCTIONS OF A KILN CHAIN SYSTEM
The kiln chain system has 4 main functions:
2.1 Heat Exchange
The heat exchange between hot gases and the raw material depends on the surface area exposed to the
hot medium. In the parts of kiln where no chains are installed, this surface area consists of the surface of
the material layer on the kiln bottom and of the surface of the remaining part of the kiln shell (resp. lining).
By installing the chains a large additional surface area can be gained, exceeding that one mentioned
above several times (up to 10 times and more) in the respective part of the kiln. By improving the heat
exchange the specific heat demand is reduced and the kiln output is increased.
In Fig. 1 different positions of a chain during one kiln rotation are shown. In position 1 the chain is
exposed to the stream of hot gases and thus heated up. The cooling of the chain (which passes its heat
to the layer of material) starts in position 2, continues in position 3 and ends in position 4.
Figure 1:

2.2 Cleaning of the Kiln Shell

In the upper part of the kiln the characteristics of the wet, sticky raw material favors the formation of mud
coating and mud rings. This would reduce the free kiln cross sectional area and thus obstruct the flow of
material and gases. Growing mud rings make the kiln operation difficult. It is one of the main functions of
the chain system to keep the internal kiln shell surface clean, free of coating or rings. Due to the kiln
rotation the chains slide on the kiln shell (resp. lining) and destroy the rings and the coating. The sliding
movement of a chain cleaning the kiln shell is shown in Fig. 1 (position 3).
2.3 Transport of Material
The properties of material in different parts of the kiln differ considerably. In some sections of the upper
part of the kiln, where the material is sticky and plastic, its transporting is more difficult than in other
sections.
As a regular flow of material is of an eminent importance for a smooth kiln operation, it is necessary to
install material flow assisting devices in some sections. Some special arrangements of chains can help to
draw the material through the critical sections. This can be achieved by chains moving in the desired
direction (garlands) or by a screw shaped arrangement of the chain fastening points. Other arrangements
of chains can be an obstruction to the flow of material and should therefore never be used in the critical
sections.
2.4 Reduce Dust Emissions
The gases leaving the kiln contain a certain amount of dust consisting mainly of partly calcined, hot raw
material. The dust load of gases depends on the properties of the raw material and on the specific
conditions of the kiln operation. Dust loss should be kept small, it means a loss of heat and material. The
kiln chain system, mainly its upper part, can help to reduce the dust emission. Dust particles carried by
the stream of gases stick to the wet surface of chains and later when these chains are emerged into the
layer of material, this dust is passed over to the slurry.
3. INDIVIDUAL ZONES OF A CHAIN SYSTEM
The material passing the chain system changes subsequently its properties - it loses water and is heated
up. According to the different material properties the total chain system can be divided into several zones.
These zones are:
3.1 Free Zone of the Kiln Inlet
This short zone is considered to be a part of the chain system in spite of the fact that no chains are
installed here. A sufficient amount of slurry should be accumulated in this zone in order to guarantee a
constant and regular flow into the lower parts of the system.
Good results have been obtained with the zone length of 1 to 1.5 kiln diameters.
3.2 Dust Curtain Zone
The dust curtain zone is relatively short, its length does not exceed 0.5 DIL under normal conditions.
The material entering this zone still has the relatively good flow properties of the kiln feed (slurry). When
leaving this zone, the material has a lower water content and becomes more "plastic", essentially due to
the inter-mixing of the dust previously retained by the chains in this zone.
In order to achieve a good dust catching efficiency, the density of chains must be high (some 8 to 15
m2/m3) and the free height below the chains should be 18 - 27% of DIL.
3.3 Plastic Zone
The length of this zone depends on properties of raw material, slurry moisture, characteristics of the kiln
operation etc. and can vary in a wide range (approx. between 1.5 and 4 DIL). The material in this zone is
plastic and sticky, still relatively cold and wet and because of these properties it favors mud coating and
mud ring formation. The transport of material through this zone is the most difficult one among all the
zones of the chain system.
Due to the material properties mentioned above the chains in this zone must have a good shell cleaning
and material transporting efficiency. The density of chains should be relatively low, some 5 to 8 m2/m3. As
to achieve a big free tunnel under the chains, the free height hfr should be approx. 30% or, if garland
chains are installed in this zone, some 40%. Heavier (thick wire) chains should be installed.
In order to be sure that the zone of plastic material will always stay inside the zone of chains which can
treat it successfully, the respective arrangement of chains should be slightly extended in the downstream
direction as to obtain a sufficient safety.
3.4 Granular Zone (Preheating Zone)
The recommendable length of this zone depends on the desired material temperature and the rest water
content at its discharge end. Good results have been achieved with a zone length between 2 and 4,5 DIL.
The material entering this zone is not plastic any more, it forms granules which are easy to be transported
and do not favor a mud ring formation. The granules should be dried and heated up in this zone.
The chains should heat the material gently without unnecessary dust generation, they should enable a
good heat exchange. Lighter (thin wire) chains should therefore be installed. A chain density of approx. 6
to 10 m2/m3 and a free height of approx. 25 to 30% can be recommended. This zone is sometimes
divided into an upper and a lower part. Both parts have the same (or at least a similar) arrangement, but
the lower part has a higher density of chains than the upper one. The damming effect of the lower part,
caused by the thicker layer of chains on the kiln bottom, helps to increase the material retention time and
improves the heat exchange.
3.5 Heat Resistant Zone
This zone is relatively short, its length does not exceed 1,5 DIL. The material, dry and hot granules, can
easily be transported. A very gentle treatment of the material is required in order to keep the dust creation
as low as possible.
The main function of the chains is to protect the upstream part of the system against heat radiation and
too high a gas temperature. Chains made of heat resistant steel should be installed in this zone. Lighter
(thin wire) chains should be preferred.
3.6 Main Characteristic Data of the Individual Chain System Zones
Table 1
 Zone
Free Dust Plastic Granular Heat
Curtain Upper Lower Resistant
Length DIL £ 1,5 £ 0.5 1.5 to 4 1 to 3 £ 1,5 £ 1,5
hfr % DIL 18 - 27 40 / 30 25 to 30
Density m2/m3 8 to 15 5 to 8 6 to 10
Moisture % 30 to 40 15 - 25
Material temp. °C 20 100 <600
Chain temp. °C <400 <1'000
Gas temp. °C 160 to 240 <1'100
Material flow

4. ARRANGEMENT OF CHAINS
Each individual zone of a chain system must have its own specific properties in order to satisfy the
requirements mentioned previously.
4.1 Straight Curtain
As shown in Fig. 2, this arrangement of chains is very simple. The chain fastening points form a ring.
Several straight curtains are combined to a straight curtain zone. The distance between the individual
straight curtains (rings or rows) should not be too long, this would lead - in order to achieve a sufficient
density - to too great a number of chains per ring and thus to big heaps of chains on the kiln bottom
obstructing the flow of material.
Figure 2: Straight Curtain

The main advantages of a straight curtain are its simple design and installation as well as an easy
maintenance. Its main disadvantages are the poor shell cleaning efficiency and the fact that this
arrangement does not assist the transport of material. The straight curtains should therefore not be used
in the plastic zone or in the dust curtain, but they can be recommended for the granular zone.
4.2 Spiral Zone
In a spiral curtain the chain fastening points follow the screw lines on the kiln shell.
The spiral (screw) lines should have an inclination of approx. 30° (see Fig. 3). In order to assist the
transport of material, the inclination must have the proper sense, i.e. the sense of rotation must be taken
into consideration.
Figure 3: Spiral Curtain (4-start spiral)

The arrangement with 4 screw lines per circumference, called a 4-start

spiral, is most frequently used. This arrangement allows for a good shell cleaning effect and at the same
time overlapping of chains can be avoided, as shown in Fig. 4a. The recommended chain length is
namely approx. 0.7 D, and the circumferential distance between adjacent screw lines is p D/4 = 0.78 D.
The benefits of this solution become clear if we compare it with other arrangements having a different
number of screw lines. An arrangement with less than 4 screw lines per circumference (Fig. 4b) does not
enable a full shell cleaning effect, because some parts of the shell have no contact with a chain. An
arrangement with more than 4 screw lines leads necessarily to overlapping of chains (Fig. 4c) and thus to
a higher layer of chains on the kiln bottom which is not favorable for the transport of material.
Figure 4a-c:

The very good material transporting and the good shell cleaning efficiency are the main advantages of a
spiral curtain. Its disadvantages are a slightly smaller heat exchanging efficiency, a more difficult brick
lining work and a limited maximum chain density. For these reasons, the spiral curtain arrangement
should not be used in the granular zone but it can be recommended for the plastic zone.
4.3 Multiple Spiral Curtain
A spiral curtain having 8 or more spirals per circumference is called a multiple spiral curtain. Such an
arrangement enables to achieve high chain densities and the passages between chains are narrow,
therefore, it can be used in the dust curtain zone. its material transporting efficiency is not as good as that
one of a 4-start spiral, but it is still better than that one of any other arrangement enabling a similarly high
chain density. A multiple spiral arrangement can therefore be recommended for dust curtain zones in such
cases where the kiln feed flow properties are poor.
4.4 Triangular Curtain (Z-Curtain)
In a triangular curtain, also called Z-curtain, the chain fastening points follow a zig-zag line (see Fig. 5).
This arrangement enables to reach high chain densities without obstructing the flow of material and gases
too much. Because of the equal distribution of chains the heap of chains on the kiln bottom is not too high
in spite of the high chain density (see Fig. 6).
Figure 5 & 6

[B05C02D1FIG07.TIF]

The arrangement with angles of 60° and with 8 "triangles" per kiln circumference has proved to be the
most successful one. In such an arrangement the layer of chains on the kiln bottom is only approx. 4
chains high (because 8 triangles have all together 16 fastening lines and the chain length of approx. 0.73
D corresponds to » p D/4, therefore, each chain passes 16/4 = 4 lines).
The dust catching efficiency of such an arrangement is very good, it was therefore used in the dust
curtain zone in such cases where the kiln feed flow properties are relatively good. Frequently one single
triangular curtain was installed, but two are also possible.
Nowadays, for dust curtains a multiple start spiral arrangement is preferred to a triangular curtain because
of its material transport efficiency.
4.5 Garlands
Chains having their both ends fastened to the kiln shell are called garlands (Fig. 7) The fastening points
form straight rings in the kiln shell. The shape of a garland is characterized by the chain length, by the
axial distance LAX and by the angle µ (see Fig. 7 and 8). Good results have been achieved with an angle
µ » 90 to 110° and a distance LAX » 0.5 to 0.9 D.
Figure 7 & 8:

Due to the sliding movement of the garland chains on the kiln shell (resp. lining) surface, their shell
cleaning and material transporting efficiency is very good and their heat exchange efficiency is approx.
1.5 times higher than that one of pending chains (see Fig. 9).
Figure 9

As can be seen in Fig. 9 the garland chain should be hung in a "reverse" sense, i.e. in a sense differing
from that one of a screw line, in order to assist the material transport.
Due to the properties mentioned above, the garland chains have been used mainly in the plastic zone.
In spite of the advantages mentioned above CS/PT does usually not recommend the installation of
garlands because of their disadvantages, namely:
¨ complicated installation
¨ difficult maintenance
¨ relatively short life time
¨ at the ends of the garland zone the shall cleaning efficiency is very poor (no movement of chain)
4.6 Festoons
Garlands without overlapping chains in the axial direction are called festoons (Fig. 10). The installation
and maintenance of festoons are less difficult than that of garlands but their shell cleaning efficiency is
poorer (the areas between the individual bays of festoons are not cleaned reliably).
Figure 10

4.7 Spiral Garlands

An arrangement of garlands where the chain fastening points form screw lines ("spirals") is called spiral
garlands. Its material transporting efficiency is even better than that one of normal straight garland zone,
but the erection and maintenance are more complicated.
4.8 Thermochains
Thermochains are a special type of festoons, meeting the following conditions:
¨ The axial distance LAX between the two fastening points is short (approx. 0.1 to 0.15 DIL).
¨ The angle µ between the two fastening points is approx. between 60° and 120°, preferably 90° to
120°.
¨ The free height under the chain hfr is approx. between 0.4 DIL (for µ = 120°) and 0.6 DIL (for µ =
90°).
¨ The chain (shackles included, if used) is approx. 1.1 times longer than the distance between the
two fastening points, measured on the lining surface (see Fig. 11a and 11b).
A good heat transfer and at the same time a gentle treatment of material preventing an unnecessary dust
creation are the main advantages of thermochains. Their disadvantages are a low shell cleaning ability
and a very limited material transporting efficiency. Thermochains only have a limited sliding movement on
the kiln lining compared to garlands and for this reason the sense of hanging (reverse or non-reverse)
does not make too much difference. Thermochains cannot be used in the upper and central part of the
chain system where the shell cleaning efficiency is of an eminent importance. They should be used in the
lowest (hot) part of the system in such cases when another type of chain arrangement enabling the same
heat exchange would lead to an excessively high dust emission.
Figure 11a & b:

[B05C02D1FIG12.TIF]

5. TYPES OF CHAIN LINKS

5.1 Round Links
The round links (Fig. 12a) can rotate slowly when kiln is in operation which has two advantages:
· the wear is distributed equally over the whole link circumference, and therefore, in comparison
with other types, round links have a longer life time.
· due to the rotation of links their surface is kept clean which enables a good heat exchange (links
are not surrounded by an insulating mud layer).
Because of the properties mentioned above round links should be preferred to other types mainly in those
zones where the material is wet and sticky.
For calculations of the chain surface area and chain weight, the following formula can be applied:

¨ surface area of 1 link

¨ volume of 1 link
¨ weigt of 1 link

The above formulas are valid for round chain links with a round wire cross section.
Some chain suppliers express the mentioned specific properties as chain surface area per 1 m of chain
and chain weight per 1 m of chain. These values are formulated as follows:

01m =
G1m =

Therefore, if the chain weight and surface area are to be calculated from the 1m specific data, the chain
length LCH should be measured as shown in the following sketch:
Figure

5.2 Long Links

The long links (Fig. 12b) cannot rotate like the round ones, their life time is shorter and their self-cleaning
ability poorer.
For calculations of the chain surface area and chain weight, the following formulas can be applied:

¨ surface area of 1 link

¨ volume of 1 link
¨ weigt of 1 link

The above formulas are valid for long chain links with a round wire cross section.
5.3 Oval Links
The oval links (Fig. 12c) are similar to long links, they have similar properties and their surface area and
weight can be calculated (with a negligible mistake) by means of the formulas mentioned in the part 5.2.
5.4 Other Types of Chain Links
Besides the links types mentioned above, the suppliers occasionally offer various other types of chain
links such as asymmetric links, overlapping links (Fig. 12e), links with a non-round wire cross section (Fig.
12d) etc. These types are not to be recommended for cement kilns and are very rarely used, except the
links with a non-round wire cross section.
Figure 12: Type of Chain Links

6. CHAIN MATERIAL
6.1 Mild Steel Chains
A big majority of the kiln chains are made of mild steel. In order to withstand the friction between chains,
between chain and raw material, between chain and hanger etc. they have to be made of a "through
hardened" steel. This hardening (result of a thermal treatment) is one of the important chain properties
and only experienced kiln chain suppliers are in possession of the necessary know-how for this
procedure. For this reason, even the mild steel chains should be purchased from experienced suppliers.
6.2 Heat Resistant Alloy Chains
Due to the thermal load of the kiln and the chain temperature at the hot end of the system, the portion of
the heat resistant chains should be some 15% of the total weight of chains. Mild steel chains should not
be installed in that part of the system where a chain temperature of 450°C or more is to be expected.
The chain suppliers offer a lot of various heat resistant steel qualities. Besides the thermal treatment the
chemical composition of the respective alloy is the most important criteria. The two main components are
nickel and chromium.
Nickel increases the alloy resistivity against reducing kiln atmosphere, but a higher nickel content
becomes dangerous if the raw material or kiln gases contain sulphur compounds which could react with it.
Chromium increases the alloy resistivity against high temperatures, but a higher content of chromium
makes the alloy sensible to sudden changes of temperature.
Above 20% Cr and at operating temperatures between 600 - 900°C an intermetallic compound can occur
(-phase) which makes the alloy very brittle and causes destruction. Whether this phenomenon occurs or
not depends also on the Ni-content and on other elements. Alloys which are sensitive to -phase formation
must be used at working temperatures above 900°C.
Because of the properties mentioned above, it is necessary to find a compromise. Good results have
been achieved with heat resistant alloys containing approx. 18 to 25% Cr and approx. 5 to 13% Ni.
7. CHAIN HANGERS
Chain hangers can be divided into 2 groups, namely single chain hangers and multiple chain hangers.
The single hangers have only one chain fastening point, the multiple hangers have several fastening
points. The single chain hangers should be preferred in cases, where larger distances between the chain
hanging points are desired - this solution enables to keep the weight of hangers as low as possible.
(Under favorable circumstances, the weight of hangers should not exceed some 15% of the weight of the
chains).
The chain can be fixed to the hanger by means of a shackle (Fig. 15). Specially designed hangers enable
shackleless hanging of chains.
In Fig. 13 and 14 some examples of the chain hangers are presented, namely:

Fig. 13 a, b, c single hangers with shackles

Fig. 13 d single hanger, shackleless
Fig. 13 e, f
Fig. 14 b, c multiple hangers with shackles
Fig. 13 g
Fig. 14 a multiple hangers, shackleless

Figure13:

Figure 14:

The gap between the plate of a multiple hanger and the steel kiln shell should not be too wide. Gaps
exceeding some 20 mm enable, when the kiln lining is worn out, penetration of chains into the space
between kiln shell and hanger. This leads to tangling of chains and finally to a destruction of chains and
hangers.
Figure 15: Shackle

8. MAIN CHARACTERISTIC DATA OF CHAIN SYSTEMS

The following average data are to be understood only as a very rough guideline.

Length of the total chain system 18 to 35% of total kiln length

(some 6 to 10 D)
Total weight of chains:
- smaller kilns (< 1000 t/d)
- bigger kilns
9 to 12% of daily kiln output
11 to 20% of daily kiln output
Total surface area of chains:
- smaller kilns
- bigger kilns
Fe/Fii*) = 1.1 to 1.8
Fe/Fi = 1.5 to 2.6
* Fe = total surface area of chains
Fi = total surface are of kiln shell (inside lining)

9. ANNEXES

Annex 1: Example of chain system record keeping (DA K5)

Annex 2: Example of material sampling port arrangement on wet kiln (BP K1)

Annex 3: Example material sampling and mass balance (BP K1)

Annex 4: Example of material sampling port on wet kiln (BS K1)

Annex 1: Example of chain system record keeping (DA K5)

Annex 2: Example of material sampling port arrangement on wet kiln (BP K1)

Annex 3: Example material sampling and mass balance (BP K1)

Annex 4: Example of material sampling port on wet kiln (BS K1)

10. LITERATURE

P. Weber Wärmeübergang und Wasserverdampfung beim Nassdrehofen

Zement-Kalk-Gips (1959), No. 5, p. 208 ff
Legrand: Calcul des coeffients de perte de charge et de filtration d'un rideau de chaines
Rew. Mater. Constr. (1961), No. 549, p. 327 - 332
De Beus, Cement Technology: Design of Kiln Chain Systems Narzymski:
Rock Products 69 (1966), No. 7, p. 77 ff
Bennet, C.S.: Chain Experience in Wet Process Kilns
Minerals Processing, Vol. 8 (1967), No. 10, p. 18 - 19
De Beus, A.J.: Mind your Chain Dollar
Minerals Processing, Vol. 8 (1967), No. 10, pa. 12 - 17
Feiser, C.F.: Comments on Kiln Chain Developments in the Cement Industry
Minerals Processing, Vol. 8 (1967), No. 9, p. 11 - 13
Drayton, W.E.: Know your Kiln's Chain System
Rock Products (1972), H. 5, p. 88 ff
Numerous TC-VA Reports
Numerous Reports of Holcim Group Plants
"Datenbank-Blatt" Collection of TC-VA

11. TEST QUESTIONS

1) Name the main functions of a chain system and explain them!

2) According to the changing properties of material passing along the kiln tube, which individual
zones do we distinguish inside of a chain system? Describe them, define the main requirements which
the chains have to meet in each individual zone!

3) Name the different arrangements of chains and describe them!

4) Each arrangement has advantages as well as disadvantages, please list them!

5) Follow the stream of material in the kiln and define which chain arrangements can be used for the
individual parts of the system! Explain why!

6) Explain the reverse sense of hanging garlands! Compare it to the sense of hanging thermochains

7) Would you recommend garlands for the downstream (hot) end of the system, thermochains for
the upstream (cold) end? Please explain why!

8) What are the specific advantages of round link chains?

9) Describe the material and gas temperature profile along the system!

10) What portion of heat resistant steel chains would you recommend for a system? Define the main
criteria for estimating this amount!

11) Which basic types of hangers do you know? In which case would you prefer single chain
hangers?

12) Name the main characteristic data of a chain system: Length, total weight and total surface area
of chains?

C03 - Refractory Linings

Refractory Lining of Cement Kiln Systems

1. IMPORTANCE OF REFRACTORIES FOR CEMENT PRODUCTION

2. SUBDIVISION OF THE BURNING PROCESS AND SELECTION OF REFRACTORY QUALITIES
2.1 Drying Zone (applies only for wet and semi-wet process kilns)
2.2 Chain Zone
2.3 Preheating Zone
2.4 Calcining Zone
2.5 Transition Zone
2.6 Sintering Zone
2.7 Cooling Zone
3. IMPORTANT FEATURES OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION
3.1 General
3.2 Brick Joints and Jointing Materials
3.3 Thermal Expansion Compensation
3.4 Lining Methods
3.5 Stripping and Removing of Old Lining
4. LINING OF PREHEATERS, KILN HOODS AND COOLERS
4.1 Suspension and Grate Preheaters
4.2 Kiln Hood
4.3 Clinker Coolers
5. OPERATIONAL ASPECTS REGARDING KILN LININGS
5.1 Heat-Up of Rotary Kiln Systems
5.2 Kiln Shell Deformation
5.3 Fluctuating Process Parameters
6. CONCLUSIONS
7. TEST QUESTIONS

SUMMARY
Since the sole costs of refractory materials per ton of clinker produced play only a minor role in the overall
manufacturing costs, the prior task of refractory lining optimization is to prolong the useful life of the
installed materials which fact in turn increases the kiln availability for production.
Selecting of the appropriate refractory qualities for the different kiln zones is of particular importance in
various problem areas of the kiln system. As an example, alkali corrosion in calcining zones may be
reduced by selecting acidic types of bricks, whereas eutectic reactions in the safety zone generally can
only be countered by installing basic types of refractories.
Apart from selecting the correct refractory materials, the work quality of lining installation is a key element
in obtaining a long refractory life. Tight lining and adequate joint dimensions are important features.
The operational influences on refractories materials, the work quality of lining installation is a key element
in obtaining a long refractory life. Tight lining and adequate joint dimensions are important features.
The operational influences on refractories performance are of thermal, chemical and mechanical nature.
By considering an adequate heating-up procedure, thermal and mechanical damage can be avoided
during start up. Measures to provide an optimum raw material composition on one hand and to avoid kiln
feed fluctuations on the other hand may be necessary to decrease wear of chemical nature and to
improve coating stability. In the area of kiln tyres, mechanical destruction of bricks can be caused by
excessive kiln shell deformation. Continuous control of the mechanical condition of the kiln shell in the
tyre areas allows to detect possible deterioration and to take appropriate measures in an early stage in
order to prevent damage to the lining from this side.
Refractory lifetime is generally not a matter of one single criterion. The influences described in this paper
are nearly always jointly responsible for the results achieved and should be considered as an entirety.
1. IMPORTANCE OF REFRACTORIES FOR CEMENT PRODUCTION
Cement plans represent quite big amounts of invested capital which fact demands for a production as
continuous as possible in order to guarantee a corresponding return.
The sole cost of the refractory lining of a cement kiln, including the outlay for removal of the old and
installation of the new materials amounts to barley 2 to 4% of the cement production costs. The losses
caused by interruption of production, on the other hand, are already higher than the annual lining costs
when the kiln has been idle for 10 to 15 days. Improvement or optimisation of the useful life of refractories
with the object of impairing the availability of the kiln as little as possible by shut-down for relining, is
therefore one of the major objectives for cement producers.
The durability of refractory linings is mainly influenced by three factors:
¨ The choice of the quality of materials employed in the various zones.
¨ The installation of the lining with due consideration of the methods of placing, size of joints and
jointing materials.
¨ Due attention to operational criteria which affect the durability of the lining, namely the correct
procedure for heating-up and for cooling down of a kiln system on the one hand and the minimisation of
process fluctuations in order to maintain the continuous operation of the kiln on the other hand.
This paper contains accordingly remarks and information on how to consider the above criteria in order to
improve refractory performance and kiln availability.
For types and classification of refractory materials and other aspects related to materials technology,
reference is made to the MA Cement Course Documents Vol. 2.
2. SUBDIVISION OF THE BURNING PROCESS AND SELECTION OF REFRACTORY QUALITIES
With regard to the requirements on refractory materials, the kiln system can be subdivided into various
zones according to specific operating conditions (Fig. 1). The designation of the various zones refers to
the respective reactions in the burning process which, however, are anything but clearly defined as they
overlap in both directions. The point, at which the change from one refractory quality to another is made
can usually be determined only by observing the behaviour of the lining in operation.
Fig. 1

The main points of the following explanations are also summarised in Table 1.
Table 1

2.1 Drying Zone (applies only for wet and semi-wet process kilns)
In the drying zone, the water content of slurry or nodules is evaporated. This reaction is almost terminated
at material temperatures of 100°C.
In wet process kiln, the drying zone is generally a part of the chain zone. In grate pre-heater kilns, drying
takes place in the first pre-heater chamber.
2.2 Chain Zone
In wet process kilns, the chain zone can be subdivided into a drying and a preheating zone. The material
temperature at the outlet of the chain zone depends on arrangement and qualities of chains as well as
type of system, i.e. nodule or dust kiln, and is in the order of magnitude of 200 to 400°C.
The length of the chain zone ranges from 7 to 9 kiln diameters in wet kilns and from 3 to 5 kiln diameters
in long dry kilns.
The lining of the chain zone should be of a dense, low alumina firebrick with high abrasion resistance to
withstand the abrasive action of the chains.
An air setting mortar should be used as there is insufficient temperature to vitrify a heat setting mortar. In
wet kilns, furthermore, the mortar must be water resistant.
Since the arrangement of the chain hangers requires extensive modification work, sometimes dense
fireclay castables are installed, which, however, should be carefully compacted in order to obtain high
abrasion resistance.
2.3 Preheating Zone
In the preheating zone, hydrate-water is driven off and the raw material is heated up to approx. 700°C.
The length of the preheating zone in long kilns is approx. 4 to 8 kiln diameters (excluding chain zone). In
short pre-heater kilns the preheating zone is a part of the pre-heater.
Regarding the lining of preheaters, reference is made to paragraph 4.1: Lining of Suspension and Grate
Preheaters.
The preheating zone of long kilns is usually lined with low alumina firebricks or, for better thermal
insulation, with lightweight firebricks. With respect of lining stability, two layer lining is generally not
recommended in rotary kilns of more than 3.5 m diameter.
2.4 Calcining Zone
The calcining reaction starts already at material temperatures below 600°C and is completed at approx.
1200°C. Since, however, the most part of calcination takes place between raw material temperatures of
700 to 900°C, usually this range is designated as calcining zone.
The length of the calcining zone in long kilns is in the order of magnitude of 6 to 9 kiln diameters. In short
pre-heater kilns calcining takes partially place in the pre-heater. There, the length of the calcining zone in
the kiln amounts to approx. 4 to 6, in kilns with precalciners 1 to 3 kiln diameters.
From the refractory point of view, the calcining zone can still be lined with normal fireclay bricks or, for
better insulation, with fireclay lightweight bricks. In case of alkali attack good operational results have
been achieved with acidic light weight bricks with an SiO2 content above 65%. These bricks form with
alkalis a vitreous layer of 2 to 3 mm thickness on the surface, which prevents the further alkali infiltration.
Two layer linings are generally not recommended. There are, however, two layer bricks on the market,
consisting of a dense working part and a porous insulating part. Such bricks are generally installed for
heat saving purpose, if lightweight bricks show unsatisfactory operating results.
2.5 Transition Zone
The transition zones are located on both sides of the sintering zone. Since the length of the sintering zone
varies with process fluctuations, the transition zones are characterised in particular by unstable coating
formation.
Usually, the inlet-side transition zone is further subdivided into a colder section, so-called safety zone, and
into a hot section, the proper transition zone.
The safety zone has a length of approx. 2 kiln diameters and is usually lined with alumina rich bricks with
Al2O3 content of 50 to 60%. The bricks must have good thermal shock resistance and low porosity in
order to have good resistivity against chemical attack. The application limit of alumina rich or high alumina
bricks in the transition zone is generally determined by eutectic reactions in the system Al2O3 - CaO -
SiO2 or by alkali-spalling. In such cases, lining lifetime can be improved only by installing basic bricks.
The transition zones are often exposed to considerably higher loads than the sintering zone itself. Quite
often no or only unstable coating is formed. Thus, the bricks are exposed directly to the flame radiation
and considerable temperature variations. The lengths of the transition zones vary from 2 to 4 kiln
diameters.They are usually lined with chrome free magnesia-spinell bricks produced of very pure,
synthetic materials or with magnesia-chrome bricks containing approx. 60 to 70% MgO.
2.6 Sintering Zone
Although this zone is often referred to as burning zone preference is given to the expression sintering
zone on account that this better describes the mechanism of reactions taking place.
The sintering zone is generally covered with a more or less stable coating, formed with clinker and liquid
phase. Liquid phase starts to form at raw material temperatures above approx. 1250°C. However, as the
lining surface temperature is higher than the one of the raw material, coating formation starts already at
raw material temperature above 1050 to 1150°C.
The term ‘sintering zone’ can also be explained as zone of increased material diffusion with formation of
C3S modifications, the latter starting at temperatures above approx. 1100°C.
The maximum material temperature in the sintering zone is in the order of magnitude of 1400 to 1500°C
at the beginning of the cooling zone.
The length of the sintering zone is generally between 3 to 5 kiln diameters and depends largely on the
shape of the flame and type of fuel. Coal flames give generally short, oil flames medium and gas flames
longer sintering zones. In kilns with precalciner, the sintering zone length amounts to 5 to 8 kiln diameters
due to the higher specific material throughout.
The bricks in the sintering zone are exposed to chemical attack by the liquid phase of the clinker and by
alkali sulphates, high temperatures and, depending on coating stability, high thermal shocks. These
conditions are best met by basic bricks due to their high refractoriness and good resistance against
chemical attack.
Thus, generally, chrome free magnesia-spinell bricks, magnesia-chrome or dolomite bricks are installed.
When using chrome-free magnesia-spinell bricks, qualities particularly developed to improve coating
adhesion should be chosen (qualities based on natural sinter).
Dolomite bricks have generally good operating performance in zones with coating formation. The price for
dolomite bricks is only approx. 60% of that of magnesite. A disadvantage of dolomite bricks is, however,
its sensitivity to moisture. Thus, for longer storing times, these bricks are to be stored air-tight. During
longer kiln stops the dolomite lining is to be protected against moisture by tightening the kiln tube and
putting a hygroscopic agent (e.g. burned lime) in the kiln.
Raw material analysis and tests can give some indications on selection of brick quality to be installed. The
final decision, however, is often to be based on operating experience, i.e. by trial and error.
Insulation of the burning zone with insulating back-lining is generally not recommended. By insulating,
basically the hot face temperature of the bricks will be increased, resulting in reduced coating thickness
and higher chemical and thermal load of the bricks. Furthermore, two layer lining is less stable and leads,
particularly in big kilns, often to early failure due to relative movement and loosening of the lining.
In cases, where a coating does not form, insulation may be helpful in reducing heat losses and protecting
the kiln shell, particularly in the tyre area. In such specific cases basic bricks with back-linings of 40 mm
hard fireclay slabs are sometimes installed. However, generally installation of two layer linings is not
recommended due to reduced lining stability.
2.7 Cooling Zone
The cooling zone in the rotary kiln reaches approx. from the burner nozzle to the kiln outlet. In this zone,
the clinker is cooled down from its maximum burning temperature of 1400 to 1500°C to approx. 1350°C in
kilns with grate, rotary or shaft coolers and to approx. 1250°C in kilns with planetary coolers.
The cooling zone in kilns with planetary coolers has a length of approx. 1.5 to 2 kiln diameters. It consists
generally of a cam lining for better cooling efficiency and a dam ring for equalising of clinker distribution to
the individual cooler inlet openings. For camlining and damring, dense high alumina bricks with approx.
80% Al2O3 and considerable thermal shock resistance are generally used. The backing of the damring
can be made of hard fireclay bricks with adequate mechanical strength.
The length of the cooling zone of kilns with grate, rotary or shaft coolers is generally 0.5 to 1 kiln diameter.
It is usually lined with dense, abrasion resistant high alumina bricks containing 80% Al2O3. In case of
heavy chemical attack it can be necessary to line this zone with basic bricks, which however, should have
high thermal shock resistance (magnesia-spinell bricks). Since the outlet zone is often free of coating, kiln
shell temperature will increase due to the higher thermal conductivity of basic bricks. Due to the high
thermal and mechanical load of the bricks in this zone, insulating back-lining is not recommended.
The end of the cooling zone, the nose ring, is one of the most critical points of cement kiln linings. Its
lifetime is often lower than the one of high loaded sintering zones. Shape and quality of nose ring bricks
requires therefore careful consideration.
Basically, complicated special shapes should be avoided since special shaped bricks are often ‘hand-
made’ and can have a much poorer quality than machine made bricks of the same composition. Nose ring
design according to Fig. 2a and 2b would allow to use standard brick sizes with minor modifications and is
to be preferred against the design according to Fig. 2c.
Fig. 2a Nose Ring Design Using Bricks

Fig. 2b Nose Ring Design Using Bricks

Fig. 2c Nose Ring Design Using Bricks

3. IMPORTANT FEATURES OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION
3.1 General
Depending on specific requirements and local conditions, refractory brick linings in rotary kilns are
installed dry or with mortar. For specific applications, unshaped materials are used, which are installed by
casting, gunning or ramming.
Apart from selecting the correct refractory materials, the quality of the installation procedure is a key
element in obtaining a durable refractory lining and long service life.
High refractory lining quality requires:
¨ Tight installation of brick
¨ Correct compensation for thermal expansion with adequate joints
¨ Selection of suitable mortar for mortar joints
¨ Selection of the optimum lining method, so that kiln rotation in the cold state can be minimised
Loose linings may result in spiral displacement of entire lining sections (see Fig. 3). The bricks jam in a
twisted position and can no longer expand freely when hot. Result: spalling due to excessive mechanical
stresses.
Fig. 3

The lining ring must run true to the vertical kiln axis. Using a welding seam as reference, alignment lines
can be drawn on the shell at regular intervals.
Installation of closure bricks requires special care.
Procedure (Fig. 4)
1) Tension the ring with a hydraulic spreader jack.
2) Insert the most tightly fitting combination of key bricks
3) With basic lining: drive in key plates between axial joints of the ring until ring becomes completely
stable. Use only key plate per joint.
With linings containing Al2O3: closing with key plates should be avoided because iron reacts with Al2O3
at high temperature to form a compound with a low melting point. For this lining quality, the combination of
key bricks must fit particularly well.
Fig. 4

For closing lining rings, key bricks of various dimensions are available which can be combined to obtain
optimum closures. If necessary, standard formats can be cut to the desired widths. The brick lengths of
the last lining ring generally will have to be cut as well.
Rotary kiln bricks may only be cut to 2/3 of their original length or width; if necessary two rows must be
cut.
Offset brick linings as shown in Fig. 5 may not be installed in rotary kilns. Each ring must be self-
supporting in order to avoid shearing stress occurring as a result of relative lining motion.
Fig. 5

3.2 Brick Joints and Jointing Materials

Bricks laid in mortar generally give better performance than dry placed bricks provided that the mortar
used is of the correct quality. Mortar joints must be even and not thicker than 1.5 to 3 mm, preferably 2
mm.
To achieve the desired lining quality with mortar, qualified and experienced bricklayers are required, who
regrettably are becoming a rarity in many countries.
In contrast, dry bricking can be executed in less time by less specialised personnel.
Dry lining is therefore the standard procedure for basic bricks. They are currently almost exclusively laid
dry with or without steel plates in every radial joint. The steel plates react at high temperatures with the
magnesia brick to form a highly refractory combination of magnesiaferrite which is claimed to give
increased stability to the ring. Clench lining (dry lining without steel plates) is becoming more and more
popular. Its main advantages are:
¨ tighter lining
¨ no handling of steel plates
¨ no separation of steel plates required when recycling old bricks
Expansion allowances in axial and circumferential joints of the brick linings are sometimes necessary in
order to compensate for the thermal expansion of the brick. With insufficient compensation of thermal
expansion, the bricks can be mechanically overloaded at operating temperature. Excess compensation
conversely leads to loose lining or even lining displacement and collapse of brick rings. Therefore the
correct dimensioning of thermal expansion allowance is a most important feature of ensuring a stable
lining.
3.3 Thermal Expansion Compensation
The thermal expansion of a refractory lining (re: Fig. 6 and 7) is partially compensated by the following
factors:
¨ thermal expansion of kiln shell
¨ burning out of glue if sheet metal shims are glued to the brick surface
¨ lining ‘inaccuracy’
¨ compressibility and pyroplastic behaviour of the bricks
Fig. 6

Fig. 7

The thermal expansion which cannot be absorbed by the above factors has to be compensated by:
¨ the elasticity and pyroplasticity of mortars
¨ the elasticity and softening of steel plates
¨ combustible materials (cardboard shims)
The thermal expansion of refractory linings is strongly dependent on materials and operating conditions.
For the correct dimensioning of the expansion allowance, the recommendations of the manufacturers of
each brick type should be strictly followed.
For dry lining consisting of basic bricks, most manufacturers recommend a longitudinal expansion
allowance of 1%, i.e. installation of a 2 mm cardboard in each circumferential joint for 200 mm brick length
(for designation of joints see Fig. 8). Most qualities of basic bricks are normally laid without cardboards in
the axial joints in order to achieve the tightest possible lining at working temperature.
Fig. 8

For some particularly dense, high fired qualities additional expansion allowances within the rings are
recommended. In addition to the normal steel plate, a 1 mm thick, 50 mm wide cardboard is to be
installed near the hot face of the axial joints after every 4th to 8th brick. To prevent the cardboards from
slipping-in, they are bent at right angles to the brick face (see Fig. 9).
Fig. 9

If basic bricks are laid in mortar, additional expansion allowance in the axial joints is not necessary. In the
circumferential joints an allowance of about 0.2% is made, i.e. a 2 mm cardboard is inserted between
each fifth ring without mortar.
Alumina and fireclay bricks as a rule are installed without expansion allowance in the interest of a stable
lining. This is possible due to the lower thermal expansion of these bricks compared to the basic materials
and due to good pyroplastic properties which permit accommodation of the stresses at high temperatures.
Steel plates are not used with Alumina bricks, since steel and aluminium silicates form low melting
compound at high temperature, which can lead to lining damage.
3.4 Lining Methods
The following factors have to be considered for kiln lining methods:
¨ safety
¨ tight installation of the bricks
¨ time required for lining
The methods applied can be generally classified as:
¨ rotating methods, i.e. the kiln has to be turned during lining
¨ formwork methods: the bricks are installed on a curved formwork without turning of the kiln
3.4.1 Rotating Methods
With the rotating methods, kiln zones of 5 to 20 m length are lined at one time. Work is carried out only in
the bottom of the kiln, which is rotated intermittently as the work of lining proceeds. The bricks must be
fastened to the shell, e.g. by means of screw jacks or glues, as the ring of bricks is rotated into the
overhead position before being closed.
3.4.1.1 Screw-Jack Method (Fig. 10)
The lining is fastened by means of screw-jacks, usually of steel. The bricks are clamped in position by
means of wooden wedges. The screw-jacks should be furnished with pressure control facilities as e.g.
discsprings or load cells. The screw-jack method should not be employed for kilns more than 4 m in
diameter.
Fig. 10

Lining Procedure
1) Lining of slightly more than the bottom half of the kiln.
2) Fastening of the lining by means of screw-jacks and wooden wedges. The distance of the screw-
jacks is 0.5 - 1 m, depending on kiln diameter.
3) Turning the kiln by one quarter of circumference.
4) Lining of the third quarter.
5) Fastening according to point 2.
6) Turning of the kiln until the last section is on the bottom
7) Lining of the last section and keying with closure bricks.
Disadvantages of the Screw-Jack Method
¨ Kiln has to be turned during lining.
¨ With large kilns there is a danger of the screw-jacks slipping and the shell being distorted.
Average Lining Speed with the Screw-Jack Method
¨ 1 to 3.5 m2/h or 0.17 to 0.25 m2/man-hour
3.4.1.2 Gluing Method
With the gluing method the bricks are glued to the shell in an alternative manner, following a specific
pattern according e.g. Fig. 11.
The glues used are two component expoxy or polyurethane resins and for very low temperatures down to
minus 25°C there are synthetic resins based on polyesters or polyacrylates.
Fig. 11

The glues decompose after heating up above 200°C and lose their effect.
Lining procedure:
1) Cleaning of the shell down to the bright metal, if necessary with the aid of a grinder. The surface
must be free from dust or grease.
2) Gluing of the first lining sector of approx. 5 brick rows.
3) Installation of the next sector without glue etc. The number of bricks between the glued sectors
depend on brick weight, kiln diameter, glue properties, etc. Generally the brick and/or glue suppliers
specify the gluing pattern. As a rule approx. 20% of the bricks laid are glued. Glue consumption amounts
to approx. 0.4 to 0.8 kg/m2 of lined area or approx. 2 kg/m2 glued area.
Using the gluing method, the following points require careful consideration:
¨ The start to be glued must be fitted together before the adhesives start to set.
¨ The kiln should not be turned before the glue has developed sufficient strength.
¨ The glue must be carefully prepared according to the suppliers specifications, particularly with
respect to mixing ratio.
Disadvantages of the gluing method:
¨ Kiln has to be turned during lining.
¨ Tightening of the brick rings before keying is not possible, but only the bricks between two glued
sectors. Thus, lining mistakes are not easy to be localised.
¨ Safety risk if kiln is turned before glue has developed sufficient strength.
With the gluing method, average lining speeds of 3 to 7 m2/h or 0.4 to 1.2 m2/man-hour can be achieved.
3.4.2 Formwork Methods
The formwork methods can nowadays be considered as the standard lining method. They are safe in
operation and permit very accurate installation of the bricks.
With the curved formwork methods, first the lower half shell of the kiln is lined without any particular aid,
and then, the upper half ring by ring with the aid of the curved formwork. There is a wide choice of
equipment, form simple wooden forms to hydraulically operated mechanised forms.
3.4.2.1 Pogo Stick Method
The main equipment for the pogo stick method is:
¨ supporting construction
¨ working scaffold
¨ wooden curved drum
¨ spring loaded pogo sticks
The working scaffold is installed upon the lined bottom half of the kiln. Then the bricks of the upper half
section are installed and fixed by means of the pogo sticks. Generally two bricklayers and two helpers line
from each side towards the top position. After keying, the pogo sticks are removed and the formwork is
put into the new position.
3.4.2.2 Wooden Curved Form Method
The main equipment for the wooden curved form is:
¨ supporting framework
¨ working platform
¨ wooden curved formwork
¨ wooden wedges
The supporting framework is so constructed to permit a fork lift vehicle to move beneath the working
platform, lifting the brick pallets to the platform. It is installed on the lined bottom half of the kiln. The
bricks of the upper section are then laid on the wooden arch and pressed against the shell by means of
wooden wedges. Work is done from both sides towards the top by two men on each side. After keying of
a ring the curved formwork is moved into the next position, thereby, normally the wooden wedges are
loosening themselves.
3.4.2.3 Mechanised Curved Forms (Fig. 12)
Mechanised curved forms are mechanised variations of the simple arch forms. They basically consist of a
travelling working platform on a supporting framework. The curved form is installed on the working
platform and is equipped with mechanically or pneumatically operated pressure tools by which the bricks
are pressed against the shell. The supporting frame is so constructed as to allow the passage of a fork lift
vehicle.
The most used mechanised lining machines are the Mult-O-Ring, the DAT-Appartus and the Reintjes
lining machines. The Mult-O-Ring is equipped with two parallel rows of pressure tools which almost
doubles the speed of work.
The lining procedure is similar to that with simple curved forms, except that the fastening of the bricks is
mechanised.
With mechanised lining machines very high lining speeds of up to 6.5 m2/h or 0.5 m2/man-hour for
mortared linings and up to 9.5 m2/h or 0.75 m2/man-hour for dry lining can be achieved.
Fig. 12

3.4.3 Lining with Unshaped Materials

Unshaped refractory materials can be installed by casting, gunning or ramming. The installed masses are
fixed by metallic anchors which provide a good lining stability even in cases of local damages or spallings.
Usually V-type anchors, generally delivered by the refractory supplier, are welded in a cross pattern on
the shell. About 15 to 25 anchors per m2 are required, depending on lining thickness.
3.4.3.1 Castables
Castables or refractory concrete contain a hydraulic setting agent (high alumina cement). They are
installed generally in suitable formworks, e.g. by the rotocasting method (Fig. 13) and compacted by
vibrating. In order to avoid spalling due to quick water evaporation during heating up, it can be advisable
to perforate the surface by pushing steel wires of 5 mm thickness into the freshly placed castable at a
distance of approx. 5 cm. The steel wires are to be removed after hardening of the castables. During the
hardening period just after installation of the castable, its surface should be protected against too quick
evaporation of water by means of wet cloths or water spray.
Fig. 13

3.4.3.2 Guniting Materials

Guniting materials are supplied either with chemically or with hydraulically setting bonding agents. The
materials are placed pneumatically, passing through a hose to a mixing nozzle where water is introduced
(Fig. 14).
Fig. 14

Guniting should always be done by specialised personnel, since quality of the lining as well as amount of
losses in rebounding is highly depending on the ability of the operator. Depending on shape and position
of the working surface losses in rebound amount from 10 to 50%.
During the hardening period, the gunned surface must be protected against water evaporation similar to
castables. Also perforation of the surface by means of steel wires can be advisable.
3.4.3.3 Ramming Material
Ramming materials are plastic or granular materials, generally chemically, seldom hydraulically bonded.
Due to the low water content, rammed refractories generally have low porosity, high volume stability and
strength and good resistance against chemical attack.
The masses are placed by compacting layer by layer of approx. 25 to 50 mm thickness each by means of
a vibrating hammer fitted on a compressed airhammer. Appropriate and homogeneous compression is
necessary for good operating performance of rammed materials, therefore, highly qualified personnel is
required for placing.
Chemically bonded materials should be installed only shortly before heating up. Spare parts lined with
chemically bonded rammed materials must be tempered at approx. 250°C. After tempering, the lining
surface must be protected against humidity by bituminous paint, in order that they are not damaged by
absorbing water during storage.
3.5 Stripping and Removing of Old Lining
Stripping and removing of old lining and coating manually requires approx. the same time as the relining
of the same zone with new bricks. By use of mechanised stripping machines, this dangerous and time
consuming operation can be done much safer in considerably shorter time with less personnel.
Manually, 6 to 7 men remove approx. 3 to 5 m2/h of old lining. By means of mechanised stripping
machines, 2 to 3 men remove approx. 15 to 18 m2/h.
The dismantling unit consists generally of a drilling machine chassis with an all-round pivoting arm on the
end of which a compressed airhammer or drilling device is mounted (Fig. 15). For removal, small front-
end-loaders are used. The shovel is shaped to fit the curve of the kiln shell.
Fig. 15

The stripping procedure is generally done in the following steps:

1) If the coating is more than 25 cm thick it should be cleared away before the actual lining is to be
opened up.
2) In small kilns of < 4 m diameter the removed coating must be transported away before the
stripping of lining starts.
3) The process of opening up a slit should be done very careful in order not to damage the steel
shell.
4) When the lining has been opened up, actual stripping can commence. Due to the opening already
made in the lining, the stripping tool can more or less work parallel to the shell, thereby causing no
damage.
5) After the upper half of the kiln is stripped, the kiln is rotated so that the remaining brickwork fall
down.
6) The rubble can now be carted away by means of the front-end-loader.
4. LINING OF PREHEATERS, KILN HOODS AND COOLERS
4.1 Suspension and Grate Preheaters
The lining of preheaters should have good insulating properties, therefore, basically two or three layer
linings are installed. The working lining generally consists of abrasion resistant fireclay bricks with low
porosity. In case of alkali attack acid firebricks with SiO2-content above 65% are installed. Monolithic
linings are used particularly for complicated shapes where the installation of bricks is difficult and
expensive. For plane walls and gas ducts lining with bricks generally is easier and cheaper than lining
with unshaped materials.
A three layer insulating lining is generally composed of a backing of ceramic fibre board, an intermediate
layer of insulting firebricks and the dense working lining.
The bricks of the working lining are usually placed with chemically setting mortars in order to obtain gas
tight linings. For compensation of thermal expansion, expansion joints are installed horizontally and
vertically at distances of approx. 2 m, as well as in corners. The expansion joints have a width of approx.
15 to 20 mm and should be staggered and filled with ceramic fibre mats in order to avoid penetration of
dust (Fig. 16).
Fig. 16

For stabilising of the linings, anchor bricks and holding irons which are flexibly fitted with the steel shell
are used.
Roofs are either lined vaulted without use of anchors or flat with hanger bricks and holding irons.
Suspended roofs are often lined combined with hanger bricks and unshaped materials.
Pre-heater cyclones usually are lined with bricks and insulating back-lining, except the complicated
shaped parts as e.g. cyclone inlet and control openings, which generally are lined with unshaped
materials.
Meal chutes should be lined with highly abrasion resistant materials. Usually dense castables with
metallic anchors or prefabricated materials are installed.
4.2 Kiln Hood
For kilns equipped with planetary coolers, refractory lining in the hood section is limited to the hinged or
otherwise movable kiln door with openings for burners, measuring instruments and observation. The most
frequently used lining material is dense castable fireclay together with insulating backing.
The lining of the kiln hood of kilns equipped with grate or rotary coolers generally consists of a dense
working face and an insulating backing. The working lining must possess high thermal shock resistance
and abrasion resistance. In the upper region, where the lining is exposed to direct flame radiation,
alumina refractories with Al2O3-contents of up to 70% are used. The lower region is usually lined with
dense fireclay. As insulating linings conventional insulating bricks as well as insulating gunning mixes or
castables are used.
4.3 Clinker Coolers
(Fig. 17)
Approximately 15 to 35% of the length of planetary coolers is refractory lined. This lining should have a
high resistivity against thermal shock and abrasion. For the cam lining section dense, high alumina bricks
with high hardness and strength are used. The inlet bends are usually lined with dense high alumina, or
even pure Corundum castables. For simpler geometric shapes conventional bricks of suitable quality can
also be used.
In rotary coolers, about 50% of the tube length is lined with refractory materials. In the inlet zones, similar
as in planetary coolers, refractories of high strength fireclay are normally installed.
The refractory lining of grate coolers, with the exception of the areas immediately above the grate (where
direct contact with clinker occurs), is exposed to far a lower extent to thermal fluctuations and abrasion.
Normally a two or three layer refractory wall and roof is installed, consisting of an insulating rear and a
dense fireclay working lining.
The wear zones immediately above the grate consist of particularly abrasion resistant bricks or castables.
Fig. 17

5. OPERATIONAL ASPECTS REGARDING KILN LININGS

5.1 Heat-Up of Rotary Kiln Systems
The heating-up program, which mainly determines the amount of kiln temperature increase per unit of
time and the timing of the raw material feed, must consider a number of factors such as type of refractory
material, design of kiln system, mechanical systems etc.. The optimum heating program constitutes a
compromise which best satisfies the various requirements.
Optimum Heating Period:
¨ Refractory Materials
· Material quality
· Type of bond
· Installation method
¨ Riding Ring
· Riding ring clearance
· Riding ring dimensions
· Monitoring capabilities
¨ Exhaust Gas Flow
· Temperature profile in kiln
· Permissible temperatures
· Environmental regulations
5.1.1 Requirements from a Refractory Materials Viewpoint
The minimum heating-up duration from the refractory materials viewpoint is given by the type of special
bricks and castables installed. Generally, the heating-up specifications of the suppliers must be
respected. The minimum heating-up time is indicated by that material which requires the longest heating-
up period because the minimum heating-up time can generally be extended but not shortened without
causing damage. Exception: basic brick linings tend to hydrate when kept at temperatures between 100
and 450°C for several days.
Generally, the heating-up time is influenced by the following materials:
¨ Castable refractories with hydraulic bonding (Fig. 18)
· Approx. 24 hrs setting time at room temperature
· Approx. 24 hrs drying time at 100 to 200°C
· Heating-up at the rate of 25°C/h up to 500°C (expels crystal water)
· In subsequent heating-up cycles, operational temperatures may be reached more rapidly. The
speed of reaching operational temperatures might be limited by other factors as e.g. the tyre situation.
¨ Castable refractories with chemical bonding
· Approx. 8 to 16 hrs drying time at 100 to 200°C
· Heating-up at the rate of 20 to 30°C/h up to 700°C (until chemical bonding is completed)
· In subsequent heating-up cycles, operational temperatures may be reached more rapidly, as
explained above.
¨ Untempered, phosphate bonded bricks
· Heating-up to 700°C (termination of chemical bonding) at the rate of 30°C/h
· In subsequent heating-up cycles, operational temperature may be reached more rapidly, as
explained above
¨ Jointing materials (mortars)
· Theoretically the same rules would apply as for casting mixes; however, the situation is not critical
because of the limited joint thickness.
Fig. 18

Based on the above listed criteria, most suppliers of refractory materials recommend for the start-up of
new kilns, and after major overhauls with monolithic linings, a maximum heating-up rate of approx.
25°C/h, in the sintering zone, up to a sintering zone temperature of 900°C. (Whereby a previous drying of
heat exchanger systems and monolithically lined kiln zones is assumed.)
After reaching 900°C, heating -up can continue at the rate of 50°C/h up to working temperature.
After minor repairs and after shut-downs not caused by defective lining, refractory materials suppliers
generally recommend a heating-up rate in the sintering zone of 50°C/h.
An example of heating-up scheme is shown in Fig. 19.
Fig. 19

Faster heat-up times are sometimes reported. Some Japanese suppliers heat-up new kilns in 5 to 8 hours
without any damage to lining and kiln system. Such procedures can, however, not be recommended in
general, i.e. without considering the entire situation of lining quality and mechanical details of kiln design.
Since expansion joints are dimensioned to produce optimum lining stability under standard working
conditions, rapid heat build-up may cause spalling due to excessive mechanical stress of the brick
surface because the lining face heats-up more rapidly than the kiln shell.
5.1.2 Riding Rings (Floating Type)
From a riding ring point of view, the minimum heating-up period is determined by the time required to
stabilise the temperature difference between the kiln shell and riding rings. The shell will heat-up more
rapidly than the tyre. The critical temperature difference results in a constriction of the kiln shell, which will
cause permanent deformation if the yield strength of the kiln shell material is exceeded. This in turn will
cause excessive play in the riding ring after the normal working temperature is regained, as well as
increased ovality of the kiln shell, a factor which may contribute to excessive refractory lining wear.
As a general rule, the riding ring creep, i.e. the relative motion between riding ring and kiln shell should be
monitored at regular intervals or, even better continuously, at least during the heat-up cycle. Various
measures may be taken to protect the riding ring section from overheating.
With imminent danger of seizure, the heating-up process should be slowed down or interrupted until a
measurable amount of relative movement is again present. For this reason, the tyre creep may become
the limiting factor in determining the heating-up rate.
5.1.3 Exhaust Gas Control
Temperature Gradient in Kiln System
Already during the heating-up process a temperature gradient is sought which at the start of the raw meal
feeding to the kiln is equivalent or similar to the temperature gradient prevailing under normal operating
conditions. This condition can be approximately reached under ideal heat-up conditions and with correct
flame patterns, because in a dynamic heating process, the cold kiln system is heated along the flow
direction of the exit gas while the exit gases are simultaneously cooled. With optimum fuel addition, this
procedure is ideally continued with material feed by preheating the raw meal in the counterflow. In
practice, however, such a smooth transition is not possible because the amount of material fed can, for
mechanical reasons, not be reduced to indefinitely small amounts and because the heat transfer to the
meal is governed by endothermic and exothermic reactions.
For correct temperature gradients, fuel combustion at lowest possible amount of excess air is a necessity.
In this manner, the temperature gradient between gas and lining and the dwell time of the gases within
the kiln system will result in optimum absorption of the available heat by the refractory lining.
5.1.4 Shut-down of Kiln Systems
The procedure for shutting down a kiln depends mainly on whether it is a planned shut-down or an
emergency stop due to a breakdown.
To protect the lining, the cooling rate should, if possible, not exceed the maximum permissible heating
rate, i.e. approx. 50°C/h measured in the sintering zone. Excessively rapid cooling may cause damage to
the refractory lining due to thermal shock.
After stopping raw meal and fuel feed, the exhaust gas damper is closed and the exhaust gas fan is
stopped. Closing the exhaust gas path prevents gas circulation within the kiln and the temperature profile
is more or less maintained. The cooling rate of 50°C/h will initially be reached by radiation alone. Only
after a dull red heat is reached in the sintering zone cooling should continue with a light draft until the end
of the cooling phase is reached.
5.2 Kiln Shell Deformation
The refractory life and coating stability in the area of kiln tyres is significantly influenced by kiln
deformation. As a result of changes in the kiln shell radius, there is a movement between the bricks which
results in local surface pressure, leading to rapid wear and possibly total lining collapse.
The measurement of kiln shell deformation can be made during kiln operation with the aid of the Holcim
Shell-Test Gauge.
The measuring principle is illustrated in Fig. 20.
Fig. 20

The yoke (A) of the Shell-test gauge covers a circular section with a chord of length of 1 m and height h.
During kiln rotation the chord height h changes with the continuously changing curvature radius r of the
kiln shell.
This change is transferred via a plunger (D) and recorder (C) to produce a polar diagram (shell-test
diagram).
The closed line drawn on the diagram represents a geometrically similar figure to the deformed kiln shell
cross section.
The subsequent calculation is based on determining the difference between the longest and the shortest
radius of the shell-test diagram after which the ovality is calculated according to the method of G.
Rosenblad.
The mechanical condition of kiln shell and kiln tyres with respect to allowable ovality should be regularly
checked.
For kiln with loose tyre design, an indication on the mechanical condition of the tyre section can be gained
by continuous measurement of the difference in rotational speed of the kiln tyre and kiln shell. This
method permits continuous indication/recording in the control room (Fig. 21).
Fig. 21

5.3 Fluctuating Process Parameters

Unstable burning conditions of cement kilns belong still to the most frequent reasons of refractory lining
failures. All types of used sintering zone refractories show structural changes between hot and cold face,
infiltrated circulating elements of faded brick sections by overheating, do not immediately result in
refractory failures. However, if kiln operating conditions change, followed by changed thermal profile or
changed coating conditions, the bricks break off in large lumps since, due to its altered structure, their
mechanical characteristics have deteriorated.
Unstable burning conditions can be caused by
¨ Unstable kiln feed due to insufficient material flow control
¨ Fluctuating kiln feed composition due to insufficient homogenising of raw material
¨ Fluctuating flame length due to insufficient fuel flow control or fluctuating fuel quality
¨ Frequent kiln shut-down due to maintenance problems of auxiliary equipment, power failures or
refractory failures.
Without going into details it is evident, that these points need to be carefully watched and, if required,
improved, in order to establish the conditions which make the improvements in the field of refractory lining
selection, installation and operation effective.
6. CONCLUSIONS
Improvement of refractory lining lifetime is not a matter of one single criterion. There exist several fields of
influence which often are jointly responsible for the results obtained.
The following list contains suggestions concerning the most important and general consideration for
achieving improvement in lining life.
Since the major refractory problems occur in the sintering and transition zone, most of the considerations
will concentrate on these kiln areas.
Most important factors:
1) Optimisation of kiln feed (qualitatively and quantitatively)
* by selective quarrying procedures
* by selection of optimum raw material composition
* by appropriate homogenising of raw materials
* by improvement of kiln feeding equipment
2) Optimisation of flame shape and length
* by evaluation of the influence of adjustable flames
* by the most constant burning possible with the optimally established flame shape
3) Improvement of mechanical condition of kiln shell in the tyre area
* by adjustment to minimum possible tyre clearance
* by continuously monitoring tyre creep
* by cooling of kiln tyre areas when danger of seizure exists
4) Optimisation of brick quality in the sintering zone
* by methodical investigations (trials) with alternative brick qualities
5) Thermal load reduction
* by introduction of secondary firing (if applicable)
6) Reduction of the number of kiln shut-downs
* by improving the mechanical and electrical reliability of the system
* by installation of emergency power supply
7) Optimisation of the bricking process
* by refining existing or selecting better methods
* by improvement of working conditions or methods
* by introducing clear instructions, control (bonus systems)
* by optimised bricking policy
8) Prevention of rapid heating or cooling
* by observing the important factors on kiln light-up
* by prevention of rapid cooling on shut-down
This list is not claimed to be complete and some of the suggestions might not be realisable for a specific
case on hand. As a check-list, however, it allows the identification of points of weakness and the
establishment of further procedures in order to be able to define the actual problem and finally to solve it
as effectively as possible.
7. TEST QUESTIONS
1) Please make a sketch of the various zones of a suspension pre-heater-, Lepol -and a long wet
kiln and indicate what type of refractories are used in each zone.
2) Explain the different methods you know of refractory brick installation in a rotary kiln (sketches).
3) Where are the unshaped refractories mainly used in cement kiln system?
4) What are the main features of brick joints (jointing materials) for rotary kiln linings in the case of
alumina and basic bricks, considering dry and mortar lining?
5) Establishment of a heating-up program for cement kilns is mainly based on considerations
regarding three main factors. What are these considerations?

C04 - Firing Systems

Firing Systems: Handling and Preparation of Noble Fuels

Dirk Pauling
TPT 01/21062/E
(Replaces report no. PT 98/14353/E)
1. INTRODUCTION
2. COAL FIRING SYSTEMS
2.1 Classification of Coal Firing Systems
2.2 Quality of Coal Preparation
2.3 Pulverised Coal Dosing
2.3.1 Storage Silo for Pulverised Coal
2.3.2 Feed Bins for Pulverised Coal
2.3.3 Accuracy of Weighing and Dosing for Pulverised Coal
2.3.4 Recommended Pulverised Coal Dosing Systems
2.4 Pneumatic Transport of Pulverised Coal to the Burner
3. OIL FIRING SYSTEMS
3.1 Unloading unit: Transfer to the storage tanks
3.2 Fuel Oil Storage
3.3 Fuel Oil Preparation Unit
3.4 Fuel Oil Burner Platform Valve Train
3.5 Quality of Fuel Oil Preparation
3.6 Control Loops in the Fuel Oil Circuit
4. NATURAL GAS FIRING SYSTEMS
4.1 Natural Gas Preparation
4.2 Safety Precautions
4.2.1 Flexible Hoses Bursting
4.2.2 Leak Tests
4.2.3 Explosions in the Kiln
1. INTRODUCTION
Noble fuels are coal (including petcoke), fuel oil and natural gas. Handling and preparation of those fuels
has to fulfil certain requirements in order to produce similar combustion conditions of these different fuels
and avoid incomplete combustion (e.g. CO formation and local reducing conditions).
For coal firing the main types of firing systems are described (direct, semi-direct and indirect firing). For
pulverised coal handling the important design criteria are outlined. The required coal dust preparation
quality (fineness) for a good combustion in the cement kiln is described.
For fuel oil firing the most commonly used preparation and pumping system is described. The required
fuel oil preparation quality (pressure, viscosity and temperature) is given.
For natural gas firing the preparation and safety precautions are described.
Burners, fuel injection characteristics and flames are subject of a separate paper (HMC/TPT report no.
TPT 01/21063/E; "Burners and Flames").
2. COAL FIRING SYSTEMS
2.1 Classification of Coal Firing Systems
With reference to gas and material flow, the different coal firing systems can be classified into four main
groups, which in total sum up to six individual systems:
¨ Direct firing systems without fine coal storage
¨ Semi-direct firing without fine coal storage
¨ Semi-indirect with storage of fine coal
¨ Indirect firing with storage of fine coal
Figure 1: Classification of coal firing systems

System 1 - Direct firing

Represents the most simple case. The coal is ground in the mill, dried and blown into the kiln together
with the drying gases.
System 2 - Direct firing
Basically describes the same solution with the exception of the mill working under positive pressure. This
solution is generally applied to protect the fan when processing abrasive coal.
System 3 - Direct firing
In system 3, the fan is protected by separating the pulverised coal in a cyclone and feeding it after the fan
into the primary air stream.
System 3a - Direct firing with recirculation
Same as system 3, but with recirculating drying air. This arrangement allows reduced primary air ratios.
System 4 - Semi-direct firing
Has little technical significance since the solution with intermediate storage of coal would generally be
given preference.
System 5a - Semi-indirect firing
With system 5a, the kiln can be operated independently of short mill shut downs since the pulverised coal
is stored in an intermediary storage bin. The exhaust air from the mill enters the kiln as primary air.
System 5b - Semi-indirect firing with recirculation
Same as system 5a, but with recirculating drying air. This arrangement allows reduced primary air ratios.
System 6 - Indirect firing
In system 6, the grinding installation is completely separated from the kiln. The pulverised coal is stored in
an intermediary storage bin and the exhaust air from the mill is released through a filter into the
atmosphere. By this way, the kiln operation is completely independent from the combined drying and
grinding operation.
Major Advantages / Disadvantages of the Different Coal Firing Systems:

Direct firing Semi-indirect firing Indirect firing

Conventional modified Conventional Modified
System 1 and 2 System 3a System 5a System 5b System 6
Advantages · Simple design
· Low risk of explosions
· Simple extinction of fire in the in the grinding system by stopping coal feed. No spread of fire into
silos · Lower primary air ratios and thus lower heat consumption compared to conventional
· Independent primary air fan · No exhaust gas, therefore no filter required, thus lower
risk of explosions than with indirect firing
· Short mill shut down not = kiln shutdown
· Only one mill required for several kilns
· Easy sampling for fineness control · Lower primary air ratios and thus lower heat
consumption compared to conventional
· Independent primary air fan
· Simple flame control
· Low primary air ratio
· Water vapour from coal drying is not introduced into the kiln
· Short mill shut down not = kiln shutdown
· Only one mill required for several kilns
· Easy sampling for fineness control
Disadvantages · Combined operation with the kiln, therefore often not optimal operating
conditions.
· Mill shutdown = kiln shut-down
· Number of kilns = number of mills thus reducing the advantage of lower investment cost if several
kilns are installed
· High primary air ratio up to 30%
· Slow control loops, long dead time
· Sampling for fineness control difficult · More complex installation requiring additionally:
primary air fan, longer ducting · More complex installation requiring additionally:
cyclones , pulverised coal silos, pulverised coal feeders, measuring and control system
· High primary air ratio up to 30%, during start up and shut down of grinding plant disturbed kiln
operation
· Investment cost higher than with a direct firing system (valid for one kiln only)
· Risk of self-ignition of the pulverised coal in the storage silo · More complex
installation requiring additionally: primary air fan, longer ducting · More complex installation
requiring additionally dedusting filter
· Investment cost higher than with a direct firing (valid for one kiln only)
· More vulnerable to fires and explosions in gas ducts and filter
· Risk of self-ignition of the pulverised coal in storage silo

Impact of Firing System on Kiln Operation:

· Direct firing systems tend to enhance coal fluctuations and therefore disturb combustion.
· If the mill vent air enters the kiln as primary air as it is the case with the direct- and semi-direct
firing, the primary air ratio is higher than required for optimum combustion. At a given excess air factor,
the primary air ratio has a direct influence on the heat recuperation efficiency of the cooler and finally on
the overall kiln heat consumption. If the heat consumption can be reduced, the exhaust gas quantity is
also reduced, which offers the potential for a capacity increase.
· Another important advantage of a lower exhaust gas quantity is a reduced gas velocities in the
kiln. This has the benefit of lower dust generation for wet kiln systems.
· With a direct firing system the water vapour from coal drying enters the kiln with the primary air.
The water vapour increases the exhaust gas quantity and reduces the kiln capacity accordingly.
· At the same time, the flame stability may decrease as a result of dilution of the primary air.
· The flame shape is strongly influenced by the type of firing system. An indirect system will not
only support a more stable flame, but also enable a shorter flame. This results in smaller and more evenly
distributed alite crystals with a higher reactivity. Benefits are a better quality of the clinker and a lower
energy demand for the cement grinding.
Conclusion on the different firing systems:
· For new projects direct firing will not be selected anymore because of the above mentioned
disadvantages. Today indirect firing systems are "State of Technology". Conversion projects from direct to
indirect firing of existing installations can not always be financially justified on the basis of reduced
thermal energy consumption. In countries with low coal costs, pay back times of several years must be
expected. However the positive effects on kiln operation and product quality can make a conversion
project interesting.
2.2 Quality of Coal Preparation
Before the coal is fired, it has to be prepared according to the required fineness and moisture content.
Normal coal is dried to 0.5 - 1.5 % residual moisture. Whereas high volatile coal (lignite) can only be dried
to a residual moisture of 6 - 8%. Moisture in the coal means loss of calorific value, as the water has to be
evaporated and heated up in the kiln. Coal drying is done simultaneously with the grinding.
Inadequate coal grinding (fineness) can result in both burn-out problems (CO formation) and the presence
of fuel in the material bed (local reducing conditions leading to an increased volatility of sulphur).
The combustion time of coal depends on the content of volatile elements.
Figure 2 shows the principal requirements for coal fineness in function of the volatile content.
Figure 2: Grinding fineness of coal in function of volatile content

The aim is to comply with the following simple rule as an upper limit:
· Residue 90 mm sieve for coal £ ½ (% volatile components)
· Residue 200 mm sieve for coal £ 2%
For petcoke the above mentioned rule has to be tightened:
· Residue 90 mm sieve for petrol coke £ 5 %
· Residue 200 mm sieve for petrol coke £ 1 %
Anthracite has to be ground even finer than petcoke.
The upper limit for the fineness of mixtures from coal and petcoke can be calculated according to the
following example:
Example: 60% coal with 20% volatile and 40% petcoke
R90mm £ 0.6 * 0.5 * 20% + 0.4 * 5% £ 8%
R200mm £ 1%
It has to be pointed out, that both values, the residues on 90 mm and on 200 mm are important. The 90
mm values influence flame length and CO formation. Excess residue on the 200mm sieve create reducing
conditions on the material bed and thus increased volatilisation of sulphur.
2.3 Pulverised Coal Dosing
For a coal firing system a careful design of the entire feed system (discharge from storage silo, weighing
and dosing as well as transport to the burner) is of utmost importance.
Figure 3: Pulverised coal dosing

2.3.1 Storage Silo for Pulverised Coal

Mass-flow type silo with mechanical or pneumatic activation of the outlet(s).
The mass-flow design for pulverised coal silos includes discharge hoppers in stainless steel with a hopper
half angle less than 15° and a minimum outlet diameter of 500 mm. Since the silo outlet cone is crucial for
the dosing, the design and supply should be done by the dosing system supplier.
The silo should not be installed in front of the kiln to prevent exposure to heat radiation.
2.3.2 Feed Bins for Pulverised Coal
The storage silo should not be abused for feeding purposes because the poor feed rate control out of a
big storage silo (>100 t). The feeding should be done out of a small feed bin between the silo and the
dosing equipment. If the feed bin is not installed due to cost reasons, the height for a later addition should
always be foreseen.
Design recommendations for the feed bin:
¨ Capacity of the feed bin sufficient for at least 15 minutes but not more than 60 minutes of kiln or
precalciner operation
¨ Mechanical or pneumatic activation of the bin outlet
¨ Load cells for an in-situ loss-in-weight calibration

2.3.3 Accuracy of Weighing and Dosing for Pulverised Coal

Proper weighing and dosing requires a uniform coal dust supply (feed bin discharge; see above). It is
necessary to distinguish between accuracy of weighing and short term variations.
The dosing system should meet the following requirements:
¨ Weighing accuracy: +/- 2% is normally accepted.
¨ Short term variations (referring to 10 sec. measurements): < +/- 1% (short term variations are
responsible for CO peaks)
¨ Long term variations (approx. 10 min. to 1 hour): < +/- 0.5%
¨ Sensibility: < +/- 0.5%
(Example: A dosing system with a maximum capacity of 5 t/h has to be capable to handle set point
changes of +/- 25 kg/h).
¨ Adjustment range: 1:20 (of the maximum capacity).
A good indicator for the accuracy of the dosing is the oxygen level at kiln inlet. Poor dosing of coal dust
leads to big fluctuation of the oxygen concentration.
2.3.4 Recommended Pulverised Coal Dosing Systems
The following two systems can be recommended:
¨ Pfister rotor feed scale (figure 4)
¨ Schenk coriolis scale (figure 5)
Only second choice is:
¨ POLDOS (weight controlled airlift from Polysius)
Not recommended anymore is:
¨ Loss-in-weight system (e.g. Schenk Simplex; complex set-up requiring skilled maintenance)
Figure 4: Pfister rotor feed scale

Figure 5: Schenk coriolis type feed scale

2.4 Pneumatic Transport of Pulverised Coal to the Burner

The highest accuracy of the dosing and feeding system is useless if the pneumatic transport to the burner
is not designed correctly.
Criteria for pneumatic transport of pulverised coal to the burner:
¨ Transport velocity: 28 – 35 m/s; optimum > 32 m/s
The pneumatic transport velocity is one of the most critical items for regular coal flow to avoid pulsation
caused by pocket formation in the line.
¨ Maximum length < 80 m
For length > 80 m staged diameter of the transport pipe.
Length > 100 m must be avoided.
¨ Only horizontal and vertical transport lines
(no inclining or declining sections)
¨ Elbow design by diversion pots (figure 6):
- Maximum 5 pots
- No pot at the first turn after the scale / dosing
Long curves lead to segregation of the coal dust through centrifugal forces. The diversion pots have
proven to be a good solution because of:
1. Low wear
2. Low pressure drop
3. Re-mixing of coal dust with the transport air at every turn
¨ The fuel load carried by the air is not a critical value. Normal values are 3 - 7 kgCoal/m3Air. For
burning of low volatile fuels such as petcoke, low values are preferred for the combustion.
To assess the performance of the coal dust transport line, the pressure fluctuations in the transport line
near the burner can be measured. Criteria: < +/- 5 mbar.
Figure 6: Diverting pot for pulverised coal transport (units: [mm])

3. OIL FIRING SYSTEMS

The handling of fuel oil in a cement plant can be subdivided into the following steps:
1) Unloading unit: Transfer to the storage tanks (chapter 0)
2) Tank farm for storage (chapter 3.2)
3) Preparation unit (chapter 3.3)
4) Burner platform valve train (chapter 3.4)
5) Atomisation for combustion (HMC/TPT report no. TPT 01/21063/E "Burners and Flames")
Figure 7: Fuel oil handling

3.1 Unloading unit: Transfer to the storage tanks

For easy handling (pumping), normal heavy oil must have a temperature of about 50 to 60°C.
If the oil is delivered by truck, the cool down of the oil during transport is usually small because of the
short transportation time. In this case the discharge can be done immediately. If the cool down is too high
the temperature of the oil must be increased before discharge by heating devices (e.g. unloading heating
coil).
In case of delivery by train, the wagons are usually equipped with heating coils at the bottom to increase
the temperature of the oil for unloading if necessary. The heating up is usually done with steam.
Through the discharge filters (for pump protection) the fuel oil is then pumped to the storage tank.
3.2 Fuel Oil Storage
Typical the storage capacities allows a kiln operation of 2 to 10 weeks. The tanks are usually designed as
welded steel constructions. Due to the fuel oil forming an insulating layer on the walls, any particular
insulation efforts are unnecessary.
In the bottom of the tank a heating coil is used to maintain the temperature of the oil above a certain limit
to enable new deliveries to be pumped into the tank.
The discharge point of the tank is equipped with a suction heater to preheat the oil to a certain
temperature (usually 50-60°C corresponding to approx. 380 cSt viscosity) to permit it to flow to the
preparation unit without excessive pressure loss.
The only local heating of the fuel oil also minimises the rate of deposit forming reactions in the tank, which
doubles with each 10°C increase in oil temperature.
3.3 Fuel Oil Preparation Unit
In the preparation unit the fuel oil is treated in the following steps:
¨ Suction filter for pump protection
¨ Pumping and pressure increase to atomisation pressure (e.g. 40 bar)
¨ Heating to reach the required viscosity for atomisation (e.g. 130°C)
¨ Fine filtering to protect the following equipment
Due to the foreign matter that all residual oils contain and the high rate of deposits that form at elevated
temperatures (resulting in frequent maintenance) all equipment of the preparation unit is usually
duplicated and installed in parallel.
The suction filters are always required for pump protection. The installation of two filters in parallel allows
cleaning without interrupting the flow. The filters can be equipped with differential pressure monitors to
indicate the need for cleaning.
The pump station usually consists of two parallel pumps to allow maintenance on one of the pumps
without interrupting the flow. The pumps should be designed with enough capacity reserve so that the
maximum required oil quantity can still be pumped even after a long period of operation with associated
wear. The pumps are usually equipped with circulating flow pressure regulators.
In the fuel oil preheater the heavy oil is heated to reach the required viscosity for atomisation (chapter
3.4). Thermal oil is the preferred heating medium today. Steam or electrical heating is used less
frequently. Available waste heat can also (or additionally) be used for preheating (e.g. by heat exchangers
using cooler exhaust air).
The essential advantages of the thermal oil as a heat transfer medium is:
¨ Operation in a constantly liquid phase (compared to steam)
¨ Low pressures even at operating temperatures of 250 to 300°C
¨ No freezing problems
¨ Low flammability
Thermal oils are subjected to ageing. Their quality has therefore to be checked in regular intervals of
about one year. About every five years replacement by a new charge is required.
Before leaving the preparation unit the fuel oil has to pass a fine filter (typical mesh size 0.2 mm) to
protect the following equipment (burner platform valve train and atomiser).
3.4 Fuel Oil Burner Platform Valve Train
The burner platform valve train mainly consists of the following instruments:
¨ Quick shut off valves
¨ Pressure control valves for primary and secondary oil flow
¨ Flow rate measurements for primary and secondary oil flow
¨ At the burner platform valve train, the fuel oil flow is usually divided the into a primary- and a
secondary oil feed going to the burner for control of the atomisation.
¨ An additional feature which is frequently installed is the return flow start up possibility. By using
the secondary oil for reverse flow, a low oil flow into the kiln can be achieved without dropping the
pressure too low. The return flow is only used for start up of the kiln.
Figure 8: Fuel oil burner platform valve train

3.5 Quality of Fuel Oil Preparation

For optimum atomisation, heavy oil must be heated up to ensure that the droplet size needed for good
combustion can be achieved:
Required viscosity for optimum atomisation: 12 - 15 cSt
For a typical heavy oil (type “S” or ASTM #6) this corresponds to a temperature of approx. 130°C. High
viscosity fuel oil require a temperature of up to 200°C of even higher.
In today's heavy oil market, particularly in the South American OPEC countries, heavy oil is offered which
has a significantly higher viscosity than the limit specified by DIN 51 603. It is therefore essential to keep
track of the relationship viscosity - temperature and adjust the oil temperature accordingly.
Figure 9 shows the cinematic viscosity of different fuel oil types in function of the temperature. The upper
limits for atomisation and pumping are indicated.
Figure 10 shows a conversion table for the different viscosity units.
Furthermore it is important to keep the oil temperature constant within a very narrow range to have a
stable flame.
Figure 9: Cinematic viscosity of current fuel oils

Figure 10: Conversion of different viscosity units

3.6 Control of Fuel Oil Flow Rate

Between storage tank and the burner, there are usually the following control loops installed:
¨ Constant oil temperature at the storage tank suction point
¨ Constant oil temperature after the preheater
¨ Constant oil pressure after the pump (supply pressure)
¨ Control of pressure and consequently flow rate with the primary and secondary regulator valves
(at burner platform valve train)
Whenever a kiln stop occurs, the oil lance with the atomiser head has to be cleaned automatically by
steam or compressed air in order to avoid overheating and coking of the oil inside the atomiser.
Additionally the oil lance should be retracted for protection of the atomiser.
4. NATURAL GAS FIRING SYSTEMS
The handling of gas in a cement plant can be subdivided into the following steps:
1) Transfer station (chapter 0)
2) Burner valve train (chapter 4.2)
Figure 11: Handling and preparation of natural gas in the cement plant

4.1 Gas Transfer Station

In the gas transfer station the following equipment is installed usually:
¨ Filtering station:
For the separation of solid and liquid impurities in the gas.
¨ Odorising equipment:
If not already done by the gas supplier of the gas, an odorising unit can be installed to detect leaks more
easily.
¨ Pressure reduction and preheating:
The gas distribution by means of pipelines is usually done at a pressures of 10 to 80 bar. At the consumer
site the gas pressure must be reduced to the required operational pressure (e.g. 3 - 10 bar).
The gas must be heated before pressure reduction to such an extent that the following temperature drop
due to expansion will not cause valve internal and external ice formation (Joule - Thompson effect: -0.3 to
-0.5°C/bar expansion). The temperature after expansion should be +5°C to +15°C. Heating is usually
done with a gas fired warm water boiler. Thermal oil, steam or electricity can also be used for heating.
¨ Safety shut-off valves:
To protect the plant network against excessive high pressure.
¨ Flow rate measuring:
To record the gas quantity supplied to the plant for billing the gas deliveries.
¨ Calorimeter:
The heat value of the natural gas can be measured continuously by means of an on-line calorimeter if the
calorific value fluctuates. This is often worthwhile because in some cases the heat value might vary in
range of ±300 kJ/Nm3 from day to day.
The filtering, preheating and pressure control station are usually installed double (in parallel) to allow
maintenance of the equipment during operation.
4.2 Gas Burner Valve Train
The valve train usually consists of the following equipment:
¨ Pressure controller:
Setting and keeping constant of the required gas pressure because the flow to the burner must be
operated at a defined, constant inlet pressure.
¨ Safety shut off valves:
For protection against excessive high pressure.
¨ Flow rate control valves:
To adjust the required gas flow rate.
¨ Flow rate measurement:
For measuring the gas consumption.
¨ Splitting of the gas flow:
In cases where the burner uses two separate gas flows for flame shaping (e.g. axial and radial gas) the
flow is divided and controlled accordingly.
¨ Quick shut off valves:
In the event of an emergency stop of the kiln, the quick safety shut off valve (usually two in series) are
actuated to stop any further flow of gas at once.
Figure 12: Burner valve train for gas

4.3 Safety Precautions for Gas Firiung

4.3.1 Flexible Hoses Bursting
Since the risk of the flexible gas hoses between the gas supply line and the burner bursting, pressure
monitors for the maximum and minimum pressure should be installed right before the flexible hoses.
4.3.2 Leak Tests
To check the gas pipes and fittings for leakage, the following methods are used:
¨ Normally a leak can be detected by the smell of the gas (odoriser)
¨ When machines are switched off, the hissing sound of the escaping gas can be heard
¨ A further possibility is to install gas detectors in critical places such as the gas preparation station
or the burner tunnel.
¨ A somewhat riskier method is to run a naked flame along the gas pipe. This results in a flaming
torch being produced at the leak, which cannot be overlooked. There is no risk of this flame striking back
into the supply pipe (quenching distance, lack of oxygen), but escaped gas could cause an explosion.
When constructing buildings which contain gas pipes, it is essential to allow for sufficient ventilation.
4.3.3 Explosions in the Kiln
The most important requirement is that the fuel should not be allowed to enter the kiln unintentionally or at
an uncontrolled rate, as this is essential to prevent explosions occurring in the kiln itself or in the systems
following (preheater tower, EP, ..).
This means that the fuel input has to be stopped immediately in the event of the flame going out.
The extinction of the flame in a hot kiln has not been observed so far, even during material rushes.
During the start up of the cold kiln, lifting off and extinction of the flame can occur. For example caused by
partly blocked burner outlets which lead to increased injection speed of the gas. A too high injection
velocity of the gas can blown out the flame in a cold kiln.
Therefore careful observation of the flame during the whole start up period is of utmost importance. In the
case of the flame going out, the gas flow has to be cut off immediately to prevent explosions.
References:
1) "Firing Systems"
VA 82/4898/E
2) "Flames and Burners"
VA 93/4056/E
3) "State of Technology of Rotary Kiln Burners"
Fritz Schneider, PT 96/14078/E
4) "Proportioning of Bulk Materials"
Franz Bucher, PT 96/14071/E
5) "A Review of Coal Firing Systems and their Influence on Heat Consumption,
Production and Kiln Operation"
Hansjörg Meier, PT 96/14210/E
6) Pillard Documentation “Rotary Kiln burners”

Safe Handling of Coal and other Combustible dusts

F. Schneider
(Original title: Basic safety theory of solid fuel preparation)
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR HANDLING PULVERIZED FUELS
2.1 Development of Dust Explosions and Fires
2.2 Possible Protective Measures against Dust Explosions and Fires
3. APPLICATION OF PROTECTIVE MEASURES IN THE INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT
3.1 Preventive Safety Measures
3.2 Explosion Protection Techniques
4. LITERATURE
4.1 Approximate Values for Explosion Limits and Ignition Temperatures

SUMMARY
Dust explosions can only occur when - besides certain marginal conditions - the following factors
simultaneously are present:
¨ Stirred-up, combustible dust
¨ Oxygen
¨ Source of ignition
A basic distinction is made between active explosion protection techniques (prevention of the occurrence
of explosions) and design related explosion protection (reduction of the effects of explosions).
In practice, the following measures are applied:
1) Preventive Measures:
Their aim is:
* to exclude possible ignition sources within the installation
* to prevent the building up of coal dust deposits, wherever possible
* to detect the source of a fire as soon as possible
* to extinguish the fire with a minimum of danger
2) Explosion Protection Measures:
* Either active protective measures involving inert gas operation. This is the case when the oxygen
concentration within the pulverizing plant is kept below the critical limit - for solid fuels dust, as a rule, less
than 12 to 14% - as long as combustible dust is present in the system.
* Or, alternatively, design related protective measures based on the use of explosion resistant
construction in accordance with VDI Guidelines No. 3673.
1. INTRODUCTION
The operational safety of solid fuel plants is an important decision factor when the choice of the
preparation system is being considered. For this reason, the three most important basic systems will be
briefly reviewed here, differentiated according to their different methods of handling gas and coal dust
(Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Firing Systems

a) Direct firing
In this system, the combustible dust is conveyed into the kiln together with the exhaust gases resulting
from the drying-cum-grinding operation. This arrangement represents the simplest design and is easily
controllable from the safety point of view. However, there are also considerable disadvantages involved
with the use of this system in clinker manufacture with increasing ballast content of the fuel.
b) Semi-direct firing
In this system the combustible dust is separated in an intermediate silo, while the mill exhausts, possibly
as recirculated air, are conveyed to the cement kiln as the primary air supply. This results in the technical
disadvantages of direct firing being reduced to a certain extent - at the expense of a somewhat more
complex installation - but all drying gases are still conveyed to the kiln.
c) Indirect firing
This solution is surely the best possible version when the operation of a rotary kiln is being considered.
The pulverized fuel can be conveyed to the firing system from the silo independently from the pulverizing
plant operation. The firing system can be operated with a primary air ratio designed for optimal flame
generation, as the mill exhaust gases are filtered. Against this we have increased risks with respect to
safety due to the operation of the filters and silos and higher control technique requirements.
Further discussion of the decision criteria for the selection of an optimal preparation system is outside the
scope of this lecture. However, it is certain that when factors such as
¨ the growing size of installation
¨ installations with several firing systems
¨ the use of fuels rich in ballast
¨ the use of fuels of widely differing quality characteristics
are considered, the decision will be influenced in favor of the indirect firing system which needs far more
advanced and sophisticated safety techniques than the simpler direct firing system does.
For this reason the damage prevention possibilities discussed below refer basically to the indirect firing
system and must be adjusted accordingly if they are applied to other systems.
2. BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR HANDLING PULVERIZED FUELS
2.1 Development of Dust Explosions and Fires
In order to effectively ensure the safety of a solid fuel preparation plant, we must first be aware of the
sequence of the possible fuel reactions.
Dust explosions can only occur if the following three conditions are simultaneously fulfilled (Fig. 2).
a) Stirred-up, combustible dust present in explosive concentration.
b) Air or oxygen above the critical concentration, for coal dust as a rule, above 14%, for lignite
above 12%.
c) An ignition source possessing energy above the minimal ignition energy (depending upon the
type of dust).
Fig. 2 Preliminary Conditions for an Explosion

After the ignition of an optimally explosive mixture in an enclosed space, the pressure increases more or
less rapidly until it reaches the maximal explosion pressure Pmax, and then decreases more or less
slowly to the original pressure, depending on the aerodynamic conditions (Fig. 3). While the maximum
explosion pressure is almost independent of the container’s form and size, and in case of coal and lignite
dusts, amounts to approximately seven to nine times the initial pressure the maximum rate of pressure
rise - which is a measure of the explosion violence - is dependent on the container volume in accordance
with the cubic law:

Kst is a material coefficient that depends on the type of dust, the degree of turbulence of the dust/air
mixture at the moment of ignition, the grain size distribution, and the type of ignition source. The method
for determining KSt is given in the VDI Guidelines No. 3673.
Fig. 3 Pressure Development of an Explosion Over Time

The degree of explosion violence of dusts is subdivided in industrial praxis into explosion classes,
whereby the explosion class and KSt are related in the following manner:
Table 1

Dust Explosion Class KSt (bar . m . s-1)

St0 0
St1 > 0 to 200
St2 > 200 to 300
St3 > 300

All types of mineral coals as well as the majority of lignites belong to explosions class St1.
Table 2 illustrates arbitrarily selected comparative values for KSt characterizing different types of dust.
Table 2

Dust Type KSt (bar . m . s-1)

Hard coal 85
Lignite 150
Organic pigments 300
Aluminium 550

This comparison shows, that hard coal dust develops a less violent explosion than aluminium dust.
It must be noted, that the value „KSt“ does not allow any conclusion as regards the risk involved with that
particular dust. The main significance of KSt is for the dimensioning of design related protective
measures.
Smoldering fires, characterized by slowly smoldering combustion, can occur wherever combustible dust is
stored for a longer period of time, whereby the ignition sources can be spontaneous combustion, initiated
by external heat sources, mechanical sparks, or electrical sparks and arcs. Combustion propagation in
smoldering fires is quite possible in very low oxygen concentrations.
2.2 Possible Protective Measures against Dust Explosions and Fires
In dust explosion protection techniques a distinction is made between active protective measures
(prevention of the occurrence of explosions) and design related explosion protection (explosion resistant
construction).
2.2.1 Active Explosion Protection
The active explosion protective techniques aim to exclude at least one of the three preliminary conditions
necessary for an explosion, i.e.:
¨ Stirring-up of combustible dust
¨ Oxygen content above the critical concentration of generally 12% for lignite or 14% for hard coal
¨ Ignition source
2.2.1.1 Ignition Source
In a pulverizing plant, ignition sources cannot be excluded with absolute certainty. It is always possible
that mechanical sparks will be generated by the action of foreign bodies or by friction between moving
machine part or that the hot gas or coal feeding system will supply smoldering fuel particles.
2.2.1.2 Combustible Dust
It is of course impossible to replace the combustible dust with a non-combustible material in the
preparation of fuel.
Thus, the only remaining possibility is the exclusion of air or oxygen respectively, or the reduction of the
oxygen content in the fuel preparation plant.
2.2.1.3 Air and Oxygen
Dust explosions can be effectively prevented through inertization, i.e. the replacement of the oxygen in
the air by a non-combustible gas, particularly CO2 or N2, if it can be ensured that the inert gas
atmosphere will be maintained as long as combustible dust is present in the system.
The maximal O2 concentration, below which no explosive propagation reactions of mineral coal dust are
noted, is approx. 14%, the one for lignite approx. 12%. However, this concentration can vary in
accordance with the type of fuel processed. As a safety margin of at least 2% O2 is required, the maximal
permissible limit of 02 concentration for mineral coal dust is therefore as a rule 12%, for lignite 10%.
2.2.2 Design Related Explosion Protection
Reduction of the effects of already proceeding explosions, and therewith the protection of people and
machines, can be achieved by:
¨ Explosion pressure resistant construction
¨ Explosion pressure venting measures
¨ Explosion suppression techniques (Fig. 4)
Fig. 4 Passive Protection Measures

2.2.2.1 Explosion Pressure Resistant Construction

Explosion pressure resistant construction restrict any possible explosion to the dust conveying
installation, whereby a certain amount of minor damage to the installation commensurate with the
complexity of the facility is accepted.
All dust conveying installation parts as well as the adjacent equipment and sealing elements must be
designed to resist the maximal explosion pressure of 9 bar expected in the case of coal or lignite dust. If
deformation of the container is accepted, the maximum permissible explosion pressure may be up to 50%
above its design value (pressure shock resistant design). A design for 6 bar static overpressure is
required for an expected maximum explosion pressure of 9 bar. Such construction methods are of course
quite complex and expensive. However, in the event of an accident the installation is again operational
within a short time.
2.2.2.2 Explosion Pressure Venting Measures
In a broader sense explosion venting means all measures that serve to open temporarily or permanently
the previously closed installation in a safe direction, at the beginning or after a certain spreading of an
explosion. The purpose of this is to prevent any overstressing of the mechanical equipment beyond its
pressure shock resistance. The strength of the equipment does not have to be designed for Pmax, but
only for the reduced explosion pressure Pred (Fig. 5). A deformation of the container may again be
acceptable, but it must not burst.
Fig. 5 Pressure Response in Explosion-Pressure-Relief Techniques

The explosion pressure venting technique operates in the following manner: When the dynamic response
pressure of the pressure venting installation is reached, predetermined breaking points, rip foils or doors
open to vent the shock wave outdoors, mainly by means of amply dimensioned discharge channels.
Immediately after the pressure venting system responds an increase in the temporal rate of pressure rise
can often be observed which is due to the higher turbulence caused during the venting of the shock wave.
The pressure rise then quickly stops at Pred. Guidelines concerning the design layout and dimensioning
of the explosion pressure venting installations are contained in VDI Guidelines No. 3673. If the method of
explosion venting is applied not only the inserts of the containers such as filter cloths etc. must be
considered but the expected recoil forces as well. With a pressure venting area of 1 m2, a reduced
explosion pressure of 2 bar, and under the assumption that the shock wave escapes with the velocity of
sound, a thrust of approx. 15 t acts upon the housing to be protected. This must be properly supported or
else the container may be torn from its foundations.
2.2.2.3 Explosion Suppression
In the explosion suppression techniques, the shock wave preceding the combustion front or the infrared
radiation of the combustion area is detected by a device which quickly distributes extinguishing agents
under a propellant pressure of 60 to 120 bar by means of detonator-operated valves. With a programmed
dynamic response pressure threshold (Pdyn) of the detectors, the maximal explosion pressure is again
lowered to a reduced level (Pred).
2.2.2.4 Limitation: Explosions from Ducts into Containers
The described constructive protection techniques are effective under the condition that the reaction takes
place as described in the paragraph 2.1. The description is applicable to most explosions that occur in
pulverizing plants. However, if an explosion strikes from a duct into a container, and in doing so the
residual dust deposited there is stirred up with great turbulence and ignited, the reaction within the duct
and the adjacent container can develop into a detonation of such dimensions that the resulting pressures
can amount to 50 times the original pressure, accompanied by a combustion front traveling at supersonic
speed, so that any relief or suppression installation is too sluggish in action. However, such events are,
fortunately, relatively rare in coal operations. As a limit for a spontaneous explosion propagation, an
explosion characteristic of 100 bar.m.s-1 was observed under particular conditions in a 200 m long
pipeline of 1800 mm diameter located at the experimental mining research station in Dortmund, while the
usual values for coal are generally lower (approx. 85 bar.m.s-1).
However, if the principles of design related explosion protection are to be consequently pursued, every
duct conveying combustible dust in an explosive concentration and whose length exceeds five times its
diameter must be safeguarded by an explosion vent placed ahead of its inlet into a container (such as a
filter) (Fig. 6). Through this any explosion originating in the pipeline will be vented so that the protective
measures taken with respect to the adjacent container can be designed in accordance with the criteria of
an explosion starting in the container itself.
Fig. 6 Venting of a Duct in Front of a Precipitator

2.2.3 Prevention of Smoldering Fires

Smoldering fires in dust deposits are best prevented by preventing the possibility of greater quantities of
dust accumulating. This is achieved through the appropriate design and slope of surfaces, pipelines and
supports, as well as sufficiently high gas speeds within the conveyor systems.
In silos where great quantities of combustible dust are stored for the plant’s own specific purposes, any
combustion that may occur must be detected as early as possible by carefully monitoring of the dust
temperature and the CO content of the silo atmosphere so that proper countermeasures can be taken.
3. APPLICATION OF PROTECTIVE MEASURES IN THE INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT
The fire and explosion protection measures described above result for practical applications on the one
hand in a network of preventive safety measures that significantly reduce the risk of an accident in the
operation of combustible dust installation, and on the other hand in actual explosion protection techniques
that can prevent explosions, or at least shall hold the explosions within acceptable limits.
3.1 Preventive Safety Measures
The primary aim of preventive safety measures is to exclude possible ignition sources as causes of
conflagration or explosion if at all possible. In addition, they are also intended to prevent secondary
damage caused by the expulsion or stirring up of vast quantities of dust and their subsequent ignition.
These essentially preventive safety measures can be listed as follows:
¨ Temperature measurement of
· mill exhausts
· stored dust, preferably in silo entry and exit
¨ CO analysis of
· the silo atmosphere in silos
· mill exhaust after the filter
¨ Prevention of local overheating caused by friction in conveyor belt systems, high speeds of screw
conveyors, bucket elevators, rotary valves, and bearing, and/or the detection of increasing temperatures
by measuring techniques. Relative velocities of moving parts < 1 m/s are considered safe, > 10 m/s are
considered as potential ignition sources.
¨ Spark separators in air heaters
¨ Metal separator prior to the mill
¨ Prevention of electrostatic discharges by conductive connections and grounding of all installation
parts
¨ Prevention of arcing in electrofilters by appropriate voltage control measures
¨ Prevention of dust accumulation possibilities:
· All surfaces to have a slope of at least 70° to the horizontal plane, especially in filter or silo cones
· Regular disposal of dust deposits
· Gas speeds in conduits of more than 22 m/s
¨ Protection of the stored dust from the effects of external heat, for instance by spraying the silo
externally with cooling water
¨ Provision of inert gas supplies (e.g. CO2) for inertization of the silos in the case of smoldering
fires
¨ Cleanliness of operating rooms
· Effective removal of the dust generated by means of proper dedusting installations
· Safe elimination of dust deposits by means of suitable auxiliary material
From the point of view of safety a solid fuel pulverizing plant must be operated as continuously as
possible, as critical situations often arise when the plant is not in operation. This fact must be considered
when the capacity of the installation is being decided upon.
3.2 Explosion Protection Techniques
3.2.1 Inert Gas Operation
As described under 2.2.1, active explosion protection in solid fuel pulverizing is practically limited to inert
gas operation, i.e. operation with a maximum of 10 to 12% oxygen in the pulverizing plant, depending on
type of fuel, as ignition sources and the stirring-up of dust can never be excluded with absolute certainty.
Active explosion protection can be applied if hot inert gases such as the kiln exhaust from cement kilns or
hot gases from a combustion chamber, combined with a corresponding design for the mill’s recirculation
gas are available. In the last case the dew point problem becomes significant, therefore this solution is
rarely applicable for very moist fuels, or special measures will have to be taken for drying of the circulation
gases.
If the inert gas atmosphere can be maintained with absolute certainty through appropriate design and
interlocking of the installation for as long as combustible dust is present in the system, design related
protection measures become in principle redundant. In those cases where these conditions cannot be
guaranteed, for example, because hot gases with higher oxygen content are being used such as clinker
cooler exhausts, or because of dew point problems, design related explosion protection techniques must
be rigorously applied.
3.2.2 Explosion Pressure Resistant Construction
Explosion pressure resistant construction, i.e. the dimensioning of the installation section to resist
maximal explosion pressure, are mainly applicable where pressure venting methods cannot be used at all
or only with difficulty, for geometrical reasons.
This is mostly the case in mills, and definitely in all conduit pipe systems where the length of the system
exceeds five times the tube diameter. As a rule such components are designed to withstand a static
overpressure of 10 bar.
3.2.3 Explosion Pressure Venting Measures
All combustible dust conveying components that are not in themselves designed to be explosion pressure
resistant, such as cyclone, filters, pulverized fuel silos, etc. are to be provided with properly dimensioned
devices for explosion pressure venting. Thereby containers and all interconnected aggregates such as bin
vent filters, etc. must be dimensioned in pressure shock resistant design to withstand the reduced
explosion pressure.
Explosion venting openings within a particular building must be connected to properly dimensioned
exhaust channels leading into the open. In order to prevent an explosion originating in the mill spreading
into the filter via the conduit pipe, the conduit pipe must be equipped with an explosion vent in front of its
connection to the filter. This measure is not required for pneumatic conveying systems as in this design
the dust concentration is normally above the explosion limit. In addition, the minimal ignition energy is
significantly higher under the operating conditions of pneumatic conveying than it is in the case of stirring-
up combustible dust in containers.
The area containing the vent opening for explosion pressure venting must not be accessible to anyone
when the installation in operation.
VDI Guidelines No. 3673 can serve as a basis for the design of such an explosion pressure venting
system. Naturally, the system must be inspected regularly.
3.2.3.1 Underpressure Protection
After venting an explosion in very large enclosures such as pulverized fuel silos through explosion flaps
considerable underpressure can develop inside the silo due to dynamic effects and due to cooling down
of the hot gases remaining in the silo after the explosion. Typical examples for the size of underpressure
valves are given in Table 3. Guidelines for the individual design of underpressure valves can be taken
from the relevant literature (10).
Table 3
Volume m3 100 1000
Diameter m 3.4 .5
Cylindrical length m 9.5 22.0
Plate thickness mm 6 8
Max. negative pressure mbar 100 25
Required aspiration area m2 0.1 1.0

3.2.4 Explosion Suppression

Techniques of explosion suppression can basically replace all the previously mentioned methods.
However, in practical experience it has been seen that in pulverizing plants, the costs involved in the
consequent application of explosion suppression techniques are significantly higher than they are for
explosion pressure venting techniques and explosion pressure resistant construction methods, both with
respect to procurement and maintenance of the sensitive equipment.
Thus applicability of explosion suppression may be primarily limited to existing, insufficiently protected
pulverizing plants whose retrofitting in accordance with alternative protection techniques would be entirely
uneconomical.
3.2.5 Fire Extinguishing Measures
If an accumulation of considerable quantities of combustible dust can be prevented inside the actual
pulverizing plant (except in pulverized fuel silos), any fires that may arise following an explosion will not
be able to grow to any significant size. The installation of a fire extinguishing system can nevertheless still
be recommended for cloth filters and electofilters.
In the case of smoldering fires in pulverized fuel silos, all further fuel supply must be stopped immediately.
Following this, the silo exit must be made airtight and the silo atmosphere flooded with CO2. Sufficient
time must now pass until the temperature conditions have normalized. An underpressure valve is required
in order to avoid collapsing of the silo due to the vacuum produced during cooling down. The above
procedures can take several days, depending on the size of the smolder location. An alternative
technique is to deliver the fuel as quickly as possible to the burner system via the dosing and conveyor
systems. Of course this method is possible only when the dosing and conveying systems are heat-
resistant, dustproof and explosion resistant. In addition, under no circumstances is glowing fuel to be
returned to the silo, as for instance via overflow feeders.
Fig. 7 shows the practical preventive safety measures for pulverized fuel silos. In Fig. 8 the application of
design related protective measures for solid fuel preparation is illustrated.
Fig. 7 Preventive and Safety Measures for Coal Dust Silos

Fig. 8 Example to Show the Application of Design Related Explosion Protection

4. LITERATURE
1) VDI Guidelines 2263
Verhütung von Staubbränden und Staubexplosionen
2) VDI Guidelines 3673
Druckentlastung von Staubexplosionen
3) VDI Report No. 304
Sichere Handhabung brennbarer Stäube
4) Arbeitskreis der chemischen Industrie, October 1, 1973
Sicherheitsmassnahmen gegen Staubbrände und Staubexplosionen
Published by BASF, Bayer, Ciba-Geigy and Farbwerke Hoechst
5) Dr. W. Bartknecht
Explosions, Course Prevention Protection
Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 1981
6) K.N. Palmer
Dust Explosions and Fires
London, Chapman and Hall, 1973
7) H. Wibbelhoff
Der Umgang mit Kohlenstaub in der Zementindustrie
Steine und Erden 2/1978
8) F. Schneider
Kohlenaufbereitung und Kohlenfeuerung für Zementdrehöfen
Zement, Kalk, Gips, No. 7/1976
9) E.W. Scholl, D. Reeh, W. Wiemann, M. Faber, G. Kühnen, H. Beck, N. Glienke
Brenn- und Explosionskenngrössen von Stäuben
STF-Report No. 2 - 79 (as well as BVS-Report) *
* see paragraph 4.1
10) W. Wiemann, R. Bauer, F. Möller
Unterdruck-Sicherung von Silos nach Staubexplosionen bei Anwendung von Explosionsklappen
VDI Report No. 701, 1988, Volume II
4.1 Approximate Values for Explosion Limits and Ignition Temperatures
The numerical values of the following data are depending on the test procedure applied and can vary
within certain limits according to the origin and geological age of the coals. The following values refer to
the Literature (9).
¨ Explosion Limits
1) Dust concentration:
* lower explosion limits 40 to 130 g/m3
* upper explosion limits 2000 to 6000 g/m3
2) Oxygen concentration:
* hard coal 14%
* lignite 12%
3) Concentration of non-combustible parts (ash):
* hard coal (-medium volatile bituminous) 65%
¨ Ignition Temperature

Cloud °C Layer °C
Lignite 380 to 450 225 to 300
Hard coal 590 to 710 245 to 380
Petrol coke 690 280

C05 - Burners and Flames

Burners and Flames

Dirk Pauling
TPT 01/21063/E
Replaces report no. PT 98/14354/E
1. Terminology
2. Burners
2.1 Monochannel Burner
2.1.1 Burner Design
2.1.2 Key Figures for Mono-channel Burner
2.2 Multi-channel Burner
2.2.1 Multi-channel Burner Design
2.2.2 Pillard Rotaflam Burner
2.2.3 FLS Duoflex Burner
2.2.4 KHD Pyrojet Burner
2.2.5 Unitherm M.A.S. Burner
2.2.6 Greco Burner
2.2.7 Key Figures for Multi-channel Burner Design and Operation
2.3 Fuel Oil Atomizers
2.3.1 Mechanical Atomisers with Fixed Orifice and Variable Pressure
2.3.2 Mechanical Atomizers with Variable Orifice and Constant Pressure
2.3.3 Nozzles with Assisted Atomization through Steam or Compressed Air
2.4 Natural Gas Burners
2.4.1 Pillard Rotaflam KGD (gas/coal/oil burner)
2.4.2 KHD Gas Burner
2.4.3 FLS Duoflex
3. Flames
3.1 Effects of Poor Burning
3.2 The “Ideal” Flame
3.3 Flame Characteristics of the Different Burner Systems
3.3.1 Mono Channel Burner
3.3.2 Multi Channel Burner
3.4 Factors Influencing the Flame
3.4.1 Primary Air Settings
3.4.2 Position of the Burner in the Kiln
3.4.3 Alignment of the Burner in the Kiln
3.4.4 Secondary Air Temperature
3.4.5 Excess Air
3.4.6 Interaction Flame - Material Bed
3.4.7 Pulverized Coal Characteristics
3.4.8 Fuel Oil Flame Adjustments
3.4.9 Natural Gas Flame Adjustments
3.4.10 Burning of low reactive fuels
3.4.11 Oxygen Enrichment
3.5 Combustion Indicators
3.5.1 Clinker Quality
3.5.2 Sintering Zone Temperature
3.5.3 Coating Formation
3.5.4 Exhaust Gas Analysis
3.5.5 Kiln Inlet Temperature
3.5.6 Volatilisation of SO3
3.6 NOx Formation
3.7 Flame Adjustment Procedure
4. Combustion in Secondary Firing and Precalciner

Introduction
The function of the burner is to introduce the fuel into the burning zone.
The propagation of the combustion process depends on how fast the combustible comes into contact with
oxygen. It is therefore the essential function of the burner to regulate this mixing process adequately in
order to achieve a correct flame shape.
This process must take place in such a fashion that the heat is released at exactly the right place without
producing any damaging effects and without producing excessive pollutant elements such as NOx, SOx
and CO. Consequently, any optimization of the burning process must start with the correct adjustment of
the flame.
This paper describes how the flame can be adjusted, what burner types are available and under what
conditions they work best.
1. TERMINOLOGY

· Primary air + secondary air + false air = combustion air

· Stoichiometric combustion air + excess air = combustion air

Figure 1: Terminology of combustion air

2. BURNERS
2.1 Monochannel Burner
2.1.1 Burner Design
The monochannel burner is the most simple burner design. With this burner type, coal dust and all the
primary air is injected together through a single tube. Usually this type is used for long kilns, equipped
with direct firing.
Characteristics of the monochannel burner:
· High amount of primary air
(In combination with direct firing systems for coal, up to 50% primary air)
· Very limited flame shaping possibility
· High NOx formation
· Long and stable flame
Mono channel burners can also be used for fuel oil firing or for a combination of coal and oil firing
(additional channel for the oil nozzle in the centre).
Conical burner tips can be used to increase the injection velocity.
Figure 2: Mono-channel burner

2.1.2 Key Figures for Mono-channel Burner

Recommended range of specific axial impulsion (Gax) for mono channel burners:

M: Massflow Transport Air + Fuel (kg/s)

V: Injection Velocity (m/s)
Q: Fuel Input (calorific value · fuel massflow)

This corresponds with the old rule of thumb, which states that the kinetic energy of the primary air jet of a
mono channel burner should be kept constant within certain limits:
(Velocity of Primary Air)2 * (% Primary Air) = 65'000 - 75'000
Even if this formula will not give optimal values in each case, it enables a rough estimate of the dimension
of the burner, if presupposed as a second condition:
Primary air injection velocity = 50 - 100 m/sec (valid for straight burners without swirl)
2.2 Multi-channel Burner
2.2.1 Multi-channel Burner Design
The most simple design of a burner is the mono channel burner. However, for optimum flame shaping
when considering changing coal quality and different requirements from the point of view of raw mix
burnability, burners with adjustable flame are to be preferred. In such burners, the primary air is usually
divided into an axial and a radial component with the coal also introduced via a concentric ring tube.
These burners are called multi channel burners and are usually suitable for alternate or combined firing of
coal, oil or even gas. The axial air is injected in the direction of the kiln axis (similar to a mono channel
burner where all the air is injected in axial direction).
The radial air (or swirl air) is injected with a direction towards the kiln wall.
The swirl component of the radial air creates a rotating air flow along the kiln axis (similar to the threat of
a screw) which is also pushing towards the outside, in direction of the kiln wall.
Since the radial air channel is located inside the axial air channel (both are concentric ring channels), the
radial air is opening up / widening the flow of the axial air.
An increase of radial air versus axial air therefore creates a shorter flame. An increase of axial air versus
radial air create a longer flame.
Besides flame shaping, the primary air (especially the axial air) also has to cool the burner pipe.
A typical example of the first generation of multi channel burners is the “Pillard 3-Channel Burner” (Fig. 3).
This burner has the coal channel in between the axial- and the radial air channel. A problem recognised
with these burner types is that a shortening of the flame tends to produce a too wide flame (flame
impeigements on the kiln wall).
Furthermore coarse cool particles (residue on 200 µm sieve) can be thrown out of the primary air jet by
the radial air. These particles can cause reducing condition on the clinker bed and high NOx formation.
Figure 3: Conventional Pillard 3-channel burner

A new generation of multi channel burners has therefore been developed. With special arrangements and
constructions of the primary air channels the above mentioned negative effects can be avoided through
the creation of a longer and more homogeneous internal recirculation zone in the flame (chapter 3.3.2).
2.2.2 Pillard Rotaflam Burner
The Rotaflam burner is characterised by the location of the coal channel inside the axial and radial air
channels, as well as the flame holder / flame stabiliser (bluff-body) in the enlarged centre cross section.
Features of the Rotaflam:
· Primary air fan with 250 mbar
· Separate adjustment of burner tip cross section for axial and radial air
Conclusion on the Rotaflam burner:
· Very flexible burner (adjustment possibility of the tip cross sections)
· Extensive and good experience in the Holcim Group
· Required amount of primary air (12%) must be specified when purchasing (chapter 2.2.7)
è The Rotaflam can be recommended. It is installed in the majority of the new projects.
Figure 4: Pillard Rotaflam burner

2.2.3 FLS Duoflex Burner

The Duoflex burner is characterised by the the joining of the axial and radial air inside the burner right
before the tip as well as the enlarged centre cross section (bluff-body / flame stabiliser).
Features of the Duoflex:
· Primary air fan with 250 mbar
· Adjustment possibility of the burner tip cross section (only the sum of axial and radial air)
Conclusion on the Duoflex burner:
· Flexible burner (adjustment possibility of the tip cross sections)
· No experience so far in Holcim Group (will be installed in Ramos Arizpe 2)
· FLS is a known and experienced supplier
· Required amount of primary air (12%) must be specified when purchasing (chapter 2.2.7)
è The Duoflex burner can be recommended for new projects
Figure 5: FLS Duoflex burner

2.2.4 KHD Pyrojet Burner

The Pyrojet burner is characterised by the jet air. The jet air is being introduced at nearly sonic velocity.
Features of the Pyrojet:
· Jet air with approx. 1000 mbar axial air pressure (blower needed)
· No adjustment possibility of tip cross sections
Conclusion on the Pyrojet burner:
· The concept does not foresee the recommended (chapter 2.2.7) amount of primary air (big
blower needed - high operating costs)
· Mechanical problems of burner tip (tightness)
è The Pyrojet is not recommended because of too little momentum, primary air rate and the lack of
adjustability especially for burning AFR.
Figure 6: KHD Pyrojet burner

2.2.5 Unitherm M.A.S. Burner

The Unitherm burner is characterised by only one primary air channel with adjustable swirl.
Features of the M.A.S. burner:
· New concept with one single, adjustable primary air channel
· The mechanical adjustment mechanism in the burner tip is protected by refractory steel and
cooled with all the primary air (according to the supplier non of the burners in operation was damaged so
far)
Conclusion on the M.A.S. burner:
· No application so far in the Holcim Group
· Special deal for the first burner in the Holcim Group is offered with the right of return after one
year
· The required amount of primary air (12%) and the primary air fan pressure must be specified
when purchasing (the standard design values are much lower)
· The M.A.S. can be an interesting alternative for an existing (mid-size) kiln

Figure 7: Unitherm M.A.S. burner

2.2.6 Greco Burner

The Greco burner is characterised by the high pressure of the primary air and the injection of the coal
between axial and radial air.
Features of the Greco burner:
· The burner “hardware” is not supplied by GRECO. Only the drawings are given and
manufacturing has to be done in a local workshop or by plant.
· No adjustment possibility of tip cross sections
Conclusion on the Greco burner:
· The majority of the Greco burners in the Holcim Group are not in operation anymore
· Concept of “self-made” burner normally does not work
· Poor support outside South America
· The Greco burner is not recommended at the moment because of too many negative examples.
Positive experience only in the MERCOSUR countries.
Figure 8: Greco burner

2.2.7 Key Figures for Multi-channel Burner Design and Operation

· Primary Air Ratio: PA = 10 - 12%

(based on stoichiometric combustion; without transport air)
· Specific axial momentum*: Gax = 7 – 10 N/MW
(including fuel and transport air)
To fulfil this criteria a minimum of 200 mbar primary air fan pressure is required (better 250 mbar).
1. Swirl number*: S = 0.1 – 0.25 (max. 0.4)
2. Injection velocity of the coal at the burner tip: v = 25 – 30 m/s
Seen from a heat saving point of view the primary air ratio should be as low as possible in order to
recuperate as much hot secondary air as possible but on the other hand, the kinetic energy of the primary
air must be sufficiently high to provide a good mixture with the secondary air to ensure rapid burning.
Experience with “low primary air burners” has shown, that primary air ratios of 6 - 8% are on the technical
limit below which it is no longer possible to guarantee stable combustion conditions. With primary air
ratios of 6 - 8%, any disturbance of the burning process tends to shift combustion to the kiln back end,
producing high kiln inlet temperatures and poor clinker quality. Especially with the use of difficult fuels
such as petcoke and AFR, enough primary air and momentum is a prerequisite.
When purchasing a new burner, additional channels in the burner centre for the future use of AFR should
be foreseen because they can usually not be retrofitted into an existing burner.
* The formulas for the calculation of the burner momentum and swirl number are outlined in the annex.
2.3 Fuel Oil Atomizers
Once properly prepared in terms of filtering, heating up and delived to the burner with constant pressure
and viscosity, the fuel oil must be atomised for effective mixing with the combustion air. Therefore fuel oil
atomising nozzles are used. These nozzles are located in the centre of the burner, surrounded by the
injection of the primary air. The oil nozzle is held in place by a jacked tube which is a fixed part of the
burner. Thus the atomising nozzle is retractable.
The oil gun with the atomiser head should be taken out of the burner whenever it is not needed to prevent
overheating and coking of the remaining oil.
For fuel oil atomisation different principles are employed:
¨ Mechanical atomisation with fixed orifice and variable pressure
¨ Mechanical atomisation with variable orifice and constant pressure
¨ Assisted atomisation with steam or compressed air
2.3.1 Mechanical Atomisers with Fixed Orifice and Variable Pressure
This type of atomisers are the most common for fuel oil.
Hereby the oil throughput is governed by the pressure of the fuel oil (within the range given by the
selected discharge opening/orifice plate).
With these atomisers the fuel oil flow in the atomiser head is usually subdivided into a tangential flow
(also called primary circuit) and an axial flow (also called secondary circuit). By adjusting the pressure
and thus the ratio of these components, it is possible to alter the spray angle of the fuel jet. In general, an
increase of the tangential oil pressure leads to intensified swirling of the oil which has the tendency to
shorten the flame. Typically the differential pressure between the two flows is in the range of 0,5 - 2 bar
(pressure of tangential is higher). The overall pressure is usually approx. 40 bar. However flame shape
control is not only a result of atomiser adjustments, but also a function of primary air control.
Fig. 9 and 10 show two current atomisers (Pillard and Unitherm) with tangential and axial flow and
alternatively return-flow for start-up operation. For return-flow, the axial oil flow is used to return a portion
of the tangential oil flow back to the storage tank, in order to have a high flow velocity and oil pressure in
the nozzle head (swirl chamber) despite the small amount of oil injected in the kiln (start up phase). Thus
the turndown ratio can be increased, still with a good atomisation.
The practical turndown ratio for this type of atomiser is 1:5 (without changing the orifice plate).
As an additional feature, the length of the swirl chamber in the Unitherm atomiser is adjustable.
For the operation of the atomiser it is of utmost importance that the pieces in the atomiser head are
assembled correctly and that the flexible hoses for primary and secondary oil between the burner platform
valve train and the atomiser gun are connected correctly.
Fig. 11 (Coen Tri-Tip Nozzle) shows a mechanical atomiser with fixed orifice without radial and axial oil
flow.
Figure 9: Pillard MYS atomiser

Figure 10: Unitherm atomiser

Figure 11: Coen Tri-Tip atomiser

2.3.2 Mechanical Atomizers with Variable Orifice and Constant Pressure

This type of atomiser employs the adjustable needle valve principle for throughput control. By moving the
needle back and forth, the open cross section of the orifice can be adjusted. Needle value atomisers are
mainly used by FLS. Atomising pressures is kept constant at 25 bar. The turndown ratio is limited to 1:5 –
1:6.
Figure 12: FLS atomiser type TFSM (needle valve principle)
1 = tangential slots; 2 = swirl chamber

2.3.3 Nozzles with Assisted Atomization through Steam or Compressed Air

This type of atomiser uses compressed air or steam instead of tangential oil to create an intense swirl in
front of the orifice plate. The advantage of these atomisers is the higher turndown ratio because even a
small amount of oil can be atomised effectively with compressed air or steam. Another advantage is that
fuel oil with some solid impurities can also be atomised. The disadvantage of these atomisers is the need
for a significant amount of compressed air or steam (typical value: 0.1 – 0.12 kgAir/Steam/kgFuel).
Figure 13: Pillard atomiser with assisted atomisation

2.4 Natural Gas Burners

A gas burner does not necessarily need primary air because flame shaping can also be accomplished by
splitting up the gas flow into an axial and radial component (example KHD; chapter 2.4.2).
However most burners use primary air for flame shaping. These burners are often multi fuel burners
which can also be used for coal or oil firing.
2.4.1 Pillard Rotaflam KGD (gas/coal/oil burner)
The Rotaflam multipurpose burner is designed for combined or separate firing of gas, coal and oil. Flame
shaping is achieved with separate axial and radial air.
Arrangement of the channels (from outside to the centre):
¨ Axial air
¨ Radial / swirl air
¨ Gas channel
¨ Pulverised coal channel
¨ Central air / flame stabiliser
¨ Jacket tube for oil atomiser nozzle in the centre
Figure 14: Pillard KGD gas / coal / oil burner

2.4.2 KHD Gas Burner

Primary air is not used for this burner. It requires a rather high supply pressure (3 - 5 bar) because the
hole burner momentum has to come from the gas flow.
The burner has been used in various kilns since a long time.
Arrangement of the channels (from outside to centre):
¨ Axial gas channel
¨ Radial gas in the centre
Figure 15: KHD gas burner

2.4.3 FLS Duoflex

The Duoflex gas burner is based on the normal Duoflex burner for coal and oil. Instead of the central air
plate, a gas nozzle is used.
Arrangement of the channels (from outside to centre):
¨ Primary air (sum of axial and radial air)
¨ Central air
¨ “Radial” gas
¨ Axial gas with “needle valve” control cone in the centre
Figure 16: Duoflex gas burner

3. FLAMES
3.1 Effects of Poor Burning
Effects of poor burning:
¨ Unstable coating behaviour, particularly in the transition zone, reduces the lining life.
¨ Incomplete burning and a local reducing atmosphere increase sulphur volatilisation and build-up
of coating in the preheater and in the kiln inlet area. Thus a significantly higher dust cycle is created which
shifts the entire temperature profile toward the kiln inlet.
¨ With high CO-formation, secondary combustion forms at the back of the kiln which leads to ring
formation.
¨ As a result, the kiln cannot operate at maximum output, the specific heat consumption increases
and the efficiency drops.
¨ Low availability, rate and thus OEE
Therefore an optimisation of the burning process has to start with the correct adjustment of the flame.
3.2 The “Ideal” Flame
The "ideal" flame can prevent, or at least keep within limits, the operating problems described above.
The flame is stable over the entire burn-out distance:
¨ By continually mixing hot secondary air into the burning zone. Therefore combustion can take
place in a controlled manner over the entire flame length.
¨ No local temperature peaks are formed.
¨ No local reducing conditions develop over the clinker bed.
¨ Burn-out is complete at the end of the sinter zone.
In addition this "ideal flame" has to be achieved with the lowest possible formation of NOx.
3.3 Flame Characteristics of the Different Burner Systems
3.3.1 Mono Channel Burner
Mono channel burners tend to produce an axial flame without internal recirculation. The heating up of the
fuel jet to ignition temperature is predominated by external recirculation of the hot combustion gases.
Figure 17: Flame shape mono channel burner

Effects:
¨ Long sinter zone
¨ Long retention time of the kiln charge in the hot zone and thus high volatilisation of alkalis and
sulphur (very suitable for the production of low-alkali clinker)
¨ High NOx formation
With a constant primary air ratio, the length of the flame reaches a minimum for a given primary air
velocity. If the velocity is further increased, the primary air jet develops an excessive suction effect which
results in a reverse flow of flue gases. The recirculating flue gas thins the secondary air so much that the
flame becomes longer again.
For the recommended range of the specific axial impulsion see chapter 2.1.
However, for optimum flame shaping in response to changing production requirements, burners with
adjustable flame (multi channel burners) are to be preferred.
3.3.2 Multi Channel Burner
Multi channel burners can produce a divergent flame with internal and external recirculation zones. The
ability to change the relationship between axial and radial air provides an important control mechanism for
influencing the flame shape.
A hollow cone flame shape is produced, which can be modified by adjusting the pressure, flow rate and
burner tip cross section of the radial and axial air (Fig. 18).
The first generation of multi channel burners (e.g. Pillard 3-Channel) has some negative effects on the
flame shape, if there is a high content of radial air used. Two different flame zones can appear:
¨ In the first zone with internal recirculation there is intense combustion. Depending on the
arrangement of the swirling flow, in this zone coarse fuel particles are spun out of the flame and then burn
quickly in the oxygen-rich atmosphere of the hot secondary air.
¨ In the second, long and instable zone, dominated by external recirculation, burn-out is completed.
Effects:
¨ Peak temperatures in the internal recirculation zone.
¨ With very divergent flames, there are problems with the lining.
¨ CO formation above the clinker bed caused by incomplete burn-out of the extended fuel jet.
¨ Unstable coating formation in a long transition zone, caused by an enlarged unsteady burn-out
zone.
¨ Increased NOx formation because of the long retention time of the gasses at high temperatures.
¨ High sulphur volatilisation because of the reducing zone above the clinker bed and the long
retention time at relatively high temperatures.
The modern multi channel burners have been optimised so that these effects are largely avoided. The
special arrangement and construction of the primary air channels make the internal recirculation zone
(IRZ, Fig. 18) longer and more homogenous. This reduces the length of the burn-out zone with external
recirculation. For a faster mixing of the primary air with the fuel, these burners have an enlarged flame
stabiliser in form of a bluff body in the centre.
Figure 18: Flame shape of modern multi channel burner

Effects:
¨ Homogeneous temperature distribution, no excessive temperature peaks.
¨ Low volatilisation rate of alkalis and sulphur.
¨ Homogeneous recirculation zone, and therefore less NOx formation.
3.4 Factors Influencing the Flame
In most cases the most favourable operation is achieved with a rather short, hot and stable flame, giving a
high heat transfer rate to the material bed and a short and stable burning zone.
The flame shape may be optimised during operation by adjusting the following parameters:
3.4.1 Primary Air Settings
A shortening of the flame can usually be achieved by:
· Increasing the injection velocity (and thus momentum) of the primary air
· Increasing the amount of radial air
· Increasing the primary air rate
3.4.2 Position of the Burner in the Kiln
One of the most pronounced influence on flame length is the position of the burner tip: Shifting the burner
further into the kiln increases the flame length significantly and vice versa.
This is because the turbulence field of the in-flowing secondary air significantly intensifies the mixing of
the secondary air with the fuel and primary air jet.
In planetary cooler kilns this effect is less noticeable as the position of the burner tip is defined by the
kiln's internal cooling zone.
Recommendations for burner tip position (except for planetary coolers):
· SP kiln: Distance kiln outlet – burner tip £ 1 m
(for petcoke 0 m or even outside rotary kiln)
· Long wet and dry kiln: Distance kiln outlet – burner tip approx. 1 m or a little more
Sometimes if the burner tip is too close to the kiln outlet, overheating of the nose ring and snowman
formation in the cooler can occur.
3.4.3 Alignment of the Burner in the Kiln
Basically the burner should be aligned parallel to the kiln axis. In the cold kiln the burner should even be
pointed slightly upwards, (especially for long burners in kilns with planetary coolers), to compensate for
the bending downwards in the hot kiln. If the burner is aligned horizontally (the kiln axis has an angle of
approx. 3° to the horizontal) as is often seen, the flame tends to reach the material bed. A local reducing
atmosphere is created resulting in high sulphur volatilisation.
3.4.4 Secondary Air Temperature
The secondary air temperature defines, firstly, the ignition behaviour of the flame (black plume) and,
secondly, the possible flame temperature. Insufficient secondary air temperature has to be compensated
by fuel, and this means an increase in the combustion gas quantity and a lengthening of the temperature
profile. In point of fact, the clinker cooler operation is one of the main factors influencing the flame.
3.4.5 Excess Air
Some excess air is required for complete combustion. Operating with a too low excess air factor
increases the combustion time and hence the flame length. This can create a reducing atmosphere which
increases sulphur volatility thus leading to clogging problems in the preheater. If the excess air is
significantly higher than the optimum value, the temperature profile is extended again because of a too
long flame. This results in an insufficient temperature gradient towards the material bed and a longer
sinter zone.
3.4.6 Interaction Flame - Material Bed
As the heat transfer from the flame to the material bed in the sinter zone is almost entirely through
radiation, the key factors affecting the heat transfer are the temperature and the emissivity of the flame. If
radiation to the clinker bed is reduced due to a dusty kiln atmosphere, a long drawn-out temperature
profile and thus a long sintering zone is produced. In this situation, the dust is overheated in the flame and
often deposited in the transition zone or even further down the kiln and can cause ring formation. Ways to
counter this effect include all those measures which serve to improve clinker granulation (e.g.
adjustments in raw mix design).
3.4.7 Pulverized Coal Characteristics
¨ Volatile content:
The combustion time of pulverised coal increases as the volatile content decreases, therefore low volatile
coal has a longer burning time and ignition distance than bituminous coal.
¨ Grinding fineness:
The burning time of a coal dust grain increases approx. with the square of its diameter. The combustion
time of a grain of coal increases as its volatile content decreases. Thus, low volatile coal must be ground
finer in order to burn within the desired time, e.g. in order to produce the desired flame length.
Recommendations for optimum fineness: "Firing Systems - Handling and Preparation of Noble Fuels";
HMC/TPT report no. TPT 01/21062/E
¨ Ash content:
A high content of ballast material (ash) has a retarding effect on the burning time caused by the reduced
coal dust concentration and the lower flame temperatures as a result of the heat absorption of the ballast
material.
¨ Rate of swelling:
The higher the expansion of the coal grain during heating in the flame, the shorter the burning time.
Nevertheless, the swelling index has no practical significance for the cement kiln.
3.4.8 Fuel Oil Flame Adjustments
A faster burn out of the fuel oil can be achieved by:
¨ Lowering the oil viscosity, thus increasing the oil temperature (recommendations for optimum oil
temperature: "Firing Systems - Handling and Preparation of Noble Fuels"; HMC/TPT report no. TPT
01/21062/E)
¨ Atomiser adjustments (e.g. increasing primary oil pressure; chapter 2.3)
3.4.9 Natural Gas Flame Adjustments
The main requirement with natural gas burners is the possibility of producing a reverse flow zone in the
centre of the flame in order to achieve locally, inside the flame, a reducing atmosphere where
hydrocarbon molecules agglomerate to larger chains. This is necessary to increase the emissivity of the
gas flame, a prerequisite for heat transfer in the sintering zone.
Adjusting the shape of the flame visually is almost impossible, because clearly defined flame contours are
hardly recognisable. Optimisation of the flame shape should be done following the combustion indicators
(see chapter 3.5).
3.4.10 Burning of low reactive fuels
To improve the combustion of low reactive fuels such as petcoke or anthracite, a small amount of liquid
fuel can be used to accelerate the ignition and thus burn out (called “pilot flame”).
3.4.11 Oxygen Enrichment
By adding pure oxygen to the combustion air, the flame temperature can be increased. At the same time
the specific exhaust gas quantity is lowered. This decreases the energy losses of the exhaust gas and
allows to increase the production capacity of the kiln.
The disadvantages are the high costs of oxygen, higher NOx formation and lower cooler efficiency.
3.5 Combustion Indicators
One of the main problems in the evaluation of the flame is that, in the rotary kiln, it is only possible to
observe the flame visually to a limited extent. On closer consideration, however, there are a number of
indicators which can provide much more information about the quality of the flame than can be obtained
from simple visual observation.
In the following, the most important operation indicators (combustion indicators) with direct relation to
firing parameters are discussed:
¨ Clinker quality:
- Free lime
- Clinker microscopy
- Magotteaux-test
- SO3
¨ Burning zone temperature:
- Pyrometer
- Amps
- NOx
- Clinker bed inclination
¨ Coating formation in rotary kiln:
- Kiln shell temperature profile
- Length of fixed coating
- Stability of coating
- Ring formation
¨ Exhaust gas composition:
- CO
- O2
¨ Kiln inlet temperature
¨ Volatilisation of sulphur:
- SO3 in hot meal
- SO3 volatility
- Encrustation at kiln inlet and preheater
3.5.1 Clinker Quality
The most important indicator for assessing the quality of the combustion is the clinker quality:
¨ Free lime:
Free lime is the most important quality parameter of the clinker to assess the burning degree. In the past,
especially with Lepol kilns and long wet kilns, the liter weight was used frequently instead of free lime
because of the simpler determination. For modern suspension preheater kilns the liter weight is a poor
indicator for the burning degree. To assess the usefulness of liter weight measurement for kiln control, the
liter weight must have a correlation to the free lime. If there is no clear correlation, the liter weight can not
be used for kiln control.
¨ Clinker microscopy:
The microscopy can reveal important information on the burning conditions such as reducing conditions in
the kiln.
¨ Magotteaux test:
The Magotteaux is a simple and fast test to detect reducing conditions during the burning process.
Ground clinker is mixed with a special liquid which indicates reducing conditions by changing its colour.
¨ SO3 in clinker:
A decrease in the concentration of SO3 in clinker (at constant sulphur input) indicates over-burning or
reducing conditions.
3.5.2 Sintering Zone Temperature
Information about the sintering zone temperature can be obtained by:
¨ Pyrometer:
Measuring the clinker bed temperature under the flame using a radiation pyrometer.
¨ Amps:
Changes in the kiln drive power consumption (Amps or kW) are an indicator for the temperature of the
sintering zone and thus the burning degree. An increase of the kiln drive power indicates a hotter sintering
zone.
¨ NOx:
The higher the NOx concentration in the kiln exhaust gas the hotter is the flame and thus the sintering
zone. In case of secondary firing or precalciner firing the NOx concentration should be measured at kiln
inlet because the concentration after preheater is strongly influenced by the secondary firing or calciner
firing.
¨ Kiln charge inclination:
The kiln charge inclination in the kiln (angle of the material bed) is an indicator for the temperature of the
sintering zone and thus the burning degree. The hotter the clinker bed, the more sticky is the material and
the higher is the inclination.
It has to be noted, that all the above mentioned measurements do not supply absolute but rather relative
temperature indications and that the NOx-level is also highly depending on the flame characteristics (see
chapter 3.6).
3.5.3 Coating Formation
¨ Kiln shell temperature profile and length of fixed coating:
The length of the sinter zone is an indicator for the length and temperature profile of the flame. The
coating formation can be determined indirectly, by measuring the temperature profile of the kiln shell or
directly be measuring the length of the fixed coating inside the kiln during a stop. The influence of burner
adjustments on coating formation can be checked by recording the kiln shell temperature profile before
and after any change to burner settings.
Guideline for the length of the fixed coating: 5-6 x DKiln = good; 7-8 x DKiln = long flame
¨ Stability of coating:
The stability of the coating especially in the transition zone is an indicator for the stability of the flame. An
instable flame length will lead to a continued falling and forming of coating which is dangerous to the
refractories.
¨ Ring formation:
The formation of a ring in the kiln can be an indicator for poor combustion or a too long flame.
3.5.4 Exhaust Gas Analysis
The gas analysis at kiln inlet supplies important information on the completeness of the combustion.
¨ Set point O2 kiln inlet:
Calciner kiln: 3-4%
Preheater kiln: 2% (if secondary firing is used, the O2 set point must be high enough to supply the oxygen
needed for the combustion of the secondary fuel)
¨ CO:
Good burn-out: COKiln Inlet < 0.05% (500ppm)
Too high CO levels do not only cause energy losses but do also increase sulphur volatilisation and thus
build-up problems.
3.5.5 Kiln Inlet Temperature
In the case of cyclone preheater kilns, the kiln inlet temperature gives information on flame length and
retarded combustion. The target is to have the kiln inlet temperature as low as possible.
¨ Kiln inlet temperatures in excess of 1100°C can be an indicator for a too long flame.
In short kilns (L/D < 12) higher temperatures can be normal.
3.5.6 Volatilisation of SO3
The flame has an important influence on the behaviour of SO3 in the kiln. This is governed by factors
such as retention time of the material in the hot zone (flame length), local reducing conditions and excess
air factor.
¨ Encrustation at kiln inlet and preheater:
Encrustation and cyclone blockages can be an indicator for a combustion problem. Assessment of the
cause is done by hot meal analysis and determination of SO3 volatility.
¨ SO3 hot meal concentration:
The enrichment of sulphur in the hot meal is an important indicator for the combustion. To assess the
limits, it is important to consider also the chlorine concentration in the hot meal.
Figure 19: Combination of SO3 and Cl in hot meal

¨ SO3 volatility:
fSO3 > 0.7 indicates a combustion problem (f = 1 – cFeed/cHM; c = concentration)
Figure 20: Influence of temperature and O2 on sulphur volatility

3.6 NOx Formation

NOx formation is dominated as well by peak temperatures as by the amount of air entrained into the
primary fuel jet at ignition. Primary NOx reduction measures (main burner) are deduced essentially from
the following facts:
¨ Flame front near the burner (short ignition distance)
¨ Flame shaping with the aim to avoid high peak temperatures with at the same time shorter flame
¨ Lower burning temperatures (increase of free lime target, smooth kiln operation / LINKman, no
overburning and changes of the raw mix)
¨ Low primary air rate
Note: A too low primary air rate has clearly negative consequences on kiln operation.
The minimum technically achievable NOx emission with measures related to the rotary kiln burner are in
the order of magnitude of 800 to 1'000 mg/Nm3. Further reduction of NOx requires additional secondary
measures (e.g. SNCR technology).
3.7 Flame Adjustment Procedure
Follow the operating instruction of the supplier for a medium flame setting
Wait until the kiln is stable before undertaking any adjustment
Progressively adjust one parameter at the time (e.g. axial- / radial air, oil pressure) and monitor the
corresponding combustion indicators. The kiln reacts slowly to any change. It may take up to a few days
to reach the new stable condition. It is therefore useless to try to adjust a flame within one shift !
Caution:
The axial air channel also serves to cool the burner pipe. Always keep a minimum of 1% primary air for
axial air.
It is not recommended to operate the kiln with the shortest possible flame. A safety margin for adjustment
in both directions should be maintained for control of burning zone disturbance.
4. COMBUSTION IN SECONDARY FIRING AND PRECALCINER
The burning conditions for secondary firing or in the precalciner are quite different from the main firing.
¨ In most cases the combustion takes place in an exhaust gas and air mixture instead of pure air
(except in-line calciner and precombustion chamber)
¨ Combustion takes place in a very dusty atmosphere (raw meal)
¨ The temperature range is only 1000°C instead of 2000°C
Due to these less favourable burning conditions, incomplete combustion can be the consequence. Beside
CO, incomplete combustion produces also carbon skeletons and CH4, which both cannot be traced by
CO measuring equipment. Further signs for incomplete combustion in the preheater are:
¨ Higher gas temperature at bottom cyclone outlet than at precalciner outlet
¨ Only moderate temperature drop over the two lowest cyclone stages
Both indicate an after-burning within the preheater. This results in increased exhaust gas temperature and
heat consumption as well as coating problems.
Improvement measures:
¨ Providing of enough gas retention time in the precalciner
¨ Grinding of the coal to the required fineness
¨ Avoiding fluctuations of the fuel feed
REFERENCES
¨ "Firing Systems"
VA 82/4898/E
¨ "Flames and Burners"
VA 93/4056/E
¨ "State of Technology of Rotary Kiln Burners"
F. Schneider, PT 96/14078/E
¨ W.L. van de Kamp / J.P. Smart
IFRF Research Report CEMFLAM1
"The effect of burner design and operation and fuel type of cement kiln flames"
ANNEX
Formulas and Definitions for the Calculation of Burner Momentum and Swirl Number
Primary Air / Combustion Air:

Kiln heat consumption Q [MJ/kgcli]

Min. combustion air Amin. 0.26 x q[Nm3/kgcli] Good approximation for conventional fuels
Total combustion air A n x Amin. [Nm3/kgcli] n = excess air factor, n>1
Excess combustion air Amin. x (n-1) [Nm3/kgcli]
Primary air ratio Expressed in % Amin. [%A min.]

Note:
In order to get lower primary air ratio figures, burner suppliers usually relate primary air ratio to total
combustion air.
Burner Geometry:
Following burner geometry calculations are based on the list of symbols and units stated below:

ri Burner channel radius of channel I [m]

reg. i Equivalent channel radius of channel I [m]
Gx Axial momentum [N]
Gx.i Axial momentum of channel I [N]
Gax Specific axial momentum [N/MW]
Gt Tangential momentum [N]
Mi Mass flow through channel I [kg/s]
Qfuel Fuel heat input [MW]
Sb Burner swirl number [-]
vi.ax Axial velocity in channel I [m/s]
vsw.tan Tangential velocity on swirling channel [m/s]
Figure A: Typical Burner Geometry

Mono Channel Burner:

Total specific axial momentum through burner [N/MW]:

Multi Channel Burner:

Total specific axial momentum through burner [N/MW]:

Burner Swirl Number:

A common method for the calculation of the characteristical or equivalent radius is to determine the radius
of gyration for each individual channel cross-section as follows (Mathur and Maccallun - 1967):

For a typical multi channel coal burner with axial-, transport- and swirl air, the burner swirl number can be
calculated according to the following formula:

C06 - Combustion Engineering

Combustion, Gasflows and Gas Composition

A. Obrist
VA 89/5584/E
1. INTRODUCTION
2. COMBUSTION
2.1 Basic Relations and Definitions
2.2 Calorific Value
2.3 Combustion Calculations
3. GAS FROM RAW MATERIAL
3.1 Gases from Dry Raw Meal
3.2 Water from Wet Raw Meal or from Raw Slurry
4. KILN GAS
4.1 Measurement of Exhaust Gas Composition
4.2 Immediate Calculations from Gas Composition
4.3 Calculation of Exhaust Gas Quantities
4.4 Calculation of the CO2 Content of Cement Kiln Exhaust Gas
5. FALSE AIR INVESTIGATIONS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Evaluation
5.3 Example of an Investigation

SUMMARY
In context with gas measurements on a cement kiln there are important numerical relations which must be
understood.
Such numerical relations involve the following subjects:
¨ Fuel properties, calorific value
¨ Raw meal properties
¨ Combustion calculations
¨ Gas composition
¨ Gas properties
¨ Gas quantities
¨ False air
Calculations can be done with complete, exact formulas but sometimes also by using approximations.
Approximations are never 100% precise but often sufficient for practical purposes. Important, basic
approximations given in this chapter are e.g.:
¨ Min. combustion air = Amin » 0.26 Nm3/MJ
¨ Min. combustion gas = Vmin » 0.28 Nm3/MJ
The exhaust gas of a cement kiln consists of:
¨ Gas from raw meal
¨ Gas from combustion
¨ Excess air and false air
¨ Water from slurry or raw meal
By considering the above contributions the exhaust gas quantity of a kiln can be calculated.
This method of calculation and many other relations are given in this chapter.
1. INTRODUCTION
Once, in the Greenfield cement factory, they wanted to do a few measurements on their kiln system,
which seemed to run at its capacity limit. The specialist who was in charge of these measurements
wanted to know the actual gas flows in the kiln system. Unfortunately, a few years ago, the designers of
the Greenfield kiln had to fight with some difficult space problems when they had to plan the layout of the
gas ducts in the narrow space. They never had considered that somebody would have to take flow
measurements in this ductwork. The shape of the gas ducts was far away from the „ideal, long straight
tube“ for a precise flow measurement.
After a hard job within the hot areas of the gas ducts the specialist realized that his results from the pitot
tube measurement was still not as precise as he had imagined. He therefore started to think about his
problem. Maybe, there was another method to come to a result? Obviously gas flow has something to do
with the fuel combustion and also raw meal produces some gas. So, why not calculate the gas from other
parameters such as fuel quantity and raw meal? And wouldn’t it be possible to calculate also the gas
composition? But where do I find the necessary relations and formulas?
With this kind of thoughts in mind the specialist in the Greenfield plant was about to use the paper on
hand, and finally to do a more interesting and effective job.
2. COMBUSTION
2.1 Basic Relations and Definitions
2.1.1 Combustion
Combustion of fuels is a chemical reaction of fuel with oxygen (O2) according to the general scheme:

FUEL + OXYGEN ® COMBUSTION PRODUCTS

(CO2, H2O, SO2, Ash)

Combustion reactions usually go through intermediate steps where some intermediate products may
occur. However after complete combustion (total oxidation) the resulting combustion products are of
extremely simple nature because complete combustion always ends at only 3(!) simple gas molecules,
namely CO2, H2O and SO2.
The overall combustion reactions can therefore be characterized by three very simple combustion
equations:

C + O2 ® CO2
2H + ½ O2 ® H2O
S + O2 ® SO2

2.1.2 Air
Oxygen for combustion of fuels is taken from the air. For the considerations within this chapter the
composition of the dry air can be simplified (neglecting trace gases) as follows:
OXYGEN (O2) 21.0 Vol%
NITROGEN (N2) 79.0 Vol%
AIR 100.0 Vol%

According to the local climate air contains some water vapor, e.g. 2 Vol% at 20°C and 80% relative
humidity.
2.1.3 Normal Conditions
„Normal conditions“ for gases are defined as:
¨ Pressure = 1.0133 bar = 760 Torr
¨ Temperature = 0°C = 273.16°K
By the above conditions, the Nm3 (Normal-cubicmeter) is defined which is used as unit for gas quantities.
Note:
1) The „normal conditions“ refer to the average atmospheric pressure at sea level (Fig. 1 at altitude
= 0 m) and at the zero point of the Celsius temperature scale (0°C).
2) There is a similar definition of „standard conditions“ (USA) which refers to the 60°F point of the
Fahrenheit temperature scale (30 inch Hg = 1.016 bar, 60°F = 15.6°C). Unfortunately these conditions are
not equal to the „normal conditions“ in the metric system.
Fig. 1 Average Barometric Pressure in Function of Altitude

2.1.4 Kmol and Ideal Gas

To characterize the quantity of substances in context with chemical reactions the unit kmol is used.
One kmol means a certain number of molecules (Avogadro’s constant = 6.02 x 1026/kmol).
If the molecular weight of a compound is taken in kg it equals to 1 kmol of this substance. For example:
The molecular weight of CO2 is 44. Therefore 44 kg of CO2 are equal to 1 kmol (which contains 6.02 x
1026 molecules) of CO2.
One of the basic relations of chemistry and thermodynamics says that a certain number of 1 kmol of any
gas molecules takes always the same volume (at constant pressure and temperature). The formula of the
gas molecules does not have any influence on their volume in gaseous state.
To say this more precisely it must be added that this applies only for ideal gases. Gases at low partial
pressures and at temperatures above the critical point can be considered as ideal gases. All gases
occurring in context with this chapter can be considered as ideal gases with sufficient accuracy (approx.
0.1%).
This fact can be used by the following quantitative relationship:
¨ 1 kmol of an ideal gas takes a volume of 22.4 m3 at normal conditions (1.0133 bar, 0°C)
Or in short form:
¨ 1 kmol of gas = 22.4 Nm3
Note that even H2O and CO2 behave nearly like ideal gases as long as they occur in gas mixtures at low
partial pressures.
2.1.5 Conversion of the Volume of Ideal Gases
Ideal gases or mixtures of ideal gases behave according to the fundamental equation:
¨ pv = RT
(p = absolute pressure, V = volume, R = gas-constant, T = absolute temperature)
Therefore, volume conversions from condition 1 to condition 2 can be done easily by means of the ratios
of absolute temperature [K] and absolute pressure as follows:

Example: Convert V1 = 1 m3 at 350°C (623.16 K) and 0.9 bar to normal conditions:

This type of calculation is frequently used for practical gas flow calculations. However, for the
considerations within this paper it will not be required in the following.
2.1.6 Minimum Air and Air Factor
To perform a complete combustion a theoretical minimum amount of oxygen O2 min) is required,
depending on the type of fuel. The corresponding minimum quantity of air is called Amin:
Practically a combustion requires always slightly more air than the theoretical minimum Amin in order to
avoid local lack of O2 and unburnt products. The air factor „n“ is defined as the following ratio:

A is the effective air quantity, n must be always higher than 1 in order to maintain complete combustion.
2.2 Calorific Value
2.2.1 Gross and Net Calorific Value (CV)
The calorific value of a fuel sample is measured in a bomb calorimeter. The fuel sample and a surplus of
oxygen are ignited in the bomb and after combustion the amount of heat is measured. The bomb is
thereby cooled to room temperature level.
By cooling the calorimeter the water vapor is condensed and therefore the heat of water condensation
(2450 kJ/kg H2O at 20°C) is included in the resulting heat.
The direct result (amount of heat) obtained from the calorimeter is therefore always the so called gross
calorific value CVgross (in German: oberer Heizwert, Brennwert, Ho) of the fuel.
The gross value, however, is not very significant for common technical applications because the effect of
water condensation does usually not occur. Therefore the net calorific value (in German: unterer
Heizwert, Hu) value is calculated by subtracting the heat of condensation, as follows:
CVnet = CVgross - (water in combustion products) x 2450 [kJ/kg fuel]
The water in combustion products is calculated as follows:

H2O = H2Ofuel + 9 x Hfuel [kg/kg fuel]

hydrogen in fuel [kg/kg fuel]

Important Note: Within this chapter and also within the cement course chapter on Heat Balances the net
calorific value is used as reference. Unless otherwise noted, fuel energy or fuel heat always refers to net
calorific value.
2.2.2 Calculation of CV
2.2.2.1 Gaseous Fuels
If the gas components are known by analysis the calorific value can be calculated exactly by adding the
contributions of the pure gas components.
The gas analysis is given as volume % (which is the same as mole %) and the calorific value is usually
referred to one Nm3 (not kg of gas).

Gas Component Formula CV net

[MJ/Nm3]
Methane CH4 35.8
Ethane C2H6 63.8
Propane C3H8 91.3
Butane (gas) C4H10 118.8
Pentane (gas) C5H12 146.1
Ethylene C2H4 59.1
Propylene C3H6 86.1
Acetylene C2H2 56.1
Carbon monoxide CO 12.6
Hydrogen H2 10.8
Hydrogen sulfide H2S 23.2

Example:
Natural gas: CH4 = 90.5%
C2H6 = 2.0%
C3H8 = 0.5%
CO2 = 0.4%
N2 = 6.6%
 100.0%
CV = 0.905 x 35.8 + 0.02 x 63.8 + 0.005 x 91.3 = 34.1 MJ/Nm3
2.2.2.2 Liquid and Solid Fuels
Usual liquid and solid fuels (fossil fuel oil and coal) consist of complex organic compounds. Usually the
ultimate analysis or the elemental analysis (content of C, H, S, N, O) is available.
Strictly speaking it is impossible to calculate the exact calorific value of a fuel only from its elemental
composition without knowing the kind of its organic compounds. However, as long as fossil fuel oils and
coals are considered, the following approximation produces fairly accurate results:

CVnet » 34.8 x C + 93.9 x H + 10.5 x S 6.2 x N - 10.8 x 0 - 2.5 x W [MJ/kg]

C, H, S, N, O, W are the weight fractions [kg/kg fuel] of carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen and
water.
The above approximation produces also good results for other organic materials such as wood, paper
and peat. But is should not be used for extreme cases such as e.g. pure carbon or pure sulfur.
Note that for exact determination of the CV of fossil fuel oils and coals only the calorimeter method - and
not the above approximate calculation - can give the correct result.
2.2.3 Examples of Calorific Values
(Including also alternative fuels)

CV [MJ/kg] (net)
Pure polyethylene 46
Light oil 42
Heavy oil 40
Pure polystyrene 40
Pure rubber (without inert material) 36
Anthracite 34 High grade
Waste oils, various refinery wastes 30 to 40
Petcoke 33
Waste tires (with steel and inert material) 28 to 32
Bituminous coal (low ash) 29
Bituminous (high ash) 24
Acid sludge, acid tar (from oil refining) 16 to 22
Lignite (10% moisture) 16 to 21
Pot liners (from aluminium smelter) 20
PVC 19
Palm nut shells (10% moisture) 19 Medium grade
Pressed olive cake 18
Dried peat (10% moisture) 18
Fuller earth (from oil refining) 13 to 18
Dried wood, bark, saw dust (10% moisture) 16
Rice husks (10% moisture) 16
Shredder wastes 15
RDF (from domestic refuse, 10% moisture) 15
Cardboard, paper (air dry) 15 Low grade
Dried sewage sludge (10% moisture) 10
Domestic refuse (30% moisture) 8.5
Pure iron (heat of oxidation!, occurs e.g. in waste tires) 7.5

2.3 Combustion Calculations

2.3.1 Exact Calculations
The following calculations are based on the combustion equations (see 2.1.1) and some basic relations.
To demonstrate the calculation method, the simple example of combustion of pure carbon is given as
example.
2.3.1.1 Combustion of Pure Carbon (C)
The combustion of 1 kg of pure carbon (C) without any excess air (n = 1) is considered.
The combustion equation and the corresponding weights and volumes are as follows:

C + 02 ® C02
= 12 kg/kmol = 32 kg/kmol
= 22.4 Nm3/kmol = 44 kg/kmol
= 22.4 Nm3/kmol

The above equation refers to 1 kmol or 12 kg of C. The final results are wanted per 1 kg of C i.e. per 1 kg
of fuel.

¨ The minimum oxygen is:

O2min = 22.4 Nm3/12 kg = 1.87 Nm3/kg C
¨ Air contains 21% O2, therefore:
Amin = 1.87 Nm3/kg / 0.21 = 8.89 Nm3/kg C

The combustion products are only CO2 and N2 (coming from Amin):

CO2 = 22.4 Nm3/12 kg = 1.87 Nm3/kg C

N2 = Amin x 0.79 = 7.02 Nm3/kg C
Total combustion gas = Vmin = 8.89 Nm3/kg C
Calorific value of pure C = CV (from handbook) = 32.8 MJ/kg C

If Amin and Vmin are referred to the CV the following results are obtained:

Amin/CV = 0.271 Nm3/MJ

Vmin/CV = 0.271 Nm3/MJ

From this simple example it would appear that Amin = Vmin, but in general the Vmin will be a few percent
higher than Amin. Nevertheless the example of pure C gives already a fairly representative impression of
a typical combustion calculation.
2.3.1.2 General Case
In general a fuel is given either by its elemental composition or by its volume composition in case of
gases. Therefore two types of formulas are required (2.3.1.2.1 and 2.3.1.2.2) which are based either on
weight composition or on volume composition of the fuel.
Amin = Minimum air
Vmin = Minimum combustion air
2.3.1.2.1 Calculation based on Elemental Analysis / Weight Composition
C, H, S, N, O, H2O are the weight fractions (kg/kg fuel) of carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen and
water in the fuel.
Amin = 8.89 x C + 26.5 x H + 3.3 x S - 3.3 x 0 [Nm3/kg fuel]

Vmin = 0.79 x Amin + 0.8 x N + 1.87 x C

+ 0.7 x S + 11.2 x H + 1.24 x H2O
+ Amin x H2O air [Nm3/kg fuel]

The terms in the Vmin-formula mean:

¨ 0.79 x Amin + 0.8 x N ® N2 ü

¨ 1.87 x C ® CO2 ý dry gas
¨ 0.7 x S ® SO2 þ
¨ 11.2 x H + 1.24 x H2O+ ® H2O wet
+ Amin x H20 air

Example:

Coal: C = 71.0% Moisture of air = O

H = 4.0%
O = 6.0%
N = 1.5%
S = 1.0%
H2O = 0.5%
Ash = 16.0%
100.0%

Amin = 8.89 x 0.71 + 26.5 x 0.04 + 3.3 x 0.01- 3.3 x 0.06= 7.207 Nm3/kg coal

Vmin = 0.79 x Amin + 0.8 x 0.015 + 1.87 x 0.71+ 0.7 x 0.01 + 11.2 x 0.04 + 1.24 X 0.005
=
7.494 Nm3/kg coal

2.3.1.2.2 Calculation based on Volume (or Mole) Composition

(only for gaseous fuels)
The general formula of any compound (also inert gases) in the fuel gas is defined as:

Cc Hh Ss Oo Nn

Examples: CH4 ® c=1 h=4

C2H6 ® c=2 h=6
CO ® c=1 o=1
H2S ® h=2 s=1
N2 ® n=2

A fuel gas is a mixture of various compounds, each having a certain volume fraction of vf (Nm3/Nm3).
The combustion calculations need a summation of all compounds in the mixture, therefore the S (sigma)
sign appears in the equations.

The above two formulas apply for any type of gaseous compounds (combustible or even inert) and their
mixtures.
The terms in the Vmin-formula mean:

0.79 x Amin + S vf x (n/2) ® N2 ü

S vf x (c) ® CO2 ý dry gas
S vf x (s) ® SO2 þ
S vf x (h/2) + Amin x H2Oair ® H2O } wet
Example: 90% CH4 ® vf = 0.9 c = 1 h=4
4% C2H6 ® vf = 0.04 c=2 h =6
3% CO ® vf = 0.03 c=1 o=1
2% N2 ® vf = 0.02 n=2
1% O2 ® vf = 0.01 o=2

Composition of Vmin
The composition of Vmin (N2, CO2, SO2, H2O) can be easily calculated by identification of the terms of
the formula of Vmin.
The best way to show this is on the previous example of coal where a Vmin of 7.494 Nm3/kg coal was
obtained.

Comp. Calculation Term Nm3/kg coal % in Vmin

N2 0.79 x 7.207 + 0.8 x 0.015
(Amin) 5.706 76.1
CO2 1.87 x 0.71 1.327 17.7
SO2 0.7 x 0.01 0.007 0.1
H2O 11.2 x 0.04 + 1.24 x 0.005 0.454 6.1
Total 7.494 100%

Note: Due to the absorption of SO2 with cement raw meal the above calculation of SO2 will not produce
the true amount of SO2 in the gas of a cement kiln.
Fig. 2 shows typical compositions of Vmin for 6 common types of fuels.
Fig. 2 Typical Compositions of Vmin (for 6 common fuels)

2.3.2 Approximate Calculations

In the previous paragraph 2.3.1 the exact calculation procedures for Amin and Vmin are shown. In many
practical cases it is, however, not necessary to do exact calculations if approximations of sufficient
accuracy can be given.
Such approximates have been found by investigating a large number of different types of fuels (see HMC
report VA 81/4849/D).
For all fuels of practical use in the cement industry such as coal, fuel oil, natural gas and most of the
alternative fuels the following approximations for Amin and Vmin can be used:

Minimum air: Amin » 0.26 x CV

Minimum combustion gas (wet): Vmin » 0.28 x CV

where Amin resp. Vmin = [Nm3] and CV = [MJ]

Or expressed in words:
Each MJ (Megajoule) of combustion energy requires 0.26 Nm3 minimum air and produces 0.28 Nm3
minimum combustion gas.
By using the above approximations, a very quick determination of gas quantities is possible.
Note that no analysis of the fuel is required.
Furthermore, the above approximations can also be used if the CV of the fuel is not given expressively.
For example, if the specific heat consumption of a cement kiln is 3.5 MJ/kg clinker the specific Amin and
Vmin per kg clinker can be calculated directly:
¨ Amin = 3.5 x 0.26 = 0.91 Nm3/kg cli
¨ Vmin = 3.5 x 0.28 = 0.98 Nm3/kg cli
If the type of fuel is known the actual factors can be taken from the following table in order to obtain
somewhat more accurate results.

Type of Fuel Amin-Factor

(Nm3/MJ) Vmin-Factor
(Nm3/MJ)
Anthracite, cokeat 1% moisture 0.26 0.27
Bituminous coal
(low to medium volatile) at 1...2% moisture 0.26 0.28
Lignite (high volatile) at 10% moisture 0.26 0.29
Wood / Peat at 10...15% moisture 0.26 0.30
Light oil 0.26 0.29
Heavy oil (bunker oil) 0.26 0.28
Tar 0.26 0.28
Waste tires (rubber) 0.26 0.27
Natural gas (high CH4 content) 0.27 0.30
Natural gas (approx. 24% C2H6) 0.26 0.30

3. GAS FROM RAW MATERIAL

3.1 Gases from Dry Raw Meal
If cement raw meal is heated up, hydrate water and CO2 are released.
The true quantity of dry raw meal (not kiln feed) required to produce 1 kg of clinker is called R. Normally R
equals to approx. 1.55 kg/kg cli.
R must be calculated from the loss on ignition:

[kg/kg cli]

loss on ignition of raw meal in [kg/kg meal]

The above formula applies if the kiln dust is completely returned into the kiln. If some dust is discarded
(without return to kiln) the factor R increases accordingly.
The quantity of hydrate water released from dry raw meal is calculated as follows:

H2Ohyd = R x hydrate content x 1.24 [Nm3/kg cli]

(kg hydrate water/kg raw meal)

The quantity of CO2 released from dry raw meal is calculated as follows:

C02 = [R x (1 - hydrate content) - 1] x 0.509 [Nm3/kg cli]

(kg hydrate water /kg raw meal)

Normal dry cement raw meals release approximately the following gas quantities per one kg of clinker:

H2Ohyd » 0.01 Nm3/kg cli

CO2 » 0.27 Nm3/kg cli
Total » 0.28 Nm3/kg cli

In most cases it is sufficient to use the above approximation. If dust is discarded the above value must be
increased accordingly.
3.2 Water from Wet Raw Meal or from Raw Slurry
If w (kg/kg) means the moisture or slurry water content of the kiln feed, the amount of water vapor is
calculated as:

[Nm3/kg cli]

In case of a dry kiln the above quantity is usually negligible, but it is essential on a wet kiln. At a slurry
water content of e.g. 35% it amounts to 1.03 Nm3/kg clinker.
4. KILN GAS
4.1 Measurement of Exhaust Gas Composition
Within this section O2, CO2, CO and N2 are considered. Trace gases such as NOx and SO2 and
hydrocarbons belong to the scope of emission measurements and are usually in the order of less than
0.1% and are therefore not significant with regard to the main components (O2, CO2, CO, N2).
4.1.1 Gas Sampling
Although gas sampling may appear as one of the easiest things, it is in fact the source of more than 50%
of all measuring errors! Sampling can be done either continuously or by extracting a gas sample into a
rubber bladder.
The aim of sampling is to obtain a representative gas sample from a gas duct into the analyzer. The
possible problems and solutions in general are as follows:

Problem Solution
Gas is not homogeneous within the cross section of the gas duct, because gases do not mix well (sample
not representative) Sample the average of the total cross section (instead of one sampling point).

Avoid sampling points where poor upstream mixing seems obvious.

Prefer sampling points after fans (mixing effect of fan blades).

False air is entering into gas sampling system(too much O2 in gas sample) Check tightness of
sampling system, especially when sample is extracted from high underpressure.

Avoid small sampling tubing which may become clogged by dust (and produce high suction pressure at
low sample gas flow).

In case of spot sampling with rubber bladder: rinse bladder at least once with sample gas.
O2 may react with steel tube at > 400°C (too little O2 in sample) Use hot extraction tubes made of
sicromal, ceramics or quartz.
CO2 may be absorbed by dust and condensate (too little CO2 in sample) Use a filter directly at the hot
extraction point.

Keep sampling system free of dust and condensate(e.g. rubber bladder must be clean inside).

To a certain extent reliable sampling for CO2 will always be a problem as long as gas cooling is applied.
Long storage time in rubber bladder (too little CO2 and too much O2 due to diffusion) Analyze rubber
bladder after 30 min at the latest.

4.1.2 The Orsat Apparatus

An Orsat apparatus is shown in Fig. 3. A gas sample is filled into a burette volume of 100%. Step by step,
CO2, O2 and CO are absorbed by contacting the gas sample several times with the absorbing agent. The
absorbed gas volume is measured after each step in the burette.
Fig. 3 The Orsat Apparatus
It is important to maintain the following, correct sequence of absorption:

1) CO2 ® 1) KOH solution

2) O2 1) ® 2) pyrogallic acid / KOH
3) CO 1) ® 2) Cu2 Cl2 solution

In order to avoid measuring errors the following hints are useful:

1) Check tightness of Orsat apparatus first.
2) Use fresh absorption liquids.
3) While taking a reading always hold liquid level in burette and expansion tank at same height
(constant pressure).
4) Check O2 absorption by measuring ambient air (21% O2).
¨ Advantages of the Orsat:
· Measuring principle is very clear and simple
· The Orsat is available (or at least known) in every cement factory
¨ Disadvantages of the Orsat:
· Due to is principle a continuous measurement is impossible
· Analyzing is time consuming
· Although the Orsat can measure CO it is impossible to detect small traces of CO £ 0.1%.
Therefore the CO result is only useful in cases of „bad“ combustion producing about 0.3 to 1% CO.
4.1.3 Other Gas Analyzers
In most cases continuous gas analyzers which are permanently installed are used for process control in a
cement kiln (see chapter Exhaust Gas Analysis). Such permanent analyzers measure only at one location
and are not flexible enough for an investigation of the complete kiln system (involving a large number of
measuring points).
More and more portable gas analyzers are available on the market. They can usually measure O2, CO
and combustibles continuously. At fairly low costs (less than $4’000) a quite handy and useful equipment
can be purchased. For an investigation on a cement kiln this is virtually the ideal tool to perform extensive
and quick measurements at various locations in the plant.
In the following a few important measuring principles are compared.
Frequent Measuring Principles for O2
¨ Paramagnetic effect of O2
· Either thermomagnetical or magneto-mechanical principle is used.
· Thermomagnetical principle is cross-sensitive to gases having other heat conductivities than O2
e.g. CO2.
· Magneto-mechanical principle with cell containing movable „dumb-bell“ is not cross-sensitive to
CO2 (see Fig. 4A).
· Analyzers based on the paramagnetic effect are the most common type of permanent installation
in the cement industry.
Fig. 4A Frequent Measuring Principles for Gases -
Paramagnetic O2 Sensor

¨ Electrochemical voltage effect of hot zirconium oxide (Fig. 4B)

· Working temperatures above 600°C.
· Measuring the voltage of an electrochemical cell, according to the equation:

[V]

(R = Gas constant, T = [K], n = 4, F = Faraday constant, PO2 = partial pressure of oxygen)

· Logarithmic output signal, depending on PO2.
· Principle is seldom used.
Fig. 4B Frequent Measuring Principles of Gases -
Zirconiumoxide Cell

¨ „Self consuming“ electromechanical sensors (Fig. 4C)

· Basic design of such a measuring cell is similar to a normal battery. Cell consists of anode,
electrolyte and air cathode (see Fig. 4C).
· O2 enters via diffusion barrier to cathode.
· At the air-cathode O2 is reduced to OH. Thereby an electrical current is produced which is
proportional to the O2 content and is used as output signal.
· Above reaction causes an irreversible consumption of the anode (lead). Therefore lifetime of the
cell is limited.
· Practical lifetime of such a cell is about 1 year (even if cell is not in use a certain aging occurs).
· Reliable measurements without major cross-sensitivities.
· Calibration only with air (zero is self adjusting).
· Application: Portable low cost analyzers.
· Similar applications: Other electrochemical sensors have been developed for CO, SO2 and NOx
working on similar principles. By special design and compensation the effect of „self-consumption“ could
be avoided. These analyzers are widely used for portable applications but not for permanent emission
control.
Fig. 4C Frequent Measuring Principles for Gases -
Electrochemical Cell

4.1.4 Reference to Dry or Wet

The most frequent type of gas sampling includes a cooling of the gas to approx. 0°C (or at least to room
temperature). By this cooling the water vapor is condensed and the measurement in the gas analyzer
refers to dry gas.
The reference to dry gas will be considered as „normal case“ in this paper (unless otherwise noted).
The „classic analyzer“ - the Orsat apparatus - refers always to dry gas. For this particular analyzer even
some residual water content in the gas sample will not affect the final result, the reading means exactly
the dry composition (in this case it would even be wrong to make any correction for residual water vapor
in the gas sample!).
Note that there are exceptional cases e.g. where gas samples are not condensed but introduced directly
in a hot zirconium oxide cell. In such a case the result will refer to wet gas. Furthermore sampling systems
without gas coolers but with dilution of the hot gas instead (thus avoiding any water condensation) exist,
but they are hardly used for O2, CO, CO2.
Summarizing, sampling with gas cooling and reference to dry gas is considered as normal, i.e. is used for
about 99% of all practical measurements.
4.1.5 Determination of Water Content
Since all measuring systems described above are not able to measure water, other methods have to be
used if water really has to be measured. Important methods are:
¨ Two temperatures method:
· Measuring of wet bulb and dry bulb temperature.
· If the gas temperature is < 150°C wet and dry bulb temperature can be measured directly in the
gas duct. If the gas temperature is > 150°C an extraction of the gas and cooling down to < 150°C is
required.
· Evaluation of gas moisture according to calculation sheet 32599e (see measuring techniques part
of cement course).
· Method is preferred due to its simplicity, however accuracy at high moisture contents may not be
always sufficient.
¨ Condensation method:
· A gas sample is extracted for a certain time and cooled by ice water, thus water is condensed.
· The remaining dry gas extracted is measured by a volume counter.
· By measuring the weight of the condensate the moisture content of the gas can be calculated.
4.2 Immediate Calculations from Gas Composition
4.2.1 Dew Point
From the water content the dew point can be calculated.
¨ Vf [Nm3/Nm3w] is the volume fraction of water vapor in the wet gas
¨ Ptot [bar] is the total pressure (usually assumed as 1.0133 bar)
By expressing the vapor pressure in form of a numerical equation the following dew point formula was
developed for precise calculations:

[C]

Example:
Vf = 0.10 Nm3/Nm3w Ptot = 1.0133 bar

The corresponding inverse function giving the saturation pressure of water (PW) is as follows:

[bar]

t = 0...120°C, max. deviation ± 0.03%.

A section of the above function is shown in Fig. 5 which can be used for graphical evaluation of the dew
point.
Fig. 5 Determination of Dew Point

4.2.2 Air Factor n

The air factor n can be calculated precisely from the gas composition by considering the N2, according to:

By using the O2 and N2 content of the gas the following important formula can be derived:

If CO is present the following, general formula applies:

Note that e.g. the CO2 from raw meal will not affect the n although it does affect the gas composition (the
ratio O2/N2 is constant when CO2 is added to the gas).
Therefore this formula is very useful and applicable for any case. On the other hand O2, CO and N2 are
required as inputs which needs a complete Orsat analysis (N2 is the rest composition after absorption of
O2, CO and CO2).
Example:
O2 = 4% N2 = 68% (CO = O)

4.2.3 Combustion Efficiency

Unburned gases are a sign of incomplete combustion. The most important unburned gas is CO, whereas
hydrocarbons are usually < 0.1% on a cement kiln and can be neglected with regard to energy losses.
If only CO is known the loss due to incomplete combustion is:

Q= (dry gas quantity) x CO x 12.6 [MJ]

[Nm3] [Nm3/Nm3]

Example:
On a cement kiln the fuel combustion is 3.3 MJ/kg clinker, the dry exhaust gas quantity is 1.3 Nm3/kg
clinker and the CO content = 0.2%.
q = 1.3 x 0.002 x 12.6 = 0.033 MJ/kg cli
Relative loss =
Some gas analyzers have also a combustible sensor based on a catalytic combustion of the sample gas.
Such a sensor responses to all types of combustible gases (CO, H2, CH4, C2H6 etc.). Although the main
combustible component is not CH4 (methane) but rather CO it is common to express the result as „CH4
equivalent“.
If the total of combustibles is given as their „CH4 equivalent“ the loss is:

Q= (dry gas quantity) x CH4 x 35.8 [MJ]

[Nm3] [Nm3/Nm3]

4.2.4 Gas Density

The gas density at normal conditions can be calculated by a simple mix calculation by using the following
densities:

Gas M
[kg/kmol] Density*
[kg/Nm3]
O2 32.0 1.429
CO2 44.0 1.964
CO 28.0 1.250
„N2“** 28.15 1.257
H2O 18.0 0.804

* Density in a gas mixture (considered) as ideal gas

** Not as pure N2 but as „rest“ in the air (including also Ar and trace gases)
Note: For the calculation of the true gas density all concentrations (O2, CO2, CO, N2, H2O) are to be
referred to wet gas here.

Example:
Exhaust gas density of a suspension preheater kiln with coal firing:

Gas
component Composition
of dry gas
[Vol%] Composition
of wet gas
[Vol%]
O2
CO2
CO
N2 4%
31%
0%
65% 0.9 x 4 = 3.6%
0.9 x 31 = 27.9%

0.9 x 65 = 58.5% ü
ý
ú
þ
100 - 10 = 90%
H2O -- 10 %
Total 100% 100 %

Density = 0.036 x 1.429 + 0.279 x 1.964

 + 0.585 x 1.257 + 0.10 x 0.804 = 1.415 kg/Nm3
(at normal conditions)

4.3 Calculation of Exhaust Gas Quantities

4.3.1 Firing / Hot Gas Generator
The following calculation applies for any type of firing where gases are coming only from fuel combustion
and excess air (no gases from raw meal).
Problem: The fuel consumption Q = [MJ/h] of the firing is known and the complete exhaust gas
analysis (CO2, O2, CO, N2) is given. By means of this information the gas flow [Nm3/h] shall be
calculated.
Solution: Calculate first the n according to 4.2.2:

The gas flow V [Nm3/h] is then:

V= Q [Vmin + (n - 1) Amin] [Nm3/h]
Vmin and Amin are in [Nm3/MJ] and can either be calculated exactly according to 2.3.1 or just simply by
introducing the approximations according to 2.3.2, namely:
¨ Vmin » 0.28 Nm3/MJ
¨ Amin » 0.26 Nm3/MJ
If the complete gas analysis is not known but only the O2 concentration (dry) a further approximation for
the dry amount of Vmin, namely 0.25 Nm3/MJ, has to be introduced which results in the following
approximation formula:

[Nm3/h]
[MJ/h] O2 ref. to dry

Note: If the O2 was based on wet gas the above formula would become even more simple, namely:

4.3.2 Cement Kiln

On a cement kiln it is common practice to work with specific quantities referred to 1 kg of clinker, therefore
the fuel consumption is expressed in q [MJ/kg cli] and V means here [Nm3/kg cli].
The general calculation formula is:

V= q (Vmin + (n -1) x Amin) + (gas from RM) [Nm3/kg cli]

[MJ/kg cli] [Nm3/kg cli]

n is calculated from the complete gas composition according to 4.2.2.

If only O2 concentrations are available the following approximations can be used for dry kilns:

- from combustion 0.28 * q [Nm3/kg cli]

- from raw meal 0.28 [Nm3/kg cli]
- excess air plus false air [Nm3/kg cli]

Total = V = 0.28 (q+1) + (0.28+0.25xq) x [Nm3/kg cli]

[MJ/kg cli]

In case of wet raw meal or for wet kilns additional water has to be added (see 3.2) to the above result.
The above approximation can be used in form of diagram (Fig. 6)
Fig. 6 Quick Determination of Kiln Exhaust Gas Quantity
Example:
Dry kiln, q = 3.3 MJ/kg cli, O2 = 3.5%
Total gas = 0.28 (3.3+1) + (0.28+0.25x3.3) x = 1.425 Nm3/kg cli
Three typical results for cement kilns are shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7 Typical Exhaust Gas Quantities for Three Cement Kiln Systems

4.4 Calculation of the CO2 Content of Cement Kiln Exhaust Gas

4.4.1 Introduction
If no measured CO2 concentration is available it is possible to complete the gas analysis with a calculated
CO2 concentration. This can be useful e.g. for calculation of density or specific heat.
It is possible to calculate the CO2 content at any point in the exhaust gas system (suspension preheater,
cooling tower, raw mill, filter) of a cement kiln if the corresponding O2 concentration is known.
The calculation is based on two main facts:
1) The CO2 balance applies (CO2 comes from combustion and from raw meal)
2) Starting from the O2 concentration the corresponding dilution with air can be quantified.
In addition a few other preconditions are to be observed here:
¨ Reference is made to dry gas composition.
¨ The assumption is made that all CO2 from raw meal is in the kiln gas (i.e. after complete
calcination).
¨ No gas is lost or extracted from the gas stream under consideration (e.g.: an upstream extraction
of a bypass gas is excluded here).
¨ For numerical calculations the following approximations are used:
· CO2 from raw meal » 0.27 Nm3/kg cli
· N2 from combustion at n = 1
N2 = 0.79 x Amin + N2 from fuel
= 0.79 x 0.26 + 0.0015 » 0.207 Nm3/MJ
(this approximation is very accurate for all types of fuels)
4.4.2 Maximum CO2 Content
In a first step the influence of dilution (or excess air) is assumed as zero (0% O2). Therefore a theoretical,
maximum CO2 content can be calculated from the CO2 balance.
The dry gas contains only CO2 and N2 which can be calculated as follows:

CO2 = 0.27 + cf x q [Nm3/kg cli]

N2 = 0.207 x q [Nm3/kg cli]

q [MJ/kg cli] = specific heat consumption

cf [Nm3/MJ] = CO2 from fuel, referred to CV
cf depends on the type of fuel and can be calculated according to paragraph 2.3.1.2 (by considering only
the CO2 term in the Vmin formula).
Typical values for cf are:

Coal = 0.050 Nm3 CO2/MJ

Fuel oil = 0.039 Nm3 CO2/MJ
Natural gas = 0.028 Nm3 CO2/MJ

The concentration CO2max is calculated from the above quantities of CO2 and N2:

[Nm3/Nm3]
4.4.3 True CO2 Content
Due to dilution of the gas with air and due to possible formation of some CO the true CO2 content is:

[Nm3/Nm3]

CO2, O2, CO = [Nm3/Nm3]

Fig. 8 shows a graphical mode of evaluation of a gas composition based on the formulas given in this
paragraph.
Fig. 8 Relation Heat Consumption/Exhaust Gas Composition for Cement Kilns (CO2 = 0.27 Nm3/kg cli)

Notes:
1) Although it is theoretically possible to calculate also the specific heat consumption from a given
gas composition (backward calculation) this procedure is not recommended. In most of the practical
cases this will be quite inaccurate because of the lack of a precise gas composition (CO2 readings are
often too low due to systematic sampling error).
2) It is not recommended to introduce calculated CO2 values in the n-formula according to 4.2.2,
because „calculation with calculated values“ may finally end in a somewhat doubtful result. The air factor
n should therefore only be calculated from a measured gas composition (or alternative calculations based
on O2 only should be used).
5. FALSE AIR INVESTIGATIONS
5.1 Introduction
Underpressures at various locations in the gas system may vary from 0 to -100 mbar. Leakages of the
equipment can therefore cause considerable amounts of false air which increase the gas flow.
In addition to the obvious increase of gas flow, false air can also be detrimental for the heat consumption.
If the exhaust gas fan (or the mill fan) is running at full capacity any additional false air causes a reduction
of the kiln production capacity. Shortage of production may become an essential financial loss for the
cement factory. Therefore measures against false air must be taken.
The first step is always to locate the major leakage points. For this purpose it is necessary to measure a
complete O2 profile of the kiln system. This may e.g. include:
¨ suspension preheater
¨ cooling tower
¨ kiln fan
¨ raw mill
¨ E.P.
¨ mill fan
As already mentioned in 4.1.3 such a profile can be measured easily with a portable O2 analyzer. A large
number of sampling points and repeated checks can be realized.
Proper sampling is essential for such an investigation! During such a measurement the operating
conditions of the system should be constant in order to obtain a consistent O2 profile. Proceed quickly
from one sampling point to the next and finally re-check all O2 concentrations if they are really stable.
5.2 Evaluation
The measured O2 profile may already give a qualitative impression of the tightness of the gas system.
For a quantitative information in form of real gas flows (Nm3/h) the approximation formula from 4.3.2 is
used here (because it is based only on O2).
If m denotes the clinker production in [kg/h] the complete formula is:

V = m [0.28 x (q + 1) + (0.25 X q + 0.28) ] [Nm3/h]

[kg/h] [MJ/kg cli]
V is the gas flow at the measuring point. The amount of false air is easily calculated as the increase of V
between two measuring points.
Note:
V does not include water evaporation e.g. from raw slurry or from a cooling tower. It is also obvious from
the formula that V will not be influenced by any water evaporation because O2 is based on dry gas
composition.
For the purpose of false air calculation it is not required to add these additional water quantities. It would
be even wrong to add such quantities to V before calculating the false air as difference between two V-
valves.
5.3 Example of an Investigation
On a dry suspension preheater kiln with cooling tower and roller mill in combined operation the O2 profile
was checked by means of 5 sampling points.
The clinker production is 100 t/h with a specific consumption of 3400 kJ/kg cli.
Fig. 9 shows the evaluation of the results by calculating the V [Nm3/h] for every sampling point.
Fig. 9 False Air Investigation on a Kiln System

V equals to the true wet exhaust gas quantity at the sampling points 1 and 2. For the points 3, 4 and 5 the
amount of water vapor from cooling tower and the amount of water evaporated in the raw mill is not
included in V.
The false air flows are simply calculated as the increase of V.
The final result gives the amounts of false air inleak (Nm3/h) for each section. These values are needed
in order to evaluate the possible potential for optimization.
Conclusion:
For the example according to Fig. 9 the exhaust gas quantity after preheater is 145’800 Nm3/h which is
finally mixed with up to 101’700 Nm3/h or 70% of false air when it reaches the chimney. Therefore clear
optimization potentials exist in the area of the cooling tower, the raw mill and the electrofilter.

C07 - Alternative Fuels

Use of Alternative Fuels

A. Obrist
PT 96/14024/E (Modification 2000)
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TYPES OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS
3. UTILIZATION IN CEMENT KILNS
3.1 List of Applications
3.2 Feedpoints for Alternative Fuels
3.3 Substitution effect and potential capacity loss
3.4 Supply and Inlet Control
4. EMISSIONS IN CONTEXT WITH ALTERNATIVE FUELS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 General Features of Cement Kiln Systems
4.3 Special rules regarding emission behaviour on cement kilns
5. ADVANTAGES / DISADVANTAGES
6. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
6.1 Waste Tires
6.2 Domestic Refuse / RDF
6.3 Burning of Contaminated Waste Oil
6.4 Burning pure waste oil
6.5 Burning of Waste Wood at Rekingen
6.6 Mixed examples

SUMMARY
The use of alternative fuels (AF) in cement kilns can save costs and contribute to the solution of
environmental problems. The paper on hand concentrates on technical and environmental aspects.
Rules on how to use alternative fuels and possible impacts are given. Practical examples are attached
(flowsheets).
1. INTRODUCTION
¨ Burning of alternative fuels (AF) in cement kilns offers unique advantages from an environmental
point of view (high temperatures, long retention, no solid residues, no increase of emission, overall
reduction of CO2 emission).
¨ Using alternative fuels saves costs. Two main factors contribute to this
1) Thermal substitution rate (there are technical limits)
2) Low or even negative energy price (USD per GJ) for AF’s
¨ Logically only fuels that are significantly cheaper than conventional fuels (USD per GJ) can create
cost savings. However, even if AF’s are cheaper all the additional costs involved have to be considered to
make it profitable (preparation, additional production costs, maintenance, reduction of OEE, etc.)
¨ Within the Holcim Group 52 plants are using significant amounts of AF. The average thermal
substitution rate of all 105 plants is 12.3% (1998).
The fuel cost substitution rate (which is not the same as thermal substitution rate) is not yet being
reported and the difficulty is to get an objective and fair consideration of all additional costs involved.
From the basic principle cost substitution rates of over 100% are possible at negative fuel prices, but so
far very exceptional.
2. TYPES OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS
By definition, fuels, which are not traded in the normal fuel market, are considered as "alternative fuels".
Petcoke e.g. is not classified as “alternative fuel” and is listed in a separate application list (not treated
here).
Alternative fuels can be roughly divided into solid and liquid fuels (gaseous is negligible).
Whether it is simple or difficult to use an alternative fuel depends much on its physical properties. E.g. it
may be very simple to use waste oil which has been purified by the supplier. On the other hand it is
impossible to use e.g. raw domestic refuse directly as solid fuel, because it is of poor quality and very
inhomogeneous. The only practical way to burn it in a cement kiln is a sophisticated pre-treatment to
produce RDF (refuse derived fuel).
Table (1) shows a list of alternative fuels in the order of their CV compared to conventional fuels. The
calorific value alone does not directly indicate the potential to save costs. E.g. waste tires are as good as
coal from the viewpoint of CV but require expensive handling and tend to cause negative impacts on the
kiln process, so an adequate compensation must be included in the price (disposal fee).
Table 1 Various Alternative and Conventional Fuels,
grouped according to their CV
(*= conventional fuel)

MaterialCV [MJ/kg]
net
Pure polyethylene 3) 46
* Light oil 42
* Heavy oil 40
Tar (by-product) 38
Pure rubber (without inert material) 36
* Anthracite 34
Aluminium metal 1) 31
Waste oils, various refinery wastes 30 to 40
* Petcoke 33
Waste tires 28 to 32
* Bituminous coal (low ash) 29
* Bituminous coal (high ash) 24
Liquid mix (CSS from SCORIBEL or SYNFUEL from Safety Kleen) 20 to 30
Landfill gas 16 to 20 (MJ/Nm3)
Acid sludge, acid tar (from oil reprocessing) 16 to 22
* Lignite (10% moisture) 16 to 21
Pot liners (from aluminium smelter) 20
PVC 3) 19
Palm nut shells (10% moisture) 19
Pressed olive cake 18
Dried wood, bark, saw dust (10% moisture) 16
Rice husks (10% moisture) 16
Car shredder wastes 15
RDF (from domestic refuse, 10% moisture) 15
Animal meal 15
Cardboard, paper (air dry) 15
Impregnated saw dust (25% moisture) 10 to 12
Dried sewage sludge (10% moisture) 10
Fuller’s earth (from oil purification, LD actual) 10
Domestic refuse (30% moisture) 8.5
Dried sewage sludge (30% moisture) 7.5
Pure iron 2) 7.5

1) Al metal may occur e.g. in composite packaging wastes and is oxidised to Al2O3
2) Fe metal occurs e.g. in waste tires and is oxidised to Fe2O3
3) Usually not in pure form, but contained in mixed plastics
3. UTILIZATION IN CEMENT KILNS
3.1 List of Applications
Practical experience and practical applications are the key items in the field of alternative fuels. It is
important to know where practical applications or tests have been realized and obtaining the experience
from such cases.
At HMC/TPT a database on practical applications or test or projects in context with alternative fuels is
used and updated regularly. It includes more than 200 plants inside and outside of the Holcim Group. A
typical printout for the first few examples looks as follows:

Fig. 1 Holcim Alternative Fuels

3.2 Feedpoints for Alternative Fuels

Fig. 2 Feedpoints for AF

Regarding the selection of feedpoints the following comments apply:

¨ Solid fuels of large size tend to produce more combustion problems especially when pushed to
high substitution rates. So the practical substitution rates are often below the above optimum figures.
Remedy is possible by better preparation (size reduction), if economically feasible.
¨ In exceptional cases solid fuels can be transferred into a combustible gas by means of a process
integrated gasifier. The gasifier is then the “ultimate preparation” which allows a comparatively easy
burning. Since such solutions are expensive they are reserved to special applications (the example of tire
gasification is mentioned in this paper).
¨ The feed point via kiln feed is forbidden because of the emission problems during preheating
(VOC, CO). This feed point is reserved for alternative materials with no organics. The only exception
would be kiln systems where the kiln feed enters the combustion zone without preheating (one stage
precalciner kiln at FC) or kilns with VOC removal system (carbonfilter SG, oxidiser at DU).

Fig. 3 Feed Points for Alternative Fuels to Cement Kilns

Regarding the different kiln systems the following rules apply:

A Circulation Phenomena
¨ Kiln systems with cyclon suspension preheater and without bypass are most sensitive to
circulating phenomena. If the following criteria are not respected, the AF use will cause severe problems
or will fail
- Keep total chlorine input below 200 – 300 mg/kg clinker (from all fuels and raw materials). If
this limit is exceeded a bypass is required. The cyclone preheater without bypass is not forgiving
excessive Cl input, it will just plug.
- Keep sulfur cycles under control! Unlike Cl the most critical factor is not the possible sulfur
input by AF but the impact of poor AF combustion on sulfur volatilisation. This will promote a high
sulfur cycle and sulfur pluggings. Remedies: improve combustion, higher O2 at kiln inlet, enhanced
preheater cleaning.
¨ Kiln systems with grate preheater (Lepol) are of similar sensitivity to circulating phenomena as
cyclone preheater kilns. Condensation of volatile elements in the nodule bed on the preheater can disturb
its permeability and thus the kiln operation.
¨ Long dry kilns or long wet kilns are more forgiving in terms of circulating phenomena as they have
no critical narrow cross sections. However, rings and build-ups in the rotary kiln also occur but it takes
longer until they grow to a critical size. If the kiln system works with 100% dust reintroduction the
sustainable chlorine limit is the same as on a cyclone preheater kiln (200 – 300 mg/kg clinker).
The difference to the cyclone preheater kiln is that it is easy to realize a valve for chlorine on a wet kiln if
the kiln is equipped with an EP dedusting. This allows to extract a highly enriched fine dust selectively
that removes chlorine effectively when being discarded. Like that up to 5000 mg/kg cli chlorine input can
be handled. In this case the discarded dust causes an additional disposal problem, because it cannot be
added to the cement due to the chlorine limit for cement (0.1% Cl).

Chlorine limit
Regarding the chlorine input the following diagram helps to get a quick overview of what can be accepted
as total input if then chlorine would come only from AFR (whether it’s a Fuel or a Raw material does not
matter here).
The following limits apply:
Limit A: Normal SP kiln with completely closed dust loop
Limit B: SP kiln with some 20% bypass or wet kiln discarding medium dust quantities
Limit C: Maximum possible for wet kiln discarding high dust or SP kiln with 100%
bypass

Example:
An AFR with 1% Cl at a relative input of 10 g AFR per kg clinker creates an input of 100 mg Cl/kg cli,
which is not critical (assuming no other inputs of Cl).

Fig. 4 Chlorine Input by AFR

B Temperature and gas residence line
If stable toxic organic compounds in AF’s are an issue the main kiln features for their destruction have to
be known.
¨ Main firing
- Flame temperature 1800 – 2000°C
- Total gas residence time in rotary kiln depends on kiln system as follows
- short kiln (2 support) approx. 3 sec.
- normal SP/PC kiln more than 5 sec.
- long wet or dry kiln more than 10 sec.

So typically a gas residence time of approx. 5 sec. above 1200°C can be expected.
¨ Secondary firing (no PC), with unextended riser duct 1 sec. above 820°C
¨ Precalciner with tertiary air 2-4 sec. above 860°C
(in case of hot spot design peaks up to 1200°C)

For optimum combustion and safe destruction of stable organics only the main firing shall be used.
Example: waste oil that is contaminated with traces of PCB.
Other feedpoints are reserved for less critical AF’s or if they are used for critical substances tests may
become necessary. To avoid extensive tests it is often easier to select the main firing.
Finally the above temperatures are not valid for start up or upset conditions so critical AF’s should only be
used under normal operating conditions.
3.3 Substitution effect and potential capacity loss

Introduction
If low grade fuels are used to substitute high grade conventional fuels (coal, oil, gas) the kiln will react
with certain effects that will increase the thermal consumption and decrease the maximum kiln capacity.
Both phenomena are related to each other.
If the energy costs for AF’s are low or even negative one may think the increase in heat consumption is
not that negative because the additional consumption can be covered with low cost AF. This is only half
the truth. If maximum production is required at the same time every ton of clinker that cannot be produced
means a financial loss. Roughly every one % increase in heat consumption also means one % loss in
potential kiln capacity. And if kiln availability is lower due to AF’s the OEE can decrease even further.

Fig. 5 Conventional Fuel versus AF

Factors for increased heat consumption

Why can AF’s increase the thermal losses on a cement kiln system and thus create “induced losses”?
There is a defined number of reasons that contribute to such effects as follows:
1) High water content in AF
A high water content increases both exhaust gas quantity and exhaust gas temperature.
Consequence: increased heat loss in the exhaust gas that needs to be compensated by more fuel.
2) High ash content in AF
A high ash content reduces the amount of kiln feed that passes through the preheating zone and
decreases the heat recovery by kiln feed. The exhaust gas temperature increases.
Consequence: increased exhaust gas loss that needs to be compensated by more fuel.
Note: the same effect happens if cold raw material is added directly into the precalciner.
3) Reduced combustion properties
Certain AF’s have poor combustion properties because of too coarse granulometry. Depending on the
control strategy this can mean increased CO losses or increased O2 level to compensate this.
Example: whole tires at kiln inlet
Consequence: No matter what the strategy is, the final result is always a higher energy loss in the
exhaust gas, which has to be compensated by more fuel.
4) Fluctuating AF feed (at good combustion properties)
Fluctuations in AF energy input can result from
- Inhomogeneous AF properties (CV)
- Fluctuations of the dosing rate due to more difficult handling properties
Both items have the same impact as for item 3). What happens if a temporary excess of energy input
occurs? Either a CO loss is generated or the O2 has to be set so high that no CO is generated.
Consequence: same as in case 3).
(The difference to case 3) is that this can happen even with fuels that have good combustion properties.)
Example: poorly homogenized liquids or poor performance of dosing system.
5) Cold air introduction
Solid coarse AF usually need a high amount of air for pneumatic injection or an air leakage can occur at a
poorly sealed feed chute for AF. This has the same effect as an increase of the primary air on a burner.
Consequence: Inleak of additional cold air (due to AF) causes higher fuel consumption.
6) More circulation phenomena due to AF
Circulation phenomena do not only occur because AF can introduce circulating elements but also be a
result of poor combustion (local CO formation). Although the evaporation and condensation of circulating
elements induces a heat transport from the hot zone to the colder zones, the direct effect on balance heat
consumption is not that critical. What really disturbs is the unstable kiln operation, which results in
reduced availability and higher average fuel consumption.
Consequence: reduced availability due to unstable operation/stoppages and increased average fuel
consumption.

The majority of the above factors (1, 2, 4 and 5) can be quantified of predicted and the other factors are
based on experience. (One of the services that can be provided by HMC/TPT.)
Practical substitution effects (examples):
- Liquids with < 10% H2O and good homogeneity 95 – 100%
- Very low grade waste as raw domestic refuse 70% or lower
So the substitution effect would be typically between 70 – 100% as long as the applications are
approached in a engaged and professional way and no unusual difficulties occur. For low grade AF (high
ash, high water, coarse, inhomogeneous) the lower limit of 70 % would be typical.

Conclusion
1. The potential fuel substitution value of an AF (USD/GJ) cannot be calculated by just using its net
CV. A reduced effect of typically 70 – 100% can occur. This is only on basis of immediate additional
thermal losses (not yet taking into account other costs that emerge when using AF).
2. When reporting the true heat consumption of a kiln, we have to accept higher consumption when
using low grade AF's. Manipulating CV's for AF to get the same consumption (on paper) is physically
incorrect and not a good reporting practise.
3. The potential capacity loss when using AF’s is directly linked to the % increase in heat
consumption. Increased heat consumption and possibly also reduced kiln availability can have an
important impact on OEE.

Fig. 6 Factors for Increased Heat Consumption

3.4 Supply and Inlet Control

3.4.1 Organisation of supply
To get AF to the cement plant can be basically done in two ways:
1) Get AF directly from a waste source.
2) Get AF through a specialised company that prepares an adequate waste blend for the cement.
Both ways are being used. The possibility 1) is adequate for certain wastes that can be used with
minimum or no pre-treatment before shipped to the cement plant. A standard example would be tires.
The possibility 2) is a more professional approach, which involves also better integration in the whole
waste market. Specialized companies emerged in the previous years and their number is still growing.
Classical examples were
- SCORI (France)
- SCORIBEL (Belgium/Obourg)
- SYSTECH (USA/Lafarge)
- SAFETY KLEEN (USA/partly active for Holnam)
With the exception of Safety Kleen all these organisations were controlled by the cement industry.
The new companies that have emerged within Holcim recently are mostly orientated on the
SCORIBEL/Obourg model. From a technical viewpoint of a cement plant these companies provide the
following functions:
- Allocating adequate waste categories to the cement plant
- Control of properties
- Preparation/pretreatment
(in particular blending/homogenising)
The preparation of waste into a useful cement kiln AF is done externally. This seems to become the
preferred approach. The supply companies within Holcim have a common platform: the VESTA Forum.
3.4.2 Delivery control
A delivery control at the cement plant is essential. In case of hazardeous wastes this is anyway a must
(given by the permit) and this does not need to be explained further.
What is less obvious is that even harmless or non-hazardeous AF’s need to be checked when delivered
to the cement plant. The problem is that AF’s can be contaminated with undesirable inpurities. Whether
this happens intentionally or not, it needs to be excluded.
Examples:
¨ Waste oil
The original motor oil would not be critical from its properties but the waste product that is finally delivered
to the cement plant may be contaminated, e.g. with
- Solvents (a small quantity of solvents decreases the flash point drastically and thus the safety can
become a problem)
- PCB (PCB contaminated oils have a high disposal fee and the cement kiln could be abused to get
rid of them cheaply, PCB is not detectable by simple test methods)

¨ Waste tires
When accepting waste tires it is mandatory to have a visual delivery control and the receiving area must
not allow uncontrolled access for various suppliers. Some plants that believed they could do it without any
control finally paid a high price because they were abused as a dumping area for non usable sizes, rims
and other materials (for which they had to pay for the disposal).

¨ Chlorine
It happened from time to time that suppliers came up with new solid waste mixes (RDF) or mixed plastics
where they claimed very low chlorine contents. This is not always true, but difficult to disprove. There is in
fact a problem that sampling of solid RDF is hardly representative and the chlorine analysis are often
lower than the average bulk. So do not believe, but check what you get for chlorine, it could hurt your kiln
operation.

3.4.3 Check-list for Properties of Waste Fuels

Table 2 Checklist for Properties of Waste Fuels

· Type of waste Name, trade name origin

· Physical state:
  solid
  liquid
  gaseous
  solid/liquid
Size, form, grindability
viscosity at ...°C,
impurities
mixing proportions
· Density kg/m3
· Calorific value (net) MJ/kg
· Proximate analysis Moisture, ash, volatiles, Cfix
· Ultimate analysis C, H, O, N, S
· Halogens Cl, Br, F
· Ash composition CaO, SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, K2O, Na2O, P2O5, etc
· Heavy metals Hg, Cd, Tl, Be, As, Co, Cr, Pb, Zu, V, etc.
· Flashpoint °C
· Explosivity non-explosive
· Toxicity toxic /non toxic, safety precautions, warnings
· Legal restrictions containing transport and storage
· Storage Chemical or natural degradation, putrefaction phenomena, segregations, precipitations,
· Corrosivity Construction materials required
· Mixing possibilities Mixing with oil, water, solvents
· Quantities to be used min, max, average (now, in future)
· Fluctuations in quality Quality specification

4. EMISSIONS IN CONTEXT WITH ALTERNATIVE FUELS

4.1 Introduction
If alternative fuels are used to substitute conventional fuels the cement kiln emissions are often not
increased and may even drop.

Fig. 6 Emission influence AF

Emissions do occur but they are hardly caused by alternative fuels. Emission results mainly from the raw
material and from the high temperature process (NOx) and the fuels have only a limited influence. E.g.
the SO2 emission on a suspension preheater kiln does not depend on the sulfur in the fuel. The difficult
part can be how to handle the normal emissions if burning AF’s attracts public interest and implies more
stringent emission rules.

4.2 General Features of Cement Kiln Systems

"Barriers" which prevent toxic substances from being emitted or becoming harmful to the environment
(see figure 7)

Fig. 7 Environmental Aspects: „Emission Barriers“

# 1 High incineration temperature

In the sintering zone flame temperatures of some 2000°C are required for process reasons. Even very
stable organic compounds (e.g. PCB) are completely destroyed.
This argument does not apply for secondary firings.

# 2 Contact with Fine, Dispersed Raw Meal

Intensive contact of gas and raw meal is required for process reasons (heat transfer). This produces gas
purification through absorption of toxic compounds while contact occurs in counter-current pattern.
Excellent retention of acid gases (e.g. HCl, SO2) and also of most of the heavy metals is achieved in SP-
preheaters and raw mills. The key is the contact of gas with fine suspended particles.
This does not apply for the bypass gas extraction, which must be considered e.g. in an emission estimate.

# 3 Low Final Gas Temperature (favourable equilibrium)

Condensation or absorption on surface active raw meal reduces the concentrations of toxic elements
according to the physical/chemical equilibrium. This effect strongly depends on the gas temperature. The
lower the stack temperature the lower will be the equilibrium concentrations of the vapours of toxic
compounds. Examples for very low stack temperatures are:
¨ Kiln gas after passing the raw mill (during combined operation) ~ 100°C
It is therefore possible to keep emission levels low, while the gases are passing the raw mill (argument #2
and #3 are equally important).

# 4 Efficient Dedusting Equipment

The high absorption capacity of the kiln system avoids emissions but on the other hand can cause
enrichments of the filter dust for certain elements that can reach the outer dust cycle (e.g. Tl). An efficient
dedusting prevents enriched dust from getting into the atmosphere. Also no EP shut offs are acceptable.
Moreover, excessive dust emissions have an over proportional negative psychological impact as all
neighbours can see it.

# 5 Safe Disposal of Trace Elements

Trace elements or heavy metals cannot be destroyed nor can they disappear. If they are fed into the
cement clinkering process and are not emitted they must have an outlet. Unlike other incineration
systems, which produce concentrated and often toxic by-products, a cement kiln with complete dust
reintroduction offers the unique possibility to incorporate trace elements in the clinker production in diluted
and immobile form. These trace elements occur in concentrations which are usually not different from
clinker, which is produced without alternative fuels and they are not leachable (exception: hexavalent Cr
during make up with water).
If the dust is not completely reintroduced into the kiln or if a bypass is required the above argument - in its
simple form - is no longer true.

4.3 Special rules regarding emission behaviour on cement kilns

The reality with emission is usually too complex for a safe and accurate prediction. However, from an
engineering point of view it is better to have some ideas or rules about the emission behaviour to roughly
identify what could be critical or not.
¨ Low emission of Cl, F and Br, < 0.1% of balance input.
¨ Low volatile heavy metals are not critical. Emission usually < 0.1% of balance inputs.
¨ Medium or high volatile heavy metals can reach the outer dust cycle (Cd, Tl) or even escape in
form of vaporous compounds (Hg). Whereas Cd and Tl are still below < 1% emission Hg can be emitted
almost totally (again this depends on process conditions).
¨ SO2 emissions are not depending on fuel sulfur in case of a SP kiln. Wet kilns however show a
moderate influence by S on emissions.
¨ AF burning in the secondary firing usually decreases the NOx (0 – 30%).
¨ CO as discussed previously is often increased when using the secondary firing. Fluctuating
energy input may also cause CO peaks.
¨ Virtually no organics result from AF burning (even in cases of CO formation it does not
necessarily correlate with organics). The improper use of AF via kiln feed is of course excluded from this
consideration.
¨ Dioxine/furan emissions on SP kilns are not critical in view of a limit of 0.1 ng TE/m3. Again, there
is no correlation with AF burning.

5. ADVANTAGES / DISADVANTAGES
Nowadays the destruction of wastes in special incineration plants is being improved e.g. by addition of
more effective gas cleaning. Under this aspect the question may arise whether it still makes sense to
incinerate wastes in cement kilns instead of in special incinerators. To answer this question the
advantages and disadvantages of a cement kiln must be compared as follows:

Advantages Disadvantages
Possibility of high temperature incineration (up to 2000°C) which destroys toxic organic compound
completely
The majority of heavy metals can be captured at > 99.9% in the kiln system (absorption by raw meal)
Some limitations have to be considered, e.g. Hg, Tl, Cr
Acid gases are retained efficiently (e.g. no HCl emission) Because of kiln internal circulation phenomena,
cement kilns and especially SP-kilns cannot accept high inputs of chlorine
No solid residues occur because the ash is incorporated in the clinker. No landfill is required In the
case of wet kilns or bypass installations solid residues in the form of dust may need disposal
If the necessary rules are observed there will be no influence on emissions and clinker quality For
psychological reasons some customers may not accept cement which is produced by using „waste“
No necessity for a new incinerator since the cement kiln is already existing
High environmental awareness helps to allocate certain wastes to cement plants Realization of a project
may be difficult and time consuming at the level of public discussion and obtaining of permission

6. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
6.1 Waste Tires
Energy potential
¨ Calorific value (depends on quantity of steel included) 28 to 32 MJ/kg

Comparison for an industrialized country (per capita):

a) Energy required to burn clinker at
500 kg cement/cap. a (at 3.6 MJ/kg) = 1800 MJ/a cap.
b) Energy from waste tires at
6 kg tires/cap. a (at 30 MJ/kg) = 180 MJ/a cap.
Theoretical overall fuel replacement
(if tires were fully available for cement industry) 10%

Conclusion:
Tires are an important energy source and so far the most frequent application of AF. The practical
attractivity depends on the disposal fee that is available. Current values (in different areas) range from 0 –
60 USD/t.
Typical Composition of Tires

Constituents
Rubber 36.0%
Filler (soot, SiO2) 37.0%
ZnO 1.2%
Softeners 3.0%
Sulfur 1.3%
Steel, textiles 18.0%
Rest 3.5%
Total 100%

Chemical analysis
C 70%
H 7%
S 1 ...3%
Cl 0.2...0.6%
Fe 15%
ZnO 2%
SiO2 + rest 5%
Cr 97 ppm
Ni 77 ppm
Pb 60 to 760 ppm
Cd 5 to 10 ppm
Tl 0.2 to 0.3 ppm

Incineration in Cement Kilns

Incineration of waste tires in cement kilns has nowadays become a frequent method. At least 40 cement
plants are known to do so. They can usually substitute 10 - 20% of their fuel requirements.
From an environmental point of view this method is considered as proven and advantageous (energetical
recycling, low emission, no solid residues). It is often well accepted by the authorities.
Application of feeding methods:
1) Whole tires
This is the most frequent application, based on the secondary firing principle. Originally, this was first
developed and used on dry SP-kilns but then also extended to long dry or wet kilns.
a) Kiln inlet of suspension preheater kilns
A feed system according to the figure 8 involves an investment of some USD
2 Mio. for a fully automatic installation.
b) Mid kiln introduction device on long dry or wet kilns
The principle is similar to a) but the introduction chute is rotating with the kiln
shell, i.e. the tire feed is coupled with the kiln revolution. Figure 9 shows the
introduction chute of the "Cadence" system as used at the Joliette plant.
2) Shredded tires / TDF
TDF = tire derived fuel
Shredded tires allow for a more regular fuel input into the kiln and have a higher density
(advantages for transport and storage).
Shredding costs are some 30 - 60 UDS/t. Sometimes this is already paid by disposal fees.
Shredding is normally not operated by the cement producer.
The use of shredded tires < 300 mm on suspension preheater kilns as in figure 10 is rare because it
would cost less to use complete tires at the kiln inlet.
The use of shredded tires < 50 mm has some applications on long kilns in North America where still many
long dry and wet kilns are in operation. The tire chips are injected into the burning zone. Figure 11 shows
the example of the Seattle plant with 15% substitution. Shredded tires or TDF < 50 mm are successfully
used on precalciners according to figure 12 in the plants Midlothian, Theodore, Ramos Arizpe and
Lägerdorf.
3) Ground tires (< 5 mm):
Theoretically, ground tires would be the ideal fuel for any primary firing (without compromise). However,
the costs for grinding are usually prohibitive. Ground rubber as granulate is normally too expensive as
fuel. Nevertheless, a Group Plant in Germany and HCB have tried this and gone through a learning
process.
4) Pyrolisis/Gazification of tires:
The Japanese have realised gasifications for cement kilns and reported more than a decade ago. It was
based on a reactor (shaft) with understochiometric air addition at 700°C. The hot gas produced was
directly sent to the cement kiln.
1999 a new gasifier for whole tires (industrial scale) was commissioned by Polysius at Jura Cement in
Wildegg (Switzerland). The hot combustible gases are used in the precalciner. Investment for a 3 t/h
installation is in the order of 3 Mio. USD. (Fig. 13)
The gasification can potentially help to optimize the use of tires, which still needs to be demonstrated on a
long-term basis. The costs are significantly higher than for burning the tires directly. Direct burning - not
gasification - should always be the first option to be investigated.

Fig. 8 Whole Tire Handling and Lump Fuel Kiln Feed (HCB-Eclépens)

Fig. 9 “Cadence valve” on Joliette kiln

Fig. 10 Handling of Tyre Chips and Lump Alternative Fuels at Altkirch

Fig. 11 Burning of TDF ( Tire Derived Fuel) at the Seattle plant

Fig. 12 Generic tire chip feeding system

Fig. 13 Integrated Gasifier (Polysius) for whole tires

6.2 Domestic Refuse / RDF

¨ Example Germany:

Domestic refuse Cement

consumption
Quantity 400 kg/cap a 450 kg/cap a
Energy content 3.4 GJ/cap a 1.7 GJ/cap a
(heat energy)

¨ The energy content contained in the domestic refuse is twice the energy consumption of the
cement!
¨ However, a complete use of the energy from raw domestic refuse in the cement industry is by no
means feasible. Reasons:
· poor homogeneity, inadequate size, difficult handling
· Cl-content of 0.5...1% Cl which can cause clogging problems in the kiln
· low calorific value (8 to 10 MJ/kg)
· low density and high transport costs per heat unit
· competition to existing incinerators
Conclusion:
Domestic refuse needs intensive processing in order to eliminate undesired fractions and to obtain a
reasonable burnable fraction. Such a fraction may represent 30...50% of the original refuse, the rest
needs further disposal. The burnable fraction is called RDF (refuse derived fuel) and offers somewhat
better properties, e.g. a CV of 12...16 MJ/kg.
Experience:
The first application was in the early 80’s at BCI/Westbury, now stopped.
The most important application today is the Wittekind plant in Erwitte (Germany) according to figure 14
with 50% substitution and a chlorine bypass. Otherwise very few plants have realized major applications.
Fig. 14 Processing of Domestic Refuse and Incineration of RDF in a SP Kiln

6.3 Burning of Contaminated Waste Oil

The burning of waste oil in cement kilns has a long tradition. In the late 80’s and early 90’s new efforts
have been made to investigate the influence of contaminants. Extensive measurement programs have
been performed to demonstrate all possible impacts on the environment.
Important examples come from Germany and Austria.
One of the first plants to publish the results of its measurements in 1988 was Phoenix in
Beckum/Germany. They burnt waste oil, which was contaminated with PCB (0 to 1000 ppm). Emissions
of dioxins were also measured. This project was 50% sponsored by the German Umweltbundesamt
(UBA).
The Lägerdorf plant and the Gmunden plant (Austria) have also followed this at an even higher degree of
perfection. The design of the original Lägerdorf installation is shown in the figure 15. A large program of
measurements has been done and published. This program also includes emission measurements of
SO2, NOx, heavy metals, F, chlorinated organics, PCB, Dioxins/Furans. It could be demonstrated that a
limit for dioxins of 0.1 ng TE/m3 (toxic equivalent) could be easily met and that these emissions are not
influenced by burning contaminated waste oils. A similar result was obtained at Gmunden.
Special efforts were also made with regard to the delivery control, which meant a considerable extension
to the existing laboratory. Limiting values for the waste oil in Gmunden:

Pb < 5000 ppm

Hg < 2 ppm
Tl < 10 ppm
Cd < 60 ppm
PCB < 100 ppm
F < 600 ppm
S < 5%
Cl < 1%
N < 5%
H2O < 15%
Sediments < 5%
CV net > 25’000 kJ/kg

The original installation Lägerdorf according to figure 15 is designed for low flashpoints (< 21°C),
therefore, use of solvents is also possible.
Fig. 15 Burning of Waste Oil at Lägerdorf Plant

6.4 Burning pure waste oil

The installation from Untervaz according to figure 16 results from a former heavy oil system and is
adequate for high quality waste oil with high flashpoint (> 55°C).
Fig. 16 Handling of Waste Oil at BCU Untervaz

6.5 Burning of Waste Wood at Rekingen

This installation to process waste wood to a dry saw dust and burn it in a cement kiln went into operation
in 1994. It was stopped in 1997 because the Rekingen plant was closed (market reasons). The final stage
of this project would have been 70’000 t/a of processed waste wood or 50% fuel substitution. The
treatment of the incoming wood consisted of delivery control, primary crushing, sorting fine grinding and
drying.
The projected costs were 25 Mio. Swiss Francs and therefore among the highest ever realized for a
single project for an AF. During the project phase the fees for waste wood were overestimated. When it
came into operation, the actual market prices for waste wood were much lower and the installation could
not be amortized.

Fig. 17 Use of Waste Wood as Fuel at the Rekingen Plant

6.6 Mixed examples

The following illustrations originate from our reports describing practical AFR applications in our Group
plants. The illustrations are self-explaining.
Content:
- Liquid AF at Altkirch
- Liquid AF at Obourg
- Distillation Residues and Animal Fat at Untervaz
- Mid kiln firing for bales at Obourg
- Dried Sewage Sludge and Animal Meal at Untervaz
- Solid AF (Impregnated saw dust) at Eclépens
- Tire Chips and Ferrocarbon at Lägerdorf
- Fly ash at Lägerdorf
Fig. 18 Handling of Liquid Alternative Fuels (CSL) at Altkirch
(Solvents, Oil-Emulsions, Pasty Liquids)

Fig. 19 Handling of Solvents (CSL: Combustible de Substitution

Liquide) at Ciments d’Obourg

Fig. 20 Handling of Destillation Residue and Animal Fat at BCU Untervaz

Fig. 21 Mid Kiln Installation at Ciments d’Obourg

Fig. 22 Handling of Dried Sewage Sludge and Animal Meal at Untervaz

Fig. 23 Handling and injecting of solid fuel at “HCB Eclépens (impregnated

saw dust, shredded plastic, animal meal)

Fig. 24 Handling of Tire Chips and Ferrocarbon at Lägerdorf

Fig. 25 Handling of fly ash at Lägerdorf

Low Grade Fuel Study

Obrist, D. Pauling, A. Flacher
TPT 00/21018/E
1. Introduction
2. Targets
3. Maximum Substitution Rates and Feed-point Selection
4. Impact of LGF on clinker burning process
4.1 General
4.2 Basic thermal phenomena/ limitations
4.3 Impacts on heat consumption
4.4 Impacts on exhaust gas temperature
4.5 Impacts on flame temperature
4.6 Impacts on power consumption
4.7 Impacts on production rate
4.8 Impacts on availability
4.9 Impacts on clinker quality
5. Criteria for LGF properties (in view of cement kiln)
5.1 Combustion properties (granulometry)
5.2 Minimum flame temperature (water and ash)
5.3 Homogeneity
5.4 Circulating elements: chlorine, sulfur and alkalis
5.5 Environmental: Heavy metals and PCB
5.6 Clinker quality
5.7 CKD (Cement Kiln Dust) quality (if CKD is discarded)
5.8 Health and safety
5.9 Handling properties
6. Adaptations / Modifications to Compensate or Alleviate the Impacts of LGF
6.1 Assessment of actual situation: Process indicators
6.2 Enhanced process control
6.3 Enhanced control of circulating elements (SO3, K2O, Na2O and Cl)
6.4 Enhanced preheater cleaning (cyclone preheater kilns only)
6.5 Quality control (LGF ash compensation)
6.6 Improved homogenization and dosing of LGF
6.7 Dust extraction
6.8 Bypass technology
6.9 Increased gas handling capacity
6.10 Increased critical cross sections
6.11 Burner adaptations
6.12 Cooler modifications
6.13 Precalciner modifications
6.14 Mixing air on long kilns (connected to mid kiln firing)
6.15 O2 enrichment
6.16 Gasifier / Thermal Cracking
6.17 Drying of LGF
7. Criteria for a new cement kiln in view of future use of LGF
7.1 Summary of requirements for a new kiln using AFR
7.2 General
7.3 Criteria for preheater and exhaust gas system design
7.4 Criteria for bypass and related items
7.5 Criteria for calciner
7.6 Criteria for rotary kiln
7.7 Criteria for main burner
7.8 Criteria for grate cooler
8. Set of rules how to handle LGF (storage, dosing and injection into kiln)
9. Interaction LGF preparation and burning
9.1 Cost relations to prepare LGF
9.2 Substitution rate versus quality of LGF: Optimization of costs

1. INTRODUCTION
What is a low grade fuel (LGF):
Alternative fuel where at least one of the following factors is critical:
¨ low calorific value (CV)
¨ high ash content
¨ high water content
¨ high circulating elements content
¨ coarse granulometry
From the view of the clinker kiln LGF’s are far away from the requirements and rules that were
traditionally applied for normal fuels. LGF’s are thus a challenge as they may disturb the process. The
incentive is their low price. The question is how far we can challenge the process until negative impacts
offset the low price. And how can we avoid or alleviate these negative impacts ?
This study offers the tools to quantify impacts. To keep it simple and systematic the various impacts (e.g.
water, ash, ..) are presented as single items at once (assuming there would be no other simultaneous
impacts). In reality various impacts may occur simultaneously. Logically, at combined impacts, maximum
loads can not be cumulated (water plus ash plus CKD plus poor combustion plus …). The single items
have to be finally put together by the user himself. A combined numerical example is listed in annex 1.
2. TARGETS
The study has the following targets :
¨ Be a technical guideline
¨ Define the problem, explain limits of LGF and the solutions
¨ Usable by LGF providers so that they understand what the critical AFR items in view of the
cement kiln are
¨ Usable by plants burning LGF, as a set of rules
¨ Tool of the CIE-Pyramid
¨ Element of future courses / seminar (AFR part)
3. MAXIMUM SUBSTITUTION RATES AND FEED-POINT SELECTION

Main firing versus secondary firing:

For LGF with stable toxic organic components only the main firing is used because of the higher
temperatures and the longer retention time which allow to completely burn these substances (example:
waste oil with traces of PCB).
If the main firing can not be used and the LGF contains toxic organic components, tests are needed with
emission monitoring of possible harmful decomposition products.
Kiln Feed:
The feed point via kiln feed is forbidden because of the emission problems generated during preheating
(VOC, CO). This feed point is reserved for alternative materials with no organics. The only exception
would be kiln systems where the kiln feed enters the combustion zone without preheating (e.g. one stage
precalciner kiln at Fort Collins) or kilns with VOC removal systems (activated carbonfilter at Siggenthal,
thermal oxidiser at Dundee).
Gasifier:
In exceptional cases solid fuels can be transferred into a combustible gas by means of a process
integrated gasifier (chapter 6.16). This allows an application at any feed point accessing the high
temperature zone of the kiln (not displayed in the figure below).
Possible feed points :

3.1 Maximum Substitution Rates

All substitution rates refer always to total substitution of the fuel and can not be accumulated (e.g.
preheater kiln at main firing: either 30% substitution with solids <5mm or max. 50% substitution with
solids <1.5mm).

The maximum substitution rates are empirical and based on experience.

4. IMPACT OF LGF ON CLINKER BURNING PROCESS
4.1 General
The use of LGF always has certain impacts on the process, whether it is immediately visible or not.
If LGF is used at very low quantities it may happen that the effects are not measurable within the given
accuracy or the effect disappears within the normal fluctuations. It would be incorrect to extrapolate such
observations from small to large quantities or to large substitution rates.
Within this study most of the practical effects can be given in quantitative form and the preferred
reference to express this impact is always the direct factor causing this impacts. E.g. the impact of
injected water is expressed per ton of injected water. This gives a precise and fair consideration of the
impacts, even if only small relative quantities of water are injected that “disappear” in the noise level of a
large kiln.
Why can AF’s increase the thermal losses on a cement kiln system and thus create “induced losses”?
There is a defined number of reasons that contribute to such effects as follows:

Impact chains:
The various possible impacts and their logical impact chains can be displayed as follows:
The figure illustrates that the various impacts are inter-related. The impact chains start from the LGF
properties and finally all end-up at production costs, OEE and clinker quality.
4.2 Basic thermal phenomena/ limitations
Most of the impacts can be quantified already on paper. E.g. for the impact of water tests are not really
necessary as this can be predicted. There are minor exceptions: If combustion problems due to poor
granulometry occur only a semi-theoretical prediction is possible by using the empirical increase in
oxygen content that is necessary to maintain proper combustion.
¨ Heat consumption
Behind the following results there is a model which simulates the particular behavior of a cement kiln
system (preheating, calcining, sintering and cooling).
The logical sequence of calculating impacts always starts with the heat consumption. Other impacts can
then be deducted logically. The basic heat consumption impact formula is :

D q= + w*4.6 +a*1.1 +pa*1.0 +q* DO2*.018 +D v*1.2

MJ kg kg Nm3 MJ, %O2 Nm3
D q= add. Heat w=water a=ash pa=Pair
(inject) DO2 =incr. Oxygen in % Dv= increase of Vmin

This formula refers to the logical specific parameters causing the impacts (as e.g. 1 kg of water) and – if
useful - can also be used as per kg of fuel or kg of clinker.
From this formula most of the impacts (gas quantity, power consumption, capacity reduction) can be
deducted logically.
¨ Flame temperature
The flame temperature is critical in the main firing. Below a certain minimum flame temperature it is not
possible to burn clinker (at acceptable freelime). However it is not possible to express a flame
temperature in form of an absolutely real and measurable flame temperature. Flame temperature
considerations make only sense as theoretical flame temperatures calculated within the same model. The
model used here considers the following main factors :
· Adiabatic flame temperature
· Preheated secondary air coming from a standard grate cooler
· Secondary air heat depending on heat consumption
· Oxygen at kiln inlet always 2%
· Standard fuels = fuel oil or coal (natural gas not standard)
· Injection of solids into flame (inert or non inert) can be considered
The results are relative figures for the flame temperature (depending on the model). To find the minimum
possible flame temperature the model has to be “calibrated” with practical experience. The practical
reference is injection of inert material of max. 40% into a wet kiln which produces a theoretical flame
temperature of approx. 2100°C. The same temperature results if injection of 22% wet kiln dust (containing
uncalcined CaCO3) is assumed, which also corresponds to reality.
To get the maximum possible quantities of water and ash injection for any kiln type, the same model is
used to verify at what relative quantity the minimum flame temperature is reduced down to 2100°C.
Finally a general hint regarding flame temperature: The net CV of any fuel or LGF cannot be used to
characterize its impact on flame temperature. The generally correct consideration is to start from flame
impact factors (injection of water, ash, CKD) expressed per kg clinker.
4.3 Impacts on heat consumption
By definition the heat consumption of a kiln is based on net calorific value (net CV) of the fuels in use,
including LGF’s, of course. LGF’s usually increase the heat consumption compared to conventional fuels.
The effects of water, ash, false air introduction and increased O2 are displayed in this chapter.
These effects are valid for impacts that actually occur in the high temperature range (>800°C) of the kiln.
Water injection can produce strong impacts. A distinction is necessary on whether water is part of the fuel
(LGF) or injected separately.
· If the water is included in the fuel and a correct deduction for this water (deduction = 2.45 GJ/t
water) has been made from the net calorific value, the increase in heat consumption is 2.15 GJ/t water.
· If the pure water is injected directly into the kiln, the increase in heat consumption is 4.6 GJ/t
water.
(Note : An alternative and physically logical approach would be to allocate a negative net CV of -2.45 GJ/t
to injected water and consider this for the kiln heat consumption. By doing so there would be only one
common factor of 2.15 GJ/t for any water/fuel mixture. However we recommend to treat water injection
separately because nobody in the cement world includes pure water injection in the calculated kiln heat
consumption).
Important: For the impact in terms of gas volume increase, the effect is the same for both cases.

„False air“ (FA) due to AFR occurs mainly in form of additional transport air (TA) input and leakage air at
feed chutes for lump fuels.

Other than in case of water, ash and false air impact, the results are given here as % increase per 1 % O2
increase. In this form the results do not depend on the kiln type.
The above rule is applicable for O2 increase in most of the practical cases such as: O2 after precalciner
or kiln inlet O2 of any kilns with 100% of the fuel at the main firing (sintering zone).
Exception to this rule: If the kiln inlet gas is followed by a precalciner or secondary firing (so that a
“normal” O2 level of say 2% can be maintained after such a subsequent firing) the impact of the kiln inlet
O2 on heat consumption is 0% increase. However this does not mean that such an O2 increase has no
impacts, but they do not fall into the category “heat consumption”. These other categories are: Loss of
flame temperature
(-80/-90°C per 1% O2), higher temperatures and higher gas velocities and dust generation at kiln inlet.

Increase of O2 after firing is e.g. required in case of combustion problems or if the LGF energy input (feed
or CV) is fluctuating (short term fluctuations). In case of fluctuations an additional rule of thumb applies :
A fluctuation (short term [minutes]) of +/- 6% in total heat input (all fuels) requires + 1 % O2 after
combustion (which causes 1.8% more heat consumption)
Consequence: Limit fuel fluctuations to the minimum.
4.4 Impacts on exhaust gas temperature
Only the water effect is displayed here (often the strongest effect):

4.5 Impacts on flame temperature

The following diagram shows the impacts on the theoretical flame temperature when introducing either
water or ash or cement kiln dust (CKD) into the main flame. For CKD the effect is stronger compared to
ash because calcination produces additional cooling.

Within the model used for the calculation the practical limit means a minimum flame temperature of
2100°C. So when one of the above bars comes down to 2100°C this means that the particular impact
has reached the possible maximum.
If the O2 deviates from the standard 2% O2, each % more O2 reduces the flame temperature by -80°C (-
90°C on PC kiln).
The following diagrams (for water & ash influence only) are based on the same figures as above.

Results : practical impact limits according to the diagrams are :

· For a suspension preheater kiln (with 100% main firing) :
Max 0.11 kg H2O/kg cli or max 0.36 kg ash/kg cli
· For a precalciner kiln :
Max 0.042 kg H2O/kg cli or max 0.14 kg ash/kg cli
· For a wet kiln :
Max 0.12 kg H2O/kg cli or max 0.40 kg ash/kg cli or max 0.22 kg CKD/kg cli.
Above limits consider only the flame temperature and in some cases they can be overruled by stronger
criteria. E.g. it has to be verified whether the ash to be considered is also compatible to the clinker
chemistry and can actually be absorbed in the sintering zone. So the effective limit may be lower than the
flame temperature limit.
The basic impact limits apply for coal and oil firing as main fuel. In case of a gas flame, flame
temperatures are 130°C lower and thus all above limits become considerably lower.
4.6 Impacts on power consumption

The effect as indicated is at the ID fan for constant clinker production, so that the preheater pressure drop
increases above normal. Not applicable if the pressure drop is kept constant.
Cost-wise the KWh effect gives only a minor contribution.
4.7 Impacts on production rate
The following graphs show the impacts of water, ash, false air and increased O2 on production capacity.
The calculations are based on constant exhaust gas volume and the effects are deducted from the
previously shown impacts on heat consumption (chapter 4.3).
The % increase in heat consumption and the additional exhaust gas produced are often roughly
proportional. However such simple rules of thumb are not accurate and can fail completely as in case of
the water impact. The basis for the following results are complete calculations, of course.

This applies for directly injected water and water included in the fuel. Incidentally in case of water impacts
the increase in heat consumption (chap. 4.3) alone would be misleading for estimating the production
loss.

The above ash effect considers thermal effects only (cold and inert ash into high temperature zone).

The above influence refers to additional false air (or primary air) into the high temperature zone that
occurs because of LGF introduction. It is therefore obvious that above figures are not applicable for other
false air occurring after the high temperature zone (e.g. in the upper part of a cyclone-preheater or in the
exhaust gas system).

As the O2 impacts are deducted from the heat consumption effect the same comments and restrictions as
mentioned under chapter 4.3 (O2 increase) apply.
4.8 Impacts on availability
Practical experience shows that the use of LGF can have a major impact on kiln availability. These
impacts can not be quantified precisely because they vary a lot from case to case. The most common
reasons for these kiln stops are blockages and refractory damages.
The burning of lump LGF always creates local reducing conditions in the kiln (sintering zone as well as
kiln inlet). This leads to an increased volatilization of sulfur which increases build-up formation, blockages
and thus can reduce availability.
On many kilns which already burn LGF, these problems are the major limiting factor for the use of LGF.
These impacts can largely be compensated by process optimisation (see chapter 6.1-6.4).
Examples:
· In Lägerdorf the availability was reduced to 75-85%. One of the reasons was the use of LGF. By
an optimisation of the kiln process the negative impacts were compensated and the availability went up to
>95% [14].
· At “HCB in Switzerland an increased market demand forced the plants to maximise their
production rate and availability. The goal was not to reduce the use of LGF. Through an intensive process
optimisation program called “HCB Working Group PRO” the OEE was increased by 10% and at the same
time the use of LGF was increased [15].
4.9 Impacts on clinker quality
¨ Ash effects
If ash is introduced into the kiln by LGF in significant quantities relative to clinker, an adaptation of the raw
mix must be made to meet the LSF (also SR and AR) target in the clinker. Usually the LSF in the raw
meal must be increased to compensate the low CaO content of the LGF ash. If the main component of
the raw mix has a very high CaCO3 content (as the chalk in Obourg or Lägerdorf) the kiln has a bigger
potential to use LGF with high ash content. If the main component of the raw mix is low in CaCO3, the
use of LGF with high ash is limited (example Untervaz: High grade lime stone has to be purchased to
compensate the ash from dried sewage sludge).
See also chapter 6.5 for LGF ash compensation in case of sudden LGF feed failures.
¨ Effects of locally reducing conditions
If lump fuels (e.g. tire chips) are injected into the burning zone, local reducing conditions can not be
avoided. This leads to an increased volatilization of sulfur and can cause “brown clinker cores” (brown
color inside the clinker granules).
In Lägerdorf, during periods with high amounts of “brown clinker core”, a reduction of the early strength
has been reported. Additionally the brown color can have an undesirable influence on the cement color.
The brown clinker cores were eliminated through the process optimization campaign (see chapter 4.8).
In Obourg the early strength has a strong correlation with the SO3 content of the clinker. An increase of
the LGF substitution rate results in a reduced incorporation of sulfur into the clinker. This effect still has to
be solved in Obourg, possibly by a burner optimization to reduce local reducing conditions caused by
coarse LGF.
5. CRITERIA FOR LGF PROPERTIES (IN VIEW OF CEMENT KILN)
5.1 Combustion properties (granulometry)
The required granulometry of solids depends on:
-- Kiln type
-- Feed point
-- Substitution rate
See table “Maximum substitution rates” in chapter 3.
5.2 Minimum flame temperature (water and ash)
The following values are maximum possible inputs of water and ash which still allow to have a hot enough
flame to produce clinker.
The maximum inputs of water and ash cannot be cumulated. If the maximum input of water is introduced
into the sintering zone, no ash can be introduced anymore otherwise the flame is not hot enough anymore
to produce clinker.
For high ash inputs a correction of the raw mix is necessary. Depending on the ash chemistry it may
happen that the chemical limit is reached before the flame temperature limit is reached.
The limits are independent from the type of LGF.
Maximum possible input of water and ash:

Kiln Type: Maximum input:

Suspension preheater kiln
(no tertiary air) Max. input H2O = 0.11 kg H2O/ kg cli or
Max. input ash = 0.36 kg ash/ kg cli (if no other limit is reached first)
Precalciner kiln
(with tertiary air)Max. input H2O = 0.04 kg H2O/ kg cli or
Max. input ash = 0.14 kg ash/ kg cli
Grate preheater kiln Max. input H2O = 0.11 kg H2O/ kg cli or
Max. input ash = approx. 0.05 kg ash/ kg cli (due to poor ash incorporation)
Wet kilnMax. input H2O = 0.12 kg H2O/ kg cli or
Max. input ash = 0.40 kg ash/ kg cli

If these maximum inputs are used on a kiln, significant impacts on the kiln performance (heat
consumption and production rate) are the consequence (see chapter 4). Also note that the values do not
take into account the limitations of the kiln system (e.g. limited ID fan capacity).
5.3 Homogeneity
The required homogeneity of the LGF depends on the following factors:
¨ Fluctuation of the heat value in the LGF (short term [minutes])
¨ Fluctuation of the mass flow of the LGF into the kiln (given by the quality of the LGF dosing
system; short term [minutes])
¨ Substitution rate
The combined influence of the first two factors produces the fluctuation of the heat input into the kiln by
the LGF. The fluctuation of the total heat input into the kiln needs to be below a certain level.
Rule of thumb for the required homogeneity of a LGF:
% fluctuation (heat input) * % substitution < 100%
% fluctuation (heat input) = fluctuation heat value + fluctuation mass-flow
If the fluctuations are higher, impacts caused by the inhomogeneity have to be expected (e.g. CO
formation, increased heat consumption, reduced production capacity, higher sulfur cycles ...). See also
chapter 4 (impacts).
In chapter 6.6 measures are described how to improve the homogenization of LGF (e.g. by mixing of
liquids, separate dosing for different solid LGF types or pre-treatment centers).
Example:
100% Substitution: < 1% fluctuation of heat input to avoid negative impacts
20% Substitution: < 5% fluctuation of heat input to avoid negative impacts
5% Substitution: < 20% fluctuation of heat input to avoid negative impacts
Practical example:
Impregnated saw dust with a heat value of 11-13 MJ/kg = +/- 7% fluctuation of HV.
The dosing system delivers a mass flow between 2.0 and 2.1 t/h with a set-point of 2 t/h
= +/- 3% fluctuation of mass-flow.
Ü Total fluctuation of heat input by the impregnated saw dust = 10%
è Maximum 10% substitution without impacts on kiln operation caused by the inhomogeneity
5.4 Circulating elements: chlorine, sulfur and alkalis

Chlorine:

Chlorine is by far the most important circulating element with regard to LGF utilization.
The maximum possible input of chlorine from LGF depends on the following factors:
¨ Kiln type
¨ Input of chlorine by the LGF (concentration and mass-flow)
¨ Input of chlorine by the raw material and other fuels
To define the maximum acceptable chlorine concentration for a certain type of LGF, the actual situation
with regard to total Cl-input into the kiln must be assessed first (balance of circulating elements).
The following limits are expressed as “total input of chlorine based on clinker [mg Cl/kg cli]”:

Kiln type: Maximum chlorine input (all sources):

Cyclone preheater kiln without bypass
(with or without precalciner) Total Cl input < 200-300 mg Cl/kg cli
Cyclone preheater kiln
with bypass +1% bypass rate Ü +100 mg Cl/kg cli *
If the bypass dust is used in the cement, the
maximum Cl limit of the cement
(usually Cl < 0.1%) has to be respected.
Grate preheater kilns (Lepol) < 200-300 mg Cl/kg cli
< 600 mg Cl/kg cli if preheater chamber dust is being extracted
Long wet and dry kilns With 100% reintroduction of CKD:
Total Cl input < 200-300 mg Cl/kg cli
With extraction of CKD more input of Cl is possible. If the CKD is used in the cement, the
maximum Cl limit of the cement
(usually Cl < 0.1%) has to be respected.
If all the CKD is discarded, a maximum Cl input of up to 5000 mg Cl/kg cli has been reported

* On a suspension preheater kiln, a bypass at kiln inlet allows an additional Cl input of 100 mg Cl/kg cli for
each percent of bypass rate (example: with 8% bypass, 800 mg Cl/kg cli can be withdrawn from the kiln).
In chapter 6.3, 6.4 and 6.7 measures are described for enhanced control of circulating elements. In
chapter 6.8 different bypass systems are described and the costs of a conventional bypass are given.
If bypass dust extraction or CKD extraction is used to handle excessive inputs of circulating elements by
LGF, the use of the dust must be clarified (the best solution is to mix the dust into the cement). Never
should this dust be landfilled.
Sulfur and Alkali:
The sulfur and alkali limits are usually not restricting the use of LGF. These limits are more important for
fuels such as petcoke.
As a rule of thumb the following 2 criteria’s can be used to calculate the maximum possible sulfur input
(both criteria have to be fulfilled):
1. Alk / SO3 ratio (corrected with chloride) > 0.8
2. Total SO3 input < 1.5%SO3 in clinker
See also reference [9] “Circulating element” for the calculation of the Alk/SO3 ratio.
5.5 Environmental: Heavy metals and PCB
The following values give a short overview of practical and typical limits that are actually used.
Only the most important and critical elements are listed below:
Heavy metals:
To define local heavy metal limits, kiln specific heavy metal balances can be made to establish more fact
based heavy metal limits.
· Mercury (Hg): Almost all the mercury input is emitted. Therefore the Hg concentrations in LGF
have to be strictly limited.
Typical limit for AFR: 2-20 ppm *
· Thallium (Tl): It is enriched in the outer dust cycle. The concentration in the direct operation dust
(dry SP kiln) can finally become so high (if all the dust is returned to the kiln) that EP trips are a
environmental and health hazard. Therefore the Tl concentrations in LGF have to be strictly limited.
Typical limit for AFR: 10-100 ppm *
· Chromium (Cr): The Cr concentration in the cement should be as low as possible to prevent
health problems by hexavalent chromium when handling wet / fresh concrete. Therefore the Cr
concentrations in LGF have to be strictly limited.
Typical limit for AFR: 800-2000 ppm *
PCB’s:
Especially in liquids, the PCB content must be limited to prevent the abuse of the cement kiln as a hidden,
cheap disposal possibility for this problematic substance.
Typical limit for AFR (without permit to burn PCB): 50 ppm *
In special cases AFR with higher PCB content are burned (special permit based on test campaign
needed; safety measures for handling needed).
* Manual: AFR Quality Control Schema [13]
5.6 Clinker quality
The following elements, which can be introduced into the kiln by LGF’s in significant concentrations, have
an effect on the clinker quality:
· Phosphorus (P2O5): Maximum total input < 1%P2O5 in clinker
Higher concentrations can cause a delayed setting time. Phosphorus sources can be sewage sludge or
animal meal (P2O5 can also combine with CaO which reduces the C3S).
· Fluorine (F): Maximum total input < 0.2%F in clinker
Higher inputs need an adaptation of the raw mix (Fluorine is a mineralizer).
· Zinc (Zn): Maximum total input < 1000 mgZn/kgCli
Higher inputs can cause a shorter setting time and a higher water demand (even if the Zinc is added to
the cement via kiln dust).
· Lead (Pb): Maximum total input < approx. 100-200 mgPb/kgCli
Higher inputs can cause a shorter setting time and a higher water demand.
· Sulfur (S, SO3):
High sulfur inputs as well as high sulfur cycles lead to a finer (dusty) clinker. This has consequences on
kiln operation and grindability. A reduced SO3 content in the clinker can lead to a lower earlier strength.
This reduction can be a consequence of combustion problems related to the use of LGF (long flame, local
reducing conditions, ..).
5.7 CKD (Cement Kiln Dust) quality (if CKD is discarded)
If the CKD is discarded, the enrichment of certain elements (e.g. chlorine and heavy metals) creates a
potential long term liability problem of the disposed material (leaching).
Therefore the input of critical elements has to be limited.
5.8 Health and safety
5.8.1 Combustible dust:
Explosion and fire hazards with regard to combustible dust have to be respected when storage and
handling systems for (dusty) LGF are designed.
In Untervaz for example, a dedusting system for the installation of plastics in a hall had to be added on
later.
Fine dust:
Fine dust is a health hazard if the fine particles are inhaled. Additionally, harmful substances in the dust
can pose a health hazard.
For example the vanadium content in Flexicoke (not a LGF but a possible fuel for the cement kiln) can be
harmful and therefore the inhalation of that dust has to be prevented.
Flash-point of liquids:
If the flash-point of liquid fuels is below 55°C, the storage and handling equipment must be designed
according to special safety standards to prevent explosions and fires (self-ignition).
Flammable and poisonous vapors (of solids):
If a LGF emits flammable or poison vapors, the installations for handling and storage have to be designed
in a way that no vapors can accumulate in dangerous (fire, explosions and health hazards)
concentrations.
For example in Obourg, the impregnated saw dust is stored outside and the transport belts are ventilated
into the kiln. This example can still be improved.
Odor:
If a LGF has a strong odor, the installations for storage and handling have to be ventilated.
5.9 Handling properties
Stickiness:
Solid LGF have to be extractable from flat bottom bunkers with activated floor (best solution for difficult
solids). If the LGF is so sticky that a continuous extraction is impossible, the fuel can be mixed for
example with saw dust, kiln dust, raw meal or other materials to improve handling properties (example:
Preparation of impregnated saw dust in pretreatment platforms).
Tire chip “Spiders”:
If tire chips are not properly cut (more ripped apart than cut), pieces of wires stick out of each chip, which
makes a continuous extraction from a feed bin (and handling in general) almost impossible. The only
solution is that the chips are cut properly, thus the shedder knifes have to be sharpened or replaced.
Transport volume:
LGF with a density of approx. less than 50 kg/m3 need to be compacted for transport (e.g. bales of
plastics), because of the too high transport volume (high transportation costs per ton). Palletizing is
expensive (approx. 25 USD/t) and therefore usually not feasible.
For tires, shredding reduces the transport volume significantly.
Health and safety as well as environmental aspects (see also chapters 5.8 and 5.5):
In the cement plant skin contact of workers with the LGF can never be ruled out. The LGF properties must
allow that without health hazards.
6. ADAPTATIONS / MODIFICATIONS TO COMPENSATE OR ALLEVIATE THE IMPACTS OF LGF
6.1 Assessment of actual situation: Process indicators
The list of process indicators serves as a check-list to assess how well the burning process has been
optimized. The first step of any modification or adaptation should be the assessment of the actual
situation of the process.
One of the main reasons which limits the use of LGF in practical applications is an insufficient or not
optimized process control.
In the following list of process indicators, the indicators are listed and described (“Subject”), the method of
evaluation (“Procedure”) and the recommended limits (“Target Range”) are given:

* see reference [9]

6.2 Enhanced process control
The use of LGF often increases instabilities during kiln operation. These fluctuations can be compensated
or at least alleviated by enhanced process control.
Procedure:
¨ Definition of key parameters for kiln operation with clear set-points, tolerable range and
countermeasures in case of deviation.
These definitions are specific to each kiln and have to be done in close cooperation with the kiln
operators.
Set-point, range and countermeasures have to be fixed in a written form and be displayed in the control
room. Operators have to be trained to use them.
¨ Deviations of the set-points and tolerable ranges have to be analyzed (PARETO) and the causes
have to be eliminated. Typical reasons of such deviations are bad measurements (e.g. temperatures and
gas concentrations), defective equipment (e.g. tertiary air damper) and insufficient dosing of fuel (noble
fuel and LGF).
¨ As a very advanced and effective measure, the installation of a high level control system such as
LINKman can be done if the process is stable (LINKman is well suited to handle kilns burning LGF;
example Untervaz and Altkirch).

Example of enhanced process control / process optimization at Lägerdorf:

Essential parameter Set-point and range Control / countermeasures Improvements /

measures realized
O2 kiln inlet > 3% Tertiary air damper and ID-fan Replacement of defective tertiary air damper;
relocation and new operation strategy of kiln inlet probe
Temperature after lowest cyclone stage 850 – 890°C Calciner fuel rate Improved dosing,
handling and homogeneity of LGF
Free lime 0.8 – 1.2% Mandatory reaction with fuel rate of main burner if 2 values are below 0.8
(no over-burning)

6.3 Enhanced control of circulating elements (SO3, K2O, Na2O and Cl)
The use of LGF often increases the internal circulation of volatile elements and thus creates or worsens
coating problems. The burning of lump LGF always creates local reducing conditions in the kiln. This
leads to a increased volatilization of sulfur which increases build-up formation and blockages. This can
have a major impact on kiln performance (availability and production rate). On many kilns which already
burn LGF, these problems are the major limiting factor for the LGF substitution rate.
One of the most important points is the presence of sufficient oxygen (excess air) in the kiln. The volatility
of sulfur depends strongly on the oxygen content in the kiln gases. Therefore the O2 content at kiln inlet
must be kept in an optimum range (see chapter 6.1). The locally created reducing conditions by burning
lump LGF can thus not be avoided. Their impacts can only be alleviated by other measures.
The first step to solve coating problems is an analysis of the actual situation with regard to circulating
elements.
Assessment of the coating problems:
¨ Excess air in the kiln:
Measurement of O2 (and CO) at kiln inlet
* Is enough O2 available in the kiln for complete combustion ?
¨ Systematic analysis of the indicators:
Suspension preheater kiln: Indicator = SO3 and Cl in hot meal
Grate preheater (Lepol) kiln: Indicator = SO3 and Cl in chamber dust
Long wet and dry kilns: Indicator = SO3 and Cl in CKD
* Comparison with the limits for circulating elements
* Is it a chloride problem, sulfur problem, alkali problem or a combination ?
¨ Performance of a balance of circulating elements:
* Where do the inputs and outputs come from ?
* Comparison with typical, tolerable inputs of circulating elements in raw materials and fuels *
¨ Calculation of the molar alkali-sulfur-chloride ratio:
* Comparison with typical values
* Are enough alkali available to bring out the sulfur with the clinker ?
¨ Calculation of the sulfur volatility:
* Comparison with typical values
* Why do we have a sulfur problem (too high inputs, unfavorable alkali-sulfur ratio or combustion
problem) ?
From the results of the analysis, the actions to solve the problems can be derivated. *
Counteractions have to the defined and taken if the indicators (see above) exceed the limits. For chlorine
this can be the reduction of fuel quantities with high Cl concentrations or the increase of dust extraction
(see chapter 6.7). For sulfur this can be an increase of O2 at kiln inlet or the reduction of SO3-input by the
fuel (e.g. percentage of petcoke).
* “Circulating Elements” [9]
6.4 Enhanced preheater cleaning (cyclone preheater kilns only)
One of the most important measures to control the circulating elements (besides respecting the input
limits) is an optimized preheater cleaning.
The most important points are the following:
¨ The preheater must be checked for coatings and cleaned at least once per shift.
¨ Manual cleaning must be intensive, short and periodical.
¨ Clear measurable limits must be defined and when these limits are exceeded, mandatory
cleaning must be done.
Example Ternate: If the pressure difference between kiln inlet and calciner exceeds the limit cleaning is
done.
Example Lägerdorf: If the pressure at kiln inlet exceeds the limit cleaning must be done.
¨ Kiln inlet and riser duct: On every platform and in every corner openings have to be available. In
critical sections additional access openings have to be provided.
¨ In critical points where coating is always forming, air blasters should be installed.
¨ Riser ducts (from cyclones and at kiln inlet) should be protected against build-ups by lowering the
meal entry point to condense the volatile elements on the “cold” meal. Correct splash box design is
important to distribute the meal evenly across the duct.
¨ Endangered cyclones should have enlarged cyclone outlets (“double cone”) and meal ducts with
increased diameter to enable falling coating to pass through.
¨ The preheater should be absolutely tight. False air leaks increase the formation of build-ups.
¨ When coating formation is very strong, a high pressure water pump should be used to help
remove coatings.
Application of air blasters:
6.5 Quality control (LGF ash compensation)
If ash is introduced into the kiln by LGF in significant quantities relative to clinker, an adaptation of the raw
mix must be made to meet the LSF (also SR and AR) target in the clinker. Usually the LSF in the raw
meal must be increased to compensate the low CaO content of the LGF ash.
High inputs of ash by LGF need important corrections of the raw mix. In this case the input of LGF can not
be interrupted on a short term basis because clinker quality will otherwise be out of specification. Raw mix
adaptations take several days to arrive in the kiln because of the homogenizing silo capacity. Therefore
the supply of the LGF and the handling system (careful equipment design important!) must guarantee an
uninterrupted ash input. If this can not be guaranteed, a back-up system to compensate the ash input
must be installed. For example in Obourg such a back-up system for fly ash dosing is installed.
6.6 Improved homogenization and dosing of LGF
For small substitution rates, the negative impacts of poor homogenization and dosing may be not
measurable within the given accuracy and normal fluctuations. But for higher substitution rates (e.g.
>10%) the dosing and homogenization of LGF is key!
The goal is to have a constant heat input into the kiln by the LGF. The heat input depends on the
fluctuation of the heat value (homogeneity) and on the quality of the dosing system.
See chapter 5.3 for the tolerable limits of these fluctuations.
Homogeneity of liquids:
Mixing in the storage tank is mandatory (either mechanical or by circulation flow).
The tank must be big enough, or even better 2 medium size tanks should be installed (example Obourg or
Lägerdorf), to avoid unacceptable fluctuations during discharge of new deliveries.
Homogeneity of solids:
The homogenization of solid LGF needs certainly more effort than for liquids, but has the same or even
more importance because of the more difficult dosing properties.
Mixing of different types of deliveries of LGF with a bridge crane does not work. With a front loader in a
big hall or open area a homogenization is possible.
A proper solution to burn 2 different LGF at the same time is to install 2 separate dosing systems
(example Lägerdorf).
An other proper approach is a pretreatment platform or company which can produce from many different
sources of LGF one “new” and homogeneous LGF (e.g. impregnated saw dust).
Dosing of LGF (in particularly solids):
¨ Suitable equipment:
The equipment for LGF dosing must be designed with the same importance as the equipment for the
noble fuels (e.g. coal dust).
For the important design criteria of the equipment see chapter 8.
(Example: Long pneumatic transport lines with bends and corners are just not suitable for most LGF. In
this case a complete redesign (installation of belt conveyors) is the only solution.)
¨ Continuous improvement and adaptation to changing LGF properties of these handling systems
is needed. Small modifications can make a big difference.
Remark: The intermittent feed of whole tires at kiln inlet is feasible only because of the special
combustion properties of tires (delayed combustion). It would be problematic to intermittently feed LGF
which burns faster (consequence: incomplete combustion - high CO peaks).
6.7 Dust extraction
General:
Dust extraction is used to take out a certain fraction of the circulating elements, mainly chloride (on long
wet and long dry kilns also sulfur and alkali) as well as to prevent high heavy metal accumulations (in
particular Thallium). The effectiveness depends on the kiln type (see below).
If the extraction is used to handle excessive inputs of circulating elements by LGF, the use of the dust
must be clarified. The best solution is to add the dust into the cement mill. The tolerable amount of
chlorine in the cement is 0.1% Cl. Normally this limit can by far not be exploited due to fluctuating
concentrations of Cl in the dust and due to the fact that not all types of cement can be blended with dust.
The plant in Höver for example has a practical average potential of 0.05% Cl to be mixed into the cement.
If LGF causes inputs of circulating elements (usually chlorine) this creates impacts on the process,
depending on the relative quantity (expressed in g Cl per t of clinker). To compensate for this input an
output by using partial dust extraction can be realized. The highest efficiency is obtained if the extraction
takes place at a point in the process where the highest enrichment of the volatile element occurs.
Extraction [g Cl / kg cli] = relative dust quantity [kg dust / kg cli] * concentration in the dust
[g Cl / kg dust]

Cyclone preheater kiln:

The easy (low cost) extraction of normal filter dust as in case of long kilns does hardly produce a
substantial effect on a cyclone preheater kiln because the enrichments of Cl in the outer dust cycle are
very low. Moreover the gases are usually utilized in the raw mill where kiln dust is heavily diluted with
fresh raw meal. But still there is a marginal possibility to improve the chlorine situation without major
investment which is worthwhile to be considered in almost any case.
Lets assume a real bypass installation cannot be justified but we want to slightly increase the chlorine
load. If total chlorine inputs exceed only slightly the tolerable limits (reaching some 300- 350 g Cl / t cli) it
is recommended to discard the filter dust during direct operation and send these small dust quantities to
cement grinding. Incidentally this has also other benefits, it will also break the outer metal cycles (whereof
the Thallium is the most critical).
Experience from Lorca with dust extraction (2 stage preheater which is favorable for taking out chlorine by
dust extraction): [17].
Grate preheater kiln (LEPOL):
Due to the comparatively low dust quantities generated by the nodule feed system high enrichments in
the intermediate dedusting and the main dedusting equipment are achieved. Significantly higher chlorine
inputs (e.g. by LGF) can be tolerated if these dusts are taken out. Normally they are being extracted and
create an outlet for Cl.
Long dry and long wet kilns:
Circulating elements (sulfur, alkali and chlorine) can be removed comparatively easily on a long wet or on
a long dry kiln by discarding the fine filter dust. In particular the dedusting with electrostatic precipitators
offers the most favorable possibility to extract a minimum quantity at highest enrichment. From
experience we know that up to 0.5% chlorine input on clinker (0.5% on clinker = 5000 gCl/tcli) basis can
be handled and extracted by simply discarding enriched filter dust.
6.8 Bypass technology
Conventional bypass:

A small bypass of e.g. 10% can much increase the flexibility to use chlorine containing LGF and to
alleviate problems with sulfur cycles. If a by-pass is installed, the use of the bypass dust has to be
clarified (see below and also chapter 5.4).
¨ Chlorine extraction efficiency :
With a by-pass a higher chlorine input can be tolerated. The amount of chlorine depends on the by-pass
rate. Rule of thumb:
For each percent of by-pass rate, 100 mg Cl/kg cli more chlorine input can be tolerated (without bypass
the maximum chlorine input must be less than 200-300 mg Cl/kg cli). This rule of thumb is applicable up
to a maximum of 15-20% by-pass rate.
Example:
10% BP : chlorine extraction approx. 1000 g Cl/t cli
100% BP : chlorine extraction approx. 5000 g Cl/t cli
¨ Impacts due to bypass (on PC kiln):
· Impact on heat consumption = 8 kJ/kg cli per % BP
· Bypass dust = approx. 0.001 kg dust/kg cli per %BP
· Environmentally sound utilization/disposal of bypass dust must be found
· Impact on emissions (because of SO2 and HCl that bypass the efficient absorption in the
suspension preheater)
¨ Investment
To add a 10% bypass means a considerable investment, typically in the order of 2 – 3 Mio USD. So far
the installation of a by-pass has not been realized in the Holcim Group only to increase the use of LGF
with the exception of Holly Hill.
Special consideration referred to chlorine
The bypass transforms chlorine contained in LGF into inorganic chlorine in bypass dust. Chlorine
promotes leachability of metals, which may be a concern when landfilling this dust. Using again the above
figures (to be consistent) each ton of chlorine that must be extracted via bypass dust creates approx. 10 t
of enriched bypass dust and an additional heat consumption of 80 GJ/t of chlorine which allows to
allocate the costs to one ton of removed chlorine. Depending on the local cost factors (for landfill and
energy) this may result in costs in the order of 200 – 1000 USD per ton of chlorine removed.
Therefore the pros and cons of a chlorine bypass installation due to LGF must be evaluated. All these
bypass impacts do of course not occur if the suspension preheater kiln is only loaded below its “natural”
chlorine bearing capacity (200 – 300 g Cl/t cli).
“Maury”- Bypass:
This bypass was realized in Erwitte (Germany) [6]. After extraction and quenching, the bypass gases are
dedusted in a cyclone. The gas including the fine dust is reintroduced into the preheater. A bypass filter is
thus saved. Only the coarse bypass dust can be extracted (from cyclone). The chlorine extraction was
sufficient to use 50% RDF on a suspension preheater kiln [7].
Conclusion: Not recommended for standard cases (not as effective as normal bypass).
Mid kiln bypass for long kilns (Cadence system):
The chlorine extraction efficiency compared to the normal dust discarding (via the main EP fine dust) is
questionable. The side effects are a creation of additional kiln draft and lower velocities in chain zone
which increases kiln capacity.
Conclusion: Not recommended for standard cases.
6.9 Increased gas handling capacity
Suspension preheater / pre-calciner kiln:
The first step before any modification is done is always the elimination of all false air leaks.
On SP kilns the increase of gas handling capacity normally brings the kiln capacity up. Areas to be
considered :
¨ ID fan:
Enlarge ID fan and/or motor
Effect :
· Power consumption increase +0.15 kWh/ t cli per % volume increase (at a SP kiln with 5 kWh/t cli
consumed at the ID fan)
· Absolute amount of false air increases but percentage of false air remains constant (at constant
leaking gap size)
If increased pressure reaches almost -100 mbar --> do not push further, reduce pressure drop by
preheater modification
¨ Water injection into exhaust gas:
Water injection into the top cyclone stage (either before or after the cyclone) is a relatively easy fix to
boost the capacity of an existing system with minimum investment. The injection into the downcomer
needs very fine droplets, if this is not achievable injection into top stage is not ideal but safer.
¨ Cooling tower:
The volume of the cooling tower which can usually not be upgraded is critical (retention time of the gas for
evaporation of the water). In some cases it is enough to upgrade the number and performance of the
water injection nozzles and the pumping capacity.
¨ Filters:
With an electrostatic participator the filter efficiency is decreased with increased gas volume. If the dust
emissions are already close to the limit, the filter has to be upgraded (e.g. installation of additional
chambers).
With a bag filter a higher gas volume will lead to an increase of the cleaning cycle frequency (reduced bag
life and higher power consumption) and / or a higher pressure loss across the filter (higher fan capacity
needed and higher power consumption).
Long wet or long dry kiln:
Increasing the exhaust gas capacity of a long wet kiln fan does not automatically cause a proportional
increase of the kiln capacity, which is an essential difference to a SP kiln. Such proportional capacity
increase would only work if the dust generation effect (dust leaving the kiln) would be negligible. But
actually there is an over-proportional increase of dust generation (approx. plus 3 % dust per every %
more gas velocity). In many cases the dust must almost fully be returned to the kiln. So the kiln capacity
is limited rather by the dust generation effect than by the waste gas handling capacity.
Depending on the dust generation and dust return possibility it is not always sufficient to only increase the
gas handling capacity. Also the dust generation must be reduced simultaneously by appropriate measures
(reduce velocity of kiln inlet zone, adapt chain design for low dust generation).
6.10 Increased critical cross sections
Cyclone preheater and precalciner kilns:
¨ Measures to draw more gas quantity at less pressure drop (consider shape of ID fan curve):
· Cyclone dimensions (increase thimbles when Di/Do <= 0.6)
· Cyclone design with low pressure drop
· (Riser ducts design)
· Calciner orifice / TA damper design
¨ Measures related to internal dust generation/cycles:
· Kiln inlet chamber (modify narrowest section for < 21 m/s, for dust reasons)
Long wet and long dry kiln:
The critical area of the kiln is the chain section. Higher gas velocities lead to more dust generation. An
optimized chain design can alleviate this increase.
At the kiln inlet section a shell diameter extension can be made to reduce dust generation and thus bring
the capacity up. This is a major modification, the feasibility has to be evaluated from case to case. In
particular kilns that have a constant diameter over the whole kiln length are well suited to such a
modification. Example: Extension of inlet section at TR from 12’ to 14’ with total cost of 2.75 Mio USD
(incl. new kiln drive, chains and lining).
The achievable gain is strongly connected to the previously mentioned relations between inlet zone
velocity - dust generation - dust return - kiln capacity. On a wet kiln with already high dust generation, the
increase of gas handling capacity alone would not help.
6.11 Burner adaptations
To compensate or alleviate the impacts of LGF on the burning process, burner adaptations are a
preferred measure to improve the combustion of LGF.
Even when the LGF is not burned in the main firing (but e.g. at kiln inlet, mid kiln or precalciner) an
optimized combustion in the sintering zone has a strong impact on the kiln performance and thus on the
substitution rate of the LGF.
The goal of the adaptations is to create a strong, hot and stable flame.
The optimized burner should operate with the following key figures:

Key Figures for Main Burner:

Primary air ratio [%PA]: 10 – 12%
based on stoichiometric combustion air (Amin); without transport air
Specific axial momentum [Gax]: 7 – 10 N/MW (incl. fuel and transport air)
therefore primary air fan pressure must be at least 200 mbar (better 250 mbar)
Injection velocity coal dust: 25-30 m/s
Additional important criteria:
Coal and petcoke fineness [R90mm] and [R200mm]: Residue on 90mm and 200mm sieve: See
chapter 6.1
Oil temperature and pressure (for heavy oil): Oil temperature sufficient to reach a viscosity of 15 cSt;
pressure according to atomizer supplier specification
Correct atomization of liquid LGF: Atomization with pressurized air (or steam); pressure of liquid
and air (steam) as well as amount of air (steam) according to atomizer supplier specification

Theses rules apply also to kilns with no LGF, but in case of LGF an optimum burner set-up is even more
important to compensate the impacts of LGF.
To fulfill these figures, a new burner might be necessary or at least a new primary air fan is needed in
many cases.
Injection point of LGF through the main burner:
The injection of LGF can either be done through the center of the burner or through a separate pipe in the
burner refractory on top of the burner.
Experience from Origny show that the combustion of light weight material such as plastic foils is better if
injected through the center of the burner, whereas heavier material such as impregnated saw dust or
dried sewage sludge is better to inject though a separate pipe on top of the burner (more details [10]).
For practical applications the injection through the center of the burner is in most cases only possible if a
new burner is purchased, whereas a separate pipe on top of the burner can be added to any existing
burner. Therefore, for the first tests the injection on top is usually applied. When purchasing a new burner,
in any case one or more additional channels in the center should be foreseen for test or later application
of AFR.
Alignment of the burner inside the kiln:
The burner should be positioned parallel to the kiln axis and in the kiln center. To shorten the flame the
burner can be retracted towards the kiln outlet.
6.12 Cooler modifications
The goal of the cooler modifications is to create a high and stable secondary air temperature which is
favorable in view of LGF combustion.
The main requirements for a cooler are the following:
¨ High heat recuperation efficiency:
Which means a high secondary and tertiary air temperature to improve the combustion of the fuel,
especially difficult to burn fuels like LGF.
¨ Stable operation:
Kiln operation and cooler operation are closely linked together. An unstable cooler operation will
destabilize the whole kiln system.
An optimized cooler performance does help to alleviate the impacts of LGF.
Grate Cooler:
To optimize an existing cooler to improve the combustion of LGF the following parameters should be
assessed:
¨ The total cooling air should be in the range of 1.8-2.3 Nm3/kg cli (low value only for modern
coolers).
¨ The specific cooling air load per m2 of aerated cooler surface [Nm3/s,m2], calculated for each
chamber should show a descending pattern. The inlet load should be 1-1.5 Nm3/s,m2 (max. 2 Nm3/s,m2
with fixed inlet).
¨ The chamber pressure distribution should show a descending pattern (low pressure in the back of
the cooler, higher pressure towards the front).
¨ Operation with as high bed height as possible, but still below the height where instabilities occur
(air breaking through). Therefore the installation of a view port is needed to visually assess the clinker
bed. Chamber pressure at the start of the first moving grate should be in the range of 30-50 mbar.
¨ The grate speed control loop should have a control range (e.g. 38-42 mbar chamber pressure at
beginning of first moving grate) in which it does not vary the grate speed to avoid too much fluctuations of
the cooler operation.
¨ The kiln hood pressure must be kept continuously on set-point by the waste air fan control loop.
¨ Modifications:
¨ Installation of a fixed inlet to improve clinker distribution and thus cooler and kiln operation.
¨ Installation of modern plates (and cooler fans with enough pressure) to improve heat
recuperation.
Planetary coolers:
The performance and thus optimization potential of a planetary cooler depends strongly on the efficiency
of the internal heat transfer equipment (lifters).
The second important point is an optimum elbow design (connection between kiln and planetary tube) to
create an even distribution of the clinker in all planetary tubes and to avoid excessive dust back-spillage.
Travelling grate cooler (Recupol):
This cooler type has a limited potential for optimization.
The installation of a modern fixed inlet (possibly together with a short oscillating grate section) and
improved sealing of the grate sides as well as the discharge hoppers is possible to improve recuperation.
6.13 Precalciner modifications
For an existing precalciner the following modifications can be made to improve the combustion of LGF
(listed according to feasibility in terms of costs):
¨ Hot spot
¨ Turbulence generators
¨ Pre-combustion chamber
¨ Retention time
Hot spot:
The idea of the hot spot is to create a (hot) zone in the calciner where the ignition and combustion is
facilitated by not yet introducing “cold”, not calcined meal. A hot spot design is the repositioning (lifting up)
of the meal entry point (meal from the second lowest cyclone into the calciner) above the fuel entry point.
Even more effective is the splitting of the meal entry to the calciner, into an upper and lower entry point
(=controlled hot spot). The hot spot is then between the fuel entry point and the upper meal entry point. A
meal split is only possible if the second lowest cyclone is installed high enough. For existing precalciners
such a hot spot can be installed to improve the combustion and thus substitution rate of LGF.
Turbulence generators:
All modern precalciners are designed with turbulence generators such as counter flow introduction of
tertiary air, KHD-Pyrotop, Polysius Deflection Chambers and others. The turbulence does improve the
burn out of the calciner fuel which is specially important for difficult to burn fuels such as LGF. For
existing, old precalciners such modifications can be made to improve the combustion and thus
substitution rate of LGF.
Pre-combustion chamber:
In the pre-combustion chamber the fuel is ignited and partly burned in pure air (tertiary air). This type of
precalciner is designed for low reactive fuels such as LGF and petcoke. A modification of an existing
calciner (addition of pre-combustion chamber) is costly but can be economically feasible especially in
combination with a capacity increase or a conversion to petcoke firing. Several projects have already
been realized.
Retention time:
The retention time of the gas in the calciner and thus the time for the fuel to burn out depends on the
calciner volume. For difficult to burn fuels such as coarse LGF, higher retention times are favorable (4.5
seconds recommended). The modification of the calciner volume is usually very costly.
General aspects on burning LGF with coarse granulometry in the precalciner:
Not in all calciner types, LGF with oversize pieces or coarse granulometry can be burned. For example in
a separate-line calciner these types of LGF can not be used. In-line calciners and pre-combustion
chambers of the downdraft type are suitable. See also chapter 7.5.
6.14 Mixing air on long kilns (connected to mid kiln firing)
This technology is only applicable to long wet and long dry kilns and is connected with the use of mid kiln
firing.
“Mixing air” is a fan which is installed on the rotating kiln between the mid kiln firing entry point and the
beginning of the chains. This fan blows air with high pressure into the kiln. Thus turbulence (mixing) is
created inside the kiln to improve the burn out of the mid kiln LGF.
“Mixing air” is installed on only a few kilns word wide. In Obourg it is installed since 1999 (2x10’000 m3/h
» 12% primary air; 170 mbar). According to the plant the mixing air improves the burn-out of the mid kiln
fuel (compacted lump fuel bales). This leads to a reduced chain entry temperature, which allows to
increase the substitution rate at mid kiln.
6.15 O2 enrichment
Conclusion on O2 enrichment:
The use of O2 enrichment is a high cost item. It can be justified if the costs can be paid by the AFR
business. The availability of cheap O2 sources (say < 50 USD/tO2) would also favor such applications but
so far this is not yet proven in our industry (The “Air Liquide” company claims that the cost for O2 could be
reduced up to some 50% by applying non-cryogenic on-site oxygen supply units but we are not yet
there).
Even without considering any LGF the use of O2 on a kiln boosts the capacity. However every additional
ton of clinker produced (1.1 t cli / t O2 for wet kiln and 2.54 t cli / t O2 dry kiln) would cost so much that O2
enrichment can usually not be justified. It is still better to design the system properly (e.g. adequate sizing
of fans and cross sections).
The use of O2 to merely boost kiln capacity is not recommendable regardless whether LGF is being burnt
or not.
If the main problem when using LGF is actually insufficient flame temperature it makes sense to get the
temperature back by using O2 enrichment. In particular when the theoretical flame temperature would
already drop to the minimum of 2100°C virtually most of the common methods (e.g. increase of cross
sections and flame shape adjustments) can’t help any more.
General aspects of O2 enrichment:
The concept to enrich the combustion air with O2 is very old. The standard technical realization is the
injection of pure O2 via burner channel into the sintering zone. The O2 source is usually liquid oxygen,
however also alternative sources as O2 producing units at the plant have been proposed (not realized) to
decrease the O2 costs.
The use of O2 decreases the nitrogen load in the kiln gas that occurs when using normal ambient air with
21% O2 content. The logical consequences are as follows :
¨ Less combustion gases (Vmin)
¨ Reduced exhaust gas losses (because of 1)
¨ Less air from the cooler (lower recuperation)
¨ Overall reduction of heat consumption (result from 2 and 3)
¨ Increased flame temperature (because of 1)
¨ Increased NOx (as a consequence of 5)
¨ Decreased specific exhaust gas quantity
¨ Increased potential production rate
Most of the effects of O2 enrichment can be predicted by model calculations. Results are shown in the
following graphs:

The flame temperature model used is consistent to the previous chapter 4.5. The theoretical flame
temperature is only a relative indication that must be compared to temperatures calculated within the
same model.
The following points can be seen (or deducted) from the graphs :
¨ 1 ton of injected O2 boosts the kiln capacity by a gain of 1.1 – 2.5 additional tons of clinker. The
lowest gain would be applicable for the wet kiln.
¨ For a constant O2 addition (kg O2/kg cli) the strongest flame temperature effect occurs at the
main firing of precalciner kilns (due to the 40% firing rate). An addition of only 0.02 kg O2/kg cli produces
280°C more flame temperature.
¨ Assuming 100% firing rate to the main firing, the O2 effect on a suspension preheater kiln
(without precalciner) is stronger than on a wet kiln. E.g. at 0.05 kg O2/kg cli the SP kiln flame temperature
increases by 250°C (wet kiln = 140°C).
¨ The O2 can be used to compensate LGF effects. Assuming a SP-kiln with 100% main firing the
impact of 1 ton injected water can be compensated with approx. 1 ton of O2 in order to get the same
flame temperature.
The Holly Hill case:
The so far longest and most extensive experience is available from Holly Hill. The basic idea behind the
O2 enrichment was to compensate the negative impacts of the liquid AF (Synfuel or HWDF = hazardous
waste derived fuel) used in their wet kilns.
Main data kiln 2 (long wet kiln).
¨ Normal capacity (coal) 2180 mt/d
¨ HWDF CV 23 MJ/kg and less
¨ HWDF substitution rate 45 – 43%
¨ Production loss by HWDF 320 mt/d (- 14.5%)
¨ O2 injection 60 – 93 mt/d
¨ O2 injection volume rate1750 – 2710 Nm3/h
¨ O2 enrichment from 20.9 % to 23.5 Vol %
¨ Production gain by O2 180 - 230 mt/d
Other effects :
Holly Hill is in a special situation regarding emissions compliance (THC). In order to keep THC < 20 ppm
they have to run the kiln at an abnormally high O2 of 4 – 5.5% which reduces the flame temperature
almost to the lowest limit. So the O2 brings the flame temperature back, keeps gas velocities low and
reduces the dust generation.
In addition the O2 enrichment is also used to compensate the effect of CKD injection into the flame.
Cost factors :
¨ CAPEX approx. 220’000 USD
¨ Monthly fixed costs (leases) approx. 7’000 USD
¨ Variable cost 65 USD per ton of liquid O2
¨ Cost of purchased clinker 52 USD/t (locally used for benefit calculation)
According to the general rules the gain on a wet kiln should be approx. 1.1 t clinker per ton of O2.
However Holly Hill reported a rate of approx. 2.5 t cli/t O2 which is surprisingly high and must be related
also to other reasons, such as the unusual O2/THC situation. The plant is convinced that the use of O2
pays out, the strongest impact being the production gain that compensates the production loss by HWDF.
The costs for O2 can be shared with the supplier of the HWDF (Safety Kleen).
6.16 Gasifier / Thermal Cracking
Instead of feeding solid LGF directly to the kiln, they can be fed indirectly by integrating a gasifier into the
kiln process. Within the considerations made here we will concentrate on kiln process integrated
gasification / thermolysis. The hot combustible gases are directly sent to the kiln. In such cases the
gasifier can also be considered as a pre-combustion chamber working at under-stoichiometric
combustion.
The general advantages are
¨ Lump fuels do not need to be ground to small particle size
¨ Better control of fuel input because the gasification rate can be controlled better (at least better
than feeding lump fuel directly to the kiln).
¨ Better stability of burning process
¨ No reduction of theoretical flame temperature and no increase of heat consumption in case the
“pre-combustion” involves no cold air but hot air from the cooler.
¨ To some extent ash or solid residues can be kept away from the burning process if necessary
(except from fine dust).
¨ Exceptionally undesirable chlorine can be kept away from the burning process
¨ General disadvantages are :
¨ High costs (compared to direct feeding to the kiln)
¨ Safety issue (hot explosive gases that may ignite when adding air)
¨ On unexpected stops of the kiln firing the gasification process cannot be stopped immediately
and hot combustible materials remain in the gasifier. Therefore a flare or an extinguishing system is
needed.
External gasifiers (not process integrated):
External gasifiers produce from waste different fractions: Combustible gas, liquid fuel (“oil”) and solid fuel
(“coal”). They have significant disadvantages compared to process integrated gasifiers when they are
combined with a cement kiln. The occurrence of three products (gas, liquid and solid residues) is just one
of the numerous drawbacks. External gasifiers are not recommended and not considered further in this
study. [18]
Conclusion on Gasifiers:
The gasification / thermal cracking process has a few applications on cement kilns that show that it is
technically feasible. The thermal efficiency of the gasification process can potentially get close to 100% if
it is integrated in the kiln system as a pre-combustion chamber using tertiary air from the cooler.
Long term and large scale operating experience is available from the CFB gasifier. This system works but
has not met all expectations because it cannot dampen the fluctuations of the AFR feed and the originally
expected use of tire chips was not feasible. Other systems seem to be also promising but are less known
from practical experience.
Gasifiers do not dispense from installing advanced LGF handling and dosing equipment.
The LGF applications involving gasification are comparatively expensive and can only be justified if
disposal fees are available. To some extent impacts of LGF on the kiln can be alleviated but not always
be avoided. Therefore we would not recommend the gasification as a standard solution to use lump LGF.
Only if all other possibilities to use LFG by direct combustion are unsuccessful gasifiers can be used in a
high cost environment.
Available solutions for cement kilns:
1) Lurgi circulating fluidized bed (CFB) gasifier
¨ Holcim
Within Holcim the use of a CFB was studied extensively for gasifying waste wood at RK [4] and
alternative fuels at UV [5], but it was not realized.
Main reasons for not using it :
· costs more than direct feeding to kiln
· technical risks
¨ Rüdersdorf
A CFB was realized in Rüdersdorf/ Germany [2]:

The Rüdersdorf kiln is designed for 6000 t/d. The circulating fluidized bed gasifier is connected to the
precalciner and is designed for 100 MW. It can supply max. 2/3 of the calciner fuel.
According to the latest info the CFB is operated with 100% pre-processed municipal waste and fluff (< 50
mm). In contrast to original expectations the use of tire chips was not feasible in practice. Investment
costs for the gasifier amount to 35 Mio DEM in 1995 (approx. 18 Mio USD) and might possibly be lower
for the next installation.
The experience shows that the fluctuations (of mass-flow and CV) of AFR input cannot be dampened by
the CFB. Fluctuating fuel input directly influences the precalciner.
Because cold air is introduced at the aerated gasifier bottom the same effects must occur as for cold air
introduction due to AFR. The evidence is that Rüdersdorf experienced a 40°C higher exhaust gas
temperature.
2) NESA at Rochefort
Multiple hearth (NESA):

Solid waste with organic content (up to 25%) that can be used as alternative raw materials (AR) after
thermal treatment is gasified with this installation. It is designed for 20’000- 30’000 t/a of solid waste. The
gases from the pyrolisis (net CV of 0 – 6.5 MJ/Nm3) are sent to the main firing of the Lepol kiln. The
system is designed for 6’000 Nm3/h combustible gases at 350-450°C which are introduced into the main
firing with a separate burner tube parallel to the main burner.
Investment is in the order of 7.5 Mio USD.
At the moment the installation is still in the start-up phase. 1 t/h feed rate has been achieved so far.
3) Polysius gasifier
Installed at Jura Cement, Wildegg, Switzerland:

The installation is designed for 3 t/h whole tires. Wood is also possible with some modifications. The pre-
combustion chamber is fed with tertiary air. The extraction of steel wires at the bottom is done towards the
kiln inlet. Approximately 1/3 of the combustible matter is extracted together with the steel wires in the form
of soot and reaches the kiln inlet. About 2% water referred to clinker is injected into the gasifier for
temperature control. Total investment is approx. 5 Mio DEM (some 2.5 Mio USD) (excluding tire feeding).
Report on the installation: [8].
4) FLS “HOTDISC”

The “HOTDISC” developed by FLS was tested in pilot scale and the first industrial installation is expected
to come in operation in 2000 in northern Norway.
The system can be considered as a pre-combustion chamber for lump fuels which is closely linked to the
precalciner. The lumps are retained on a slowly rotating disc that is exposed to the tertiary air.
Temperature control is by diverting meal on the disc.
5) Onoda REG gasifier
The gasifier has been realized in Japan long ago and published 1987 [11]. It was studied 1992 for
application in the Olten plant [12] (with contacts to Onoda) and was recommended as favored solution. It
has not been realized. In contradiction to early publications, only tire chips can be used (no whole tires).
No recent publicity or activities are known.
6.17 Drying of LGF
To eliminate the impact of the water introduced into the kiln by LGF, the drying of LGF before burning
could theoretically be a possibility.
One example is sewage sludge. After mechanical de-watering normal sludges are solid but contain still as
much as > 60% water. Drying of such materials is problematic, mainly because of strong odors.
Technically it cannot be realized like normal fuel drying (e.g. using hot waste gases that get in contact with
the sludge would create a big emission problem).
In Switzerland an extensive study has been done how to use sewage sludge in the cement kiln.
Conclusion: Drying of sewage sludge is not feasible in the cement plant. Dying is done today by the
producer of the sludge and the dried sewage sludge is burned in the cement kiln. [16]
In Obourg an installation (“BEMTI”) has been realized to eliminate odor (thermally) from drying and
grinding waste coal sludge mixed with sewage sludge. Investment: Total 570 Mio BEF (some 13 Mio
USD); thermal gas treatment alone 300 Mio BEF [15].
Another example is impregnated saw dust having 30% water. For similar reasons as mentioned above it
is not feasible to dry impregnated saw dust.
7. CRITERIA FOR A NEW CEMENT KILN IN VIEW OF FUTURE USE OF LGF
7.1 Summary of requirements for a new kiln using AFR

Requirements for New Kiln using AFR

Kiln system partMAIN REQUIREMENTS FOR AFR Remarks
Preheater 10 % gas volume-flow reserve compared to conventional fuel
Exhaust gas system Same as above (larger ID fans and filters)
Calciner Gas retention time min 4 - 4.5 sec, in-line type, controlled hot spot must be possible
“Downdraft” type pre-combustion chamber preferred for low reactive fuels
Bypass Decision and bypass size depending on chlorine input by AFR (and general process factors)
Make sure bypass dust does not need to be landfilled (especially at high bypass rate)
Rotary kiln L/D min 15, +10% cross section compared to standard design for conventional fuels

Kiln burner High momentum, min. one spare channel (inside)

Cooler Modern grate cooler High secondary air temperature favorable

7.2 General
Within the Holcim Group basically all new kilns must be designed for future use of LGF and petcoke i.e.
for high fuel flexibility.
In cases where the AFR use is already clearly defined in the project phase it is obvious that the kiln
system design must be chosen accordingly. However in certain projects for new kilns it was decided that
at the project stage only the presently available AFR (or almost no AFR) were taken into consideration
without looking into the future flexibility for other AFR.
Under the influence of a tight budget and the stripped down concept there was a tendency to sacrifice the
future fuel flexibility for cost reasons. Unfortunately a later change for AFR is not always possible by
simple modifications or add-ons. Certain items are just not correctable or would involve high costs and
downtime.
The following criteria refer to a standard kiln system with precalciner and grate cooler. Capacity of kilns is
usually 3000 t/d – 6000 t/d (majority of new kilns). The criteria are generic and can also become
overruled by additional criteria (if clearly defined requirements for LGF usage or other specific process
requirements exist).
7.3 Criteria for preheater and exhaust gas system design
The preheater design shall take into account +10% reserve volume-flow compared to standard fuel
design (pure oil or coal firing). The recommended pressure drop over the preheater (including +10% more
volume) shall be 50 mbar.
Kiln ID fan, conditioning tower, raw mill gas system (as far as applicable), filter and fans must be designed
accordingly.
7.4 Criteria for bypass and related items
A small bypass of 10% can much increase the flexibility to use chlorine containing LGF and alleviate
problems with sulfur cycles, but a bypass installation must be decided upon from case to case.
If a bypass is needed just to handle the possibly excessive chlorine input caused by LGF the use of a
bypass dust must be clarified. There are different solutions, the easiest being the addition to the cement.
At moderate chlorine inputs to the kiln (< 0.1% Cl referred to clinker that would require a 10% bypass) the
dust admixture to the cement can be feasible, depending also on the local standards. If landfilling of
bypass dust cannot be avoided the use of a bypass due to LGF creates a negative environmental impact
which is not acceptable.
If no bypass is foreseen the kiln system shall be designed to extract the filter dust during direct operation
and send it to the cement grinding section. This will give a slight extraction for chlorine and break high
metal accumulations (in particular Thallium) in the outer dust cycle.
7.5 Criteria for calciner
The calciner shall be designed for a gas retention time of 4 - 4.5 sec to offer better burnout for LFG.
Calciner types where large LGF particles cannot be accepted should be excluded. The problem is that
certain calciners cannot handle lumps or heavy particles because they fall down into the tertiary air duct
and create blockages. These are the separate line calciners and the calciners with “tertiary air leg” where
solids can accumulate at the lowest point. Such calciner designs are not acceptable any more in view of
solid AFR. Acceptable are in-line calciners where oversize large particles can fall down to the kiln inlet. In
addition the generation of a hot spot by an adjustable meal split (high and low position) shall be possible.
Very favourable are also calciners having precombustion chambers of the “downdraft” type (RSP,
Polysius new type CC, Fuller downdraft) which are especially suited to ignite and burn 100% low volatile
fuels as petcoke.
7.6 Criteria for rotary kiln
In view of solid AFR with coarse granulometry fed to the main firing or lump fuel fed to the kiln inlet the
rotary kiln must be designed to serve also as a combustion chamber for solid AFR. The aim is to get a
high gas retention time to enhance combustion and to achieve comparatively low temperatures at the kiln
inlet to keep sulfur cycles (will be enhanced by poor combustion) as much as possible in the rotary part
rather than in the preheater. A kiln with a L/D ratio of min 15 (on 3 supports) is recommended. For the kiln
diameter a 10% addition in cross section (compared to the kiln size required for conventional fuels) is
recommended.

The following diagram shows the necessary kiln diameter increase (compared to standard diameter)
needed due to AFR.

7.7 Criteria for main burner

Today a burner with high primary air ratio (min. 12% based on stoichiometric combustion air, excluding
transport air) and high specific momentum (min. 7 N/MW) is standard anyway for process reasons. In
addition, provision of at least one additional jacket/channel for solid AFR in the burner center (needs a
larger central section than the standard design) shall be provided.
In contrast to other key equipment parts (as rotary kiln or calciner) the later replacement of a kiln burner
pipe because of particular AFR requirements is usually still affordable.
7.8 Criteria for grate cooler
A grate cooler of modern standard design will usually be sufficient and no extra requirements are needed.
Such a cooler will usually offer a high and stable air temperature (about 1000°C) which is favorable in
view of flame cooling effects due to AFR. The standard arrangement is a tertiary air take off from the kiln
hood. Although tertiary air extraction from the cooler roof would produce even higher secondary air
temperatures this is not recommendable because of protection of the nose ring section.
8. SET OF RULES HOW TO HANDLE LGF
(STORAGE, DOSING AND INJECTION INTO KILN)

Set of Rules / Important Points:

SOLIDS
Storage in the plant The storage should be covered. Dust and harmful gases have to be considered
(dedusting or ventilation needed).
Extraction from the storage hall and filling of the dosing hopper with bridge crane or front loader.
Dosing system Feed hopper with activated flat bottom and vertical walls (e.g. Saxlund moving floor) in
connection with belt scale. *

Transport to the kiln Only regular belt conveyors should be used (no pneumatic transport except on
burner platform because of inevitable blockages with most LGF).
Secondary firing and precalciner:
Feeding into the precalciner or preheater riser duct Triple flap gate
Main Firing:
Separation of oversize pieces For the main firing a separation of oversize pieces is mandatory.
Recommended system: Rotating screen.
Magnetic separator (cross belt) is recommended to protect the rotary valve before the pneumatic
transport.
Main Firing:
Injection at the main burner Short and straight pneumatic line starting at the burner platform.
Injection through burner center or on top of the burner.
LIQUIDS
Storage tank: Continuous mixing is mandatory (mechanical agitator or circulating flow).
Pump: The screw pole type pump is preferred (not sensible to particles, continuous flow and high
pressure).
Special solutions are needed for solvents (e.g. membrane pump) and sludges (e.g. piston pump).
Two pumps should be installed in parallel (one stand-by).
Atomizer Atomization must be done with pressurized air (or steam).

* Examples for flexible dosing systems of solids:

¨ Recommended system for the main firing: Dosing hopper from Obourg and Eclépens (Saxlund
moving floor with screw extraction, belt scale).
¨ Recommended system for secondary firing or precalciner: Dosing hopper from Lägerdorf
(Saxlund moving floor, belt conveyor with stripper drum, belt scale)
For detailed recommendations on AFR equipment: see reference [10]

Examples of handling systems for solids and liquids:

9. INTERACTION LGF PREPARATION AND BURNING

9.1 Cost relations to prepare LGF

Estimation of Shredding Cost for Tires, Wood and Plastic

Although only rough estimates of shredding costs are possible, the following conclusions can be made:
¨ The cost for shredding increases exponentially with the fineness of the AFR product.
¨ Shredding of tires is more expensive than for industrial plastics and waste wood. Although not
shown, plastics with mineral or metal contamination are shredded at higher costs than clean industrial
plastic waste.
¨ Coarse tire, plastic or wood chips for SP/PC firing (0 – 50 mm) can be produced at overall costs
of less than about USD 65.-/t. Fine granulation for main burner firing (< 10 mm) costs more than USD
80.-/t.
Plastic shredding: see also [20]

9.2 Substitution rate versus quality of LGF: Optimization of costs

Annexes:
1) Example of impact calculation for solid LGF
2) Summary of LGF Impacts
3) References

CTS-Process Technology

A. Obrist D. Pauling A. Flacher

10. ANNEX 1

11. ANNEX 1B
11.1 Detailed calculation of results from Annex 1 example:
Ratio LGF/clinker: 3.3 GJ/t cli / 15 GJ/t LGF * 10% = 0.022 t LGF/t cli
Water
11.2 Impact on heat consumption:
· GJ increase/t LGF: Factor from chapter 4.3: +2.15 GJ/t H2O
2.15 GJ/t H2O * 0.3 t H2O/t LGF = 0.65 GJ increase/t LGF
· % increase referred to CV of LGF: 0.65 GJ/t LGF / 15 GJ/t LGF = 4.3%
· MJ increase/t clinker: 0.022 t LGF/t cli * 650 MJ/t LGF = 14.2 MJ increase/t cli
· % increase of kiln heat consumption: 14.2 MJ increase/t cli / 3300 MJ/t cli = 0.43% increase
11.3 Impact on flame temperature:
· kg H20/kg clinker: 0.022 kg LGF/kg clinker * 0.3 kg H20/kg LGF = 0.007 kg H2O/kg clinker
Critical quantity from chapter 4.3: 0.11 kg H2O/kg clinker resp. –400°C
Reduction flame temperature: 0.007 kg H2O/kg cli / 0.11 kg H2O/kg cli * 400°C = -24°C
11.4 Impact on production:
· t cli lost/t LGF: Factor from chapter 4.3: -1.98 t cli lost/t H2O
0.3 t H2O/t LGF * -1.98 t cli lost/t H2O = -0.59 t cli lost/t LGF
· % lost of kiln capacity: 0.022 t LGF/t cli * -0.59 t cli/t LGF = -1.31% lost
Ash and transport air
calculation same as for water
O2 increase (excess air)
11.5 Impact on heat consumption:
· % increase of kiln heat consumption: Factor from chapter 4.3: +1.8% increase per 1% O2
· 0.5 * 1.8% = 0.9% increase of heat consumption for 0.5% O2 increase
· MJ increase/t clinker: 3300 MJ increase/t cli * 0.9% = 29.7 MJ increase/t cli
· GJ increase/t LGF: 0.0297 GJ increase/t cli / 0.022 t LGF/t cli = 1.35 GJ increase/t LGF
· % increase referred to CV of LGF: 1.35 GJ/t LGF / 15 GJ/t LGF = 9%
11.6 Impact on flame temperature:
· Factor from chapter 4.3: -80°C decrease per 1% O2 increase
Reduction flame temperature: 0.5 * -80°C = -40°C decrease by 0.5% increase of O2
11.7 Impact on production:
· % lost of kiln capacity: Factor from chapter 4.3: -1.4% production lost/ 1% O2 increase
0.5 * -1.4% production lost = -0.7% production lost
· t cli lost/t LGF: 0.007 t cli lost/t cli produced / 0.022 t LGF/t cli prod = -0.32 t cli lost/t LGF
12. ANNEX 2

13. ANNEX 3 (NEXT 2 PAGES)

Annex 2

Ref Author Title Source Remark

1 Obrist A. Cement Course, Use of Alternative Fuels PT 00/14674/E
2 Flacher A., Bauer C., Pauling D. Rüdersdorfer Zementwerke. Visit to Rüdersdorf Plant, Fluidised
Bed Gasifier PT 00/30/E

4 Obrist A. Vergasung von Holz zwecks Befeuerung eines Zementofens VA 89/5565/D

Waste wood Rekingen, survey gasification
5 Vorprojekt Sekundärbrennstoffe im Zementofen PA 92/10847/D Alternative Fuels via
CFB at UV
6 Maury H.D.(MBM) Une installation pour l'utilisation direct des déchets ménagers en fuor de
cimenterie / A plant for direct use of domestic waste in a cement kiln Ciments Béton Plâtres Chaux
Jan/Feb 2000, p. 433-444 Use of RDF at Erwitte, using Maury bypass
7 Maury H.D.(MBM) Chlor-Bypasss zur Erhöhung des Brennstoffeinsatzes aus Müll beim
Klinkerbrennen Zement-Kalk-Gips Nr 11/1988 Chlorine bypass at Erwitte to burn more RDF
8 M. Suter Polysius tire gasifier at Wildegg TPT 00/…/E
(to be finished approx. 10/2000)
9 D. Brassel, U. Gasser Circulation Phenomena PT 99/14503/E
10 D. Pauling Recommended AFR Equipment TPT 00/…/E
(to be finished approx. 10/2000)
11 I. Saito, K. Sakae, T. Ogiri Effective use of waste tires by gasification in cement plant
World Cement Sept. 1987 Onoda gasifier
12 A. Obrist Verbrennen von Altreifen hauptbrennerseitig im Zementofen, Studie für den Fall
Portlandcementwerk Olten VA 90/5758/D Proposal Onoda gasifier for tires chips at Olten
13 R. Stenger Manual: AFR Quality Control Scheme HMC / CIE
14 Dr. H. Rosemann, R. Hasler Process Optimization and AFR at Lägerdorf Presentation
Group Meeting 1999
15 B. de Quervain Kiln Optimization in View of AFRPresentation Vesta Forum IV
16 A. Obrist, Th. Lang Nicht-landwirtschaftliche Verwertungsmöglichkeiten von Klärschlamm
unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Verbrennung im Zementofen; Teilstudie 1
Schlammbehandlungsver-fahren VA 88/5503/D
17 C. Daidone Chlorine Balance and Optimization at Lorca Plant Vesta Forum IV, April
2000, Mexico
18 L.P. Seirlehner (SGS-Technology) Opportunity Study Thermal Cracking HMC / CIE
(to be finished approx. 10/2000)
19 R. Spilliaert Presentation BEMTI Presentation for C.E.T.I.C. Technique Plenière 5.6.1998
BEMTI in Obourg
20 A. Flacher Technical file: Plastic Shredding HMC / MPT / AFL
21 CIE/Euremi Technical files on AFR preparation and handling AFR Pyramid (Holderspace)

Preparation of Alternative Fuels

A. Flacher
PT 00/14667/E
1. INTRODUCTION
2. From Waste to Alternative fuel
2.1 Waste Properties
2.2 Processing of Waste
3. Liquid Alternative Fuel preparation
3.1 Pollution of Liquid Waste
3.2 Homogenizing
3.3 Safety
4. Preparation of alternative fuel from pasty waste
4.1 High Viscosity Liquid Facility
4.2 Impregnation Facility
5. Solid alternative Fuel preparation
5.1 Shredding and Granulation of Solid Waste
6. Examples
6.1 Typical Liquid Waste Handling
6.2 SCORIBEL Impregnated Sawdust Production
6.3 Industrial Plastic Waste Shredding at PLASTREC AG

SUMMARY
Alternative fuels used in the cement manufacturing process originate from waste, which often doesn’t
have suitable physical properties for the kiln process. This is where alternative fuel preparation is needed.
This paper focuses on common waste treatment techniques for alternative fuel production. For a
complete understanding of the subject, the lecture of the Cement Course paper “Use of Alternative Fuels“
is recommended.

1. INTRODUCTION
Waste is a residual product of some sort of process. Its physical properties are characterized by this
process. Alternative fuel, on the other hand, is a combustible for clinker manufacture. It must have
physical properties suited for incineration in a cement kiln. In many cases the properties of waste and
alternative fuel do not correspond. This is where alternative fuel preparation is required.

2. FROM WASTE TO ALTERNATIVE FUEL

2.1 Waste Properties

When waste material is considered for alternative fuel use, first of all, its chemical composition (circulating
elements, ash composition) must be suited for the kiln process. Then there are other properties and
aspects, which need to be looked at:
¨ The viscosity of liquid waste determines the design of the storage and handling installation.
¨ Corresponding to the granulometry of solid waste, a size reduction process might have to be
considered and the suitable kiln feeding point is chosen.
¨ Water contained in liquids requires mixing for better homogeneity of the alternative fuel. Water
contained in solid waste has an impact on the handling as it might change the flowability of the material.
¨ Foreign bodies and impurities need to be separated in order to reduce wear and the risk of
blockages.
¨ Safety is very important when dealing with waste, e.g. toxicity and flashpoint need to be
considered.
¨ Additional aspects refer to the waste supply, such as annual tonnage as well as form and
schedule of delivery.

2.2 Processing of Waste

As for any other process, for the preparation of alternative fuel the most simple and inexpensive but also
safe process is suited best. A mechanical waste treatment is therefore chosen in almost any case.
Similar to the mechanical processes in cement manufacture the preparation of alternative fuel comprises
of the following main processes:
¨ Screening to separate foreign and oversized material which might cause handling or wear
problems in fuel preparation and firing installations.
¨ Size reduction to fit the fuel to the foreseen firing point (e.g. preheater, main burner), as well as to
allow a proper dosing and to ensure a good combustion.
¨ Homogenizing and mixing to feed to the kiln process a fuel of constant quality.
Picture 1 gives and overview of the different processes from waste to alternative fuel. Explanation is given
in the following chapters.

Picture 1: Processes from waste to alternative fuel

Thermal waste processing (gasification/pyrolysis) is applied in a few cement plants. It is operated in

conjunction with the kiln. Gasification allows separating the combustible fraction of a waste in a gaseous
form from the non-combustible part. The investment cost for such installation is comparably high, which
makes this process worthwhile only when considerable disposal fees are received.

3. LIQUID ALTERNATIVE FUEL PREPARATION

In many cement plants, liquid waste has been the first waste material to be accepted and used as
alternative fuel because little preparation is necessary and, in certain cases, existing installations may be
used. However, there are special aspects that need to be considered when handling liquid waste such as
waste oil and solvents.

3.1 Pollution of Liquid Waste

Liquid waste is likely to be polluted with foreign bodies (metal pieces, sand, plastics etc.). A coarse
filtering upon reception is therefore necessary. With in-line shredders and grinders remaining particles can
be crushed to avoid blockages. Even after a second filter in the kiln firing line, there are still solid particles
present in the liquid. The pumping and kiln injection system must therefore be designed accordingly.
Picture 2: Screw pole pump, suited for waste oil containing solid particles

3.2 Homogenizing
Due to the presence of solids and often also mixtures of liquids with different densities, a mixing tank is
required. A recirculation circuit or mechanical mixer ensures a good blending.

3.3 Safety
The handling of solvents or liquid waste containing solvents represents a safety risk since there is a high
potential for explosion. The decisive parameter for the safe design of a liquid installation is the liquid’s
flashpoint (the flashpoint is the temperature at which the evaporations of a combustible liquid form an
inflammable gas). Pure motor oil has a flashpoint of up to 200°C whereas other liquids, such as solvents,
can have one below 0°C.
Another safety risk to workers and the environment represent toxic substances. Special protection and
safety procedures are required. The guideline for this should always be the safety standards applied in
the chemical industry.
Picture 3: Protected worker sampling liquid waste

4. PREPARATION OF ALTERNATIVE FUEL FROM PASTY WASTE

In industrial areas there are often considerable amounts of pasty or sludgy waste materials available,
such as
¨ resin, paint, varnish
¨ oil sludges from tank cleaning
¨ destillation residues
¨ grease, soap.
Many of these materials are hazardous. With regard to the variable clinker production cost, they can
therefore be of particular interest as considerable disposal fees may be received.
From the point of view of incineration, it is important that such waste is burnt at high temperatures with
sufficient residence time (The combustion criteria for destruction of halogenated waste for example is
1‘200 °C with 2 seconds residence time). This is only ensured at the main burner of a cement kiln.
Therefore, the hazardous, pasty waste must be pre-treated for incineration in the primary firing.
There are two common ways of sludge pre-treatment for incineration in the primary firing, see below. For
mainly non-hazardous sludges there is the possibility of kiln inlet feeding. With such application, the
sludge is screened to take out coarse foreign bodies before being pumped to the kiln by means of a
concrete pump. Sludge feeding at the kiln inlet is limited due to the high water input.
Picture 4: Sludge feeding installation to kiln inlet (Apaxco plant)

4.1 High Viscosity Liquid Facility

A so-called high viscosity liquid facility aims to liquefy the sludgy waste. This is achieved by mixing the
sludge with liquid fuel. The important aspect of this process is the compatibility of the substances
involved. To avoid chemical reaction, sludge and liquid need to fulfill certain requirements. This however,
limits the use of such pre-treatment system to certain substances, which is a drawback with regard to
flexibility.
4.2 Impregnation Facility
The other common sludge pre-treatment process aims to prepare a pourable, fine, solid alternative fuel.
This is achieved by mixing the sludges with an impregnation support. Saw dust is commonly used for this
purpose. It has a good absorbency and the impregnated product shows little stickiness. Alternatively, filter
cakes and also animal meal have been used as impregnation aid.
In what follows the different steps of an impregnation facility are explained.
4.2.1 Reception and Preparation of Primary Materials
The sludgy waste is delivered either in bulk or small containers (typically 200 l steel drums) and emptied
into pits. There are drums, which cannot be emptied by gravity or reasonable manual effort. For such
containers a robust shredding facility is needed.
Picture 5: Drum emptying

According to chemical analysis of the incoming waste and the product requirements, the unloaded
materials are mixed and then shredded. The prepared mix is conveyed to a mixing station by means of a
high pressure pump.
For an optimum product quality and minimum use of impregnation aid the viscosity of the batch mix is
adjusted. If necessary, liquid phases are extracted from the drums or added to the mixing pit.
4.2.2 Production of Impregnated Alternative Fuel and Dispatch
Once there is a batch of sludge prepared it needs to be mixed with sawdust. The mixing ratio is about one
third of saw dust and two thirds of sludge.
For a simple installation, it is possible to mix the components by means of a wheel loader. The more
sophisticated process is to use a continuously operated intensive mixer.
Legend:
1: mixing container
2: mixing tool
3: material guiding arm
4: discharge opening
5: housing

Picture 6: Intensive mixer (type Eirich)

Before storage, metals are separated and the product is screened in a drum screen. The product is fine
(mostly – 10 mm) and well suited for incineration at the main firing.
For storage moving floor type silos are best suited.

4.2.3 Organic Emission

Due to the handling of unconfined chemicals there is a lot of organic emission. This requires an
appropriate protection of the workforce on the one hand. On the other hand, an aspiration and thermal
treatment of the emission might be necessary.
5. SOLID ALTERNATIVE FUEL PREPARATION
Solid waste can be fed in a coarse form to the kiln (e.g. whole tyres) but often needs to have a finer
granulometry. A size reduction is necessary and determined mainly by the following process factors:
¨ transportation cost
¨ handling properties
¨ kiln feeding point
¨ thermal substitution rate
¨ kiln behavior.
The mechanical processes used for the size reduction of solid waste are shredding and granulation. They
are typically applied for materials such as wood, rubber, plastics or waste tyres.
5.1 Shredding and Granulation of Solid Waste
5.1.1 Shredders
A shredder is a machine for primary size reduction of solid materials. Its operating principle is based on a
tearing and shearing action of slowly rotating tools (10 – 40 rpm) agitated by a high torque drive.
Picture 7: Typical shredder design with two counterrotating shafts

Typically, a shredder consists of two counterrotating shafts. On these shafts engaging disks with hook
type knives are mounted to grab and tear the material fed. Such shredder is preferably used for the size
reduction of high-density waste (e.g. wood and tyres). Waste materials with a low bulk density such as
plastic films require a shredder with large feed opening and a mechanism to push the material towards
the cutting rotor. For such application single rotor shredders are used.
Depending on the knife size and operation (multiple stage, closed circuit) a minimum chip size of 20 – 50
mm can be achieved.
5.1.2 Granulators
Granulators (also called grinders) are generally used for secondary size reduction. The typical design
consists of a single rotor with a fixed counter knife and an outlet sieve. There is a mechanism to push
waste material towards the rotor where knives grab it. After being cut at the fixed counter knife the waste
chips are further milled before they pass the outlet sieve. A granulator operates at higher rpm than a
shredder, above about 100 rpm.
Picture 8: Typical granulator design with one shaft and outlet sieve
Due to their high rotor speed, granulators are used for low abrasive material. Waste containing
considerable amounts of metals and/or mineral material should not be granulated because of excessive
wear. The spacing between the rotor knife and the fixed counter knife needs to be small (about 0.5 mm)
to efficiently cut fine material like plastic films.

5.1.3 Multi-Stage Size Reduction

For the firing of waste materials at the preheater/precalciner, a single stage size reduction is sufficient in
most cases. If bulky waste material is to be fired at the main burner a multiple stage shredding and
granulation is required for the efficient production of an alternative fuel of a few millimeter size.
6. EXAMPLES
6.1 Typical Liquid Waste Handling
A typical handling facility for the reception of liquid waste and the production of liquid alternative fuel is
shown in picture 9.
The installation consists of the following main elements:
¨ Liquid waste decanting tank with primary filtration
¨ Shredder to crush oversized particles for protection of the pump and to avoid blockages.
¨ Discharge pump, typically of centrifugal type
¨ Liquid storage tank with mechanical mixer
¨ Loading pump, typically of centrifugal type
¨ In case of low flashpoint liquid, a nitrogen inertisation system
¨ Sprinkling system for fire suppression
Picture 9: Typical liquid waste handling installation

6.2 SCORIBEL Impregnated Sawdust Production

SCORIBEL is a Belgium based subsidiary of Ciments d’Obourg. At the impregnation workshop of its
Seneffe plant solid, pasty and liquid waste is mixed with an impregnation aid to form a fine, solid
alternative fuel for incineration at the main firing of cement kilns.
The installation consists of three main parts:
¨ A reception section for industrial waste in bulk or containers as well as the impregnation aids
sawdust and filter cake. In a closed building the liquid, pasty and solid waste is premixed and shredded.
¨ By means of a continuously operated intensive mixer the waste sludge is mixed with the
impregnation aid before being screened.
¨ In two moving floor type silos the product is stored and homogenized before being loaded to
trucks.
For reduction of organic emission air is aspirated at the main sources of emission and sent to a thermal
treatment unit.
The plant’s design production capacity is 15 t/h, actually it is operated at more than 20 t/h.
Investment cost for the impregnation facility (excl. air treatment): BEF 250 Mio.

Picture 10: flowsheet of SCORIBEL’s impregnation workshop

6.3 Industrial Plastic Waste Shredding at PLASTREC AG

PLASTREC AG, a subsidiary of HCB, operates a facility for the shredding of industrial plastic and rubber
waste to a product for use at the primary firing of cement kilns. The waste materials received are cables,
textile reinforced plastic, residues from manufacture of hard plastic items, plastic films and rubber.
The facility is designed to mechanically process the incoming waste to a product of 10 mm size. This is
achieved by pre-shredding and subsequent grinding of the material. Two shredders and two granulators,
each operated in parallel, are used for the two-stage process. Material transport is done by belt conveyors
for raw and pre-shredded material, and pneumatically for the finished product.
The plant has an hourly production rate of 1.5 – 2.0 t. The annual production is about 5‘000 t. The
consumption of electrical energy is 100 kWh/t for the whole facility.
Investment cost for whole installation: CHF 1.2 Mio.
Picture 11: flowsheet of PLASTREC plastic shredding plant

C08 - Circulation Phenomena

Circulation Phenomena in the Clinkerization Process

René Hasler, Daniel Brassel
PT 99/14503/E
1. INTRODUCTION
2. MECHANISM OF THE CIRCULATION PHENOMENA
3. CIRCULATING ELEMENTS IN THE KILN SYSTEM
3.1 Input of Circulating Elements
3.2 Enrichment of Circulating Elements / Endangered Zones for Encrustation Formation
3.3 Output of Circulating Elements
3.4 Volatility of Circulating Elements
3.5 Condensation of Circulating Elements
4. TYPICAL APPEARANCE OF BUILD-UPS
5. KILN OPERATION PROBLEMS DUE TO CIRCULATING ELEMENTS
6. IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEMS WITH ENCRUSTATIONS AND BUILD-UPS
6.1 Material Balance
6.2 Criteria and Indicators to Assess the Build-up Problem
6.3 Example of a Circulation Phenomena Problem
7. MEASURES AGAINST BUILD-UP FORMATION
7.1 General Measures
7.2 “Intelligent“ Cleaning
7.3 Measures against Chloride Problems
7.4 Measures against Sulfur Problems
7.5 Measures against Alkali Problems
8. MATHEMATICAL MODEL TO SIMULATE THE CYCLES OF THE CIRCULATING ELEMENTS

SUMMARY
This chapter describes the circulation of volatile elements in the kiln system. It indicates the tolerable
inputs of circulating elements so that no excessive build-up and clogging problems arise.
In particular it shall serve as guideline how an encrustation problem, caused by volatile elements, is
systematically solved.
1. INTRODUCTION
Alkali, sulfur and chlorine compounds (hereafter called circulating or volatile elements, see below) in raw
materials and fuels utilized for the cement manufacture, when present in high concentrations often given
rise to difficulties in kiln operation with build-up formation, mainly in the preheater and the kiln inlet
section.
Volatile Elements (VE):

Sulfur SO3
Potassium K2O
Sodium Na2O
Chlorine Cl

The build-up formations cause cyclone blockages or restrictions of the kiln inlet area so that the kiln has
to be stopped for cleaning. In extreme cases more than 200 annual kiln stops due to blockages may
occur, so that the impact on kiln availability and productivity can become a severe issue. Suspension
preheaters armed with dozens of shock blowers (Fig. 1a, 1b) to prevent build-up formation illustrate the
importance of this problem.
Fig. 1a

Fig. 1b

2. MECHANISM OF THE CIRCULATION PHENOMENA

Depending on the degree of volatility, the circulating elements evaporate in the sintering zone of the
cement kiln and are carried by the gases to colder zones, where they mainly condense on the raw meal
and partly also on the surrounding walls.
Afterwards they return with the raw meal into the sintering zone where they partly reevaporate depending
on the degree of volatility. This repeated process through the kiln leads to the establishment of internal
cycles (see Fig. 5). Finally the cycles reach equilibrium so that the output of circulating elements is equal
to their input by the raw materials and the fuels (cp. Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 Circulation of Volatile Elements within the Kiln System

Almost all the circulating elements finally leave the system with the clinker. However, this is only the case
when beforehand sufficiently high internal cycles of the volatile elements have been formed. The extents
of these cycles depend on the degree of volatility of the circulating elements. As the latter recondense on
the colder raw meal and the surrounding walls, the formed sticky molten salts are able to reduce the
fluidability of the raw meal and, if present in sufficient quantities, to glue it finally on the walls. From time
to time, especially during a change of the temperature profile, pieces of build-ups fall down and mainly
block the cyclone outlets (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3 Build-ups due to Circulating Elements in the Various Kiln Systems

If the amount of molten salts becomes too high, either because of an excessive input of volatile elements
or due to a high degree of volatility, the installation of a kiln gas bypass becomes necessary in order to
extract part of the circulating elements from the kiln system (Fig. 4a, 4b, 4c).
Fig. 4a Conventional Bypass with Water Injection

Fig. 4b Hot Gas Bypass without Water Injection

Fig. 4c Bypass with Gas Feedback

A small part of the circulating elements leave the kiln system with the main exhaust gas dust. The latter is
efficiently precipitated in the dedusting unit and is normally reintroduced into the kiln system. This is called
the external cycle of the circulating elements (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5 Circulation Phenomena: Internal and External Cycle

In normal cases a negligible amount of circulating elements is emitted by the stack into the atmosphere.
However, the emission of SO2 is not negligible anymore, when the sulfur in the raw material is present in
form of sulfide (FeS2, PbS, ZnS) or organic compounds. In this latter case the sulfides are volatilized in
the temperature range of 400 to 600°C and leave the kiln system partly as gaseous SO2 emission (Fig. 6
and section 3.3.4).
Fig. 6 SO2 Emission in case of Sulfides
3. CIRCULATING ELEMENTS IN THE KILN SYSTEM
3.1 Input of Circulating Elements
In the following the typical inputs of circulating elements by the raw materials and the fuel(s) are indicated.
It is differentiated between input ranges where usually no encrustation and build-up problems arise and
input ranges that usually lead to severe clogging problems.
Important: All figures may serve as rough guidelines only.
The real limits for the build-up and clogging formation depend on a lot of individual parameters like the
degree of volatilization, the temperature profile, the completeness of combustion and the excess air factor
as well as the kiln system itself. The indicated values are guidelines for suspension preheater kiln only.
3.1.1 Input by the Raw Materials (loss free basis)
¨ Alkalis (K, Na):
Generally appear as interlayer cations in the clay minerals and the feldspars.
¨ Sulfur:
The sulfur is introduced in several mineralogical forms:
· as sulfate: gypsumCaSO4 × 2H2O
anhydrate CaSO4
· as sulfide: pyrite FeS2, organic compounds
In the following only the sulfates are considered.
¨ Chlorine:
The chlorides are mainly introduced as NaCl (from seawater) or KCl.
Note: The„kiln feed“ normally includes already external cycle (see Fig. 2) so that its concentration on
circulating elements is higher than the one of the pure raw mix.
Typical limits for 4 to 5 stage SP kilns are listed in section 6.2.2.
3.1.2 Input by the Fuel(s)
Mainly sulfur is introduced by the fuels such as Coal, Coke, fuel oil and so on. In Addition alternative fuels
often contain a reasonable amount of sulfur.
Typical limits for 4 to 5 stage SP kilns are shown in section 6.2.2.
3.2 Enrichment of Circulating Elements / Endangered Zones for Encrustation Formation
Depending on the individual circulating element and its compounds, the condensing point lies in the
temperature range of 650 to 1000°C.
Condensation: 650 – 800°C : Chlorides and its compounds
800 – 1000°C : Sulfates
Therefore the endangered zones for the formation of build-ups by the condensed circulating elements
depend on one hand on the circulating element and its compounds and on the other hand on the kiln
system itself (see also Fig. 3).
In the following the build-up zones for the various kiln systems are indicated. At the colder end usually the
encrustations by the chlorides are found whereas at the hotter end the ones of the sulfates are met.

Kiln System Zones of Build-ups

Precalciner kiln / 4 or 5 stage SP kiln The two lowest cyclones stage and their riser ducts, kiln inlet
area (first section of rotary part)
Lepol kiln Second preheating chamber, kiln inlet (first section of rotary part)
3 stage SP kiln Lowest cyclone and its riser duct, kiln inlet, first section of rotary part
2 stage SP kiln Lowest riser duct, kiln inlet, first section of rotary part
Long dry kiln / wet Calcining zone of rotary part (transition zone)

3.3 Output of Circulating Elements

3.3.1 Clinker
¨ The chlorides are so volatile that they hardly leave the kiln via clinker. In exceptional cases, when
the sintering zone has largely cooled down or when embedded in big material lumps, the chlorides may
leave the kiln in major quantities. However, normally the chlorides form a large cycle within the kiln
system and they need to be extracted by a kiln gas bypass.
¨ The sulfur and the alkalis leave the kiln system normally via clinker either as definite compounds:
K2SO4, K3Na(SO4), Na2SO4
Ca2K2(SO4)3
CaSO4 (rare!)
or in solid solution in clinker minerals:
K with the Belite, Aluminate
Na with the Aluminate
SO3 with the Belite

The calciumanhydrate CaSO4 is rather volatile (decomposes at temperatures > 1000°C) and forms
therefore a large sulfur cycle in the kiln system. Therefore it is very important that there is sufficient alkalis
to combine with the sulfur and to leave the kiln system as alkali/sulfur compound.
3.3.2 Kiln Gas Bypass
Kiln gas bypasses (see Fig. 4) are mainly used to extract the very volatile chlorides from SP preheater
kilns. Chloride bypasses withdraw typically 5 to 15% of the kiln gases. The hot gases from the kiln inlet
are quenched down by fresh air, sometimes supported by injection of water into the quench chamber, to a
temperature below 600°C. The gaseous chlorides condense onto the withdrawn dust particles and are
separated finally in an electrostatic precipitator or a bagfilter (see Fig. 5a, 5b, 5c).
In rare cases kiln gas bypasses are also applied in case of too much CaSO4 and not sufficient alkalis.
Also for the production of low alkali clinker large kiln gas bypasses are used (20 to 50% of the kiln gases)
in order to withdraw the alkalis from the kiln charge and to produce a clinker with an alkali content of <
0.6% (i.e. Na2Oeq < 0.6%). Thereby the alkalis are volatilized by hard burning and by injection of
chlorides into the kiln (see also section 0).
The bypass dust must be discarded e.g. into the quarry or is partly reutilized as additive to the cement, or
in rare cases may be sold as filler material.
A ballpark figure for the amount of bypass dust: 15 g/kg cli per 10% bypass
Due to the extraction of the bypass gases additional heat loss arise. The specific value per % bypass
depends on the kiln system:
· Precalciner kilns: 8 – 11 kJ/kg cli
· Preheater kilns: 20 kJ/kg cli
Typical chemical concentrations of bypass dusts are found in Fig. 7 and 8.
3.3.3 Kiln Dust
Another possibility to withdraw circulating elements from the kiln system is via external cycle (see Fig. 5)
which is interrupted and partly discarded. The enrichment of this kiln dust by circulating elements
depends on the kiln system. Whereas kiln dusts from long wet kilns are highly enriched, the ones from SP
kilns show nearly the same chemical composition than the raw meal. Typical chemical concentrations of
dusts from the different kiln systems are shown on Fig. 7 and 8. Thereby the following legend applies:

WL = long wet kiln

DL = long dry kiln
DG = dry kiln with grate preheater (LEPOL)
DS = SP kilns: F Filter dust from kiln exhaust gas
BP Bypass dust

Fig. 7 Kiln Dust Analyses

Fig. 8 Kiln Dust Analyses

3.3.4 Emission by Exhaust Gas

Normally there is no emission of circulating elements by the exhaust gas. The only gaseous component,
the SO2 which does not condense at low temperatures is effectively absorbed by the free lime at the
lowest cyclone stage.
However, a source of SO2 emission is the raw material sulfur in form of sulfide (e.g. pyrite). The sulfides
decompose at temperatures between 400 to 600°C, forming SO2. Approximately 70% of the SO2
immediately reacts with the CaCO3 of the kiln feed to CaSO3 and finally at higher temperatures to
CaSO4. The residual 30% of the SO2 are partly absorbed on their way with the flue gases to the stack,
mainly in the raw mill and in the conditioning tower. However, a certain portion of the SO2 is finally
emitted by the stack, depending on the kiln and raw mill system (see Fig. 6).
3.4 Volatility of Circulating Elements
3.4.1 Definition of Total Volatility
The total volatility of a circulating element or a compound of it is defined as shown in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9 The Volatility of a Circulating Element

The total volatility of a circulating element or of a compound of it indicates which portion of it is volatilized
in the kiln and does not leave the kiln straight with the clinker.
The total volatility is:

whereas j = factor for total volatility

cHM = concentration of the circulating element at the kiln inlet
ccli = concentration of the circulating element in the clinker
3.4.2 Affinity of the Circulating Elements
Circulating elements have a strong affinity to other elements and form chemical compounds. The
following affinity order has been observed (see also Fig. 10):
1) The chlorine combines first with the alkalis, forming KCI, NaCl.
The residual chlorine, if any, combines with the calcium, forming CaCl2.
2) The residual alkalis combine with the sulfur, forming K2SO4, Na2SO4. They form also double
salts Ca2K2(SO4) 2, K3Na(SO4) 2.
The residual alkalis, if any, combine with CO, forming K2CO3, Na2CO3.
3) The residual sulfur (SO3 or SO2) combines with CaO, forming CaSO4.
Fig. 10 Affinity

3.4.3 Volatility of the Circulating Element Compounds

3.4.3.1 General
¨ In the kiln the alkalis are liberated from the clay mineral lattice. They partly dissociate into the gas
phase and recombine with other elements according to the affinity order as described in paragraph 3.4.2.
The rest recombines directly in the charge material with chlorine or sulfur or is integrated into the lattice of
the clinker minerals (belite and aluminate, see paragraph 3.3.1). Especially the sodium is little volatile and
goes preferably direct into the clinker (Fig. 11).
Fig. 11 Circulation of Alkalis

The chlorides liberated during heating of the material and combustion of the fuel react with the alkalis to
form alkali chloride. This reaction takes place either in the charge material or, after vaporization, in the kiln
gas (Fig. 12).
Fig. 12 Circulation of Chlorine

¨ Upon volatilization of sulfur at burning zone temperatures in the cement kiln, sulfur dioxide is the
predominant component. The gaseous SO2 derives either from the dissociated sulfur of the combustibles
or the decomposed CaSO4 and the partly volatilized Alk2SO4 from the charge material.
Subsequently if there is an excess of alkalis, the internal sulfur cycle is caused primarily by the reaction
with these, which takes place almost entirely in the rotary kiln. The alkali sulfates formed in this reaction
are, in so far as they are present in vapor form, precipitated on the material. This occurs mainly in the
rotary kiln itself, but partly also in the preheater.
The precipitated alkali sulfates thus travel through the kiln again, pass through the sintering zone, and are
partly discharged from the kiln with the clinker, while some of the alkali sulfates remain in the cycle.
The calcium sulfate (CaSO4) is formed as a result of the reaction between SO2 and CaO. It is partly
present already in the raw materials or is formed preferably in the temperature range of 800 to 900°C as
illustrated in Fig. 13. Above a temperature level of 1000°C the calcium sulfate starts decomposing, first
rather slowly and beyond a temperature of 1300°C rapidly. Sulfur dioxide again is formed. If the alkali
input is not high enough to combine the whole incoming sulfur as alkali sulfate, high sulfur dioxide
concentrations in the kiln gas arise. In such circumstances calcium sulfate may pass un-decomposed
through the sintering zone leaving the kiln embedded in the belite mineral or even as CaSO4. The sulfur
cycle is illustrated in Fig. 14.
Fig. 13 SO2 Absorption by CaO resp. CaCO3

Fig. 14 Circulation of Sulfur

3.4.3.2 Volatility of the Compounds of Circulating Elements

Fig. 15 indicates the relation between vapor pressure of various alkali compounds at different
temperatures. This demonstrates that the volatilization mechanism is dependent upon the form of
combination of the particular volatile element.
Fig. 15 Vapor Pressure

Chlorides: KCl, NaCl, CaCl2

At a temperature level of 1200 to 1300°C the chlorides are already volatilized to a great extent. At
sintering zone temperatures they are almost entirely volatilized so that the total volatility factor j is approx.
0.97 to 1.
Sulfates: Alk2SO4, CaSO4
Basically, the Alk2SO4 are little volatile, whereas the CaSO4 is highly volatile.
Therefore the most important criteria for the total sulfur volatility is the molar ratio between the alkalis and
the sulfur itself, corrected by the chlorine:
Molar alkali / sulfur ratio:

Desirable value:
If there are sufficient alkalis available to combine with the total sulfur input (from raw materials as well as
from the fuel), the total volatility for the sulfur is j = 0.3 to 0.5.
However, if there is a surplus of sulfur over the alkalis, the highly volatile CaSO4 is formed. Its volatility is
approximately j = 0.9, but can increase up to j = 1, depending on the operating conditions of the burning
process.
In general the sulfur volatility is very much depending on the operating conditions of the burning process,
such as
¨ the maximum temperature in the sintering zone
¨ the retention time of the kiln charge material at high sinter zone temperatures
¨ the granulometry of the kiln charge material (diffusion to the surface of the granules)
¨ the partial pressure of O2 in the kiln atmosphere
¨ the partial pressure of SO2 in the kiln atmosphere
For more details see next paragraph 3.4.4.
3.4.4 Parameters Influencing the Volatility of the Sulfur Compounds
3.4.4.1 Maximum Temperature in the Sintering Zone
The essential feature of the volatility - temperature curve is that above a certain critical temperature the
volatility increases first exponentially and then slowly reaches a maximum (Fig. 16).
Fig. 16 Volatility-Temperature Curve

For sulfur this critical temperature is in the order of the burning temperature. Consequently hard burnable
raw mixes or overheating of the kiln charge material (low free limes in the clinker) have a very important
bearing on sulfur volatility.
3.4.4.2 Retention Time of the kiln Charge Material at High Burning Temperatures
Volatilization of the sulfur compounds is a dynamic process. The longer the kiln charge material is
exposed to the high burning temperatures, the higher the total amount of volatilized sulfur.
3.4.4.3 Granulometry of the Kiln Charge Material
If the kiln charge material is well granulated, the sulfur takes more time to diffuse to the surface of the
granule. Consequently less sulfur volatilizes.
On the other hand poor granulometry conditions result in higher dust formation which negatively
influences the temperature profile in the kiln and shifts it towards the kiln inlet.
3.4.4.4 Kiln Atmosphere
The composition of the kiln atmosphere is an essential factor for the sulfur volatility:

The equilibrium of the dissociation is shifted with increasing O2 partial pressure and SO2 partial pressure
in favor of the sulfates.
Too little excess air or also local reducing kiln atmosphere increases the volatility of the sulfur.
This behavior is illustrated for the K2SO4:
Ù O2 excess in burning zone:

Ù O2 deficiency in burning zone:

Laboratory tests have been executed for the primary volatility Î1, i.e. the volatility of the sulfur when
exposed the first time to high temperatures. It is remarkable that already at a temperature level of 1000°C,
the sulfur volatility goes up to 1 (100% volatility) if there is no oxygen in the kiln atmosphere. This is the
case if the combustible produces a local reducing atmosphere in the kiln charge material e.g. when
burning whole tires at the kiln inlet. From these tests it can be derived that the main influence of the
oxygen content on an increase of the sulfur volatility is produced between 0 to 2% O2. Beyond 2% O2 the
influence is negligible (see Fig 17).
Fig. 17 Sulfur Volatility depending on Oxygen content

The partial pressure of the sulfur dioxide (SO2) also decreases the sulfur volatility. That means that if the
sulfur cycle in the kiln is large enough, the dissociation of the sulfates decreases and the sulfates can
gradually leave the kiln with the clinker. However, this is not much of a help, as the required high sulfur
cycles already cause encrustation problems!
3.5 Condensation of Circulating Elements
As previously stated, the circulating elements volatilize in the hot zones of the kiln and condense at the
colder areas of the kiln system (internal cycle).
Melting point and boiling point (at 1 bar) of some chlorides, sulfates and carbonates are listed below.
Generally speaking it can be stated that the chlorides condense at lower temperatures than the sulfates.

Melting Point [°C] Boiling Point [°C] at 1 bar

Chlorides NaCl 801 1413
KCl 776 1500 (sublim.)
CaCl2 772 > 1600

Sulfates Na2SO4 884 ?

K2SO4 1069 1689
CaSO4 1280 (d) -

Carbonates Na2CO3 851 (decomp.)

K2CO3 891 (decomp.)

In the melting phase secondary compounds are formed which are more complex than the original volatile
elements:
Secondary Compounds:

Chlorides Sulfates Carbonates Spurrites

KCl K2SO4 K2CO3, 2 C2S × CaCO3
(NaCl) K3Na (SO4)2 (Na2CO3) 2 C2S × CaSO4
Na2SO4
Ca2K2 (SO4)3
CaSO4

Furthermore, investigations have revealed that calcium sulfate, calcium oxide and alkali sulfate form
eutectic melts which can have much lower melting temperatures than the single compounds (Fig. 18).
Under presence of chlorides these melting temperatures are even more lowered to temperatures below
700°C. Very low melting temperatures show also the alkali carbonates. However, in such a case the
alkalis can be sulfatizated by the addition of gypsum so that it presents normally not a major problem.
Fig. 18 Melt Intervals in the System
CaSO4 - K2SO4 - Na2SO4

All these melts, when present in sufficient quantities, lead to severe encrustations and build-up formation
in the preheater and kiln inlet area.
A further problem is given by the fact that the volatilization process goes along with an endothermic
reaction whereas the condensation is exothermic. By this way an important amount of heat is drawn from
the sintering zone to the kiln inlet so that the area of condensation is shifted even more towards the cold
end of the kiln system.
4. TYPICAL APPEARANCE OF BUILD-UPS
Typical appearance of build-ups and deposits are shown in Fig. 19, 20 and 21.
Fig. 19 Macrographs of Deposit Types

Fig. 20 a) .. d) S.E.M. Micrographs of Deposits

Fig. 20 a) REM 84/506
HD - 1st cyclone: KCl blocks embedded in fine matrix

Fig. 20 b) REM 84/525

HD - 2nd cyclone: CaSO4 and C2S

Fig. 20 c) REM 84/502

HV - 4th cyclone: Binding nature of glassy KCl matrix

Fig. 20 d) REM 84/550

GM - 4th cyclone: KCl crystal structure filling pore

Fig. 21 a) .. d) S.E.M. Micrographs of Deposits

Fig. 21 a) REM 84/113
TU - Riser pipe: CaSO4 and C2S

Fig. 21 b) REM 84/117

TU - Riser pipe: K2SO4 and Ca SO4 border

Fig. 21 c) REM 84/72

WU - Kiln inlet: Fly ash balls

Fig. 21 d) REM 84/69

WU - Kiln inlet: Primary spurrite

5. KILN OPERATION PROBLEMS DUE TO CIRCULATING ELEMENTS

The consequences due to high internal cycles of the circulating elements are rather severe.
First it starts by an increased encrustation and build-up formation at the kiln inlet area and the lower part
of the preheater. As a consequence the pressure loss across the system increases and at the same time
also the inbleeding false air quantity increases. This reduces the maximum kiln draft and thus the
maximum clinker production. When the kiln operator tries to compensate the lower available kiln draft by
a lower excess air rate, the situation becomes even worse as the sulfur cycle further increases.
Studies have revealed that a high chloride cycle impedes also complete combustion. This in turn further
increases the sulfur cycle.
High sulfur cycles lead to a poorly granulated clinker and therefore to dust formation. The dust entrains
the heat from the burning zone to the kiln inlet, so that the cycles of the volatile elements further increase
due to a longer residence time at high temperatures.
Furthermore, the high cycles of volatile elements transport the heat of the sintering zone to the area of
condensation by the endothermic - exothermic reactions, causing the same effect as the dust cycles
described above.
The result of these mechanisms is always the same:
¨ Frequent kiln stops due to encrustation and clogging problems, i.e. reduced kiln utilization factor
(Õ reduction of OEE)
¨ Reduction of the maximum kiln production
¨ Higher heat consumption
¨ Formation of unstable coating at the transition zone and thus high refractory consumption
6. IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEMS WITH ENCRUSTATIONS AND BUILD-UPS
Chlorides, sulfates, alkalis or any combination of them can cause encrustation and build-up problems.
Therefore a detailed analysis is a prerequisite to find an appropriate solution.
The analysis can consist of eight steps as follows:
À Systematic analysis of the hot meal (cp section 6.1)
(every shift: LOI, SO3, Cl, K2O, Na2O)
Á Comparison with the defined limits of circulating elements in the hot meal!
Ù Chlorine problem, sulfur problem, alkali problem of combination?
 Performing of a material balance with the inputs and outputs of the circulating elements (cp
section 6.1).
Ù Where do the circulating elements come from?
à Comparison with typical tolerable inputs of circulating elements by raw materials and fuels.
Ù Which amount is critical?
Ä Calculation of the molar alkali / sulfur ratio and comparison with standard.
Ù Are there enough alkali present to withdraw the sulfur within the clinker?
Å Calculation of the sulfur volatility and comparison with the standard.
Ù Why sulfur problem?: Õ too high inputs?
Õ unfavorable alkali / sulfur ratio?
Õ because of kiln operation?
Æ Detailed recording where the build-ups occur and possible a chemical analysis of a typical build-
up peace.
Ç Specific measures against build-up formation (see section 7).
6.1 Material Balance
¨ Definition of the balance boundary (Fig. 22):
· Shall the external cycle be included or excluded?
· Please note that the kiln feed includes the external cycle so that the concentration on volatile
elements is higher than the real inputs by the raw material. In this case the kiln dust must be taken into
account as further output!
¨ Taking material samples over a sufficiently large period
· The sampling period should be at least 8 hours of representative kiln operation.
· From every input and output an hourly spot sample shall be taken. The spot samples of the
individual inputs and outputs are finally combined to one integrated sample.
· The following quantities for the individual spot samples shall be taken:
raw mix (before grinding): ~ 20.0 kg
meal or dust: ~ 0.5 kg
clinker: ~ 5.0 kg
fuel: ~ 0.5 kg
¨ Besides the samples for the material balance also samples of the hot meal at kiln inlet (outlet of
the lower most cyclone stage) shall be taken, observing the same frequency and sample quantity as
stated above.
Fig. 22 Material Balance Boundaries

6.2 Criteria and Indicators to Assess the Build-up Problem

6.2.1 Process Variables
¨ Position of the build-ups
· If the build-ups are found up to the second lowest cyclone stage or even to the third lowest
cyclone stage the problems could origin from excessive chloride cycles or in rare cases from too high
alkali cycles.
· If the build-ups are found mainly at the lowest cyclone stage, the lowest riser dust and the kiln
inlet, the problems normally are caused by excessive sulfur cycles.
¨ Completeness of combustion
· CO at kiln inlet > 0.1% and/or O2 < 1.5 to 2% cause high sulfur cycles.
· If no secondary firing or precalcination is applied also the CO and O2 concentrations after
preheater can be taken to judge the completeness of combustion (CO must be < 0.1% and O2 usually 3
to 4%, depending on the inbleeding amount of false air).
¨ Temperature profile
· Excessive temperatures within and after the preheater indicate a disturbed temperature profile in
the rotary kiln and thus a too high sulfur volatilization.
¨ Pressure profile
· The pressure profile over the preheater indicates where the build-ups are located.
6.2.2 Material Balance
First a material balance must be performed as described in paragraph 6.1. Afterwards, the following
evaluation shall be done:
¨ Input of circulating elements
· It has to be determined in which form the sulfur is present in the raw materials, as sulfate or
sulfide. When present as sulfide, part of it will leave the kiln system as emission via exhaust gas stack!
Therefore the sulfur emission by the stack has to be deducted from the overall sulfur when judging a
potential sulfur problem in the kiln.
· The inputs of circulating elements (without emitted sulfur through the stack!) should be compared
to the ones given below in order to check whether they are in a normal range where usually no build-ups
are formed or whether they are too high. This, of course, is only a rough guideline.
Typical Input Limits for Circulating Elements (for 4 to 5 stage SP kiln only)
¨ Raw Material

(loss free basis)

Cl < 0.02% Normal case, no problems
> 0.05% Heavy clogging problems,
depending on the sulfur cycle

SO3 1) < 0.5% Normal case, no problems

> 1.25% Heavy clogging problems
K2O < 1.0% Normal case, no problems
> 1.5% Problems with encrustations,
depending on degree of sulfatization
(molar alkali/sulfur ratio)

Na2O Little volatile, thus no problems due to recirculation of Na2O

1) Sulfates: Sulfur in form of sulfides behaves in a different way,

see section 3.3.4 Emission by Exhaust Gas

¨ Fuel(s)

Coal: S < 1.5% No clogging problems,

depending on sulfur and alkalis input by the raw materials and the completeness of combustion
(corresponding to approx.
< 5 g SO3/kg cli)
Coke: S < 2%
Fuel oil: S < 2.5%

Coal: S > 3% Severe clogging problems,

depending on the alkalis and sulfur input by the raw materials and the completeness of combustion
(corresponding to approx.
> 10 g SO3/kg cli)
Coke: S > 4%
Fuel oil: S > 5%

Gas: Sulfur content is normally zero!

¨ Alkali / sulfur ratio (A/S)

· The A/S ratio should be preferably at 1.2 or in a range between 0.8 to 1.5. Compare it to the A/S
ratio of the investigated case, deducting first the emitted sulfur from the total sulfur input by the raw mix
and the fuel.
6.2.3 Enrichment of the Circulating Elements in the Hot Meal
¨ Fig. 23 illustrates the tolerable concentrations of circulating elements in the „hot meal“, i.e. in the
meal ex lowest cyclone stage.
Fig. 23 Concentrations in the Hot Meal

¨ Fig. 24 considers the fact that normally both chlorides and sulfates are present in the hot meal
and that both together determine the tolerable limits of concentrations. The actual case shall also be
compared with this diagram.
Fig. 24 Maximum Tolerable Concentrations in the Hot Meal

6.2.4 Total Sulfur Volatility

¨ With the formula for the total volatility (see section 3.4.1) the individual total volatilities of the
sulfates shall be calculated.
· If j of the sulfur is > 0.7 and if at the same time the A/S ratio is within the range of 0.8 to 1.2, the
sulfur cycle is definitely too high and needs improvements by measures as stated in section 7.4.
6.3 Example of a Circulation Phenomena Problem
6.3.1 Material Balance and Hot Meal Analysis

Material Balance
Inputs
Raw mix: SO3 = 0.5% cli
(loss free basis) K2O = 0.5% cli
Na2O = 0.2% cli
Cl = 0.05% cli
Coal: S = 2%, SO3 = 5%
Hu = 26’800 kJ/kg, 6400 kcal/kg
Specific heat consumption: q = 3350 kJ/kg, 800 kcal/kg

Outputs
Clinker: SO3 = 0.85%
K2O = 0.5%
Na2O = 0.2%
Cl = 0.03%
SO2 emission: SO2 = 400 mg/Nm3 (= 0.1% SO3)
Hot Meal Analysis
(loss free basis) SO3 = 4.5% cli
K2O = 4% cli
Na2O = 0.3% cli
Cl = 2% cli

6.3.2 Analysis of the Example

6.3.2.1 Material Balance

Material Balance SO3

[% cli] K2O
[% cli] Na2O
[% cli] Cl
[% cli]
Input Raw Mix 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.05
Coal 0.6
Total 1.1 0.5 0.2 0.05
Output Clinker 0.85 0.5 0.2 0.03
SO2 emission 0.1
Total 0.95 0.5 0.2 0.03
Balance Error 0.15 0.0 0.0 0.02

¨ The total sulfur output is smaller than the total input. This often is the case when performing a
material balance. There are two possible explanations:
· The samples are not representative.
· The process was not in a steady state. Sulfur was kept back in the system, forming encrustations.
During cleaning, the sulfur containing deposits left the kiln with the clinker but were not catched
representatively by the sampling procedure.
¨ The total chloride output is smaller than the total input. Here the same problems arise as
described above. Normally the clinker does not contain more than 0.01% Cl due to the high chloride
volatility. However, if the chloride cycle becomes very large, values up to 0.05% Cl in the clinker have
already been measured.
6.3.2.2 Form of Sulfur in the Raw Materials
Note that the raw material contains sulfidic sulfur (FeS2) due to the SO2 emission. The real sulfate input
to the kiln is therefore:
from raw mix to kiln 0.5 to 0.1 = 0.4% SO3
coal + 0.6% SO3
total input to the kiln 1.0% SO3
6.3.2.3 Comparison with Typical Inputs of Circulating Elements (see section 6.2.2)

Inputs by the raw materials:

SO3 = 0.4% (sulfates only!) Ù o.k.
K2O and Na2O Ù o.k.
Cl = 0.05% Ù very high, bypass required

Sulfur inputs by the coal:

S = 2% Ù high, but within the normal range

6.3.2.4 Alkali / Sulfur Ratio

*) total input to the kiln (see section 6.3.2.2)

þ The A/S ratio is outside of the desirable range of 0.8 to 1.5.
6.3.2.5 Enrichment of Circulating Elements in the Hot Meal
¨ Comparison with tolerable concentrations of circulating elements (see section 6.2.2)

SO3 = 4.5% Ù High, far beyond normal limit, problems with encrustation
Alkalis:
0.66 × 4 + 0.3 =2.9% Ù Slightly above normal, but highly desirable due to the large sulfur input!
Cl = 2%Ù High, far beyond normal limit, problems with encrustations

¨ Comparison with diagram for maximum concentrations (see section 6.2.2)

SO3 = 4.5% Ù frequent blockages to be expected

Cl = 2%

6.3.2.6 Total Sulfur Volatility (SO3)

j > 0.7: Ù Because of the low A/S ratio, a substantial portion of the sulfur is in form of CaSO4 which
leads to the high volatility of > 0.7.
7. MEASURES AGAINST BUILD-UP FORMATION
7.1 General Measures
¨ Reduction of the Inputs of Circulating Elements
· The most obvious measure against build-up formation is to reduce the input of circulating
elements. It is normally not possible to change the main raw materials. However, sometimes a minor
component that contains a substantial amount of circulating elements can be replaced. In most cases the
sulfur content of the fuel is more easy to change. Please note that the fuel may also contain considerable
amounts of chlorides.
· The circulating elements of the raw materials in the quarry deposits are often not homogeneously
distributed. In such cases prehomogenization of the raw materials combined with selective quarrying
helps to reduce peak inputs of circulating elements into the kiln system.
¨ Smooth Kiln Operation
· In many cases the cycles of circulating elements are frequently increased by an inadequate kiln
operation applying to drastic changes in fuel feed and draft.
· Also the best kiln operator cannot apply during his daily work of 8 h such a super constant kiln
operation. Therefore the author is of the strong opinion that only a fully automatic kiln control will provide
optimal results (cp. LINKman).
7.2 “Intelligent“ Cleaning
Important: The more circulating elements are introduced into the kiln system the better and more
efficient cleaning methods have to be applied!
¨ Preheaters have to be controlled and cleaned at least once a shift to remove immediately
possible build-ups! Therefore a experienced tower guard is needed.
¨ On each platform enough cleaning slots are required to manually clean the riser duct and the inlet
chamber whenever it is necessary. At particularly critical spots additional slots should be installed.
¨ Critical locations where always material deposits are built shall be armed with air blasters. Please
note that mostly several blasters for one location must be installed since their cleaning radius is rather
small (< 0.5 m). The blasters should always shoot in the direction of material flow (see Fig. 25).
Fig. 25 Application of Air Cannons

¨ The riser ducts shall be protected by introducing the raw meal from the upper stage as low as
possible (Fig. 26). That way the circulating elements are able to condense at the cooler meal.
Fig. 26 Protection of the Riser Duct Walls against Condensation of Circulating Elements

The meal ducts should be equipped with pendulum flaps in order to avoid a hot gas bypass through the
ducts into the cyclones (Fig. 27).
Fig. 27 Example of a Pendulum Flape for the hot meal duct of the lowest cyclone in a suspension
preheater (Polysius)

¨ Meal ducts have to have a sufficient inclination (> 55°), a sufficient large diameter and must not
have any sharp bends.
¨ The cyclone outlets for the hot meal should be sufficiently large. If frequent bridging of the
outflowing raw meal occurs, the outlet section shall be first equipped with air blasters and, if this measure
does not help, it must be enlarged.
¨ The installation of coating neutral refractory at the transition chamber and the lowest riser duct
has produced good results in many applications and is state of the art.
¨ Any false air entrance at the kiln inlet area and the lower preheater part must be avoided
(continuous supervision and maintenance). Otherwise false air is likely to increase the formation of build-
ups.
¨ For efficient cleaning special high-pressure water pumps (e.g. type WOMA) shall be applied. The
application of this pump is dangerous and needs special training of the operators. There is also a danger
of destroying the refractory lining!
¨ Adequate meal distribution boxes shall be installed, which distribute the raw meal over the whole
cross section. An example is given in Fig. 28.
Fig. 28 Meal Distribution Boxes by Polysius

¨ Dead corners in riser ducts, cyclones and the transition chamber shall be avoided.
¨ Cleaning should only be done if the pressure profile or a quick inspection indicate a need for.
Opening of the big access doors disturbs kiln operation and let enter cold air, which favors build-up
formation.
7.3 Measures against Chloride Problems
Important: With the clinker chlorine can only be withdrawn to a very limited amount (0.01 to
maximum 0.02% Cl). Therefore the measures against chlorine build-ups are limited.
¨ Reduction of the Volatility
· There is little chance to decrease the chlorine and chlorine volatility as evaporation takes place at
a low temperature range (800 to 1000°C).
¨ Discarding of Dust (external cycle)
· For long dry and wet kilns as well as for Lepol kilns the chlorides are effectively withdrawn from
the kiln by discarding the finest fraction of the total of the kiln dust.
· For preheater kiln dust discarding is normally not very efficient as the accumulation of chlorides in
the dust is small. However, in case of a large internal chloride cycle this measure could help to keep it at a
lower level. The effect of the measure can be calculated by a material balance.
¨ Reduction of the Sulfur Cycle
· Build-up formation is provoked by all circulating elements together. As the chloride cycle cannot
be effectively influenced, all possible measures should be taken to reduce the sulfur cycle as it increases
the tolerance threshold for chlorine.
¨ Installation of a Kiln Gas Bypass
· If the chloride input of a SP kiln is larger than 0.02 to 0.03% (loss free basis) a chloride bypass
must be installed. Whether the higher limit of 0.03% can be tolerated depends on the expected sulfur
cycle.
· A rule of thumb to calculate the quantity of required bypass gases is:
% Bypass = % Cl input by the raw material (loss free) x 100
Example: % Cl input by the raw material = 0.05%
Õ Required bypass size = 0.05 100 = 5%
· The Bypass has to be installed at point of highest concentration in the gas of chlorine and alkalis.
7.4 Measures against Sulfur Problems
Important: In contrast to chlorine sulfur can be withdrawn in high quantities with the clinker. All
measure aim to reduce the volatility in order to introduce the sulfur into the clinker.
¨ Reduction of the sulfur input (raw material and fuel)
¨ Adjusting of the molar alkali / sulfur ratio between 0.8 and 1.2; best to a value beyond 1.
K2SO4 is little volatile, CaSO4 is highly volatile and can be withdrawn only in form of double-salts or
within the belite.
¨ Keep the lime saturation factor as low as possible so that the sulfur can dissolve in the belite.
¨ Possibly modification of the raw mix in order to improve the burnability and the granulation of the
clinker (decrease of the silica ratio). These measures help to reduce the required maximum temperature
in the burning zone and to reduce the sulfur volatilization from the clinker granules.
¨ Minimal fluctuations in the chemistry and the quantity of the kiln feed so that constant burning
conditions can be maintained.
¨ Avoid overburning! High sulfur content means a porous clinker. In this case not a high litre weight
is needed to produce low free lime! For quality control drop litre weight or adjust regularly the rated value
for the litre weight to the free lime values.
¨ High sulfur cycles produce a dusty kiln atmosphere. Do not burn down the dust at all costs in
order to avoid overheating.
¨ Sufficient excess air at the kiln inlet to avoid reducing conditions (2% O2). Please note that the
measurement of O2 at kiln inlet is a spot sample and does not necessarily represent the whole inlet cross
section. The 2% O2 can therefore be a guide value only.
Attention: Too much excess air produces high kiln inlet temperatures, which again
increase the sulfur volatility. Use carefully excess air! Do not tolerate any CO at the
kiln inlet, i.e. CO < 0.05%.
¨ Introduce automatic kiln control (LINKman) in order to stabalize the kiln operation.
¨ The burner should be directed parallel to the kiln axis and should not point to the kiln charge in
order to avoid local reducing burning conditions.
¨ The burner itself should be of the latest design, which produces a short and stable flame in order
to have the shortest possible retention time of the kiln charge in the high temperature zone and low kiln
inlet temperatures are achieved. As a result the sulfur volatility is minimized.
¨ Apply secondary firing or precalcination to reduce the thermal load in the sintering zone. This
possibility is very limited when the kiln inlet temperatures are too high and reducing conditions occur. In
this case heavy sulfur build-ups or even build-ups from the first clinker mineralization result.
¨ Very good dispersion of all liquid fuels in order to achieve a short flame (enough viscosity and
atomizing pressure).
¨ Solid fuels (also alternative fuels) should be enough prepared. The main fuel at the main burner
should have the fineness of coal! Use coarser fractions only limited in the main burner (10 to 20% heat).
Coarse particles make the flame longer and so increase the sulfur volatility. Introduce additional coarse
fuel fractions separate above the flame and not directly into the flame.
¨ If solid fuels (e.g. used tires) are burnt at the kiln inlet, lifters shall be installed in order to keep the
fuel pieces at the surface of the kiln charge and to avoid local reducing burning conditions.
¨ Permanent control of pressure fluctuations in the pneumatic pipes at the burner head. Pulsation <
± 5 mbar! Avoid long transport pipe and keep the velocity > 30 m/s.
¨ In case of extremely high sulfur inputs and a alkali deficiency at the same time kiln gas bypasses
are applied. But these are by far not as efficient as for chlorine problems.
Remark: Especially for long dry and wet kilns discarding of dust is a very effective measure to
withdraw the sulfur from the kiln. This does not hold true for SP kilns as the accumulation of sulfur in the
external cycle is small.
For SP kilns the installation of a kiln gas bypass may become necessary if there are almost no alkalis to
extract the sulfur from the kiln.
¨ Shifting of the condensation area of the sulfur towards the kiln inlet and the first zone of the rotary
part.
Õ This effect is achieved by increasing the A/S ratio and by avoiding high kiln
inlet temperatures.
¨ Avoid overburning of the clinker, Fig. 29 demonstrates the strong influence of burning zone
temperature (indicated by the concentration of NOx on the accumulation of SO3 and especially CaSO4 in
the hot meal. Furthermore also the influence of the excess air is shown.
Fig. 29 Enrichment of SO3 in the Hot Meal of the Lowest Cyclone Stage

7.5 Measures against Alkali Problems

¨ Alkali Volatility
· In absence of sulfur the alkali volatility is very high and creates problems in the preheater. In such
a case the raw mix can be sulfatizated by addition of gypsum.
¨ Low Alkali Clinker
· If low alkali clinker must be produced, all measures must be taken to increase the alkali volatility,
such as
* reducing the sulfur input
* producing a long and stable flame
* applying hard burning (CaOfree < 1), if possible reducing the burnability by increasing the silica
ration
* applying a minimum of excess air
* chlorination of the raw mix either by burning chloride
* containing solvents or adding CaCl2
¨ In case of long dry or wet kilns the alkalis are withdrawn by discarding a fraction or the total dust
of the external cycle. In case of a SP kiln a (large) kiln gas bypass is required.
8. 8. MATHEMATICAL MODEL TO SIMULATE THE CYCLES OF THE CIRCULATING
ELEMENTS
The cycles of the circulating elements in the kiln system can be simulated by a mathematical model (Fig.
30). This model is used for bypass calculations and for simulating special effects on the behavior of the
volatile cycles.
Fig. 30 Mathematical Model to Simulate the Cycles of the Circulating Elements in the Kiln System (by
Weber)

C09 - Heat Balance

Heat Balances of Kilns and Coolers and Related Topics

Th. Richner / A. Obrist
PT 99/14496/E (update of VA 8/5180/E)
1. INTRODUCTION
2. OVERVIEW OF COMPLETE HEAT BALANCE PROCEDURE
2.1 Why to do a Heat Balance?
2.2 How to Proceed
3. BASIS OF BALANCE AND REMARKS REGARDING EXECUTION
3.1 Balance Limits
3.2 Guidelines for Test Duration
3.3 Kiln Operation
3.4 Kiln Data
4. HEAT BALANCE CALCULATIONS
4.1 General Remarks
4.2 Determination of Clinker Production
4.3 Heat from Fuel
4.4 Burnable Components in Raw Material
4.5 Loss due to Incomplete Combustion
4.6 Heat of Formation
4.7 Heat due to Partly Decarbonized Material
4.8 Heat of Evaporation
4.9 Sensible Heat
4.10 Heat Loss due to Radiation and Convection
5. HEAT BALANCES
5.1 General
5.2 Examples of Heat Balances of Various Kiln Systems
6. SPECIAL PART
6.1 Influence of Reference Temperature
6.2 Heat of Formation
6.3 Radiation Heat Transfer
6.4 Convective Heat Transfer
6.5 Effect of Thermal Improvements
6.6 Heat Transfer in Preheaters and Coolers and Improvement Potential
7. TEST QUESTIONS
8. LITERATURE
9. SYMBOLS AND UNITS

SUMMARY
A heat balance is an efficient tool to measure the actual state of a kiln system. It allows a better
assessment of the heat consumption and reveals the potentials for improvements (regarding the thermal
aspects).
The principle of a heat balance is rather simple: we select our system limits for the balance and measure
all inputs and outputs.
After the necessary measuring campaign we need to calculate the various heat items, e.g.:
¨ Heat of fuel combustion
¨ Combustibles in raw meal or exhaust gas
¨ Heat of formation
¨ Heat of evaporation
¨ Sensible heats of all gas and mass flows
¨ Radiation and convection heat
The heat balance shows clearly how the heat is spent among the individual items. This information is
therefore most suitable to detect abnormal operating conditions or potential for improvements. As a next
step we can decide which practical measures should be taken in order to achieve improvements in the
thermal energy consumption.
When improvements are realized we can often take into account that the saving of fuel is by a factor of
1.3 to 1.5 higher than the primary improvements on the balance item (multiplication factor), as long as we
consider the high temperature zone.
Considerable improvements can be realized by reducing shell losses, false air inleaks, heat exchange in
certain preheater types and in clinker coolers.
1. INTRODUCTION
Heat balances on a kiln system can offer extremely useful information on the thermal performance of the
system. Heat balances show where or how the fuel heat is consumed, based on the simple principle of:
input = output
Unnecessary energy losses can be easily detected.
The principle aim of this chapter is to serve a practical guide for doing heat balances on cement kilns. It
can be used as working paper and does neither require special thermodynamic knowledge nor
supplementary literature or tables.
For the more interested reader some special aspects are treated in a separate chapter.
The principle of heat balance may be easily transferred to other systems such as preheaters, coolers and
drying systems. Therefore the use of this chapter can be extended to other systems than cement kilns.
In this chapter, only SI units are used, which means that heat is always given in kJ (kilo Joule).
Conversion calculations within the chapter will no more be required. Incidentally this may also contribute
to the consequent use of SI units.
2. OVERVIEW OF COMPLETE HEAT BALANCE PROCEDURE
2.1 Why to do a Heat Balance?
Various reasons or circumstances may cause a need for a heat balance measurement. The following
situations may justify a heat balance:
¨ Performance test
¨ Recording of kiln performance before/after a modification
¨ Unusually high heat consumption or abnormal kiln operational data
¨ Kiln optimization campaign
It may be self explaining that an extensive heat balance also costs money, especially if a large number of
people are involved. Therefore the costs may be put in relation to the obtainable benefits. A potential
improvement of say 100 kJ/kg of heat consumption on a 3000 t/d kiln means a savings in the order of
US$ 200’000 per year (at current fuel prices). In such a case it may be worthwhile to invest some money
for a detailed investigation including a complete heat balance.
Although the specific heat consumption proper could also be determined by measuring nothing but fuel
heat and clinker production, a complete heat balance does offer considerably more information and
security. The consistency of the measured data is proved much better, and the balance shows clearly
where the heat is consumed. A heat balance is obviously a very efficient tool for assessment of thermal
efficiency.
2.2 How to Proceed
A heat balance does not only mean calculation of heat balance items. The complete procedure usually
includes the following steps:
2.2.1 1st Step: Preparation
The extent of works to be done depends on the completeness and reliability which is desired. A careful
planning and preparation is recommendable. The following basic items must be clarified:
¨ What has to be measured (kind and location of measuring / sampling points)?
¨ Duration of test?
¨ Frequency of measurements (continuous recording, spot measurements, time intervals, etc.)?
Under above preconditions the number of people required and the necessary measuring equipment can
be determined. Temporary equipment may usually become necessary, whereas the existing permanent
instrumentation should be carefully checked and calibrated.
The following list may be used as checklist for a test preparation:
¨ People available for test period?
¨ Does everybody know what to do at what time?
¨ Necessary logsheets for manual recordings ready?
¨ Data recording system (electronic, pen recorder, etc.) available?
¨ Flow of information among test team?
¨ Calibration or checks of instruments and scales done (flowmeters, orifice plates, venturis, dp-
cells, thermocouples, etc.)?
¨ Temporary measuring equipment available? Complete? Correct span? Functionning properly?
For example:
· pitot tube
· U-tube manometer / electronic manometer
· mobile thermometer
· radiation pyrometer
· gas analyzer / Orsat
· sampling equipment for gas
¨ Sampling procedure for solids (e.g. meal, dust, clinker) clarified?
¨ Analyzing facilities?
2.2.2 2nd Step: Execution
An important precondition for a good test is a steady kiln operation. The test should only be started if the
system has reached a constant equilibrium state. During the test, variations of operating parameters
should be avoided.
For the measuring techniques reference is made to the corresponding chapter.
It is recommended to check completeness and reliability of measurements already during the test,
afterwards missing or uncertain information may create problems at the final evaluation.
2.2.3 3rd Step: Evaluation
This step is the main scope of this chapter. Evaluation of data means to establish a heat balance
calculation according to the principle
“input = output“.
2.2.4 4th Step: Discussion
A heat balance as such must bring some practical conclusions otherwise it would be only of academical
interest. The following items may be considered:
¨ Acceptable (normal) heat consumption?
¨ Are heat balance items normal for given kiln systems?
¨ Measures in order to improve heat economy of the system?
The last item can become quite an extensive work and the economical feasibility must be considered as
well. Such subjects, however, are beyond the scope of this chapter.

Note: Summarizing, it is obvious that the 3rd step „Evaluation“ is only a limited part in the whole context.
3. BASIS OF BALANCE AND REMARKS REGARDING EXECUTION
3.1 Balance Limits
In many balance reports the boundary for the balance is not shown expressively. As long as „standard
cases“ are considered it may sometimes seem evident how the balance limits were selected.
Nevertheless it is advantageous to indicate always clearly where the boundary for the balance is. This will
avoid misunderstandings and reduce error possibilities. For that purpose a (simplified) flowsheet is
required. In this scheme the boundary must be marked by a line which envelopes the system under
consideration. When a measuring campaign in a plant is planned such definitions should be made already
in the planning phase, i.e before the test.
Fig. 1 Examples of Balance Boundaries

The boundary generates various cutpoints with ingoing or outgoing solid- and gas streams. Likewise
radiation and convection heat crosses the boundary.
Each cutpoint means a certain item in the heat balance because it represents a heat flow either into or out
of the system.
By this measure the system is clearly defined and nothing can be forgotten.
Basically, any shape of the boundary could theoretically be chosen. To give an extreme example: The
boundary could even cut a rotary kiln at half length! However, the boundary must be selected according to
practical considerations. This means that the cutpoints which are generated must be:
¨ easily accessible for reliable measurements
¨ of practical interest in the whole context.
3.2 Guidelines for Test Duration
A long test duration would allow for a good accuracy but the available time is limited by practical
considerations.
As a rough guideline the minimum test duration should be about ten times the material retention time in
the complete kiln system:
¨ test duration = 10 x retention time
Other factors like regularity of kiln operation also influence the test duration. If the process is very
unsteady longer times should be envisaged.
On a normal suspension preheater kiln the retention time of the material is in the order of one hour. In
contrast, on a lime shaft kiln retention times above 24 hours may occur. Therefore the necessary test
durations for these two cases must be completely different.
Although test durations must be set individually the following list may be used as rough guideline:
Type of Kiln Test Duration (hours) for Heat Balance
Suspension preheater kiln with precalciner 12
Suspension preheater kiln without precalciner 12 to 24
Long dry / wet kiln 24

3.3 Kiln Operation

During the test, the kiln must run at constant and steady conditions. Changing of setpoints should be
avoided whenever possible.
Interruptions have to be logged. If serious problems occur, the test has to be extended or even
postponed. Therefore it is often worthwhile to plan a certain time reserve.
From a theoretical point of view a proper balance can only be made if the system runs at steady
conditions. E.g. during heating-up heat is stored in the system and there is no balance between input and
output (input > output).
3.4 Kiln Data
In order to facilitate the final discussion it is usually necessary to collect the main data of the system such
as:
a) System
* process
* type of kiln
* nominal capacity
* type of preheater / precalciner
* type of cooler
* supplier
* year of commissioning
* fuel and firing system
* type of burner nozzle
* dust reintroduction system
* dimensions of main equipment (sizes, inclinations, etc.)
* data on fans, derives, etc.
b) Operation
* various operating data (rpm, kW, temperature and pressure profiles along kiln system, grate
speed, undergrate pressures, etc.)
* electric power readings (before / after test)
* chemical analysis of raw meal, dust(s) and clinker, LSF, SR, AR, etc.
Above data are not necessarily required for heat balance calculations proper, but they should be included
in a complete balance report in order to describe the system and to give more information on its
performance.
4. HEAT BALANCE CALCULATIONS
4.1 General Remarks
4.1.1 Symbols and Units

A m2 area
CR W/m2K4 radiation constant
cP kJ/kg C specific heat (at const. pressure),
or kJ/Nm3 C specific heat capacity
CV kJ/kg calorific value
D m diameter
g m/s2 gravity constant
h kJ/kg heat content (specific)
or kJ/Nm3
or kJ/kg cli
L m length
m kg mass
or kg/kg specific mass
mf kg/h mass flow
Qf kW heat flow (1 kW = 1 kJ/s)
t C temperature (Centigrade)
T K temperature (Kelvin)
v m/s velocity
w kg/kg water content
Greek Letters
µ W/m2K heat transfer coefficient
e - emissivity (for radiation)
l W/m C heat conductivity
r kg/m3 density

Dimensionless Numbers
Nu Nusselt number (for heat transfer)
Pr Prandtl number
R kiln feed (raw meal) / clinker-ratio
Re Reynolds number
Indices
conv convection
rad radiation
tot total
o ambient condition or zero condition
Conversion Factors
Length 1 inch 0.0254 m
1 ft 0.3048 m
Area 1 sq. ft 0.092903 m2
Volume, Volume Flow 1 cu.ft 0.028316 m3
1 cu.ft/min 1.699 m3/h (actual m3)
Mass 1 lb. 0.45359 kg
1 short ton (USA) 907.185 kg
Pressure 1 bar 105 N/m2
1 mm H2O-Col. 9.806 N/m2
1 atm. 1.013 bar
Energy 1 kJ 1000 J
1 MJ 1000 kJ
1 kWh 3600 kJ
1 kcal 4.187 kJ
1 BTU 1.055 kJ
Temperature Conversion C= 5/9(F - 32)
K= 273.15 + C
Heat Flow 1 kW 1000 W = 1 kJ/s
1 kcal/h 1.163 W
1 BTU/h 0.29307 W
Specific Heat 1 kcal/kg C 4.187 kJ/kg C = 4187 J/kg C
1 BTU/lb F 1 kcal/kg C = 4.187 kJ/kg C
Heat Transfer Coeffic. 1 kcal/m2h C 1.163 W/m2 C
1 BTU/ft2h F 5.678 W/m2C
Standard Conditions for Gases Standard Conditions 0°C and 1 atm (1.013 bar)

4.1.2 Reference Temperature

We will set the usual reference temperature to 20°C i.e. the sensible heat of mass flows at 20°C becomes
zero.
All „heats of transformation“ such as combustion, evaporation, formation are also based on 20°C
reference.
4.1.3 Input / Output
Whether a heat item represents an input or output is determined by the direction of mass flow, according
to:
¨ into boundary = input
¨ out of boundary = output
This is a simple and useful convention (not a natural law).
If „heats of transformation“ occur within the boundary the net heat effect is normally used as criterion:
¨ heat producing process = input
¨ heat consuming process = output
A heat producing process is e.g. the fuel combustion (exothermic).
4.1.4 Reference Quantity
The heat balance is referred to 1 kg of clinker produced. This requires a general calculation step (division
by clinker production) which is not shown in the following formulas in order to maintain a more simple
presentation.

4.2 Determination of Clinker Production

4.2.1 General
The clinker production during a test is a key figure for all the following calculations. We will refer all flows
and heats to 1 kg of clinker produced.
Determination of clinker production can be made by direct weighing of the production which is by far the
best method. If this can be done the following chapter 4.2.2 can be ignored. But in some cases no direct
measurement is possible. Therefore, an indirect determination may be necessary as shown in the
following.
4.2.2 Indirect Determination
It is well known, that from approx. 1.56 kg raw material (not kiln feed!) 1 kg clinker can be produced.
Starting from this fact it seems to be easily possible to calculate the clinker production. However, the
above factor of 1.56 if of limited practical help because it can be superimposed by dust return and
depends on some other influences.
The best method in such a case is to establish a mass balance for the system. Similar to a heat balance a
boundary for a mass balance can be defined. Thus the clinker production becomes:

Clinker = ì
ï
í
ï
î + kiln feed
+ coal ash
+ dust insufflated
- dust losses
ü
ú
ý
ú
þ

all calculated on L.o.I. free basis!

This principle is quite simple. The following additional remarks can be given:
¨ The boundary for the mass balance does not necessarily have to coincide with the heat balance
boundary.
¨ The mass balance boundary must cut the kiln feed measuring point (because the mass flow is
known at this point).
¨ The balance is always made on a loss-on-ignition-free (L.o.I.-free) base (no balance for the entire
quantity including L.o.I. can be made since part of it is converted to gas, which is not included here).
Regarding only the dust loss from the exhaust gas there are two basic possibilities:

a) Dust Flow crosses mass balance boundary

· mass balance is influenced by dust flow

· note that is not significant whether or how the dust is returned (outside the boundary)!

b) Dust flow does not leave mass balance boundary (internal dust return)

· mass balance is not influenced by dust flow

· internal dust return must be steady, i.e. no storage being built up (silos!)

Two practical examples illustrating above two cases are shown in the following.
4.2.3 Examples
a) External Dust Recirculation (outside of boundary)
Fig. 2 Mass Balance / External Dust Recirculation

mf (dry)
[t/h] L.o.I.
[-] mf (1-L.o.I.)
[t/h]
Kiln Feed (KF) 204.0 0.357 131.17
Coal Ash (Ash) 1.8 ~0 + 1.80
Dust in Exhaust (D) 11.0 0.315 - 7.54
Bypass Dust (BpD) 2.1 0.070 - 1.95
Clinker (Cli) ~0 123.48 t/h

Note that the kiln feed data (L.o.I.) may slightly change when going from combined operation to direct
operation or vice versa!

Kiln Feed / Clinker = R = 204.0 / 123.48 = 1.652 (all included)

b1) Internal Dust Recirculation (inside of boundary)
Fig. 3 Mass Balance / Internal Dust Recirculation

During direct operation the following calculation method applies:

mf (dry)
[t/h] L.o.I.
[-] mf (1-L.o.I.)
[t/h]
Kiln Feed (KF) 204.0 0.357 131.17
Coal Ash (Ash) 1.8 ~0 + 1.80
Bypass Dust (BpD) 2.1 0.070 - 1.95
Clinker (Cli) ~0 131.02 t/h

Kiln Feed/Clinker = R = 204.0/131.02 = 1.557

Note the difference to example a)!
Incidentally the example b1) is shown for comparison to example a) and does by no means represent a
superior solution of the dust return!
The following example b2) shows a very similar way of calculation to example b1).
b2) Internal Dust Return (wet kiln)
Fig. 4 Mass Balance / Internal Dust Recirculation

mf (wet)
[t/h] mf (dry)
[t/h] L.o.I.
[-] mf (1-L.o.I.)
[t/h]
Kiln Feed (KF) 42 26.46 0.360 16.93
Coal Ash (Ash) - 0.8 ~0 0.8
Clinker ~0 17.73 t/h

4.3 Heat from Fuel

4.3.1 Fuel Firing
Fuel can be introduced at the following locations:
¨ Kiln firing
¨ Secondary firing or precalciner
¨ Burnable components in raw meal
Generally the heat from fuel is calculated:
h = m · CV (kJ/kg cli)
h = heat (kJ/kg cli)
m = specific fuel consumption (kg/kg cli or Nm3/kg cli)
CV = calorific value (kJ/kg fuel or kJ/Nm3 fuel)
For the calorific value CV only the low (or net) value is used within the Holcim Group (for conversion see
chapter „Combustion Engineering“).
Heat balance referring to high (or gross) heat value are sometimes encountered. But here an important
note must be made: the use of high heat values is based on a quite different method of considering heat
losses. Therefore those balances cannot be compared directly to our type of balance.
4.3.2 Coal Firing
For coal firing it is essential that the CV and the consumption (m) refer both to the same conditions. The
normal convention is to refer to the state as fed to the kiln burner.
The state as fed to burner may sometimes be different from the state as analyzed. Differences can occur
because of dust addition in coal mill, loss of volatile matter or just simply by changed moisture conditions.
If the actual CV at the given coal moisture w is not known it can be calculated from the value CVo at the
moisture wo:

CV = [(1-w) / (1-w0)] · (CV0 + w0 ·r) - w ·r

where: r = 2450 kJ/kg
= heat of water evaporation at reference temperature 20°C
w, wo = weight fractions of water
Examples:
a) Coal, CV at 5% moisture = 26’500 kJ/kg
CV at 1% moisture (as fed to burner) = ?
CV = [(1-0.01) / (1-0.05)] · (26500 + 0.05·2450) - 0.01·2.450

CV = 27’464 kJ/kg

If above coal (1% moisture) is fired at a specific rate of 0.1230 kg/kg cli:

h = 0.1230 · 27’464 = 3’378 kJ/kg cli

b) If the CV for dry matter is known (CVdry) the general formula can be simplified (for wo = 0):

CV = (1 - w) CVdry - w · r

CVdry = 28 MJ/kg, moisture 2%

CV = 28 · (1 - 0.02) - 0.02 · 2.45 = 27.39 MJ/kg

4.4 Burnable Components in Raw Material
4.4.1 Organic Matter
Organic matter can be present in the raw meal e.g. in form of oil shale or exceptionally even in form of
free crude oil.
Such material is partly volatilized in the preheating zone and leaves the system partly as unburnt light
hydrocarbons. If the latter are actually measured and considered in the total heat balance it is
recommended to determine the calorific value of the raw meal (not directly, but by extracting its organic
matter). Thus the heat input becomes:
h = CVlow · R (kJ/kg cli)
where:
CVlow = calorific value due to organic matter, referred to 1 kg raw meal
R = kiln feed / clinker - factor
If light hydrocarbons in the exhaust gas are not measured nor considered in the total heat balance
anyway the following approach will produce better results:
Determine the organic content only (org. C, measured by burning in pure O2 to CO2). Then consider
exclusively the organic C (the rest can be neglected). The approximate heat input becomes:
h = C · R · 33’000 kJ/kg (kJ/kg cli)
where
C = organic carbon content in raw meal
Above mentioned is only an approximation but often used due to its simplicity.
Example:
R = 1.6 kg/kg cli, C = 0.2% carbon
q = 0.002 · 1.6 · 33’000 = 106 kJ/kg cli

4.4.2 Inorganic Matter

In certain cases residues of non-oxidized pyrite (FeS2) can occur in the raw meal. The heat input
becomes:
h = S · R · 12’930 kJ/kg (kJ/kg cli)
where
S = weight fraction of sulfur (expressed as S!) from pyrite in raw meal
Example:
R = 1.6 kg/kg cli, 0.05% S (from pyrite) in raw meal
h = 0.0005 · 1.6 · 12’930 = 10 kJ/kg cli
The practical heat effect in the above case is only marginal.
4.5 Loss due to Incomplete Combustion
If unburnt gases such as CO, H2, CH4 occur in the exhaust gas an additional heat output occurs.
The loss can be calculated to:
h = m · (CO · 12’640 + H2 · 10’800 + CH4 · 35’840) (kJ/kg cli)
m = specific gas quantity (Nm3/kg cli)
CO, H2, CH4 = volume fractions in exhaust (referred to wet gas)
In most cases only CO is measured and then the calculation becomes:
h = m · CO · 12’640 (kJ/kg cli)
Example
m = 1.50 Nm3/kg cli (SP kiln)
CO = 0.2% (ref to wet)
q = 1.50 · 0.002 · 12’640 = 38 kJ/kg cli
4.6 Heat of Formation
The heat of formation takes into account all main reactions which occur when raw meal is transformed to
clinker, as follows:
RAW MEAL
¨ Heat of dehydration of clay (endothermic)
¨ Heat of decarbonation of CaCO3 + MgCO3 (endothermic)
¨ Heat of formation of clinker (exothermic!)
CLINKER
In most of the practical cases it is sufficient to assume a constant value of
h = 1750 kJ/kg cli
The value mentioned before represents a heat output since the overall reaction is endothermic (heat
consuming). The main contribution to the overall value comes from the decarbonation of CaCO3 (approx.
2100 kJ/kg cli).
The heat of formation may naturally have some variations from one raw meal to the other. But due to the
narrow range which is specified for the cement clinker composition no major deviations (of say more than
+/- 50 kJ/kg cli) have to be expected in normal cases.
If the CaO in clinker does not originate from CaCO3, but from raw material sources containing less CO2
than the CaO balance (such as coal ash or partly decarbonized raw mix) the heat of formation would
theoretically change. However, this problem can be easily avoided by the following definition:
¨ All mass flows (as kiln feed, dust losses, coal ash) which carry a certain amount of CaO not
coming from CaCO3 are considered as „heat flows“ according to their „non-carbonatic“ CaO content (see
chapter 4.7).
By following the above definition it is not necessary to make alterations at the heat of formation. An
„abnormal“ situation can simply be treated by creating additional inputs or outputs, but not by changing
the „standard“ heat of formation.
The procedure is based on the idea of an „ideal“ clinker burning from pure carbonates. If those ideal
conditions do not apply we set corrections in the corresponding heat inputs or outputs. Such principles
are well known from calculation of bypass CaO-losses.
Additional information on the heat of formation is given in chapter 6.2.
4.7 Heat due to Partly Decarbonized Material
Decomposition of carbonates in an essential heat effect in a cement kiln. Usually one thinks of the two
extreme cases of either complete presence of carbonates (CaCO3, MgCO3) or complete absence of
carbonates (e.g. clinker). But there can also be cases in between which influence the heat balance.
Material streams can transport non-sensible heat due to partly decarbonized material (CaO) or non-
carbonatic CaO. The following possibilities exist:
1) raw meal (containing e.g. CaO free or non carbonatic, CaO-bearing minerals)
2) exhaust gas dust (partly decarbonized)
3) bypass dust (largely decarbonized)
4) coal ash
The heat can either be negative or positive according to the direction of flow (ingoing or outgoing).
If item 2) (exhaust gas) is considered in the balance it is essential to consider also item 1) (raw meal)! In
many cases kiln dust (which contains some free CaO) is returned to the kiln but not necessarily at exactly
the same rate as the outcoming dust (e.g. on a system combined with raw mill, alternating between
combined and direct operation). Even if dust is returned the net heat effect of item 1) minus item 2) may
not automatically be zero!
If the CaO and CO2 is known from chemical analysis the non carbonatic part CaOnc can be calculated:
CaOnc = CaO - (56 / 44) CO2
Strictly speaking, above formula is only correct if no other carbonates than CaCO3 occur. If MgCO3 is
present in form of carbonates the „carbonatic MgO“ has to be taken into account:
CaOnc = CaO - 56 [(CO2/44) - (MgO/40)]
Thus the heat is calculated to
h = m · CaOnc · 3150 (kJ/kg cli)
m = spec. mass (kg/kg cli)
CaOnc = „non-carbonatic“ CaO, expresses as weight fraction
Above formula does not consider the small possible influence of MgCO3 decarbonation heat. If the
assumption can be made that all MgO occurs in non-carbonatic form (e.g. after a heat treatment in the
700°C range) the following improved formula can be applied:
h = m (CaOnc . 3150 + MgO . 2710) (kJ/kg cli)
Examples
1) Raw Meal and Kiln Dust
(dust returned, measurements refer to balance limits, normal raw mix)

Raw Meal Kiln Dust

R = 1.65 kg/kg cli m = 0.09 kg/kg cli
CaO = 42.3% CaO = 43.5%
MgO = 0.9% MgO = 1.1%
CO2 = 34.0% CO2 = 30.5%

CaOnc = 42.3-56 [(34/44) - (0.9/40)

= 0.3% CaOnc = 43.5-56 [(30.5/44) - (1.1/40)
= 6.2%

h = 1.65 · 0.003 · 3150

= 16 kJ/kg cli (input) h = 0.09 · 0.062 · 3150
= 18 kJ/kg cli (output)

In the above example the net heat effect is virtually zero and may be completely neglected. But this may
not be used as a general rule as shown by the next example.

2) Raw Meal and Kiln Dust

(similar to example 1), but raw mix containing a major proportion of non-carbonatic CaO)

Raw Meal Kiln Dust

R = 1.60 kg/kg cli m = 0.09 kg/kg cli
CaO = 43.2% CaO = 43.5%
MgO = 0.9% MgO = 1.1%
CO2 = 30.0% CO2 = 30.5%

CaOnc = 43.2-56 [(30/44) - (0.9/40)

= 6.28% CaOnc = 43.5-56 [(30.5/44) - (1.1/40)
= 6.2%

h = 1.60 · 0.0628 · 3150

= 317 kJ/kg cli (input) h = 0.09 · 0.062 · 3150
= 18 kJ/kg cli (output)

Although non-carbonatic CaO occurs seldom, it may largely contribute to the heat balance (in the latter
example a net effect of 299 kJ/kg cli!). The practical problem, however, is to determine the CaOnc with
sufficient precision.
3) Bypass Dust

m = 0.04 kg/kg cli (quantity of bypass dust)

CaO = 56.2%
MgO = 1.0%
CO2 = 1.8%
CaOnc = 56.2 - (56/44) * 1.8 = 53.9%
q = 0.04 * 0.539 * 3150 + 0.01 * 2710 = 95 kJ/kg cli
(output)

4) Coal Ash

m = 0.02 kg/kg cli (quantity of ash)

CaO = 21%
MgO = 2%
q = 0.02 (0.21 * 3150 + 0.02 * 2710) = 14 kJ/kg cli
(input)

4.8 Heat of Evaporation

If water is evaporated within the balance limits the heat of evaporation becomes
h = m · 2450 (kJ/kg cli)
m = evaporated water (kg/kg cli)
Above items means an output. A large source of water evaporation is usually the slurry feed to a wet kiln.
Although the calculation of heat of evaporation is obviously simple a few notes are given:
¨ Only the free water of the kiln feed is considered (the hydrate water is already included in the
heat of formation!).
¨ Water evaporation can also be caused by water injection into preheater, kiln, cooler, etc.
¨ The water evaporated from the fuel must not be included (this effect is already included in the net
heat value, provided it has been determined as described in paragraph 4.3).
Examples
a) Wet Kiln: slurry water content = 35%
R = 1.56 kg/kg cli (dry)
m = 0.35 / (1-0.35) · 1.56 = 0.84 kg/kg cli
h = 0.84 · 2450 = 2058 kJ/kg cli

b) Water Spray into Planetary Cooler

m = 0.05 kg/kg cli
h = 0.05 * 2450 = 123 kJ/kg cli
4.9 Sensible Heat
4.9.1 General
Generally the sensible heats are calculated as follows:
h = m · cp · (t - 20°C) (kJ/kg cli)
m = specific mass (kg/kg cli or Nm3/kg cli)
cp = average specific heat (kJ/kg C or kJ/Nm3 C)
t = temperature of m (C)
Above formula uses a reference temperature of 20°C, i.e. sensible heats of material and gas flows at
20°C are zero.
The value h (kJ/kg cli) can either be positive (if t > 20°C) or negative (if t < 20°C).
Whether h represents an input or an output (see 4.1) depends only on the direction of the flow „m“:
¨ if m = entering boundary ® h = input
¨ if m = leaving boundary ® h = output
Basically the value m can be expressed as kg or Nm3. It is then logical that the cp values used must also
refer to same unit (per kg or per Nm3).
For convenience we use the following convention:
¨ for solid flows ® unit = kg
¨ for gaseous flows ® unit = Nm3 1)
1) The application of the unit „kg“ for gases would also be thinkable and would even facilitate the mass
balance calculations. But since Nm3 is well established in the cement industry and since the cp-diagrams
refer to Nm3 only, Nm3 is used in this chapter.
The necessary cp values are to be found in the diagrams Fig. 5 and 6 (for solids and fuels) and Fig. 7 (for
gases).

The same basic mode of calculation of sensible heat can be adapted for all material and gas flows
crossing the boundary such as:
¨ Raw meal
¨ Clinker
¨ Dust(s)
¨ Exhaust gas, bypass gas, waste gas, etc.
¨ Cooling air, false air, etc.
Fig. 5 Cp of Solids

Fig. 6 cp of Liquids and Fuels

Temp. cp of Liquid Water

0°C 4.22 kJ/kg C
50°C 4.18 kJ/kg C
100°C 4.22 kJ/kg C

Fig. 7 cp of Gases

4.9.2 Calculation of cp of Mixtures

The cp values are usually tabulated for pure substances. If a mixture is present it may become necessary
to calculate the cp starting from the given composition. This is better shown in a practical example
(instead of a general formula):

Example:
Exhaust gas of suspension preheater kiln at 360 °C
¨ Measured by Orsat (dry):
· CO2 = 27.2% (CO = O)
· O2 = 4.3%
· N2 = 100 - 27.2 - 4.3 = 68.5%
¨ From moisture determination:
· H2O = 0.08 Nm3/Nm3 wet

What is the cp value of the mixture (wet gas)?

Dry Gas
(Vol %) Wet Gas
(Vol %) cp (pure
(kJ/Nm3C) cp x Vol. Frac.
(kJ/Nm3C)
CO2 27.2 25.0 1.92 0.480
O2 4.3 4.0 1.37 0.055
N2 68.5 63.0 1.31 0.825
H2O 0 8.0 1.55 0.124
Total 100% 100% - 1.484 @ 1.48
Result: cp of mixture = 1.48 kJ/Nm3C (at 360°C)
The above value is typical for a normal SP kiln. We will always find values in the 1.5 kJ/Nm3C range.

4.10 Heat Loss due to Radiation and Convection

4.10.1 General
In practice it is quite convenient to treat both, radiation and convection heat transfer together. Although
the physical laws of these two heat transfer phenomenas are different they are usually given as a total.
The determination of total heat transfer coefficients by using simplified working diagrams will be accurate
enough. Therefore the theory how to calculate the values is treated in separate chapters (6.3 and 6.4).
The user of this chapter does usually not need to go into details of radiation and convection heat transfer
theories. In addition, the calculation from the complete theory would hardly increase the practical
accuracy, since all these theories contain a certain inaccuracy.
4.10.2 Radiation Heat Transfer
Radiation heat transfer depends on the surface temperature and the emissivity e (0...1).
Typical values for e:

Type of Surface Temperature °C e

Rough oxidized steel 100 1
Rough oxidized steel 400 0.9
White lime paint (on steel) 400 0.8
Aluminium paint100 0.2 to 0.4
Aluminium, rolled sheet metal 100 to 500 0.08
Aluminium, polished or bright foil 100 to 500 0.04

In most cases an e value has to be set at the pyrometer used for the measurement (depending on the
type).
For pyrometers giving readings for a constant emissivity e = 1. Fig. 8 can be used for correction.
The pure radiation heat transfer coefficient µrad (W/m2C) is shown in Fig. 9.
Note that the temperature axis in Fig. 9 means temperature difference to ambient (same convention as for
the following Fig. 10 and 11 - see paragraph 4.10.3 and 4.10.4).
Radiation heat transfer calculation does usually not create special problems as long as the radiating
surfaces face freely towards ambient. A particular situation occurs on a planetary cooler where certain
directions of radiation are shielded. That means not all areas are able for radiation towards the ambient.

Here, it would be obviously wrong to consider the total of the tube surfaces as radiation area. As a first
approach the outer enveloping cylinder area (enveloping all tubes, see sketch) can be taken as reference
area.
Fig. 8 Relation between Emissivity e and True and Apparent Surface Temperature

Fig. 9 Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient

4.10.3 Convection Heat Transfer

Two different types of convection can be distinguished:
¨ Free convection (occurs by natural thermal draft, at low wind velocities)
¨ Forced convection (occurs at high wind velocities)
In practice an intermediate region between these two extreme cases can be encountered, depending on
the wind velocity v (m/s). The resulting µconv can be taken from Fig. 10.
Fig. 10 Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient
The diagram Fig. 10 refers to a normal kiln diameter range from 3 m to 6 m.
Note that the temperature axis in Fig. 10 means temperature difference to ambient, not temperature itself.
¨ Influence of diameter
· Free convection (v = 0 m/s):
* The free convection coefficient is not depending on the diameter (or height) of equipment. If there
is no wind Fig. 10 can be applied for any dimension.
· Forced convection:
* In contrast to the free convection the forced convection does depend on the diameter. For this
reason the application range of Fig. 10 is limited to 3 m...6 m, but only if high wind velocities occur. At low
wind velocities no diameter limits exist.
* For very small tubes (or gas ducts) the following corrections of µconv (increases) can be made:
For Æ 2 m + 15% ü
For Æ 1 m + 30% ý only at high wind velocities (min. 2 m/s)
For Æ 0.5 m + 50% þ
4.10.4 Total Heat Transfer Coefficient (Radiation and Convection)
For the determination of the total heat transfer coefficient µtot (W/m2C) two cases are possible:
a) Standard Case
e = 0.9 (rough oxidized steel surface)
This particular case is rather simple. Direct use of Fig. 11 is possible.
(Go into diagram with temperature difference and read out the total heat transfer coefficient.)

b) Non-standard Case
e differs clearly from 0.9 and/or correction of convective heat transfer coefficient is necessary.
Make use of Fig. 9 and 10.
µtot = µrad + µconv
(Caution: never add free convection + forced convection, Fig. 10 does already include the overlapping of
both effects.)

Fig. 11 Radiation and Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient (total)

4.10.5 Total Heat Flow

The total heat flow from radiation and convection heat transfer is calculated according to:
Qf = atot · A · (t - t0) (W)
Qf = heat flow (W); 1kW = 1000W
atot = arad + aconv = total heat transfer coefficient (W/m2C)
A = shell area (m2)
t = shell temperature (C)
t0 = ambient temperature (C)

From the heat flow Qf the specific loss can be calculated:

h = Qf (kW) / mf (t/h) · 3.6 (kJ/kg cli)
mf = clinker production (t/h)
3.6 = conversion factor, because of unit (t/h) for mf
If the temperature of a shell area is not approximately constant it is necessary to subdivide the area into
individual sections.
On a rotary kiln we may e.g. select about 10 (or more) individual cylindrical areas, each of them having
the surface:
Ai = P · Di · Li (m2)
Example:
¨ Rotary kiln
¨ Clinker production = 1900 t/d = 79.17 t/h
¨ Æ 4.4 m x 67 m
¨ Average emissivity: e = 0.9
¨ Ambient temperature = 20°C
¨ Average wind velocity v = 1 m/s (nearly free convection!)
¨ Shell temperature profile as indicated in the following table:

Length
Position
(m) Element
Length
(m) Dia-meter
(m) Element
Area 1)
(m2) Surface
Temp.
(°C) e

(-) µ
total2)
(W/m2C) Qf
(heat flow)
(W)
0 - 5 5 4.40 69.1 230 0.9 22.7 331’000
5 - 10 5 4.40 69.1 360 0.9 32.9 774’000
10 - 15 5 4.40 69.1 310 0.9 28.6 574’000
15 - 25 10 4.40 138.2 220 0.9 22.1 611’000
25 - 35 10 4.40 138.2 330 0.9 30.3 1’299’000
35 - 45 10 4.40 138.2 260 0.9 24.9 825’000
45 - 55 10 4.40 138.2 290 0.9 27.1 1’011’000
55 - 60 5 4.40 69.1 270 0.9 25.6 442’000
60 - 67 7 4.40 96.8 220 0.9 22.1 428’000
Total 67 m 926.1 m2 6’295’000 W

Total heat loss = 6’295 kW

Specific heat loss = = 286 kJ/kg cli
1) A = Õ . D . L (cylinder)
2) radiation plus convection (see Fig. 11)
5. HEAT BALANCES
5.1 General
The results for heat inputs and outputs as calculated according to the preceding paragraph 4 are
summarized in a balance sheet.
Table 1 (complete kiln system) and Table 2 (cooler only) are given as examples. They may also be used
as checklist for completeness of own measurements and calculations.
¨ „Rest“-item:
· A real balance (from complete date) will always include an item „rest“, where all measuring errors
(no measurement is 100% accurate) and non-considered items are included. The amount of the „rest“
item should not exceed 3% of the total heat input.
¨ Heat consumption:
· The actual heat consumption is the total of fuel input(s) which is not exactly the same as the total
of heat inputs. If there are more than one fuel input, it is advantageous to indicate the actual (true) heat
consumption separately.
¨ Cooler balance:
· On a cooler, reliable measurement of secondary air heat is virtually impossible. Therefore, this
value is determined by balance calculation and no rest item is given. The thermal efficiency of the cooler
is usually defined as:
h = heat of secondary (and tertiary) air (%)
heat of hot clinker
· The % values in the balance sheet, however, are based on the total of inputs. This can cause a
slight difference from the percentage of above h.
Table 1 Heat Balance of Cement Kiln System
(General case)

- All referred to 1 kg clinker

- Reference temperature = 20°C
- Ambient temperature = ...... °C
- Production = ...... t/h
- Specific heat cons. = ...... kJ/kg cli

Specifications Temp. Heat

(kg/kg cli),
(Nm3/kg cli)
(kW) etc. (°C) (kJ/kg cli) (%)
INPUT
Fuel combustion
- primary firing
- secondary firing
-
-
Burnable matter in kiln feed -
Raw meal: sensible heat
Fuel: sensible heat
Primary air: sensible heat
Cooler air: sensible heat
CaO (non-carbonatic) in kiln feed -
Total of inputs - 100%
OUTPUT
Heat of formation - -
Water evaporation:
- kiln feed
- water spray(s)
-
-
Exhaust gas:
- sensible heat
- dust CaO-loss
- unburnt gases (CO, etc.)

-
-
Cooler: - waste air sensible heat
- middle air sensible heat
- clinker exit sensible heat
Bypass losses: - sensible heat
- dust sensible heat
- dust CaO-loss
- unburnt gases (CO, etc.)

-
-
Radiation and Convection:
- preheater
- rotary kiln
- cooler
- tert. Air duct kW
kW
kW
kW
kW
Rest
Total of outputs - 100%

Table 2 Heat Balance of Clinker Grate Cooler

All referred to 1 kg clinker

Reference temperature = 20°C
Ambient temperature = ... °C

Specifications Temp. Heat

(°C) (kJ/kg cli) (%)
INPUT
Hot clinker
Cooling air
Total input 100%
OUTPUT
Secondary air (incl. dust)
Tertiary air
Middle air
Waste air
Clinker outlet
Water spray
Radiation and convection
Total output 100%

5.2 Examples of Heat Balances of Various Kiln Systems

Heat balances are given in Table 3 of various kiln systems. While comparing these it has to kept in mind,
however, that kiln systems cannot only be judged based on these heat balances. The heat consumption
of kiln system may depend on many items, those of major influence are:
¨ Kiln size, i.e. production rate
¨ Heat loss due to radiation and convection
¨ Secondary air quantity and temperature
¨ Operating conditions of kiln
Furthermore related systems have also to be taken into account. Consider a grate preheater kiln (Lepol
kiln):
Its specific heat consumption may almost be as low as that of a 4-stage preheater kiln. However the grate
preheater kiln, the semi-dry type, requires that additional heat is spent for material drying, whereas the
exhaust gas of the 4-stage preheater kiln may be utilized to dry up to 8% water content of the raw
material.
The table 3 gives heat balances of three different kiln systems.
¨ Wet kiln:
· The wet kiln has a production capacity of approximately 3000 t/d. The slurry water content is
38%.
¨ Lepol kiln:
· The heat balance of the Lepol kiln is of a comparatively small unit. The nodule moisture content is
12%. In general grate preheater kilns of the semi-dry type have a heat consumption only slightly higher
than the 4-stage preheater kilns.
¨ Dry suspension preheater:
¨
· The heat balance of the 4-stage preheater kiln is typical for a unit in the 2000 to 3000 t/d range.
Table 3 Heat Balances of Wet, Grate Preheater and Preheater Kilns

WET PROCESS SEMI-DRY (LEPOL) DRY PRE-HEATER

(4-STAGE)
kJ/kg cli% kJ/kg cli% kJ/kg cli%
1. INPUT
FUEL
from sensible heat 25 0.4 15 0.4 13 0.4
from combustion 5560 96.7 3343 97.6 3150 97.7
RAW MEAL
from sensible heat 25 0.4 30 0.9 54 1.7
from sensible heat of water 71 0.2 17 0.5 - -
COMBUSTION AIR
from sensible heat of all the air supplied (prim. sec.) 67 1.2 20 0.6 6 0.2
TOTAL INPUT 5750 100 3425 100 3223 100
2. OUTPUT
Heat of formation 1750 30.4 1750 51.1 1750 54.3
Evaporation of water from raw meal 2370 41.2 506 14.8 13 0.4
Exhaust gas sensible heat 754 13.1 314 9.2 636 19.7
Dust sensible heat 25 0.4 21 0.6 18 0.6
Incomplete combustion (CO) - - - - - -
Clinker exit temperature 59 1.0 50 1.5 63 2.0
Cooler exhaust gases 100 1.7 276 8.1 423 13.1
Losses due to radiation and convection 540 9.4 452 13.2 297 9.2
Water cooling (Recupol inlet chute) - - 42 1.2 - -
Rest 152 2.6 14 0.4 23 0.7
TOTAL OUTPUT 5750 100 3425 100 3223 100

6. SPECIAL PART
6.1 Influence of Reference Temperature
The reference temperature for a heat balance is usually set to 20°C. At this temperature all sensible heats
become zero. This is quite practical because the normal ambient temperature is always near 20°C.
In addition the choice of the reference temperature has various other consequences which are normally
not mentioned expressively. As long as the calculation procedure according to this chapter is applied we
will not run into any practical problems. But if we want to go a bit deeper inside the matter we are soon
confronted with some special questions as will be shown in the following.
6.1.1 „Heat of Transformation“
By the term „heat of transformation“ we summarize here all heat effects by chemical reactions and
changing of the physical state (combustion, heat of formation, evaporation). In order to understand the
meaning of the reference temperature on these heat effects the following diagram is shown. It gives an
example of an (ideal) isothermal process, including upheating and cooling.
Fig.12

We note from the diagram that the „heat of transformation“ at reference temperature and at true reaction
temperature are not identical. The reason is the different specific heat content of the starting material and
the reaction products. It is also obvious that any other level for the reference temperature would basically
change the „heat of transformation“.
The „heat of transformation“ at a reference temperature 20°C should therefore be seen in its proper
sense: It is the heat effect under the convention, that we start at 20°C and end exactly at those 20°C. The
real process (heating up, transformation, cooling) has no influence on the result, regardless of the true
temperatures. This is a direct consequence of the principle of energy conservation.
Therefore, we may take into account that all „heats of transformation“ which we use in a heat balance are
based on reference temperature 20°C. Such values should not be confused with the heat effect at the
true temperature of transformation or any other temperature.
The items of interest are:
¨ Calorific value (combustion heat):
· The CV must also be based on 20°C reference. The error which occurs when choosing a
reference of e.g. 0°C is fortunately so small that it is within the normal accuracy of a CV determination.
¨ Heat of formation:
· Regarding the heat of decarbonation only we may sometimes find values for the true reaction
temperature (decarbonation, in the 800°C range). Such values shall not be used for a heat balance at
20°C reference, because this would produce an essential error!
¨ Heat of evaporation of water:
· Note that we must use the evaporation heat at 20°C (2450 kJ/kg) in the balances and not the
value at say 100°C (2260 kJ/kg). The effects of upheating of water or vapor are automatically considered
by the normal balance calculation procedure (items for sensible heats).
6.1.2 Specific Heats
The specific heats used in this chapter are average values which are consequently based on 20°C
reference temperature. We may illustrate this fact by an upheating process starting at 20°C as shown in
the following graph:
Fig.13

The average specific heat can be graphically explained as the inclination of the straight line from Po to P.
It is obvious that this inclination depends from the reference point Po at 20°C.
At the point P the tangent to the heat curve is also shown by a dotted line. The inclination of this line is the
actual specific heat at the temperature t. This value is different from the average specific heat. Moreover,
it does not depend from any reference point.
As a practical consequence we should never use specific heats from any source in the literature without
checking what they really mean. In most cases actual values are given and not averages. Therefore, an
integration or averaging would be required before we can use them for calculation of heat contents.
Special caution should be made in the high temperature range where actual value and average value
may be considerably different! In the 20° to 200°C range the practical differences, however, are rather
small.
6.2 Heat of Formation
6.2.1 General
The heat of formation expresses the theoretical heat required for producing 1 kg of clinker. The following
steps are taken into account:

Approx. Temperature Heat Effect

Step 1 Expelling of hydrate water (+ transformation of clay minerals) ~ 500°C negative (heat
consumed)
Step 2 Decarbonation of MgCO3 (first) and CaCO3 (CaCO3 ® CaO + CO2) ~ 850°C
negative (heat consumed)
Step 3 Formation of clinker minerals (C2S, C3S, C3A, C4AF) ~ 1400°C positive (heat produced)

The net heat produced by the overall reaction is negative i.e. heat is consumed (listed as output).
The heat formation is defined at 20°C. In other words it expresses the theoretical amount of heat to
transform raw meal at 20°C to 1 kg clinker at 20°C (if no heat losses would occur). It is therefore also
considered as the theoretical minimum heat required for burning clinker.
The heat of formation is not at all depending on the way of the actual reaction (i.e. temperature versus
time). The only precondition of course is that the reactions (step 1, 2, 3) have really been completed.
Although the basic principle of the heat of formation seems quite simple a few conventions (or definitions)
are necessary here:
1) The hydrate water is expelled is considered as vapour (therefore no additional heat of
evaporation has to be introduced into the balance!).
2) As a „standard case“ the assumption is made that the CaO is present as CaCO3 in the raw meal
(in non carbonatic CaO occurs we do not change the heat of formation, but add heat inputs according to
paragraph 4.7).
3) Burnable components in the raw mix are considered separately as inputs (see paragraph 4.4.2).
6.2.2 Calculation of Heat of Formation
6.2.2.1 Introduction
It is difficult to determine the heat of formation directly be calorimetric measurements. Therefore
calculation methods have been developed in order to take into account the varying influences of raw mix
properties.
Although formulas are given the following they should be applied with care. As long as the raw mix does
not clearly deviate from the „standard“ value of ~ 1750 kJ/kg the calculated figures must not necessarily
give more accurate results than the 1750 kJ/kg.
Even extensive formulas for heat of formation contain a certain incertitude due to the partial lack of
accurate thermodynamic standard values (for the minerals which are involved).
6.2.2.2 Calculation Formulas
The following formulas are partly based on the work of H. zur Strassen (Lit. 1) however a few recent
adaptations have been made:
We will use the following notation:
CaO, MgO, SiO2, Fe2O3, Al2O3 = Clinker analysis, expressed as weight fractions
(kg/kg cli)
H2O (kg/kg cli) = Hydrate water in raw material, referred to kg clinker (not to raw meal)
The following general formula for the heat of formation applies:
h = CaO · 3200 + MgO · 2710 - SiO2 · 2140 - Fe2O3 · 250 + hRes (kJ/kg cli)
The last contribution „hRes“ depends on the Al2O3 and H2O (hydrate) content. The calculation of „hRes“
depends on the information which is available on hydrate water and/or type of clay. Usually, the more
information is known the better the result will be.

Case
No. Hydrate
Water
(H2O) Type of
Clay Formula for hRes (kJ/kg cli)
1 not known not known hRes = Al2O3 . 1720
2 known not known hRes = Al2O3 . 120
+ H2O . 5520
3 not known known hRes = (Al2O3)K . 2220
+ (Al2O3)M . 1310
+ (Al2O3)I . 1640
4 known known hRes = (Al2O3)K . 1400
+ (Al2O3)M . 620
+ (Al2O3)I . 760
+ H2O . 2450

In case 3 and 4 a distinction has to be made from which type of clay the Al2O3 originates. The indices K,
M, I denote:
K = Kaolinite
M = Montmorillonite
I = Illite
Note on the formulas for hRes:
No. 1:
For general purposes, if no information on hydrate water available.
No. 2:
Takes into account the actual hydrate water content. It is also a very good approach if the hydrate water
does not only originate from clays but for example from Ca(OH)2.
Note that the coefficient for H2O (hydrate) is more than twice the normal heat of
evaporation 1)
Nos. 3 + 4:
Take into account the type of clay. (Hydrate water must originate from clay only, otherwise take No. 2).
When the CaO is introduced into the formula it is not required to know whether the CaO results from
CaCO3 or not. If any non carbonatic CaO is entering into the system we will take into account a balance
heat input by definition (see paragraph 4.7) and therefore the calculated heat of formation is not affected.
1) The older formula from H. zur Strassen did allocate only 2450 kJ to H2O, but instead 930 kJ to
the Al2O3, which made it difficult to extrapolate it for other hydrates than from clay. It is certainly more
logical to refer the heat to the H2O, which is actually responsible for the heat consumption.
Examples
1) - Clinker composition:

CaO = 64.8 %
MgO = 1.2 %
SiO2 = 22.6 %
Fe2O3 = 3.3 %
Al2O3 = 5.2 %

SO3 = 0.52% TiO2 = 0.29%

Na2O = 0.08% Mn2O3 = 0.03%
K2O = 1.20% L.o.I = 0.54%

- No information on hydrate water in raw meal available

h= 0.648 · 3200 + 0.012 · 2710 - 0.226 · 2140 - 0.033 · 250
+ 0.052 · 1720 = 1704 kJ/kg cli
2) -Clinker composition:

CaO = 65.2 %
MgO = 1.2 %
SiO2 = 22.9 %
Fe2O3 = 3.0 %
Al2O3 = 5.0 %

- Raw material = 1.1% hydrate water

R = 1.57 kg/kg ® 0.017 kg hydrate water/kg clinker
h= 0.652 · 3200 + 0.012 · 2710 - 0.229 · 2140 - 0.03 · 250
+ 0.050 · 120 + 0.017 · 5520 = 1721 kJ/kg cli
6.2.2.3 Sulfatization Effects
The SO2 can react with the alkalis K2O or Na2O (but also with CaO). For the heat effect the following
(simplified) reaction is considered as typical:
Na2O + SO2 + ½ O2 ® Na2SO4 + heat
(molar heat effects of K2O and Na2O are of similar size!)
The overall degree of sulfatization reactions is usually not known. For the heat effect the following lower
and upper boundaries can be calculated:
lower boundary = - 8370 · [(SO3)cli + (SO3)D - (SO3)R] (kJ/kg cli)
upper boundary = - 10800 · [(Na2O)R - (Na2O)cli]
 - 7120 · [(K2O)R - (K2O)cli]
+ 8370 · [(SO3)R - (SO3)cli] (kJ/kg cli)
where SO3, Na2O, K2O are expressed as kg/kg cli (referred to clinker!).
The indices denote: cli = in clinker
D = in dust
R = in raw meal
An average value can be introduced into the heat balance. Preferably this item is just listed under the item
heat of formation (under output). Its sign is then negative, i.e. the outputs are reduced.
6.2.2.4 Lime Kilns
The formula for heat of formation of burnt lime is quite similar to that of cement clinker.
The following main reactions are taken into account:
CaCO3 ® CaO + CO2
MgCO3 ® MgO + CO2
CaO + 2 SiO2 ® C2S (dicalciumilicate)
Unlike on cement clinker the CaO in the lime product does not exclusively consist of „non carbonatic“
CaO, but some residual CaCO3 is also present. Therefore the non carbonatic proportion CaOnc has to be
calculated first:
CaOnc = CaOtot - CO2 · (56/44)
The heat of formation becomes:
h = CaOnc · 3150 + MgO · 2710 - SiO2 . 2100 (kJ/kg lime)
CaOnc, MgO, SiO2 denote the weight fractions in lime product.
If the lime is present in lump form and the SiO2 does originate e.g. from coal ash it is unlikely that C2S
mineral is formed. In such cases only the SiO2 which comes from the limestone feed has to be
considered in the formula.
6.3 Radiation Heat Transfer
The basic radiation formula is
Qf = CR · e · A [ (T/100)4 - (T0/100)4 ] [W]
Qf = heat flow [W]
CR = radiation constant = 5.67 W/m2K4
e = emissivity (0...1)
A = radiating area (m2)
T = absolute temperature of radiating surface [K] (T = 273+t)
To = absolute temperature of ambient [K]
Strictly speaking above formula is only valid for cylinders of infinite length which radiate towards an
ambient which is far away from the cylinder. No obstacles may shield off the radiation.
Though its simplifications this formula may be taken as a good approach for most cases.
By dividing Qf by T - To and A, the µ-value (heat transfer coefficient) can be obtained:

Or alternatively the following formula, which is identical to the latter comes out:

 = average temperature (K)

 = temperature difference (K or C)
From the second formula it becomes evident that (at small temperature differences) µ increases with the
third (not fourth!) power of the average temperature. In addition, the µ-value does converge towards a
finite value at zero temperature difference.
For practical evaluation of the µ (radiation) Fig. 9 (see paragraph 4.10.2) is available. It is based on a
constant ambient temperature of To = 293 K (20°).
If the true ambient temperature is actually not exactly 20°C one commits a slight error. Usually this can be
neglected. In some extreme or exceptional cases the above formulas can be used for calculations.
Since the emissivity e is often not known precisely and does also depend on the temperature it is usually
not worthwhile to do small corrections on the µ-values obtained from Fig. 9.
6.4 Convective Heat Transfer
6.4.1 Free Convection
Free convection occurs due to density differences between hot air (at the shell surface) and ambient air. A
natural updraft causes a convective air movement.
For vertical plates or horizontal cylinders the following relationship applies:
Nu = 0.13 (Pr . Gr) 1/3 (-)
where: Nu = aD / l = Nusselt number (-)
Pr = cph / l = Prandtl number (-)
= Grashof number (-)
µ (W/m2K) heat transfer coefficient
D (m) characteristical dimension *
l (W/mK) heat conductivity
cp (J/kg K) specific heat
g (m/s2) gravity constant = 9.81 m/s2
r (kg/m3) gas density
DT (K) temperature difference (T - To)
h (kg/ms) dynamic viscosity
To (K) absolute ambient temperature
* for a cylinder with diameter d ® D = (P/2) · d
Application range: Pr · Gr > 109
As long as there is a minimum temperature difference of a few degrees and the diameter range is over 1
m, above limitation does not affect the calculation.
A mathematical transformation of the basic equation reveals that the free convection heat transfer does
not at all depend on the characteristical dimension! It follows:

At DT = 0 the free convection becomes zero (which is different from the behavior of the radiation heat
transfer!).
The numerical values for cp, l, r, h must be taken from tables for air at the average temperature between
surface and ambient (use SI-units only).
Note that the density r depends also on the barometric pressure and therefore the result will depend on
the altitude above sea level (µ ~ p2/3). As a general guideline the convective heat transfer drops by about
8% per 1000 m of altitude.
By using numerical approximations for the properties of air the following relationship has been developed
(dimensional equation):
a @ 1.4 · (r0 · r · DT)1/3 (W/m2K)
ro (kg/m3) = density at ambient temperature
r (kg/m3) = density at average temperature
Though its simplicity the latter formula covers the temperature range from 0...500°C with an accuracy of
better than 1%! This is more than enough for practical purposes.
At sea level and at 20°C ambient it follows

Above relationship is also an excellent numerical approximation of the curve for v = O in Fig. 10 (see
paragraph 4.10.3), which is actually based on complete computer calculations out of properties for air.
Table Properties of Air at Pressure = 1 bar

Temp.J r cp b l h n a Pr
°C kg/m3 kJ/kg K 103/K 103W/mK 106kg/ms 106 m2/s 106 m2/s 1
-180 3.8515 1.071 11.701 9.0 6.44 1.67 2.18 0.77
-160 3.1258 1.036 9.320 10.9 7.85 2.51 3.37 0.75
-140 2.6391 1.021 7.758 12.7 9.20 3.48 4.71 0.74
-120 2.2867 1.014 6.659 14.6 10.49 4.587 6.30 0.73
-100 2.0186 1.011 5.846 16.4 11.72 5.806 8.04 0.72
-80 1.8073 1.009 5.219 18.16 12.89 7.132 9.96 0.72
-60 1.6364 1.007 4.719 19.83 14.02 8.567 12.0 0.71
-40 1.4952 1.006 4.304 21.45 15.09 10.09 14.3 0.71
-20 1.3765 1.006 3.962 23.01 16.15 11.73 16.6 0.71
0 1.2754 1.006 3.671 24.54 17.10 13.41 19.1 0.70
20 1.1881 1.007 3.419 26.03 17.98 15.13 21.8 0.70
40 1.1120 1.008 3.200 27.49 18.81 16.92 24.5 0.69
60 1.0452 1.009 3.007 28.94 19.73 18.88 27.4 0.69
80 0.9859 1.010 2.836 30.38 20.73 21.02 30.5 0.69
100 0.9329 1.012 2.684 31.81 21.60 23.15 33.7 0.69
120 0.8854 1.014 2.547 33.23 22.43 25.33 37.0 0.68
140 0.8425 1.017 2.423 34.66 23.19 27.53 40.5 0.68
160 0.8036 1.020 2.311 36.07 24.01 29.88 44.0 0.68
180 0.7681 1.023 2.209 37.49 24.91 32.43 47.7 0.68
200 0.7356 1.026 2.115 38.91 25.70 34.94 51.6 0.68
250 0.6653 1.035 1.912 42.43 27.40 41.18 61.6 0.67
300 0.6072 1.046 1.745 45.91 29.20 48.09 72.3 0.67
350 0.5585 1.057 1.605 49.31 30.90 55.33 83.5 0.66
400 0.5170 1.069 1.485 52.57 32.55 62.95 95.1 0.66
450 0.4813 1.081 1.383 55.64 34.00 70.64 107 0.66
500 0.4502 1.093 1.293 58.48 35.50 78.86 119 0.66
600 0.3986 1.116 1.145 63.5 38.30 96.08 143 0.67
700 0.3577 1.137 1.027 67.8 40.87 114.3 166 0.69
800 0.3243 1.155 0.932 71.3 43.32 133.6 190 0.70
900 0.2967 1.171 0.852 74.3 45.65 153.9 214 0.72
1000 0.2734 1.185 0.786 76.8 47.88 175.1 237 0.7
¯
(actual cp, not average)

6.4.2 Forced Convection

Forced convection occurs at comparatively high wind velocity and dominates the convective heat transfer,
i.e. the free convection is suppressed.
The calculation of forced convection is depending on many factors, such as:
¨ Wind velocity
¨ Direction of the wind
¨ Velocity distribution and flow obstacles
¨ Uniformity of wind
¨ Reynolds number (depends on kiln diameter).
There are a few more influence factors than in case of the free convection. Generally speaking the
calculation of forced convection heat transfer contains more possible sources of error than free
convection.
As a simplification, we will assume a cylinder in a non disturbed flow of a constant velocity v (at 90°
against kiln axis).
Fig. 14

For air the following formula apply:

Nu = 0.0239 · Re 0.805 for Re = 40’000...400’000
Nu = 0.00672 · Re 0.905 for Re > 400’000

The properties h, l, J have to be taken at average air temperature.

There are other formulas in use which can give different results, the above formulas are preferred due to
their simplicity. In any case there is always a incertitude from the mode of calculation itself.
Two main factors determine the µ-value:
¨ Velocity v
¨ Average temperature (between surface and ambient)
In addition the µ does also depend on the diameter D. If the equation for high Reynolds number (Re >
400’000) is solved for µ, the following relationship is obtained:
µ ~ D-0.095
¯
proportional
This means that the µ value does not much depend on D! Therefore it is possible to work with constant
values within a certain diameter range.
This actually the base of Fig. 10 (see paragraph 4.10.3) which is calculated for a common range from
3...4...6 m diameter.
6.4.3 Free Convection Plus Forced Convection
If the convection is clearly dominated either by free or forced convection the final determination of the
representative µ does not give any problem, since the higher value has to be taken.
If the two values are of the same order they must be combined with an appropriate method. It would be
certainly wrong to add the two values. A better approach is the square addition:

It is also valid if either the free convection or the forced convection dominates.
Fig. 10 is based on the above method.
6.5 Effect of Thermal Improvements
According to the actual condition of an existing kiln system (heat consumption, heat balance, other
operating data) we can envisage an optimization campaign. From the thermal point of view we can take
certain measures in order to reduce the specific heat consumption. For example:
¨ Better insulation of rotary kiln or preheater/precalciner in order to reduce radiation losses (except
the sintering zone).
¨ Improvement of the cooler efficiency (optimization of grate cooler operation or installation of
highly efficient internal equipment in planetary or rotary cooler).
¨ Reducing of false air inleaks at kiln seals or at preheater.
¨ Reducing of internal dust circulations in cooler, kiln or preheater (improves the internal counter-
current heat transfer).
¨ Modification of raw mix in order to decrease the sintering temperature which in turn will also
reduce heat losses. A further effect of such a measure can be the reduction of internal dust circulations
due to better clinker granulometry (see above).
¨ Modification of raw mix in order to decrease the heat required for decarbonation, e.g. by making
use of non-carbonatic CaO raw material sources. This possibility, however, is very rare and often not
feasible. (Note the basic difference to the measures which tend to decrease the sintering temperature or
increase the proportion of melting phase!)
The above measures are just a few typical examples. When one goes into such items, an important
phenomenon will appear soon: The so called „loss multiplication“ factor for thermal losses (or savings).
What does this mean?
If a saving (or loss) in the high temperature zone in a kiln of say 100 kJ occurs the possible gain in fuel
heat consumption will not be 100 kJ but rather 130 to 150 kJ. That means that the primary saving (in
terms of heat balance item) will be multiplied by a factor of up to 1.5.
At the first glance the above principle seems to be contradicious because it would violate the principle of
heat balance or the energy law. However, what really happens is a differential change of more than only
one heat balance item. To illustrate this fact we start from an example where we have reduced the shell
radiation losses by 100 kJ/kg cli.
The following differential balance situation occurs:
Fig. 15

The corresponding multiplication factor for the above case is:

multiplication factor = - 140 kJ/kg = 1.40
- 100 kJ/kg
The above fact does result from the thermal behavior of the system and can be verified by simulation
models (not by a simple balance only).
A factor in the 1.4-range is quite typical for the situation in the high temperature zone (above 800°C) of a
cement kiln. The main effect of a change in this zone will be a corresponding change at the exhaust gas,
but also other minor effects will occur (e.g. at cooler losses).
A “differential balance“ of heat can still be applied according to:

Input Change Output Change

fuel = - 140 kJ/kg radiation = - 100 kJ/kg
 exhaust = - 40 kJ/kg

total

=
- 140 kJ/kg
total
=
- 140 kJ/kg

The principle of loss multiplication does not only apply for radiation in the high temperature zone but also
for the heat which is recuperated in the clinker cooler.
Regarding the false air inleaks the corresponding deterioration of heat consumption is often under-
estimated. If false air inleaks into the high temperature zone it does not only cause a heat loss because
this air must be heated up to the exhaust gas temperature of the kiln system! It actually causes much
more losses than what would result from such a simplified calculation approach. As a rule of thumb we
may consider the following two main effects in order to come to a realistic result:
¨ Heating up of false air at the temperature of the high temperature zone which can be set
approximately to 800°C (end of HT-zone).
¨ Multiplication of the above heat requirement by a loss multiplication factor.
The above calculation is a rough approach. By more sophisticated simulation models we find e.g. that a
false air inleak into the high temperature zone of 0.08 Nm3/kg cli can cause an additional heat
consumption of 100 kJ/kg cli. In contrast, the inleak in the low temperature zone (e.g. air lift on SP-kiln) is
much less critical.
6.6 Heat Transfer in Preheaters and Coolers and Improvement Potential
Normally we are considering a cement kiln as an equipment for burning cement clinker. As an essential
feature we must be able to generate a high sintering temperature in the order of 1450°C (material
temperature).
But a kiln system is of course much more than a generator of sintering temperature. It is also a system of
heat exchangers which allows for burning at low heat consumption. Generally speaking we will find two
essential heat-exchanging systems on any cement kiln:
a) raw meal preheater
b) clinker cooler
Low heat consumption is only possible if the above two „heat exchangers“ perform optimally.
How can we get optimum heat exchange performance? Form the basic theory it is known that even in
case of an exchanger which is perfectly insulated against ambient temperature influence, three important
conditions are required for optimum heat exchange:
1) Optimum heat transfer rate (here: from gas to solid) ® high specific contact or surface area, high
µ (W/m2C).
2) The two heat exchanging streams must flow in counter-current manner, or at least in an
arrangement which has similar characteristics to a counter-current system (e.g. overall arrangement of a
4-stage cyclone preheater).
3) If we want to recover heat from a „flow 1“ completely into a „flow 2“ the „flow 2“ must have at least
the same heat equivalence as „flow 1“:
(flow 2) x (cp2) ³ (flow 1) x (cp1) [kW/C] or [kJ/kg cli C]
flow: [kg/s] or [kg/kg cli]
cp: [kJ/kg C]
In the above equation the cp values are considered as constant (approximation).
Graphically this means that the heat characteristic curves of the two heat flows must be in a certain
relationship as shown here:

What are the practical consequences for a cement kiln? We consider:

A) Raw meal preheater
 B) Clinker cooler
A) Raw meal preheater
1) Heat transfer rate:
* Optimum heat transfer rate and optimum specific surface (small particles) and distribution has
been almost achieved in the cyclone suspension preheater. After every cyclone stage material and gas
come to almost complete temperature approach and there is usually little to improve on that.
* Improvement are rather to be done where the heat exchange takes place in the rotary part itself.
Especially on wet and long dry kilns the kiln internal fittings are essential for good heat exchange.
2) Counter-current principle:
* Counter-current flow in its proper sense does not exist in case of a cyclone suspension preheater.
Instead, we have usually four co-current heat exchanging units, but the overall arrangement acts as
counter-current system. To reach an ideal state one would have to apply an infinite number of cyclone
stages. Practically the common arrangement of 4 or 5 stages can be considered as sufficient.
* True counter-current preheaters are shaft preheaters or preheating in long rotary kilns. Such
preheaters would theoretically be ideal. Practically they are less efficient because of distribution problems
and backmixing effect (internal material circulations) and comparatively high losses to outside (in case of
a rotary kiln).
3) Equivalence of heat flow characteristics:
* A general feature of any raw meal preheater is the surplus of heat input by the hot gases. After
the calcining step the hot gas has a temperature of approx. 850°C and the specific quantity is always
above ~ 1.3 Nm3/kg cli even in case of an optimum kiln system (4-stage SP kiln). This amount of heat is
too much, it cannot be used completely for preheating of raw meal (~ 1.56 kg RM/kg cli) up to calcining
temperature (~ 800°C). Therefore a certain amount of waste heat will occur even in an ideal case.
Theoretically we should not exceed ~ 1 Nm3/kg cli for ideal recuperation. Practically this cannot be
realized, not even on modern kiln systems which produce comparatively little exhaust gas.
* Graphically we have the following heat situation in a raw meal preheater:
Fig. 16

Above diagram is simplified but typical for any preheater.

Because of the „heat surplus“ of the exhaust gas it is not possible to achieve an ideal recuperation even
at perfect counter-current heat transfer (e.g. infinite number of cyclone stages). The exhaust gas will
always give a certain residual heat content.
Practically this means that all kind of improvements on the preheater have a limited potential. In the
example of a 4-stage preheater kiln we can add a fifth stage which causes a reduction of about 100 kJ/kg
cli in fuel heat consumption. More than 5 stages will bring only marginal economical point of view. *) Even
at 5 stages we may check if the necessary investment and the (possible) increase of pressure drop can
be justified by the local cost structure.
*) Instead of constructing more than 5 conventional cyclone stages one would prefer here „non-
conventional“ preheaters, such as the cross-suspension-preheater (two strings with cross flow of raw
meals).
B) Clinker Coolers
1) Heat transfer rate:
* On a planetary or a rotary cooler we have the possibility to increase the heat transfer rate by
installation of efficient internal equipment (tumblers, lifters) which increase the active heat transfer area by
better moving and scattering of the clinker. If a cooler has worn out internal equipment or equipment of
inadequate design we may realize a considerable potential for improvements. Improvements may also
result from a more uniform clinker granulometry (less internal dust circulations).
* On a grate cooler we find quite a different situation. The real problem is not the heat transfer rate
between a piece of clinker and the cooling air but rather the uniform air distribution through the clinker
bed. Also here we may realize a considerable improvement (thick bed operation, mechanical
modifications at inlet zone etc.).
2) Counter-current principle:
* There is an obvious difference between planetary/rotary coolers and the grate cooler:
- planetary / rotary ® counter-current flow
- grate cooler ® almost cross-current flow
* The grate cooler has a nearly cross-current performance and has therefore, from its principle, a
limited heat recovery potential. Improvements are possible when air recirculation (of hot waste air) to the
first grate section is applied in order to increase the heat content of the secondary air. Another quite
different measure is the increasing of the bed thickness in order to come more towards a counter-current-
like exchange (similar to a shaft cooler). The disadvantage is an increase of the cooling air pressure.
3) Equivalence of heat characteristic
* On a clinker cooler we would theoretically require approx. 0.77 Nm3/kg cli of cooling air in order
to transfer the clinker heat completely to the secondary air (under perfect counter-current heat exchange).
* The practical figures are usually above 0.8 Nm3/kg cli. Compared to a raw meal preheater we
have an inverse situation: The heat from the hot clinker could theoretically be completely recovered
(under ideal conditions)! Of course, we know that the common, practical figures are often below 70%. The
latter fact illustrates that from the basic principle there is still a considerable heat potential which is not
used for reducing the kiln heat consumption.
* In this context it is also important to note that the practical efficiency of any type of clinker cooler
increases with higher cooling air quantity. As a consequence we should draw as much cooling air as
possible through the cooler and therefore avoid or reduce excessive primary air quantities or false air
inleaks at the kiln hood or kiln seals. The improvement does not come from the heat transfer proper but
rather from the improved „heat characteristic“ (air/clinker ratio).
7. TEST QUESTIONS
1) Give an example where it can be worthwhile to execute a complete heat balance on a kiln.
2) Summarize all important measurement points which are needed for doing a complete heat
balance on a suspension preheater kiln.
3) What is the usual value (or range) for the specific heat (kJ/Nm3 C) of exit gas of an SP-kiln at
350°C?
4) What is the sensible heat content of 1 kg clinker at 1450°C, expressed as kJ/kg cli?
5) What is the standard value (or range) for heat of formation (kJ/kg cli) for clinker burning?
Which heat effects are included in above value?
6) Determine the heat transfer coefficient (W/m2C) for the total heat transfer by radiation plus free
convection. The temperature of the kiln shell section is 200°C (ambient = 20°C, e = 0.9).
7) When has the forced convection heat transfer (instead of free convection) to be considered?
How is the above value affected in case of smaller dimensions (say 1 m instead of 5 m diameter)?
8) If the shell losses in the calcining zone can be reduced by 50 kJ/kg cli, what will be the
approximate saving of fuel heat (kJ/kg cli)?
9) What is the approximate fuel heat which can be saved through the installation of a fifth cyclone
stage on a suspension preheater kiln?
What would be the approximate amount of false air reduction (Nm3/kg cli into the high temperature zone)
in order to achieve a similar fuel heat saving?
8. LITERATURE
1) Zur Strassen, H.
Der theoretische Wärmebedarf des Zementbrandes
ZKG 10 (1957), Vol. 1, p. 1-12
1) Jakob, M.
Heat transfer, Vol. I (1949), p. 529
2) Hilpert, R.
Wärmeabgabe von geheizten Drähten und Rohren im Luftstrom
Forsch.-Ing.-Wes., Vol. 4 (1939), p. 215-224
3) Gygi, H.
Thermodynamics of the cement kiln, third industrial symposium on the chemistry of cement
4) Eigen, H.
Beitrag zur Thermodynamik des Drehofens
Tonindustrie-Zeitung 82 (1958), No. 16, p. 337-341
5) Frankenberger, R.
Beitrag zur Berechnung des Wärmeübergangs in Zementdrehöfen
Dissertation, Technische Universität Clausthal (1969)
6) Kühle, W.
Untersuchung über die äussere Wärmeabgabe von Drehöfen durch Strahlung und Konvektion
Zement-Kalk-Gips, Vol. 6, 1970, p. 263
7) VDZ Unterlagen
„Wärmetechnische Berechnungen“
Verein Deutscher Zementwerke E.V., Düsseldorf
8) VDI-Wärematlas
Berechnungsblätter für den Wäremübergang
VDI-Verlag GmbH, Düsseldorf
9) Barin, I. and Knacke, O.
Thermochemical properties of inorganic substances
Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York
10) Elkajer, P. (FLS)
Die Bestimmung des Wärmeverbrauches mit vierstufigem Zyklonvorwärmer durch Aufstellung eines
mathematischen Modelles
Zement-Kalk-Gips, Vol. 2, 1980
11) Gardeik, H.O.
Berechnung des Wandwärmeverlustes von Drehöfen und Mühlen
Zement-Kalk-Gips, Vol. 2, 1980
12) Rother, W.
Ausführung von Rohmehl-Wärmetauschern unter Berücksichtigung heutiger Kostenfaktoren
Zement-Kalk-Gips, Vol. 2, 1982, p. 66 ff.

9. SYMBOLS AND UNITS

A m2 area
CR W/m2K4 radiation constant
cP kJ/kg C specific heat (at const. pressure),
or kJ/Nm3 C specific heat capacity
CV kJ/kg calorific value
D m diameter
g m/s2 gravity constant
h kJ/kg heat content (specific)
or kJ/Nm3
or kJ/kg cli
L m length
m kg mass
or kg/kg specific mass
mf kg/h mass flow
Qf kW heat flow (1 kW = 1 kJ/s)
t C temperature (Centigrade)
T K temperature (Kelvin)
v m/s velocity
w kg/kg water content
Greek Letters
µ W/m2K heat transfer coefficient
e - emissivity (for radiation)
l W/m C heat conductivity
r kg/m3 density
Dimensionless Numbers
Nu Nusselt number (for heat transfer)
Pr Prandtl number
R kiln feed (raw meal) / clinker-ratio
Re Reynolds number
Indices
conv convection
rad radiation
tot total
o ambient condition or zero condition
Conversion Factors
Length 1 inch 0.0254 m
1 ft 0.3048 m
Area 1 sq. ft 0.092903 m2
Volume, Volume Flow 1 cu.ft 0.028316 m3
1 cu.ft/min 1.699 m3/h (actual m3)
Mass 1 lb. 0.45359 kg
1 short ton (USA) 907.185 kg
Pressure 1 bar 105 N/m2
1 atm. 1.013 bar
Energy 1 kJ 1000 J
1 MJ 1000 kJ
1 kWh 3600 kJ
1 kcal 4.187 kJ
1 BTU 1.055 kJ
Temperature Conversion C= 5/9(F - 32)
K= 273.15 + C
Heat Flow 1 kW 1000 W = 1 kJ/s
1 kcal/h 1.163 W
1 BTU/h 0.29307 W
Specific Heat 1 kcal/kg C 4.187 kJ/kg C = 4187 J/kg C
1 BTU/lb F 1 kcal/kg C = 4.187 kJ/kg C
Heat Transfer Coeffic. 1 kcal/m2h C 1.163 W/m2 C
1 BTU/ft2h F 5.678 W/m2C
Standard Conditions for Gases Standard Conditions 0°C and 1 atm. (1.013 bar)

C10 - Main Fans

Main Fans
Authors: W. Zeller, Th. Richner, D. Brassel
PT 99/14500/E
1. Design and efficiency of fan impellers
1.1 Fan impeller types
1.2 Selection criteria
1.3 Fan applications in the cement industry
2. Fan performance curves
2.1 System Resistance Curve
2.2 Fan curves
2.2.1 Fan equations
2.2.2 Adjusting fan performance curves
3. Flow control
3.1 Damper control
3.2 Radial inlet vane
3.3 Speed control
3.3.1 Hydraulic transmission with fixed speed motor
3.3.2 Speed-controlled electric motors
4. Possible problems with fans
4.1 Vibrations
4.1.1 Variable speed operation
4.1.2 Thermal effects
4.1.3 Hot shutdowns
4.2 Material build-up
4.2.1 Kiln exhaust fan build-up
4.2.2 Recommendations against build-up
4.3 Erosion
4.3.1 Erosion types
4.3.2 Improper duct connection
4.3.3 Effects of impeller speed and wheel inlet velocity
4.4 Wear protection
4.4.1 Protection of parts subjected to abrasion
4.4.2 Deflection of abrasive particles
4.4.3 Liner materials
4.5 Bearings
5. Fan Capacity Adjustment
5.1 Fan capacity too low
5.2 Fan capacity too high
6. Troubleshooting
7. Start-up of fans
8. Fan impeller arrangement and connections
8.1 Assembly
8.1.1 Overhung assembly (Fig. 8.1)
8.1.2 Center hung assembly (Fig. 8.2)
8.2 Foundations
8.3 Connections
8.3.1 Inlet connections
8.3.2 Outlet connections
9. Information Sources

1. DESIGN AND EFFICIENCY OF FAN IMPELLERS

Fans are essential components of the cement manufacturing process and merit therefore particular
considerations with respect to
· design and efficiency of the impeller
· fan size and operating point
· flow control
· reliability
Main fans in a Cement Plant are found as
· Kiln ID Fan
· Raw Mill Fan
· Cooler Exhaust Gas Fan
· Kiln Dedusting Fan
Altogether these fans consume between 30 and 50% of the plants total electrical energy.
1.1 Fan impeller types
There are four basic blade forms used in industrial induced draft service:
· backward airfoil blades
· backward curved blades
· backward inclined blades
· radial straight blades
Fig. 1.1 shows design and efficiency of these impellers.

Fig. 1.1: Design and efficiency of impellers

TYPE EFFICIENCY
h APPLICATION

backward airfoil blades

> 84 %
for clean gas applications
(dust < 50 g/m3)

backward curved blades

up to 82 % for gas with a dust concentration

< 100 g/m3

Backward inclined blades

up to 80 %
for gas with a dustload
up to 100 g/m3

radial straight blades

60 - 75 %
for gas with a high dustload
(dust > 100 g/m3)

1.2 Selection criteria

It is of great importance that critical process equipment, such as fans, is selected on the basis of proven
ability in order to provide maximum reliability rather than on an efficiency rating.
In situations where more than one blade form will meet a performance requirement, it then becomes
necessary to select the one form that will be most overall cost-effective.
For the selection process the supplier should provide the operating and service manual for the equipment
type being considered.
The operating and service report should include all occurrences that require fan maintenance.
To assist in fan type selection, there are at least four important points to be considered.
¨ Fan efficiency:
Because many of the higher efficiency fans can only achieve their stated efficiency within a narrow
operating range, a true energy evaluation must consider the actual operating point and alternate
operating points on a time basis.
Many systems include a built-in safety factor, which results in reduced efficiency when operated at
constant speed with damper regulation.
¨ Continuous operation:
Any type of equipment will require maintenance. In blade form selection, blade build-up (cp. section 4.2)
and erosion (cp. section 4.3) have the greatest effect on fan operation. Build-up on the wheel results in
reduced performance. There is an increased tendency for material to build up on blades as the blade
angle is tilted back from radial. This build-up can accumulate to the degree that it restricts and alters air
passages, reducing both efficiency and performance.
¨ Mechanical design:
All fan rotors are subject to centrifugal force. Depending on blade form and angle, different types of stress
occur in a blade. The radial Blade is in tension, while bending and tensile stresses act on the backward
inclined/Airfoil design. Bending stresses are more subject to fatigue stresses.
¨ Equipment costs
1.3 Fan applications in the cement industry
The following table shows an overview of fan applications in the cement industry.

Location Dust load

[g/Nm3] Blades mainly
used Max. Temp
[°C] max.
speed
[rpm] Flow
regulation Rotor
protection Stator
protection Efficiency

[%]
Coal Mill
Filter exhaust
Separator / cyclone exhaust
< 0.15
< 100
F/C/A
R/F/C
150
150
1800
1200
VC/ILD
ILD
(WP)
HSWP
-
WP( HSWP)
70 - 85
55 - 75
Raw Mill
Filter exhaust
Separator / cyclone exhaust
< 0.15
< 100
F/C/A*
F/C
300
300
1800
1200
VC/ILD/VS
ILD/VS
-
(HW/HWSP)
-
WP
70 - 85
65 - 75
Cement Mill
Filter exhaust
Separator / cyclone exhaust
< 0.15
< 100
F/C/A
F/C
200
200
1800
1200
VC/ILD
ILD
-
(WP/HSWP)
-
WP
75 - 85
65 - 75
Dry Process
Preheater exhaust
Kiln line filter exhaust
< 100
< 0.15
R/F/C
F/C/A*
450
350
1200
1200
ILD/VS
VC/ILD/VS
(WP)
-
-
-
55 - 75
70 - 85
Semi-dry process
Recirculation fan
Kiln line filter exhaust
< 20
<0.15
R/F
F/C/A*
450
450
750
1800
ILD/VS
VC/ILD/VS
HSWP
-
WP
-
60 - 70
70 - 85
Cooler
Filter exhaust
Filter exhaust
Cyclone exhaust
Recirculating
Cooler F.D. fans
<0.15
0.5
<5
< 15
Traces
F/C
F/C
R/F
R
F/C/A
450
450
450
450
50
1200
1200
1200
750
2200
VC/ILD/VS
ILD/VS
ILD/VS
ILD
VC/VS
(WP)
WP
HSWP
HSWP
-
-
(WP)
WP
WP(HSWP)
-
70 - 88
70 - 80
65 - 75
60 - 70
75 - 85
* in case of bag filter

Abbreviations:

a. Blade Type
R: radial blade
F: backward inclined flat plate
C: backward curved plate
A: backward airfoil blade
b. Flow regulation (cp. section 3)
VC: Vane control set at the fan inlet
ILD: Inlet louver damper set on the inlet box
 VS: Variable speed
c. Rotor and stator protection against abrasion (cp. section 0)
WP: bolted or welded wear plates
- mild steel
- quenched steel
- wear-resistant steel
HSWP: bolted mild steel wear plates with hard surfacing
- chromium carbide
- tungsten carbide
(WP/HSWP): optional

2. FAN PERFORMANCE CURVES

2.1 System Resistance Curve
The System Resistance Curve is the relation between pressure and volume flow for the given system. For
a system in which only air is moved and the geometry of the ductwork is constant, the pressure drop is
proportional to the square of the flow rate.
In most of the applications around the cement plant, this curve is constantly changing because of the
changing system conditions. For instance, the cooler under-grate fan system resistance curve depends
not only on the geometry of the ductwork and cooler, but also on size distribution and thickness of the
clinker bed on the grate above the compartment.
The system resistance curve of a roller mill system is dependent on the geometry of the ducts, the
amount of material being transported by the gas, the composition of the gases and the speed of the
classifier. Because of these variables, it is essential to understand that a system resistance curve can
vary significantly from the slope of the curve illustrated in e.g. Fig. 2.3.
Principally the curve is derived as described next. Fig 2.1 schematically shows a system.
Fig. 2.1: System with fan

Total pressure (dynamic and static part) at S:

with Dps = pressure loss due to friction of the suction side
=
Total pressure (dynamic and static part) at P:
with Dpp = pressure loss due to friction of the pressure side
=
Pressure difference Dpfan, which has to be produced by the fan, consists of a static and dynamic part
and is a function of the gas velocity or gas flow.
Dp = ppress - psuc = = Dpstat + Dpdyn = f(w2) =
2.2 Fan curves
The fan performance curve is derived from laboratory data when the flow conditions to and from the fan
are ideal. Since these conditions seldom exist in cement plant fan locations. The fan curve data cannot be
considered reliable when applied to field conditions. Because of this uncertainty of the prevailing
conditions, we find that engineers specify oversized fans during the plant design stage.
For example, typical factors that can effect the performance of an under-grate cooler fan include a dirty
inlet screen; a structural column too close to the inlet; a silencer at fan inlet or the influence of an adjacent
fan. Likewise, similar factors influencing an induced-draft fan include asymmetrical inlet duct which effects
streamline distribution to the fan or heavier than normal blade wear pads that restrict blade passage
geometry.
A typical fan curve (see Fig. 2.2) shows the quantity of air on the horizontal axis and the fan static
pressure and fan power plotted on the vertical axis. The conditions of density and flow are at the inlet of
the fan.
The actual operating point of the fan will be the intersection of the fan curve with the system resistance
curve (cp. section 2.1).
The efficiency of a fan is best close to its design point of operation. The farther off these “ideal” conditions,
the lower the efficiency. The operating points of equal fan efficiency are located on oval shaped curves
around the maximum point.
Fig. 2.2: Fan characteristics and efficiencies by different fan speed

The fan curve depends on the impeller speed and the physical properties of the gas (cp. section 2.2.2)
The pressure which is produced by the fan equals the pressure difference between the total pressure at
the fan outlet and the fan inlet:
Dp = ppress - psuc = = Dpstat + Dpdyn
For most fans in cement plants, it is satisfactory to assume that the fan's pressure is the difference
between the static pressure at the inlet and outlet of the fans.
The fan power is the power at the fan shaft. For most plant applications where the fan has constant speed
and is direct coupled, this can be assumed to be 96 % of the power consumed by the drive motor when
the motor is fully loaded. Since power factor and motor efficiency vary with motor load, it is difficult to
measure fan shaft power input without a kilowatt meter. However, near full motor load conditions, the amp
reading is a good indicator of shaft power. For fans with variable speed drives, especially hydraulic or
magnetic clutch drives, the efficiency of the drive can be very poor so the power at the fan shaft cannot be
assumed to be a linear function of the power consumed by the motor.
2.2.1 Fan equations
Power requirement:
[kW]
N : Required power [kW]
: Gas flow [m3/s] (not [Nm3/s])
Dp : Total increase of pressure in fan [Pa]
h : Fan efficiency [-]
Depending on the blade shape of the impeller, the power requirement to draw the gas through a given
system (and therefore for determined pressure losses) can vary in a relatively wide range.
As the required fan power is given by the equation above, it is obvious that considerable savings can be
achieved with the most efficient impeller.
Total pressure increase:
Formula for a rough calculation of the total pressure Dp = ppress - psuc = Dpstat + Dpdyn:
Dp » [Pa]
r : Density [kg/m3]
n : Fan speed [rpm]
d : Impeller diameter [m]
Remark: Dp is just a rough guideline and depends very much on the blades shape and the rotor
efficiency.
Example: Effect of fan efficiency
Plant: 4-stage SP kiln, 3000 t/d clinker
Requirement for kiln ID-fan: = 115 m3/s at 350°C
Dp = 6000 Pa
Ù two efficiencies available: h1 = 0.75
h2 = 0.85

Power saving = 108 kW = 0.86 kWh/t cli

Assuming an operation time of 7500 h/year and an energy price of 0.05 US$/kWh the yearly saving will
amount to 40’500 US$!

2.2.2 Adjusting fan performance curves

It was mentioned above that the fan performance curve is given at specific conditions of density and fan
speed. Most often, it is necessary to correct the fan curve for density and speed other than the predicted
conditions. Fig. 2.3 shows the influence of density changes on the fan performance.
Indices: 1: reference conditions (or original fan curve characteristic)
2: actual conditions
Gas density correction:
A correction of the density is necessary if:
¨ temperature changes
¨ the chemical composition of gas changes
¨ the altitude changes (height above sea level).

Volume flow and efficiency of the fan are unaffected by gas density changes.
Remark: À Calculation of actual density

density [kg/m3]
M molecular weight of gas [kg/kmol]
p actual pressure [mbar]
T actual temperature [°C]
Á Ambient pressure, depending on the altitudes can be calculated by:

h altitude above sea level [m]

Gas Density
[kg/Nm3] Molecular weight
[kg/kmol]
O2 1.429 32
CO2 1.964 44
N2 1.250 28
Air 1.292 29
H2O 0.804 18

Fan speed correction:

Volume flow:
Static pressure:
Power requirement:
(for h1 = h2)
Fan wheel dimensions correction:
Volume flow:
Static pressure:
Power requirement:
whereas d impeller diameter [m]
b impeller width [m]
Fig. 2.3: Influence of density changes on system resistance and fan performance curves

3. FLOW CONTROL
Whether a fan ever will operate at a high efficiency is to a large extent already decided when the fan size
is selected.
Since the efficiency of the fan has a maximum at a specific operating point the fan ought to be sized so
that it can operate at such conditions most of the time. However, since the fan performance needs to be
flexible to meet variable requirements, the fan size will, to some extent at least, be designed for the
maximum requirement. Reduced requirements have to be met by fan control dampers or variable speed
control.
Besides the efficiency of the fan itself, the type of flow control has the strongest influence on the overall
power consumption.
Damper control generally results in higher power consumption and so more if the damper is installed at
the fan outlet. Therefore the damper should always be installed at fan inlet. Inlet vane control may be
satisfactory from 100 % down to about 70 % of maximum flow, but the power demand becomes high
when the flow is reduced further. Speed control is virtually ideal.
Fig 3.1 shows different arrangements for inlet and outlet dampers.
Fig. 3.1: Design possibilities for fan dampers

Figure 3.2 shows how fan power consumption is affected by the different flow regulation methods.
Fig. 3.2: Comparison: Types of Flow Regulation

3.1 Damper control

A parallel blade inlet damper is preferred over either outlet damper or an opposed-blade inlet damper. The
parallel-blade inlet damper pre-spins the incoming air in the direction of wheel rotation, resulting in lower
energy consumption in the regulation range of 100 - 80% of maximum flow. Fig. 3.3 shows the parallel
inlet damper arrangement.
Fig. 3.3: Parallel inlet box damper

The inlet box damper influences the fan curve (see Fig. 3.4).
Fig. 3.4: Flow regulation by inlet box damper

Fig. 3.5 shows the operating point at the intersection of the system resistance curve and the fan curve. By
reducing the airflow, the fan theoretically produces a pressure above 80 mbar. Since the system behaves
like the system resistance curve, the damper induces a pressure loss of about 40 mbar.
Fig. 3.5: Flow regulation by outlet damper

3.2 Radial inlet vane

The radial inlet vane mounted direct at the fan inlet pre-spins the incoming air still better in the direction of
wheel rotation, resulting in a wider range of stable regulation (100 - 70%) and less energy consumption.
Fig. 3.6 shows the parallel inlet damper arrangement.
Fig 3.6: Radial inlet vane

Their use is mainly recommended in connection with over hung arrangement fans with low rates of dust,
thus limited to applications after filters or in clean air, e.g. for cooler under-grate fans.
This arrangement is normally more costly.
Fig. 3.7: Flow regulation by inlet vane damper

3.3 Speed control

Variable speed controlled fans have more fan characteristic curves but only one characteristic curve of
the duct system (see Fig. 3.8).
It is obvious that the variable speed drive is the most efficient type of fan control since no additional
resistance for e.g. damper is built into the system. On the other hand a variable speed control is more
capital intensive than a damper control.
Fig. 3.8: Flow regulation by speed control

3.3.1 Hydraulic transmission with fixed speed motor

Hydraulic transmission in connection with a fixed speed motor can be an option for speed ranges from
100% down to 85% of maximum speed, but the energy efficiency becomes low when the flow is further
reduced.
3.3.2 Speed-controlled electric motors
Flow control by variation of the fan speed is most efficient with regard to energy savings and permits also
the reduction of wear on the fan wheel.
¨ DC motors have limitations in high speed and power (roughly 1000 rpm for 1500 kW, 600 to 800
rpm for 2000 kW motor) and require a lot of maintenance work (motor ventilation circuits, carbon brushes
etc.), so their use is not recommended any longer.
¨ AC motors with slip recovery. These motors have a limited speed range down from 100 - 30%. Its
cost increases with the width of the range.
¨ Synchronous motors with AC variable frequency control
Both types of AC motors are well suited for high power (500 to 5000 kW).
Fan equations at variable speed:
Volume flow:
Static pressure:
Power requirement:
(for h1 = h2)
4. POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH FANS
4.1 Vibrations
Main reasons for fan vibrations are build-ups of process material (refer to section 4.2) and wear/erosion
on the fan impeller (refer to section 4.3/0). A moderate level of vibration can be tolerated from a
mechanical design point of view, although it certainly reduces the bearing lifetime to a certain extent.
Therefore it should be tolerated only to avoid additional main equipment downtime.
If vibrations are excessive, fan impeller balancing, cleaning or replacement is required. For balancing
special vibration detectors are used on site or the wheel has to be shop balanced.
General Machinery vibration severity as per ANSI S2.41 (Fig. 4.1 a) for use as a guide in judging vibration
as a warning of impending trouble)

1. Rigid support
The fundamental natural frequency of the machine/support system is higher than the operating speed
excellent 0. to 2.54 mm/s vibration velocity (Peak)
good 2.55 to 6.35 mm/s
alarm 6.36 to 12.7 mm/s
shutdown > 12.7 mm/s
2. Flexible support
The fundamental natural frequency of the machine/support system is lower than the operating speed
excellent 0. to 3.81 mm/s vibration velocity (Peak)
good 3.81 to 10.16 mm/s
alarm 10.17 to 19.1 mm/s
shutdown > 19.1 mm/s

Vibration severity criteria (10 Hz to 1 kHz) per ISO 2372 (Fig. 4.1 b)

1. Large machines with rigid foundations whose natural frequency exceeds machine speed
good 0.0 to 2.54 mm/s vibration velocity (Peak)
allowable 2.55 to 6.35 mm/s
just tolerable 6.36 to 15.84 mm/s
not permissible > 15.84 mm/s
2. Large machines operating at speeds above foundation natural frequency
good 0 to 4 mm/s vibration velocity (Peak)
allowable 4 to 10 mm/s
just tolerable 10 to 25.4 mm/s
not permissible > 25.4 mm/s

If the tolerable vibration levels are exceeded, the fan must be shut down, which usually results in costly
production losses. To extend the periods between shutdowns due to vibration, the use of automatic
balancing devices, mounted on the fan shaft may be considered. Depending on their size, they are
capable of automatic compensation of a certain rotor unbalance. For manufacturers of such devices, refer
to the information source at the end of this report.
Fig. 4.1 a: Vibration severity chart (ANSI S2.41)

Fig. 4.1 b: Vibration severity chart (ISO 2372)

4.1.1 Variable speed operation

All electrical variable speed drive systems can generate harmful harmonics that result in torque pulsation.
Such harmonics can be predicted and filtered, but often at high cost. For fans with variable speed control
it must be verified by the motor supplier that the pulsating torque do not cause excessive vibrations.
4.1.2 Thermal effects
Some typical problem areas are:
¨ Due to expansion joint problems, forces due to thermal expansion of ducts are transmitted to the
fan housing, resulting in damage of the housing or interference between wheel and housing. It can also
cause excessive force on foundation bolts that sometimes can result in foundation cracks.
¨ Rapid temperature changes in a system require proper design of the wheel-to-shaft fit. This will
assure that looseness and resulting vibration sensitivity will be avoided.
4.1.3 Hot shutdowns
Thermal shaft set is a usual concern on centre-hung fans above 120°C when shut down in the hot
condition. It is generally agreed that this thermal bowing of the shaft occurs due to uneven thermal
gradients across the wheel and shaft assembly at hot shutdown. This results in small asymmetrical
distortions, often sufficient to cause excessive unbalance forces during start-up.
In some cases the resulting vibrations are within acceptable limits. If so, it is usually found that the
unbalance forces disappear after 12 to 36 hours of operation.
The preferred, but expensive solution is to have an auxiliary drive to slowly rotate the wheel and shaft
assembly, which should be engaged immediately after hot shut-down to avoid the undesirable thermal
distortion. Auxiliary drives are typically designed to maintain a minimum speed (40 to 60 rpm) as the fan
slows down. They are not intended for use in starting the fan rotor from a dead stop.
Most hot gas fans work well without auxiliary drive, since hot shutdowns are infrequent and of short
duration and the natural draft of the chimney keeps the rotor in slow motion for some time.
The tendency is to install hot gas fans without auxiliary drives. Often it is also the case that variable speed
drives have a turndown ratio of 10:1, which corresponds normally to less than 70 rpm.
4.2 Material build-up
A well maintained fan is generally a reliable piece of equipment. However, in case of material build-ups
within the fan, serious operational limitations could occur, such as vibrations.
Possible reasons for material build-ups are:
· Mineralogical composition of the material
· Burning conditions
· Duct/fan arrangement
· High temperatures
· Inappropriate blade shape and angles
· High fan speed
· Dew point problems
After balancing, the rotor of a fan will still have a certain residual imbalance, the value of which depends
on the balance quality grade. The unbalance force can be calculated with the formula:
[N]
m rotor mass [kg]
w angular velocity 2pn/60 [s-1]
n rotor speed [rpm]
eper permissible residual specific unbalance [m]
Industrial fans often handle dust-laden gases and thus dust deposition on the impeller may occur,
increasing the initial unbalance. Asymmetrical wear on the impeller has the same effect. These additional
unbalances can be considerable compared to the permissible unbalance according to the balance quality
grade. If the resulting vibration exceeds the tolerable limits, the fan has to be shut down to clean the
wheel. See Fig. 4.1 c for permissible unbalance.
Fig. 4.1 c: Balance quality grades

4.2.1 Kiln exhaust fan build-up

One idea about the causes of build-up is that some particles are "sticky" at temperatures above 300°C
and begin to build up on the rotor surfaces. The impact energy of the particles striking the rotor surface
(especially at an angle of 90°) is also converted to heat and results in additional softening. Other particles
with a higher softening point are caught in the sticky material and increase the coating layer thickness.
The originally soft build-up gets harder under the influence of heat and pressure (from centrifugal force
and the impact of other particles).
4.2.2 Recommendations against build-up
¨ The fan rotor should be designed for the smoothest possible flow lines to reduce the impact
energy of dust particles. Backward curved and airfoil are the best blade forms. Airfoil blades must be
designed carefully to prevent material from getting inside and regular inspection of the fan blades is
mandatory.
Backward curved blades must be inclined enough to prevent the "hard" build-up on the front surface and
radial enough to prevent the "soft" build-up on the back-surface.
¨ Fans should be designed for low gas and particle velocity at the fan inlet. This reduces the impact
energy of particles against the rotor and can be achieved by
1) Double inlet instead of single inlet fans
2) Larger diameter / lower speed fans
3) If possible, the peripheral speed at the rotor inlet opening should be limited to about 76 m/s, and
wheel inlet velocity should not exceed 38 m/s
4) The fan shaft should be oversized to reduce unbalance effects.
The design critical speed (considering a bearing oil film thickness and a build-up thickness of 25 mm on
all leading surfaces of the rotor blades) should be at least 1.25 times the operating speed of the fan.
Suppliers generally do not recommend to spray water directly onto a hot fan wheel, but in practice it has
been done over years with success. The rapid cooling effect removes build-up effectively, however, the
strength properties of the wheel material may be affected adversely if the injection rate is too high.
Several different techniques are used to clean the fan, none with guarantied success however:
* “Sand blasting” by addition of sand to the gas flow for short periods (Fig. 4.2)
* Acoustic resonance (Fig. 4.3)
* Compressed air injection (Fig. 4.4)
* Steam injection (Fig. 4.4)
The following measures are performed below operational fan speed or even require a fan stop.
* “Knocking” with pneumatic hammer
* High pressure water spray (up to 300 bar)
* H2O injection (Fig. 4.4) (rather delicate; it has to be carefully dealt with)
Fig. 4.2: Sand cleaning device

Fig. 4.3: Acoustic cleaning device

Fig. 4.4: Compressed air, H2O or steam Cleaning Devices

4.3 Erosion
4.3.1 Erosion types
It has been established that maximum erosion occurs when the angle of incidence between particle and
surface is between 20 and 40 degrees. This erosion, referred to as "ductile", is thought to be the
consequence of microscopic melting, which occurs when sharp-edged, hard particles scratch the surface.
Particles striking at an angle of about 90 degrees to the surface erode according to another mechanism.
The kinetic energy of the particle creates a stress at the contact surface that can exceed the elastic limit
of the material, thus forming a surface crack. This type of erosion is called "fragile".
4.3.2 Improper duct connection
Figure 4.5a shows a duct arrangement encountered on a raw mill system. Due to the uneven material
distribution one side of the double-inlet impeller wore out much faster.
Figure 4.5b shows the recommended modification.
Fig. 4.5a, Fig. 4.5b

4.3.3 Effects of impeller speed and wheel inlet velocity

As mentioned earlier, erosion is proportional to the square of wheel inlet velocity and to the second to
third power of the relative gas velocity w1 at the rotor inlet. With a given rotor size this velocity is
proportional to rotor speed [rpm].
As a rough guideline we can expect that the erosion will vary with the speed to the power of 3. A large fan
will therefore resist erosion better then a smaller one, operating in the same conditions, due to lower fan
speed, larger surfaces.

4.4 Wear protection

4.4.1 Protection of parts subjected to abrasion
4.4.1.1 Direct protection
¨ Increased thickness of wear parts

This should only be done when abrasion is very light (ID behind electrostatic precipitators)
¨ Direct hard surfacing on impeller by deposits by electrode or fusion projection

This process is very efficient if the deposits are well chosen and properly applied. However, the thickness
of the deposit is limited. The base structure of the impeller can be affected (dilution of hard surfacing and
significant addition of energy) and the mechanical characteristics of the steel can deteriorate, especially
after several maintenance operations.
¨ Glued-on ceramics

Their hardness is very high and they are very resistant to ductile abrasion

Temperature must be limited and the ceramics tend to come off at the blade end (high centrifugal forces).
Application on static parts is easier and more reliable.
4.4.1.2 Protection by wear plates
¨ Corners or mild steel plates (or steel of the same grade as the base structure) added on to the
blade and on the center plate. This protection is applicable only where abrasion is low. If the protection
area is not wide enough, the base plate can also be attacked.
¨ Wear-plates in abrasion resistant steel. This process is applied particularly on flat-bladed
impellers. The wear-plates are fitted on with countersunk screws. Replacement is easy, but the solution
can be insufficient if abrasion is very high.
¨ Mild steel wear plates with hard surfacing by electrode or hardsurface spray coating. This solution
has the double advantage of easy replacement and high resistance to abrasion when the type of deposit
is well chosen. Moreover, hard surfacing on site is easily carried out with no risk for the base structure.
4.4.2 Deflection of abrasive particles
4.4.2.1 Deflector plates on impeller (Fig. 4.6)
Fig. 4.6a shows the fan inlet and the rotating impeller. A, B and C are flow lines for the gas and lines 1, 2
and 3 represent the trajectories for particles of varying size. Line 1 refers to a very small particle that
closely follows the gas flow line. With increasing particle size the trajectories 2 and 3 deviate from the gas
flow lines. The particles hit the back-plate of the impeller and erode it.
Fig. 4.6b depicts the passage of two different particle sizes between two blades. Line  1 is the trajectory of
a small particle, line 2 of a coarser one. Most particles will hit the blade during their passage through the
impeller.
With suitably located deflector plates (Fig. 4.6c), the particle trajectories can be altered so that no
particles will hit the blades. The location and direction of the deflectors depends on the particle size
distribution, density of gas and particle, and fan speed and size.
Fig. 4.6: Wear protection by particle deflection

4.4.3 Liner materials

Due to the need for ductility in the structural members of the wheel, the wheel itself is usually not capable
of high resistance to erosion. It is therefore necessary to install liners with a higher hardness classification
to provide sufficient protection against wear.
Material hardness is an indication of its resistance to erosion. A very good liner material is chromium
carbide with an average hardness of 600 Brinell.
Figure 4.7 shows erosion test results of nine different materials.
Fig. 4.7: Erosion Test on Fan (Solyvent-Ventec)

1) Alloy of tungsten and nickel-chromium. Flame spray coating.

2) Alloy of nickel, chromium and cobalt. Flame spray coating followed by fusion.
3) Alloy of tungsten, cobalt carbides and nickel-chromium. Flame spray coating followed by fusion.
4) Special chromium cast iron. Special electric arc welding.
5) Chromium cast iron with chromium carbides. Electric arc welding.
6) Chromium cast iron. Semi-automatic electric arc welding.
7) Ceramic powder containing basically aluminium oxide. Flame spray coating.
8) Same as 7, but of different hardness.
9) Ceramic tiles containing basically aluminium oxide. Glued to the blades.
Carbon steel sheets with a protective layer of chromium carbide are normally available in standard sizes
and various thicknesses. Cutting discs or cutting plasma can cut them to the necessary form and size.
The liner fixation can be done by bolting or by welding the carbon steel base plate to the existing structure
of the wheel or casing.
4.5 Bearings
Bearing problems are usually caused by operating conditions and not by deficiencies in the bearings. By
following regular operating and maintenance procedures, many bearing problems will be avoided.
Most problems are due to hot bearings. For hints see section 5.
5. FAN CAPACITY ADJUSTMENT
Fan capacity adjustments in the field are practically limited to the speed adjustment and this within a
limited range: ~ 0 - 15 % for flow increase and ~ 0 - 30 % for flow reduction.
Other capacity adjustments require mainly dimensional modifications of the fan wheel, which have to be
carried out in the workshop. Those are more costly and critical to execute.
5.1 Fan capacity too low
Important variables that are hampered by insufficient gas flow are e.g.
¨ kiln production
¨ separator efficiency
¨ mill performance (throughput, drying capacity, mill venting)
Possible remedies:
¨ Design changes in the system (reduce false air, reduce pressure drop)
the fan consumes no additional energy!
¨ reduce/rectify false air inleaks
¨ reduce unnecessary pressure drops caused by e.g.
· not fully open dampers
· improper design of inlet/outlet connections
· no turning vanes in bends (refer to section 8.3)
· dust deposits in ducts and bends
· too narrow ducts (appropriate air speed must however be maintained to avoid settling of dust)
¨ Changes in fan design, speed
· Speed increase
* volume flow is directly proportional to fan speed
* fan absorbed power rises with the third power of fan speed
* fan works with lower than design efficiency
* normally only possible with V-belt drives
* sound emission rises with fifth power of speed
* higher wear, if fan handles dust-laden gas
* increased sensitivity to rotor imbalance caused by dust deposits on blades
* speed increase is limited by mechanical strength of rotor
* speed increase is limited by fan critical and resonant speed
· Fan wheel diameter increase
* practically limited to wheels where the blades do not extend to the full diameter of the rotor
sideplates (plates can then be welded-in to increase the effective fan wheel diameter)
* volume flow rises with the third power of wheel diameter
* fan absorbed power rises with the fifth power of wheel diameter
· Replacement of rotor with inherent low efficiency by one designed for high efficiency
* e.g. replacement of radial-blade wheel by backward-inclined or backward-curved blade wheel.
* limitations with regard to diameter, width (and speed, if wheel is directly coupled to motor via
flexible coupling) of the new wheel exist if fan housing and motor are to be kept.
¨ New fan
Can be designed for optimum performance at the new operating point
5.2 Fan capacity too high
May be due to e.g. oversized fan, decline in production, process changes
Possible remedies:
¨ Flow reduction by damper
Widely used solution, but inefficient and expensive (fan energy consumption)
¨ Flow reduction by inlet vane damper
More energy-efficient than damper, but can be recommended only for flow regulation purposes, not for
permanent use at lower capacity (expensive, may be difficult to fit into existing equipment)
¨ Changes in fan design, speed
· Lower speed
* volume flow decreases proportional to fan speed
* absorbed power decreases with third power of fan speed
* lower sound emission
* lower wear, if handling dust-laden gas
* lower sensitivity to rotor imbalance caused by e.g. dust deposits on blades
· Rotor width reduction
* applicable if fan must deliver the same pressure as before, but at lower volume flow
· Rotor diameter / width reduction
* volume flow decreases with the third power of rotor diameter
* volume flow decreases proportional to rotor width
* fan delivery pressure decreases with the square of rotor diameter
* absorbed power decreases with the fifth power of rotor diameter
* absorbed power decreases proportional to width
* lower sound emission
To maintain a good efficiency, it is not sufficient to decrease the diameter only, but also to adapt
the rotor width.
For a permanent capacity reduction this is a good solution
If the old transmission is kept, speed reduction is normally reversible, i.e. fan capacity can be increased
again if necessary, whereas a reduction in rotor diameter / width are not.
6. TROUBLESHOOTING

Problem Check for

Noise 1. Squealing V-belts, due to misalignment or improper tensioning
2. Defective bearings, or bearing seal rubbing
3. Misalignment of bearing seal
4. Misaligned housing-shaft seal
5. Foreign matter in fan housing
6. Rubbing of shaft seal, wheel to inlet piece, or wheel to housing
7. Heat flinger is contacting guard
8. Coupling failure
9. Untreated expansion joints
Poor performance 1. Incorrect fan rotation
2. Wheel is off-center, poor inlet piece fit-up allows recirculation of air
3. Fan speed too low/high
4. Poor duct design, installation of elbow or turning vanes could remedy problem
5. Inlet damper installed backwards (counter-rotation)
6. System resistance is excessive compared to design requirements (partially closed damper may
be the cause)
7. Density may be different from design density
High bearing temperature 1. Defective bearings caused by electrical arc due to improper
grounding of nearby welding
2. Over-lubrication
3. Improper lubrication or contaminated lubricant
4. Lack of lubrication, cooling fluid, or circulation
5. High ambient temperatures or direct exposure to sunlight
6. Misalignment
7. Excessive thrust loading
8. High vibration
9. Inadvertently exchanged bearing caps (mismatched)
10. Bearing race turning inside housing
11 Moisture in bearing
12. V-belts too tight
13. Improper location ; not enough room for free axial movement of floating bearing in its housing at
elevated temperatures)
14. Heat flinger missing
Excessive starting time 1. Motor improperly sized for fan wheel WR2
2. Inlet dampers not closed during start-up
3. Properly selected time-delay starter/fusing required (many industrial fans take up to 20 - 25
seconds to reach operating speed)
4. Temperature at inlet is excessively low (high density)
5. Low voltage at motor terminals
6. Inadequate system resistance

Vibrations 1. Loose bolts in bearings and pedestals, or improper mounting

2. Defective bearings
3. Improper alignment of bearings or couplings
4. Out-of-balance fan wheel
5. Loose set-screws holding wheel to shaft
6. Weld cracking
7. Improper fan wheel clearance to inlet piece(s)
8. Material build-up and/or wear on wheel
9. Ensure expansion joints in ductwork are not fully compressed
10. Misalignment or loose V-belts
11. Improper wheel rotation
12. Operation near system critical speed
13. Shaft bent or distorted during high-temperature shutdown
14. Defective motor
15. Resonant frequencies of structural steel mounting
16. Beat frequency with other fans on common base
17. Loose hub-to-shaft fit
Duct pulsation 1. Control volume with a radial inlet damper
2. Install speed variation
3. Change to a special "surgeless" blower design
High motor
temperature 1. Improper ventilation of cooling air to motor (may be blocked by dirt)
2. Input power problems (especially low voltage)
3. High amperage
4. High ambient temperature

Component Problem Probable cause, remedies

Bearings Noise 1. Imperfection in bearing elements
2. Improper clearance
3. Internal wear of bearing parts
Freezing water jacket 1. When stopping water flow in freezing weather, blow out lower
portion of bearing housing water cavity
Fan Wheel Erosion 1. Reduce dust loading
2. Reduce rpm
3. Redesign inlet ductwork
4. Damper setting
5. Damper design
6. Better liner material
7. Alternate blade design
Buildup 1. Reduce dust loading
2. May be affected by system temperature change
3. Blade form
4. Alternate wheel material, apply "slippery" material
Vibration 1. Rectify build-up
2. Rectify erosion
3. Tighten foundation bolts
4. Correct misalignments
5. Improve supporting structure
6. Check effects of ductwork thermal expansion
7. Shaft bow due to "thermal set"
8. Special considerations, refer to factory
Shaft Cracks at section change - Get new shaft that is machined to eliminate stress
raisers
Natural frequency too close to running value - Redesign shaft
Out of round at bearing - Replace shaft
Bowing and torsion problems - Refer to factory
Shaft dropped or damaged during transit or installation
- Get new shaft
Hubs Loose fit on shaft - Tighten interference fit
Insufficient stiffness - Redesign
Cracks in casting - Change to weldment
Erosion - Build up or replace

7. START-UP OF FANS
Before starting the fan for the first time, complete the following list:
1) Uncouple motor from fan and check motor (fan) for proper rotation.
2) Shut off power by disconnecting motor main breaker.
3) Check and tighten hold-down bolts.
4) Check and tighten rotor set-screws.
5) Check couplings and bearing for proper alignment.
6) Move rotor to see if it is rotating freely and maintains proper inlet piece/rotor clearance.
7) Check that fan wheel is balanced.
8) Check fan and ducts for any foreign material or dirt build-up.
9) Check that physical position of damper corresponds to indication at actuator and control panel.
10) Secure all access doors.
11) Check lubrication of bearings, couplings, drive unit etc.
12) Couple the motor again to fan and secure and check safety guards for clearance.
13) Close dampers for adequate system resistance to prevent drive unit from overloading.
14) Supply water to water-cooled bearings and start lubrication pump.
15) Make sure that all persons are away from fan and out of any other equipment of the system to
which the fan is connected.
16) Connect electric motor by closing main circuit breaker of the motor. Start equipment according to
recommendations of drive unit and starting equipment supplier.
17) Allow fan to reach full speed, then shut down. Make immediate corrections if any vibrations or
unusual sounds have been detected.
18) During a run-in period make observations of bearings at least once an hour. Higher bearing
temperatures may occur if bearings are over-lubricated.
19) Refer to trouble-shooting guide for any unusual occurrences encountered during the run-in
period. Only after any vibrations, misalignments, etc. have been corrected, may the fan be restarted.
8. FAN IMPELLER ARRANGEMENT AND CONNECTIONS
8.1 Assembly
8.1.1 Overhung assembly (Fig. 8.1)
This is possible if the fan operates in an environment with little risk of clogging and associated imbalance
and the impeller diameter is not too large (less than approx. 2.7 m).
Advantages:
¨ lower purchase and installation costs than centre hung assembly
¨ connection of upstream duct directly to fan inlet is possible (no inlet box)
Fig. 8.1: Fan arrangement - overhung arrangement

8.1.2 Center hung assembly (Fig. 8.2)

This assembly is more robust and absorbs the dynamic effects of rotor imbalance better than the above
solution.
Its use is recommended if
¨ the dust load is high with a risk of clogging or wear of the impeller, causing rotor imbalance
¨ when the size and weight of the impeller makes overhung assembly delicate
Fig. 8.2: Fan arrangement - arrangement between bearings

Figure 8.3 indicates the application range for the two arrangements.
Fig. 8.3

8.2 Foundations
Fig. 8.4

1) Directly onto concrete with separate motor-bearing base-plate (this is the most economical
solution and most widely used).
2) Onto concrete with common base plate with centerline axis support maintaining the rotor-bearing-
motor alignment with the stator (more expensive solution, but easy to install onto the foundations).
Used for hot gas fans where thermal expansion must be taken into account.
3) Common base-plate with centerline axis support resting on anti-vibration mounts (this chassis
must be perfectly rigid and is thus very expensive).
Used only in very special cases (fans mounted on steel structures).
4) With spring-supported concrete block resting on anti-vibration mounts and supporting the fan (a
spring supported block is less expensive than a common base-plate with centerline support and allows for
remarkable vibration absorption. Its weight, between 10 - 60 tons must be included in design
calculations).
Used only in very special cases.
8.3 Connections
8.3.1 Inlet connections

8.3.2 Outlet connections

9. INFORMATION SOURCES
¨ Robinson Industries, Inc., Zelienople, PA, USA
¨ TLT-Babcock, Inc., Akron, Ohio, USA
¨ Venti Oelde, Oelde, Germany
¨ Solyvent-Ventec, Chalon-Sur-Saône, Cedex, France
¨ Balance Dynamics Corporation, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA, Fax # 313 994 3690

B06 - PT III

C01 - Emission Control

Sources and Reduction of NOx-Emissions

Arnaud De Luca
TPT 01/21068/E
(Replaces report no. PT 96/14160/E)
1. Introduction
2. Chemical And Physical Properties And Environmental Aspects Of Some Nitrogen Compounds
And Ozone
2.1 Nitrogen (N2)
2.1.1 Physical Properties
2.1.2 Chemical Properties
2.2 Nitrogen Oxides (NO, NO2 N2O)
2.2.1 Physical Properties
2.2.2 Toxicology
2.2.3 Environmental Aspects
2.3 Ammonia
2.3.1 Physical Properties
2.3.2 Chemical Properties
2.3.3 Toxicology
2.4 Ozone
2.4.1 Physical Properties
2.4.2 Toxicity
2.4.3 Formation of Trophospheric Ozone
3. NOx Emission from Cement plant
3.1 Emission Limit
3.2 Conversion
4. Nitrogen Input into the Kiln System
5. Behavior of Nitrogen in the Process
5.1 NO Formation
5.1.1 Formation of "Thermal NO"
5.1.2 Formation of "Fuel NO"
5.1.3 NO-Decomposition Mechanism in the Combustion Process
5.2 Formation of Nitrogen Monoxide in a Cement Kiln
5.3 Main Influencing Variables for NO Formation
5.3.1 Temperatures
5.3.2 Temperature Peaks
5.3.3 Excess Air
5.3.4 Residence Time
5.3.5 Burner Operating Parameters
5.3.5.1 In-flame Air Level at Ignition
5.3.5.2 Total Axial Momentum
5.3.5.3 Tangential Momentum and Swirl Level on the Swirling Channel
5.3.5.4 Swirling and Axial Air Amount, Distribution and Velocity
5.3.5.5 Influence of Cooler System on NOx Emissions
6. NoX Emission Reduction Possibilities
6.1 Reduction of Nitrogen Input
6.2 Primary Measures
6.2.1 Reduction Technologies
6.2.1.1 Kiln optimisation / Linkman
6.2.1.2 LowNox Burner
6.2.1.3 Flame Cooling
6.2.1.4 Free Lime/ burnability
6.2.1.5 Lump fuel
6.2.1.6 Slag addition
6.2.1.7 Secondary Firing / Multi-Stage Combustion
6.2.2 Possible Negative Effects of Primary Measures
6.2.3 Effectiveness of NOx Reduction Measures
6.3 Secondary Measures
6.3.1 Reduction Technologies
6.3.1.1 Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction
6.3.1.2 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
6.4 Effectiveness and cost of NOx reduction measures
6.4.1 Primary Measures
6.4.2 Secondary measures
Literature

Summary:
NOx is produced to different degrees in all stationary and mobile combustion sources. Because of the
high flame temperatures the NO generation in cement kilns is relatively high.
To reduce NOx emission, 2 kinds of measures are available:

Primary Measures
Ø Kiln Optimisation / LINKmann
Ø Low NOx burner
Ø Flame cooling
Ø Multi Stage Combustion
These primary measures have a NOx reduction between 0% up to 50% that depends on main parameters
like the measures used or the kiln type. It is therefore very difficult to estimate their efficiencies.

Secondary Measures
Ø SNCR
Ø SCR (not yet available in cement industry)
The efficiency of these secondary measures can be estimated and they do not influence the clinker
process.
SNCR can reach all current legal NOx emission limits.

Message:
1. NOx is not a kiln control parameter.
2. If legal NOx emission limit cannot be reached with keeping a stable process, SNCR has to be
introduced.
1. INTRODUCTION
The reaction between oxygen and nitrogen at high temperature produces mainly NO with a small
proportion of NO2. The sum of these components is generally called NOx (nitrogen oxides).
Thus, NOx is produced to different degrees in all stationary and mobile combustion sources. Because of
the high flame temperatures the NO generation in cement kilns is relatively high.
2. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF SOME
NITROGEN COMPOUNDS AND OZONE
2.1 Nitrogen (N2)
2.1.1 Physical Properties [1]
At atmospheric pressure and room temperature, nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, non-combustible gas.
Nitrogen condenses to a colorless liquid at -195.80°C and 101.3 kPa and forms a white solid at -
209.86°C.

Mr 28.0134
Triple point
Temperature 63.15 °K
Pressure 12.463 kPa
heat of fusion 25.8 kJ/kg
Boiling point (101.3 kPa) 77.35 K
heat of vaporization 199 kJ/kg
Critical point
Tcrit 126.2 K
pcrit 3.39908 Mpa
Qcrit 314.03 g/L
Properties at 0°C, 101.3 kPa:
Relative density (air = 1) 0.967
Specific heat capacity 1.039 Jg-1 K-1
Dynamic viscosity 15.9 x 10-6 Pa s
Thermal conductivity 23.86 mWm-1 K-1

2.1.2 Chemical Properties [1]

Nitrogen has an extremely high heat of dissociation:

N2 « 2 N DH0 = 943.8 kJ/mol

No marked dissociation takes place even at 3000°C and standard pressure. The strength of the NhN
bond is responsible for the inertness of N2.
Important reactions of nitrogen with non-metals are those with hydrogen, yielding ammonia, and with
oxygen. The latter, an endothermic reaction, gives nitrogen monoxide:
N2 + O2 « 2 NODH0 = 180 kJ/mol

2.2 Nitrogen Oxides (NO, NO2 N2O)

2.2.1 Physical Properties [1]
Compounds of oxygen with nitrogen are considered as a class and called nitrogen oxides (often denoted
as NOx). The known oxides and their equilibrium reactions are as follows:

+I
N2O Dinitrogen monoxide
+II +II
Nitrogen monoxide NO « N2O2 Dinitrogen dioxide
+III
N2O3 Dinitrogen trioxide
+IV +IV
Nitrogen dioxide NO2 « N2O4 Dinitrogen tetroxide
+V
N2O5 Dinitrogen pentoxide
+VI +VI
Nitrogen trioxide NO3 « N2O6 Dinitrogen hexoxide

Table 1: Physical properties of nitrogen oxides

Compound
N2O NO NO2 / N2O4 N2O3 N2O5
Oxidation state 1 2 +4 / +4 3 5
Tcr, °C 36.41 -93 157.85
pcr, Mpa 7.245 6.485 10.132
Qcr, kg/m3 452 520 550
mp, °C -90.86 -163.65 -11.20 -100.70 32.4*
bp, °C -88.480 -151.770 21.150 -40 to +3
Specific heat cp, kJ kg-1 K-1 0.879 0.996 1.326 0.862 0.778
Standard enthalpy of formation DH°F, kJ/kg 1864.190 3007.684 721.199
1101.435 104.589
Heat of vaporization at bp, kJ/kg 376.070 459.031 414.257 517.416
Density, kg/m3
Gas (0°C, 101.3 kPa)
Liquid (20°C, 101.3 kPa)
1.9775
793
1.3402
3.4 (20°C)
1446.8
1.447 (2°C)
2.05
(solid)
Dynamic viscosity, mPa -s
Gas (25°C, 101.3 kPa)
14.874
19.184
12.838
Thermal conductivity, W m-1 K-1
Gas (25°C, 101.3 kPa)
Liquid (20°C, 101.3 kPa)
0.01718
0.02573
0.1124
0.1336
* Sublimation point

N2O
Under normal conditions (i.e. room temperature and atmospheric pressure), dinitrogen monoxide, also
called nitrous oxide, N2O, Mr 44.01, is a colorless gas with a weak, pleasant odor and a sweetish taste. If
inhaled, it can bring about a spasmodic inclination to laugh and a condition resembling drunkenness
hence, its historic name, laughing gas.
NO
Nitrogen monoxide, also called nitric oxide, NO, Mr 30.01, is a colorless, toxic, nonflammable gas at room
temperature. As soon as it comes in contact with atmospheric oxygen, it is oxidized to nitrogen dioxide, a
brown vapor.
NO2
Nitrogen dioxide, NO2, Mr 46.01, is a brownish red, toxic gas with a pungent odor; for physical properties,
see Table 1.

2.2.2 Toxicology [1]

N2O
Dinitrogen monoxide (laughing gas) does not irritate the mucous membranes. It has a powerful analgesic
action but is only weakly narcotic. The gas displaces nitrogen from air-filled body cavities (middle ear,
sinuses, intestines, brain ventricles) resulting in an increase in pressure. After chronic exposure,
polyneuropathy and myelopathy have been observed. TLV-TWA value is 50 ppm (90 mg/m3).

NO
Pure nitrogen monoxide does not have any irritating effects. It reacts, however, with hemoglobin to form
methemoglobin, resulting in cyanosis and possible death. The TLV-TWA value is 25 ppm (31 mg/m3).

NO2
Nitrogen dioxide is an irritant gas. Its MAK value is 5 ppm (9 mg/m3). TLV-TWA 3 ppm (5.6 mg/m3), TLV-
STEL 5 ppm (9.4 mg/m3). Inhalation of nitrogen dioxide causes pulmonary edema which may result in
death (lethal dose 200 ppm). The substance is only slightly water-soluble but highly lipid-soluble. It
therefore penetrates the alveoli where it damages the capillary walls resulting in exudative inflammation.
The respiratory tract is obstructed due to formation of foam.
Concentrations exceeding 60 - 150 ppm produce coughing and a burning sensation in the chest.
Pulmonary edema becomes apparent after 2 - 24 h. The patient suffers respiratory distress and insomnia.
Chronic exposure to low doses results in coughing, headache, loss of appetite and gastrointestinal
disorders. Patients should be kept under clinical observation. Inhalation of ammonia from ammonium
hydrogen carbonate is recommended.

2.2.3 Environmental Aspects [2]

Conditions which produce nitrogen oxides do not occur solely in stationary combustion sources. The
exhaust gases from internal-combustion engines, particularly those of the gasoline-burning spark-ignition
variety, contain traces of nitrogen oxides, and because of the sheer number of them they are estimated to
contribute about 50% of the total anthropogenic NOx burden.
Vehicle exhaust also contains the other ingredients needed to produce the effect known as photo-
chemical smog; this has long plagued large conurbations in badly ventilated situations such as Los
Angeles, Tokyo and Mexico City, and it has more recently become a feature of many other urban centers.
The nitrogen oxides, activated by solar ultraviolet, react in the urban atmosphere with the unburned
hydrocarbons from vehicle exhausts to produce a noxious cocktail of corrosive, oxidizing and irritating
chemicals such as organic peroxides.
They also interact with atmospheric oxygen to produce ozone. It is ironic that, at a time when one form of
atmospheric pollution is destroying the ozone in the stratosphere, which provides vital protection against
excessive solar radiation at the surface, another is creating it near ground level, where it is an economic
and health hazard. Vehicle exhaust is, of course, discharged virtually at ground level, and its effects are
"local" rather than global: the smog pall from Los Angeles sometimes extends 100 miles or more inland.
But nitrogen oxides are now known to be a key component of a much more widespread problem which is
even more serious in terms of its international implications than is photochemical smog. It is now plain
that a sizable proportion of the blame for the very topical environmental concern of acid rain which was
formerly perceived as an effect only of sulfur oxides, can in fact be attached to nitrogen oxides. Acid rain
which ought really to be termed "acid precipitation" since the most spectacular manifestations tend to
occur in snow rather than rain is no observer of national boundaries. Pollutants released in one country
may come to earth in precipitation not just in neighboring countries but even in other continents.
As the extent of the problem and its causes have become better understood and documented, it has
become the subject of international dispute and negotiation. Ecological damage to the forests and lakes
of Eastern Canada has been ascribed to (amongst other things) acidity originating from industrial sources
in the US Mid-West. Similar damage which has ravaged the forests and lakes of Scandinavia has been
blamed on pollution exported from the nearer EEC countries, especially the United Kingdom and
Germany, and former communist central European countries such as Poland, Czechoslovakia and
Romania. And since the communist regimes in these countries collapsed the appalling extent of the
devastation of their own forests has become only too apparent.
By what mechanism acid rain causes forest damage is not known for certain. Two theories are currently
given greatest credence. One proposes that the acidity leaches cationic nutrients such as calcium,
magnesium and potassium away from the root zone and down into the subsoil, causing starvation. The
other postulates that the acidity solubilizes normally immobile aluminium in the soil; this interferes with the
normal uptake of other cationic nutrients and, if it reaches a threshold concentration (which varies
according to the species of tree), it is directly toxic. This could also explain the dire effect on the aquatic
life of lakes and rivers in the affected regions.
Other pollutants reckoned to damage forests include heavy metals which are given off in coal smoke as
well as in emissions from metal smelters and ozone which - as already mentioned - is generated in
interactions between waste nitrogen oxides and atmospheric oxygen.
Studies made in the United States for the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP) - a
statutory body set up under the acid Precipitation Act of 1980 - have shown that the acidity is worse in
high-level rain clouds than in lower-level clouds, suggesting that the pollutants causing it are carried up
into the higher levels rather than diffusing up from ground level. So, while it is necessary to tackle exhaust
emissions from vehicles to alleviate the smog problem and any strategy for curbing the contribution of
nitrogen oxides to acid rain must center on the control of emissions from the large stationary sources.
2.3 Ammonia
Ammonia, NH3, occurs in nature almost exclusively in the form of ammonium salts. Natural formation of
ammonia is primarily by decomposition of nitrogen-containing organic materials or through volcanic
activity. Ammonia and its oxidation products, which combine to form ammonium nitrate and nitrite, are
produced from nitrogen and water vapour through electrical discharges in the atmosphere.
These ammonium salts, as well as those arising from industrial and automotive exhausts, supply
significant quantities of the nitrogen needed by growing plants when eventually deposited on the earth's
surface. Ammonia and its salts are also by-products of commercial processing (gasification, cooking) of
fuels with vegetable origins such as coal, lignite and peat.
2.3.1 Physical Properties

Mr 17.0312
Liquid density (at -33.43°C, 101.3 kPa) 0.682 g/cm3
Gas density (at -33.43°C, 101.3 kPa) 0.888 g/L
Melting point (triple point) -77.71°C
Vapor pressure (triple point) 6.077 kPa
Boiling point (at 101.3 kPa) -33.43°C
Heat of vaporization (at 101.3 kPa) 1370 kJ/kg
Standard enthalpy of formation (gas at 25°C) -45.72 kJ/mol
Net heating value, LHV 18.577 kJ/g
Gross heating value, HHV 22.543 kJ/g
Ignition temperature acc. to DIN 51 794 651°C

Explosive limits
NH3 - O2 mixture (at 20°C, 101.3 kPa) 15 - 79 vol % NH3
NH3 - air mixture
(at 0°C, 101.3 kPa) 16 - 27 vol% NH3
(at 100°C, 101.3 kPa) 15.5 - 28 vol% NH3

2.3.2 Chemical Properties

Gaseous ammonia reacts very violently to explosively with nitrogen oxides to form nitrogen, water,
ammonium nitrate or nitrite. The reaction with N2O does require ignition.
2.3.3 Toxicology
Ammonia is a strong local irritant. On mucous membranes alkaline ammonium hydroxide forms which
dissolves cellular proteins and causes severe necrosis (corrosive effect).
Ammonia or ammonium hydroxide can penetrate the cornea rapidly, leading to keratitis, damage of the
iris, cataract and glaucom.
Oral ingestion of aqueous ammonia can corrode the mucous membranes of the oral cavity, pharynx and
esophagus and cause the shock syndrome, toxic hepatitis and nephritis.
Ammonia is absorbed rapidly by the wet membranes of body surfaces as ammonium hydroxide,
converted to urea and excreted by the kidneys.
Human Exposure: Concentrations of 50 ppm are perceived easily; 50 - 72 ppm does not disturb
respiration significantly. Levels of 100 ppm irritate nose and throat and cause a burning sensation in the
eyes and tachypnoe. In addition to the symptoms described above, 200 ppm induce headache and
nausea; 250 - 500 ppm, tachypnoe and tachycardia; 700 ppm, immediate onset of burning sensations in
the eyes; 1000 ppm causes immediate coughing.
The nitrogen metabolism is not significantly changed after exposure to 500 ppm of ammonia.
The TLV value has been set at 25 ppm with a short-term limit exposure value at 35 ppm; the MAK is
established at 50 ppm.
2.4 Ozone
Ozone is thermodynamically unstable and spontaneously reverts back into diatomic oxygen. This process
is promoted by the presence of transition metals or their oxides.
An irritating pale blue gas, ozone is explosive and toxic, even at very low concentrations. At -111.9°C it
condenses to form a dark violet liquid which freezes at -192.7°C. In the Earth's stratosphere, it occurs
naturally (5-10 ppm), protecting the planet and its inhabitants by absorbing ultraviolet radiation of
wavelength 290-320 nm.
2.4.1 Physical Properties

Mr 48.0
bp (101 kPa) -111.9°C
Mp -192.7°C
Critical temperature -12.1°C
Critical pressure 5.53 MPa
Critical density 437 kg/m3
Critical volume 1.471 x 10-4 m3/mol

Heat capacity, gas

0°C 794 Jkg-1 K-1
25°C 818 Jkg-1 K-1
Heat of vaporization 15.2 kJ/mol
Heat of formation 144.8 kJ/mol

2.4.2 Toxicity
Ozone, being an extremely powerful oxidizing agent, readily oxidizes a variety of functional groups in
biochemicals. Studies indicate that free radical formation, lipid peroxidation, carbonyl and aldehyde
formation, and oxidation of SH groups, are some of the major sites of attack. Ozone readily reacts with
olefinic compounds, particularly polyunsaturated lipids, forming unstable ozonides. Their decomposition
results in the formation of toxic free radicals which can in turn amplify the primary cytotoxic or tissue
damage. While ozone is considered to be a toxic gas, there are factors which mitigate the immediate
danger to individuals working with it. Toxicity is dependent on concentration and length of exposure.
OSHA has set an 8-h TWA-PEL of 0.2 mg/m3 (0.1 ppm) for ozone.
Fig. 1 illustrates the relationship between various exposure levels and exposure time for humans. The
odor threshold concentration for ozone is approx. 0.02-0.04 mg/m3 (0.01 - 0.02 ppm).

Figure 1: Human toxicity limits for ozone exposure:

2.4.3 Formation of Trophospheric Ozone

CO + OH ® H + CO2
H + O2 H M ® HO2 + M
HO2 + NO ® OH + NO2
NO2 + Light (l < 420 nm) ® NO + O
O + O2 + M ® O3 + M
Net: CO + 2 O2 + Light (l < 420 nm) ® CO2 + O3

3. NOX EMISSION FROM CEMENT PLANT

There is no normal or average NOx emission from cement kilns. Many factors like kiln system, fuel
characteristics and burning conditions are influencing the NOx emission.
The cement kiln NOx emissions vary largely between 300 and 2’500 mg NO2/Nm3.

Figure 2: NOx Emission values from various kiln types (USA plants)

3.1 Emission Limit [16]

All combustion processes primarily produce nitrogen monoxide NO with a much smaller proportion of
nitrogen dioxide NO2 (of the order of 5%). In the free atmosphere, i.e. at relatively low temperature,
however, nitrogen monoxide is oxidized further to form nitrogen dioxide NO2. Owing to this oxidation, no
difference is made between the two gases when emissions are concerned and they are referred to
generally under the formula NOx (= NO + NO2 expressed as NO2), or nitrogen oxides. However, decisive
for the NOx emission is the formation of nitrogen monoxide (NO) in the kiln system.

Emission Limits: Nm3dry = m3 at 273° K, 101300 Pa and 0% water

Europe 200 - 1800 mg / Nm3dry
Germany:
New plants / modification 500 mg / Nm3dry
Existing plants 800 mg / Nm3dry
100% waste burning
(17. BlmSchV) 200mg / Nm3dry
USA 300 - 1100 mg/Nm3

Note: for comparison reason, all emission limits have been converted to mg/Nm3dry
US plants burning hazardous waste are regulated under BIF (Burners and Industrial Furnaces). Other
plants do have a state permit defining certain parameters like NOx, SO2, CO and THC emission. The
limits for these emissions are called emission standards. These standards are individually defined for
each plant and usually represent the operating situation under certain conditions. Therefore, the US
standards are different from the emission limits in Europe where emission limits are valid for a whole state
or country.
All the above explained emission limits do include definitions how and when the compliance tests have to
be carried out. It is, e.g. a very important difference whether the emission has to be measured
continuously or not.
3.2 Conversion

Ø [ppm NO] to [mg NO2/Nm3]

Usually the value given by the analyser is expressed in [ppm NO] but the legal emission limits, at least in
Europe, are expressed in [mg NO2/Nm3]:
ð [mg NO2/Nm3] = 2.05 * [ppm NO]
Ø Conversion for a specific oxygen content
The emission limits are usually defined for a specific oxygen content (usually O2 ref=10%). Therefore, the
value given by the analyser has to be converted to the specific oxygen concentration:

Cref [mg/Nm3] => Concentration for a specific O2 content (i.e. as defined in emission limit)
C measured [mg/Nm3] => Concentration as measured
O2 ref [%] => Oxygen concentration as defined by the emission limit
O2 measured [%] => Oxygen concentration during the measurement
Ø Other conversions
The emission standards in the USA are usually not using mg/Nm3 but ppm, lb/tdry feed, gr/dscf,
lb/1000lbgas, lb/hr, etc. To convert them into mg/Nm3 certain assumptions are necessary.
Example:
Values given by the analyser at stack: NO = 221 [ppm] and Oxygen = 7%
Assumption: Preheater kiln exhaust gas: 2.4 Nm3/kg cli @10%O2
ð 221 [ppm NO] * 2.05 = 453 [mg NO2/Nm3 at 7% O2]
ð 453 [mg NO2 Nm3 at 7% O2] * (21-10)/(21-7) = 366 [mg NO2/Nm3 at 10% O2]
ð 366 [mg NO2/Nm3 at 10% O2] * 2.4 [Nm3/kg cli] = 0.88 [g NO2/kg cli]
ð 0.88 [g NO2/kg cli] * 2.204 = 1.94 [lbs NO2/t cli]
4. NITROGEN INPUT INTO THE KILN SYSTEM
Nitrogen is introduced into the kiln system as molecular nitrogen (N2) in the combustion air (primary,
secondary, tertiary) and as nitrogen compounds in the fuel. The quantity of the relevant N2 introduced into
the kiln system is defined by the stoichiometric air required for the combustion plus excess air.
The concentration of N2 in the air is always 78%.
The quantity of fuel-N is defined by the fuel input and the nitrogen content in the fuel:

Heavy oil: 700 – 1000 ppm by mass of N

Coal: 1000 – 4000 ppm by mass of N

5. BEHAVIOR OF NITROGEN IN THE PROCESS

5.1 NO Formation
NO formation only occurs at elevated temperatures (> 800°C). It is always connected with the combustion
process.
The formation of nitrogen monoxide is not a simple process that can be described by a few equations.
The complexity of the reactions involved has hitherto prevented the formulation of a conclusive theory
regarding the formation of nitrogen monoxide NO. However, it appears to consist essentially of two
phenomena, the products of which are referred to as "thermal NO" and "fuel NO".
"Thermal NO": The "thermal NO" is produced by the oxidation of molecular nitrogen in the combustion air
according to the formula:
N2 + O2 ® 2 NO (0)
"Fuel NO": The "fuel NO" is produced by the oxidation of organically bound nitrogen in the fuel.
5.1.1 Formation of "Thermal NO"
In the zone of combustion products that is after the flame front (oxidation zone), "thermal NO" is produced
if the combustion gases remain for a sufficiently long time at temperatures above about 1600°C. This is
determined by what is known as the Zeldovich mechanism according to the reactions:

N2 + O· ® NO + N· (K1) ; N2 + O· ¬ NO + N· (K2) (1.1)

N· + O2 ® NO + N· (K3) ; N· + O2 ¬ NO + O· (K4) (1. 2)

Here the speed is governed by that of the fastest reaction, i.e. the reaction between atomic oxygen
(radical) and the nitrogen molecule. The rate of formation is therefore proportional to the concentration of
atomic oxygen and molecular nitrogen. Assuming that combustion takes place in the presence of an air
surplus, the following equation is obtained:

(4)

The pronounced dependence of K1 on temperature can be seen in Fig. 3. Thus, at high temperatures the
equilibrium of the reaction is on the side of NO formation.
In the flames of rotary cement kilns the atomic oxygen primarily comes from the thermal dissociation of
O2:

O2« 2 O· (5)

Therefore, for the formation of NO the following equation is obtained:

(6)

Figure 3: Dependence of K1 on temperature

The amount of nitrogen monoxide actually produced during technical combustion processes is a long way
below equilibrium concentration (cf. Fig. 4) owing to the marked dependence on temperature of the NO
reaction and the relatively short time that it remains at this temperature. In air 50% of the equilibrium
value is attained at temperatures around 2000°C but only after about 2.5 seconds. The dwell time of the
gas in the flames of rotary cement kilns are obviously a whole order of magnitude below that. Thus, if the
gases remain for a long time at high temperatures, the formation of NO is favoured.
Figure 4: Equilibrium N2 + O2 ® 2 NO

Hence, the formation of "thermal NO" is governed by the following parameters:

¨ Temperature
¨ Gas composition
¨ Dwell time at high temperature

5.1.2 Formation of "Fuel NO"

Fossil fuels contain varying proportions of nitrogen compounds:

Heavy oil: 700 - 1'000 ppm by volume of N

Coal: 1’000 - 4'000 ppm by volume of N

Already during the pyrolysis of these fuels, i.e. at relatively low temperatures, the nitrogen compounds
break off as secondary compounds, such as amines and cyanides, which are then oxidized by OH
radicals or O2 to form nitrogen monoxide, or which react with nitrogen compounds (mainly NO) to form
molecular nitrogen. The formation of NO from fuel nitrogen occurs almost regardless of how it is bonded,
but is largely influenced by the amount of nitrogen contained in the fuel. It can be assumed that all fuel-
bonded nitrogen compounds finally adopt a composition "I", where "I" may be either NH2 or atomic N.
These are then converted into either NO or N2:

I + OX ® ... ® NO + ... (7)

I + NO ® ... ® N2 + ... (8)

Hence, the formation of "fuel NO" is governed by the following parameters:

¨ The formation of NO depends on the quantity but not of the nature of nitrogen compounds
contained by the fuel
¨ With increasing air surplus the proportion of nitrogen compounds in the fuel converted into NO
increases
¨ Under sub-stoichiometric conditions it is possible for NO to be converted into N2. This takes place
by combination of the NO with atomic nitrogen present in large proportions in the flame according to the
formula:

NO + N· ® N2 + O· (9)

¨ The conversion of nitrogen compounds in the fuel to NO depends to a large extent on the design
of the burner of the precalciner. Here such operations as
· heating and distribution of drops or particles in the combustion air
· driving off the volatile part
· heterogeneous combustion
· etc.
play a very important role.
5.1.3 NO-Decomposition Mechanism in the Combustion Process
Homogeneous Reaction
NO reacts with hydrocarbon radicals according to equation 10. The product HCN reacts later like fuel-N
and can form NO as well as N2.

(10)

For a significant NO-decomposition according to (10) high hydrocarbon concentration and low air factor
(~0.6 - 0.9) are required.
Also reactions between NO and HCN as well as ammonia from the fuel do have an influence on NO-
decomposition.
Heterogeneous Reaction
NO can also be reduced on catalytic active surfaces of solids outside of the flame. As catalyst can act
coal and ash particles and metal oxides. Prerequisite for this reaction is the presence of CO or H2 in the
exhaust gas. In case of coal particles also a gas-solid reaction between NO and the coal can decompose
NO.
The gas-gas reaction proceeds according to equations 11 and 12.

(11)
(12)

5.2 Formation of Nitrogen Monoxide in a Cement Kiln

If the formation of nitrogen monoxide (NO) in a kiln has to be considered, it has to be distinguished
between the formation of NO in the main firing system of the rotating part and its formation in a secondary
firing system, if present.
NO Formation in the Main Firing System (rotary part)
In the firing system of a rotary kiln turbulent diffusion flames are used in which the greater part of the
combustion air is only fed in after the fuel has been ignited (secondary air, proportion about 90%). As a
result a severely sub-stoichiometric pyrolysis zone and flame front are produced. The nitrogen
compounds in the fuel are therefore converted into NO to only a small extent. This means that only few
"fuel NO" is produced, the nitrogen in the fuel is converted into N2. In the zone of the combustion
products (flue gas) temperatures up to 1800°C are attained and there "thermal NO" is produced. Thus, in
the flames of the main firing systems it is mainly "thermal NO" that is produced.
NO Formation in Secondary Firing Systems
In a secondary firing system the fuel fed in burns at much lower temperatures (800 to about 1200°C) than
in the main firing system. This means that the NO produced in the secondary firing system cannot have
formed thermally, i.e. from N2 and O2 of the combustion air. In other words, it is primarily "fuel NO" that is
produced in a secondary firing system.
Figure 5: Regions where NO formation occurs in a rotary kiln plant with cyclone preheater, calciner
and tertiary air duct

Kilns without secondary firing

All kilns without secondary firing, i.e. wet process kilns, long dry process kilns and preheater kilns without
riser duct firing, have one thing in common: NO emission is determined exclusively by the conditions in
the kiln burning zone. After leaving the burning zone, the kiln gases drop rapidly in temperature to a level
at which the NO in the gas decomposes very slowly.
Wet kilns are characterised by a specific heat consumption which is 1.5 to 2 times the specific heat
consumption of a preheater kiln. This means a high specific amount of exhaust gas. On the other hand,
the high specific combustion air consumption will also mean a somewhat lower secondary air
temperature. This combined with the long material retention time in the burning zone should reduce the
NOx concentration in the exhaust gas from the burning zone.
SP kiln systems with riser duct firing
In many SP kiln systems 10 - 20% of the fuel is fired into the riser duct. Measurements at several riser
duct fired kiln systems indicate that firing coarse fuel (e.g. old tires) into the kiln riser duct will reduce NOx
emission from the kiln system.
This is probably explained by the fact that a large part of the fuel directly falls down into the kiln charge,
creating a reducing atmosphere in the bottom part of the kiln back-end in which NOx from the burning
zone is reduced.
Conversely, when firing finely ground fuel into the kiln riser duct, the specific NOx content in the exhaust
gas will often increase on passing through the riser duct.
As the NOx emission from the kiln may also increase slightly due to an increased excess air rate the total
NOx emission from the kiln system will often increase when starting up riser duct firing with finely ground
fuel.
Precalcining kiln systems
In precalcining kiln systems with tertiary air duct, firing into the rotary kiln typically accounts for only 40 -
50% of the total heat consumption and the specific amount of combustion gases from the kiln burning
zone is reduced proportionally. On the other hand, the NOx concentration in the kiln gas may be
considerably higher than in preheater kilns.
This is probably due to the shorter material and longer gas retention times in the precalciner kiln burning
zone combined with a very high secondary air temperature.
When examining the contribution from the calciner firing to the emission of NOx, we must distinguish
between two basically different types of precalcining kiln systems, viz.. the In-Line (ILC) type in which the
kiln gas passes the firing region of the precalciner and the Separate Line (SLC) type in which the kiln
exhaust gas bypasses the firing region of the precalciner.
ILC systems
In these systems the fuel combustion in the calciner takes place in a mixture of kiln exhaust gas and hot
air from the cooler (tertiary air). Some of the nitrogen in the fuel reacts with NO from the kiln exhaust gas
while another part reacts with oxygen (from the tertiary air) to form NO.
The result may be a net production as well as a net reduction of NO in the calciner. However, in most
cases the calciner contributes a little to the NO emission.
SLC systems
In these systems the combustion in the calciner takes place in pure hot air. In the case of oil firing, NO
production in the calciner is negligible, but when applying fuels containing nitrogen up to 50% of the
nitrogen compounds in the fuel may be converted into NO. The specific NO production in the SLC
calciner may be as high as 4 lb NO2/st (1400 mg NO2/Nm3). This was measured in a calciner fired with
pet coke which has a high content of nitrogen and a low content of volatiles.
The NO in the calciner exhaust gas is added to the NO in the gas from the rotary kiln which leaves this
type of kiln system without being reduced. When fired with solid fuels, SLC systems must therefore be
expected to generate somewhat higher NOx emissions than ILC systems.
5.3 Main Influencing Variables for NO Formation
5.3.1 Temperatures
In Chapter 5.1 it is shown that the NO forming reaction is accelerated exponentially with the temperature.
The temperature of the combustion gas is defined by heat generated in the flame and the heat radiation
from the burning zone. Temperature has a major influence on NO formation.
Figure 8: Influence of the sintering zone temperature on the NO concentration in the waste gas

5.3.2 Temperature Peaks [6]

Fig. 9 shows the increase in thermal NO formation due to temperature peaks in an ideal chemical reactor
for different amplitudes of a given temperature behavior. For calculating the curves, first the NO
concentrations for the temperatures were calculated, averaged and then referred to the NO concentration
for .
The subscript "L" in the diagram characterizes the combustion air temperature before the start of
combustion. It appears from the diagram that the increase in NO formation becomes greater with
increasing amplitude DT and decreasing average combustion air temperature. For practical purposes it is
important that NO formation can increase by as much as 20 - 40 % even for very small amplitudes of the
gas temperature, e.g. 100 K.
Temperature peaks arise more particularly if, in a given combustion chamber, the momentum and angle of
exit of the swirl air and axial air of the rotary kiln burner cannot be optimally adjusted to each other or if
short-term fluctuations in the fuel feed occur. Modern burners should therefore offer the greatest possible
scope for varying their settings.
Figure 9: Calculated increase in NO formation based on local or time-dependent temperature
differences with the average combustion air temperature as parameter

5.3.3 Excess Air

Fig. 10 shows the behavior of NO concentration in the waste gas. The graph can be subdivided into two
areas:

A) Air excess factor < 1.2. The NO concentration increases exponentially with the O2 concentration.
This is according to the explanation in chapter 5.1 NO formation.
B) Air excess factor > 1.2. The NO concentration is not anymore a function of O2. The high amount
of excess air is cooling the flame, reducing the residence time of the gas in the kiln and diluting the
exhaust gas. These 3 factors are reducing NO generation and concentration in the exhaust gas.

For most kiln systems the excess air factor is below 1.2. Therefore, oxygen concentration has a major
influence on NO formation.
Figure 10: Influence of excess air on the NO concentration in the waste gas

5.3.4 Residence Time

The longer the combustion gas remains in the very hot part of the kiln (burning zone), the higher is the
NO formation yield.
5.3.5 Burner Operating Parameters
The following burner operating parameters are influencing the flame characteristics (see [13]). For
specific information about formulas and definitions of burner aerodynamics see chapter 6 report TPT
01/21063/E.
5.3.5.1 In-flame Air Level at Ignition
A minimum of air shall be entrained into the flame prior to ignition. This can be achieved by a low primary
air input and the optimum use of an internal recirculation zone generated by a bluff body and/or swirl.
5.3.5.2 Total Axial Momentum
Total axial momentum affects the overall entrainment into the flame jet. In general higher axial momentum
result in enhanced mixing and higher NOx emission levels. For mono channel firing the axial momentum
can be observed as a single parameter but for multi channel types a change in axial momentum also
influences the tangential momentum.
5.3.5.3 Tangential Momentum and Swirl Level on the Swirling Channel
The second parameter affecting the entrainment into the flame is the tangential momentum. In general
higher tangential momentum results in more rapid heat release in the near burner zone and higher NOx
emission levels.
5.3.5.4 Swirling and Axial Air Amount, Distribution and Velocity
One of the main parameters affecting the tangential momentum is the swirling air and axial air distribution
and injection velocities. In combination the product massflow (kg/s) times velocity (m/s) forms the
momenta (N) on the different channels. It can be noticed that both swirling air velocity and amount may
have a different influence on the flame characteristics.
5.3.5.5 Influence of Cooler System on NOx Emissions
The following graph from reference [14] is showing the important effect of the cooler system on NOx
emissions.
The grate cooler generating a hot, comparatively clean secondary air has considerable higher NOx output
than the planetary cooler with its dusty secondary air, supposing identical kiln system for both cooler
systems.
Mean value and standard deviation of measured NOx emission from different types of kiln systems.
Figure 19: NOx emission for different cooler types

6. NOX EMISSION REDUCTION POSSIBILITIES

To reduce the NOx emission from a pyroprocessing system to a certain controlled level, three basically
different methods are available:
¨ Maintain the existing process while reducing the nitrogen input into the system
¨ Modify the existing process (primary reduction measures)
¨ Maintain the existing process while adding a separate gas cleaning unit for the exhaust gas
(secondary reduction measures)
6.1 Reduction of Nitrogen Input
It is not economical to reduce the nitrogen content in the combustion air. However, a reduction of fuel-N
for the secondary or precalciner firing may be feasible under certain conditions.
6.2 Primary Measures
Primary measures are all actions, which directly influence the burning process. These measures have a
strong impact on the process, positive or negative, and thus have to be introduced carefully, especially if a
low NOx limit is required. (see chapter 6.2.3).
The primary measures can be divided into 2 categories:
1. Measures that reduce the NOx formation:
- Kiln optimization / Linkman
- LowNOx Burners
- Flame cooling
- Free lime / burnability
- Slag addition
2. Measure that reduce the NOx created by the main burner:
- Preheater with Multi Stage combustion (MSC)
6.2.1 Reduction Technologies
6.2.1.1 Kiln optimisation / Linkman
NOx formation is very sensible to all process modifications: the more stable the system, the less NOx will
be produced.
¨ constant fuel and kiln charge flow (short and long term)
To satisfy the first point an accurate dosing system and fuel transport is required.
A constant fuel quality is difficult to achieve if waste fuel is used. Therefore, specific effort is needed for
homogenization, preparation and analysis of the fuels.
¨ constant fuel and kiln charge composition
¨ constant secondary air flow and temperature
The amount of heat from the secondary air depends mainly on operating characteristics of the clinker
cooler. The new grate plates (for the recuperating zone) developed during the last years, help to stabilise
the cooler operation and the heat input into the kiln.
¨ minimum temperature fluctuations in kiln and cooler
¨ To reduce the temperature of the secondary air the tertiary air should be extracted from the cooler
at the kiln hood.
¨ low excess air factor
A constant kiln and cooler operation is a prerequisite for optimizing of the excess air factor without
reducing conditions for the clinker burning. The excess air factor (l) for the main burner is always above 1.

6.2.1.2 LowNox Burner

The so-called “LowNox” burners are actually “low primary air” burners as opposed to burners from direct
firing system, whose primary air percentage is much higher.
Nowadays most of burners available on the market are “LowNox” burners nevertheless experience has
shown that the percentage of primary air has to be kept above 10% in order to get a good flame, and thus
to avoid clinker quality problems or production reduction. Therefore, a new burner has to be chosen for its
qualities related to a good combustion and not only for a low NOx production (burner specifications, report
TPT 01/21063/E).
¨ lower primary air i.e. indirect firing instead of direct firing
¨ flame front closer to the burner by
· bluff body
· higher volatile coal
optimum distribution of primary air i.e. customised multi channel burner
NOx reduction measures at the burner should achieve a reduction of temperature peaks and low oxygen
content in the flame. Temperature peaks can occur if at a multi channel burner air volume and exit angle
of swirl and axial air are not adjusted properly and if the fuel flow is fluctuating. Therefore, the burner
should have a wide adjusting range. The optimum operating point has to be determined with systematic
long time tests.
The most important factor for NO generation is the ignition distance (= distance between burner exit and
ignition of the fuel). An extension of the distance is increasing the NO generation. The reason for this
behaviour is the degree of total air (O2) mixed with the fuel which is higher for longer distances.
¨ short retention time of the exhaust gas in the flame and the kiln
To shorten the retention time of the exhaust gas in the hot kiln, the gas speed in the kiln should be as high
as possible. The limits for the gas speed are dust circulation and mechanical stress for the refractory
materials. The upper limit for the specific fuel heat input is 7 MW / m2 which is about equal to a specific
exhaust gas flow of 2.5 kg/m2s.
6.2.1.3 Flame Cooling
To lower the flame temperature these measures can be used:
· dust injection
· (polluted) water injection
· alternative fuels with high H2O content
Comment
The injection of pure water just for the sake of less NOx does not make much sense. It would be more
attractive to combine this with another advantage as the use of polluted water or the use of alternative
fuels with high water content.
However we do not recommend water injection (fresh as well as contaminated) into the flame just for NOx
reduction due to the possible important influences on the burning process by changing the flame
characteristics.

Quantitative rules :
1. Each ton of water injected into the flame (or anywhere in the high temperature zone > 800°C) causes
an additional heat consumption on the cement kiln of 4.6 GJ per ton of water. Deducted example : At 10 g
water per kg clinker the increase is 46 kJ/kg cli or +1.4% in heat consumption.
2. Each ton of water injected into the flame causes a reduction of the kiln capacity of 2 tons of clinker.
That can hurt, e.g for the above example with 10 g/kg cli it means minus 2% of the production.
3. On a precalciner kiln the injection of 1 g water per kg clinker into the main flame causes a reduction of
the flame temperature by some 10°C.
4. There is a limit where the flame temperature gets that low that it is not possible any more to produce
clinker (maintain sufficient low freelime). This point is reached at approx. 42 g water per kg clinker on a
precalciner kiln (which is the absolute limit on a precalciner kiln if no other disturbing factors would occur).

6.2.1.4 Free Lime/ burnability

The raw mix composition and the clinker quality have also an impact on the NOx production. If the raw
mix is difficult to burnt (i.e. high LSF) or if the free lime in clinker is low, a very hot burning zone is needed,
which leads to more NOx:
¨ lower burning zone temperature i.e. higher free lime in clinker
¨ lower LSF i.e. lower combinability (sintering) temperature

6.2.1.5 Lump fuel

Lump fuel, like tyre, injected in the kiln inlet can reduced NOx emission by the formation of local reducing
conditions. The volatile content is also a main factor for NOx reduction. (see 6.2.1.7)
This technology can also be considered as a secondary measure. Because of the reducing condition of
the waste fuel combustion, NO is reduced to N2. This reaction is called NSNCR (non-selective non-
catalytic reduction).
6.2.1.6 Slag addition
Some tests have been made to reduce NOx by adding slag into the raw mix. The most known system is
the so-called “Cemstar” process (patented) that injects unground steel slag into the back of kiln. The
impacts on the clinker quality, the cost and the NOx reduction mechanisms have still to be investigated.
6.2.1.7 Secondary Firing / Multi-Stage Combustion
Mainly fuel-N is contributing to the NO formation (fuel-NO). It is possible to design the secondary firing in
such a way that only little NO is produced and that a portion of the NO from the kiln is reduced. This can
be achieved with a multi stage combustion [8].
Multi-stage combustion has turned out to be a suitable method for conventional and also for highly
sophisticated clinker burning processes. In the first combustion stage which extends over the sintering
zone and the transition zone in the rotary kiln, combustion takes place in an oxidising atmosphere (excess
air coefficient > 1) to ensure good clinker quality. The nitrogen oxides which are inevitable formed in this
high temperature zone are partially decomposed in a second combustion stage which has, at least locally,
a reducing atmosphere (excess air coefficient < 1).
Figure 20: NOx reduction by Multi Stage Combustion

This reaction pattern is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 20 for a KHD Low-NOx precalciner (Pyroclon).
Multi-stage combustion is logical in precalciner plants in order to avoid renewed formation of nitrogen
oxides in the calciner from nitrogen in the fuel.
A part of the precalcining fuel is introduced above the kiln inlet to form a reducing zone by arranging an air
deficiency (l< 1). This fuel burns here under sub- stoichiometric conditions and generates CO and others
components that act as reducing agent for NO created in the sintering zone and at the same time prevent
the formation of more NO.
The remaining precalcining fuel is introduced into the tertiary air duct and is fully oxidised.
The gases are “slowly” mixed together and at the top of the precalciner, the pyroclon generates an
intense turbulence that mixes the gasflows together and thus fully oxidises the remaining unburned
particles.
Impact of Combustibles
The combustibles used in the precalciner have also a strong influence on the NOx reduction. Besides the
nitrogen content in the fuel, the percentage of volatiles is an important parameter for NOx reduction.
Based on plants experience and theoretical studies, a high percentage of volatiles in the combustible
used in the precalciner has a positive impact on NOx reduction.
For example, at Rüdersdorf plant (KHD-Pyroclon, not Holcim plant), they achieved a NOx reduction from
900 to 400 mg/Nm3 by changing the fuel introduced into the precalciner from “hard coal”(%volatile low) to
lignite (%volatile high) [18].
Similar results have been found in LD (MSC-Polysius). The following table gives the qualitative impact on
NOx reduction of different AFR injected into the precalciner.

Table 1: Composition of AFR used in LD and impact on NOx reduction (in calciner)

Combustible PCI
in MJ/kg H20
in % Ash
in % Volatile.
in % C
in % H
in % N
in % NOx reduction*
Coal Dust 28,5 1,4 12,6 25,2 71,9 3,93 1,5 +
Waste oil 39,1 6,2 ++ (?)
Tire chips 26,4 0,9 18,0 58,3 63,7 6,4 1,0 ++
Fullers Earth 8,4 23,6 45,9 47,3 20,6 2,6 0,2 ++
Paper residues. 3,5 47,6 22,3 53,7 15,0 0,2 0,1 ++
Ferrocarbon 8,5 21,8 63,3 16,6 25,1 3,0 2,5 -/+
Fly ash 1,0 0,1 95,3 1,2 5,6 0,03 0,05 -

*:+: Reduction of NOX emission

-: No impact on NOx emission

6.2.2 Possible Negative Effects of Primary Measures

Ø Reduction efficiency difficult to predict

Because of numerous and complex formation/reduction reactions occurring in the clinker process, the
reduction efficiency of primary measures is difficult to predict.
More over it is very difficult to predict the “total influence” of several primary measures. Indeed, the total
reduction potential of primary measures applied simultaneously is not the sum of the potential reduction of
each measure.
Ø Not always applicable
Not every primary measures is applicable for all kind of kiln or at least at an acceptable cost.
Ø Limited efficiency
Depends on the process but low NOx limits are not always achievable with primary measures only (see
example here below).
Ø Does not eliminate emission fluctuations
As the primary measures can not react fast enough to the increase/decrease of NOx emission, the NOx
short-term fluctuations (i.e. hourly average) can hardly be solved by primary measures. The primary
measures have rather a positive impact on long term NOx emission.
Ø Disturbance of process
The process modifications to reduce NOx emission (e.g. water injection, low primary air,…) can greatly
perturb the system in such a way that clinker quality or the required production cannot be reach anymore.
Ø Loss degree of freedom
A main objective for a kiln operator is to produce clinker with a defined quality. If NOx has to be reduced
only with primary measures, it adds a new process parameter, which is not always compatible with a good
quality and high production, especially if low NOx limits are required.
Ø Cost can increase excessively if high efficiency is required
Example
In order to reach the NOx emission limit of 500 mg/Nm3 with primary measures only, LD plant (MSC
Polysius) had to run the kiln with low oxygen content at kiln inlet. Together with a high chloride input
through AFR, this kiln operation led to a high chloride and sulfur cycle and consequently to severe
corrosion. After 3 years, the damage was so important, that it has been decided to run the kiln with 3%
oxygen at kiln inlet: NOx emission limit could not be reach anymore and it has been decided to use SNCR
to control NOx emission.
Learning:
After this costly experience at LD, we learnt that NOx has not to be a kiln control parameter. If NOx
emission limit cannot be reached with keeping a stable process (e.g. enough oxygen at kiln inlet, good
flame shape, clinker quality…), SNCR has to be introduced.
6.2.3 Effectiveness of NOx Reduction Measures [9]
The following graph gives the NOx potential reduction efficiency for the primary measures. The NOx
reduction efficiency of two or more measures carried out simultaneously is not the sum of each NOx
potential reduction!

6.3 Secondary Measures

Secondary measures are exhaust gas treatments mainly SNCR (selective non-catalytic reduction) or SCR
(selective catalytic reduction). The main difference compared to primary measures are that secondary
measures are not a modification of the clinker process. They have thus no influence on the clinker quality
or on the clinker process.
6.3.1 Reduction Technologies
6.3.1.1 Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction
Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR) is the reduction of NOx to N2 by NH3 or other substance that
can liberate NH2-radicals.
SNCR is applied for about 10 years, especially in Europe. For example, in Germany, where the emission
limits are low, there are 20 plants using SNCR.
Reaction Mechanism for NH3
The desired process of reducing nitrogen monoxide (NO) by ammonia (NH3) is initiated by dissociation of
the injected ammonia. At room temperature ammonia is stable, but at roughly 600 to 800°C a marked
thermal decomposition is initiated by the reaction:

NH3 + O H· ® NH2 + H2O (13)

As the reaction proceeds, the NH2 radical is responsible for the reaction of nitrogen monoxide (NO).

N H·2 + NO ® N2 + H2O (14)

=> 1 mole NH3 reacts theoretically with 1 mole NO

Reaction Mechanism for urea (CO(NH2)2
The thermal urea decomposition occurs at the same temperature as for NH3 and reacts with NOx as
followed:

NH2-CO-NH2+ ½ O2 ® 2NH2 + CO2 (15)

N H·2 + NO ® N2 + H2O (16)

=>1 molecule urea gives 2 NH2-radical, which means that 1 mole of urea can theoretically react with 2
moles of NO

The reduction of the nitrogen monoxide (NO) is effected via the NH2 radical. This means that all
substances capable of supplying a NH2 radical may be used for reduction of NO. Hereafter is a list with
substances that can reduce NO. Nevertheless, not all these substances have been used in cement
plants, and no emission report about the by-products that could be emitted at stack (N2O, NH3,…) is yet
available.
Table 2: Nitrogen – Hydrogen containing Substances useful for SNCR- Procedure

Substance Formula Aggregate

Ammonia NH3 Gaseous
Ammonia water NH3 aq Solution, 25%
Inorganic ammonia salts (NH4)n Xm Solid
Ammonia chloride NH4Cl Solutions
Ammonia bisulphate NH4HSO4
Ammonia sulphate (NH4)2SO4
Ammonia bicarbonate NH4HCO3
Ammonia carbonate (NH4)2CO3
Organic ammonia salts (NH4)nXm Solid
Ammonia formiate NH4OOCH Solutions
Ammonia acetat NH4OOCCH3
Urea CO(NH2)2 Solid
NH2CONH3.aq Solution
Isocyanic acid OCNH Little stabile
Cyanid acid HOCN Little stabile
Isocyanuric acid(OCNH)3 Solid
Cyanuric acid (HOCN)3 Solid
Cyanic amide H2NCN Solid
Cyanuric acid amid (H2NCN)3 Solid
Amine (NH2)nXm Gaseous, liquid
Nitrile XCN Gaseous, liquid

Influencing Factors
Temperature Window
Reduction of nitrogen monoxide (NO), defined as the decrease in NO relative to the original NO, is a
function of the temperature where the ammonia is injected and the reaction is made. As Fig. 13 shows, a
high NO reduction is only achieved in a narrow temperature band. This is generally referred to as the
"temperature window". In a normal flue gas from a cement kiln the maximum reduction of nitrogen
monoxide (NO) is attained at about 950°C.
In a cement kiln at the most the temperature zone between 900 and 1100°C is technically "accessible".
This means that the temperature zone is located in the lower stage of the preheater and this is where the
ammonia can be injected. For this injection only the "lower" (left-hand) part of the NO reduction curve in
Fig. 13 can be used.
Dwell Time
The formation of the NH2 radical from the ammonia is dependent on the time. When ammonia is injected
in to the cement process, this dwell time is fixed by the process. In any case the injection points in a
cement kiln must be chosen that this dwell time is as long as possible.

Figure 21: NO-Reduction (Reaction-kinetic Model Calculation)

Ammonia Slip
The proportion of injected ammonia that does not decompose to NH2 radicals is called the NH3 slip. This
proportion leaves the reaction zone and travels with the flue gas to colder regions, during which only a
small proportion can decompose to NH2 radicals. The greater part of the slip, though, will remain stable
as ammonia and, following various adsorption processes in the preheater, the cooling tower, the raw mill,
or the filter, will finally be emitted through the chimney as gaseous ammonia or adsorbed by aerosols.
Based on the practical experiences carried out in many plants, SNCR is sufficient to reach actual NOx
limits. This ammonia slip could be nevertheless the main limiting factor for SNCR use if very low NOx
concentrations are required. Ammonia slip can have also an influence on “opacity” (special USA
regulation).
Injection Rate
The nitrogen monoxide reduction rate rises with increased NH3 injection rate, but work tests have shown
that a greater injection rate will produce a greater ammonia slip.

Ratio [NH3]/[NO0] usually between 0.4 - 0.8 NO0 ® NO without reduction

Note: ammonia slip has to be “added” to ammonia emission from the raw mix, whose typical range is 20-
50 [mgNH3/Nm3, 10%O2].

Table 3: NH3 slips for different NOx level (VDZ tests made in 3 German plants) [20]

NOx emission level : 800mg/Nm3 NOx emission level :200mg/Nm3

Plant description Reducing agent NOx original level
[mg/Nm3] Molar ratio [NH3/NO] NH3/NH4+ emission direct/comp. [mg/Nm3] Molar ratio
[NH3/NO] NH3/NH4+ emission direct/comp.
[mg/Nm3]
Plant A 2700 t/d, DS4 25% NH3 solution 800 – 1’000 0.8 – 1.1 7 / 11 1.5-2.0 96/110
Plant B 2000t/d, DS4 25% NH3 solution (for test @ 800mg/Nm3)
16%NH3 (for test @200 mg/Nm3) 1’300 – 1’600 0.6 1/18

1.5/1.8

18/105
Plant C 1800 t/d, DS4 25% NH3 solution 1’100 5/17 31/49

Ammonia slip can by minimised by:

· Correct injection temperature
· Enough dwell time to assure a complete mix between the ammonia and the gas
· Optimised injection system, especially spraying nozzles
· Injection rate based on the stack NOx analyser
· Reducing agent
6.3.1.2 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) is a catalytic reduction of NOx. NH3 is still injected to reduce NOx,
but in presence of a catalyst, the reaction occurs at lower temperature (300 - 400°C) with a better NH3
exploitation. As the reaction occurs at low temperature, the NH3 emitted from the raw material can also
react with NOx.
The catalyst material used is commonly a mixture of titanium dioxides (TiO2) and vanadium pentoxides
(V2O5). The catalyst used depends on the gas composition, i.e. dust content, SO2, SO3, HCl and HF. For
cement plants dust is a main problem and the catalyst design have to avoid any build-ups to keep enough
surface for the catalytic NH3/NOx reaction.
Two locations for SCR installations are possible:
Ø High-dust SCR: before the filter, with high dust load. The problem is to keep the catalyst clean of
build-up. This solution seems to be currently preferable for technical and economical reasons.
Ø Low dust SCR: located after the filter, in a clean gas. This system required reheating of the filter
exhaust gas, resulting in additional cost.
Figure 21: SCR installation for high-dust and low-dust

Besides dust, SO2 is also a main issue: on the catalyst surface, SO2 is converted to SO3, which can
react with NH3 to produce ammoniac hydrogenosulfat (NH4HSO4). This component sticks on the catalyst
wall and deactivated it (“catalyst poisoning”) which reduced the catalyst lifetime.
SCR technology is widely used in other industries for NOx abatement, e.g. in waste incinerators plants,
but only few tests have been carried out in cement plants and one full-scale unit is currently tested in a
Austrian plant.
The main uncertainties are related to the high dust concentration in the gas, the catalyst dust removal
techniques, lifetime of catalysts and total investment.
The main advantages of SCR could be the high NOx reduction efficiency (>90%) with a low NH3 slip (<10
mgNH3/Nm3). SCR could also reduce PCDD/F, VOC and CO (depends on catalyst).
The investment and operating costs, which depend greatly on the catalyst lifetime, are still very high.
(Cembureau estimation: Investment of ~3.5 – 4.5 Mio USD for 3000 t cli/d).

6.4 Effectiveness and cost of NOx reduction measures

The following figure shows a survey from CEMBUREAU carried out in 1999 in several European
countries. It appears that the technologies to reduce NOx differ greatly for each country. A explanation
could be the low NOx emission limits that push the plants to use SNCR technology (e.g. Germany,
Sweden or Switzerland) and also by the types of kiln in operation in each country (e.g. SNCR for wet kiln
are yet no available for wet kiln)
Figure 3: NOx abatement in the European cement industry

NOx Flame cooling Mineralised clinker Staged Combustion SNCR SCR

Austria 3 1 1
Denmark 1
France 10 1
Germany 4 7 15 1
Italy 3
Sweden 2
Switzerland 1
TOTAL 13 7 11 18 1

6.4.1 Primary Measures

Table 4: Investment cost and operation cost for Primary NOx measures

Method Efficiency Cost

[%] Achievable emission level
mg/Nm3 Invest.
Mio USD Operation USD/year
High Level Control (eg.Linkman)0 – 20% 0.3 18’000
“LowNox” Burner Burner 0 – 30 0.3
Firing system conversion 1.0
Flame cooling 25 – 50% 0.1
Lump fuel firing (incl. Midkiln) 10 – 20% 1.0
Multi stage Combustion 20 – 50 800 - 500 A.S. 1.1
AT: 1.8

Note: the figures given above are investment cost only and they don‘t take into account the positive
impact or negative on the process.
6.4.2 Secondary measures
· Investment cost
Investment cost for SNCR depends mainly of the substance used to reduce NOx, especially its toxicity
class.
Nevertheless, the tendency is to build a storage installation that can accept different types of substances
in order to buy the cheapest product available on the market.
Investment cost: 0.5 – 1.5 x 106 USD (price based on European experience)

· Operating cost
Operation cost depends mainly on the price of the product, the energy for injection and also the NOx
reduction.
Specific cost of reagent:
Ammonia – solution 25%NH3: 0.16 USD/t cli
Urea-solution (45%) : 0.24 USD/t cli
Photochemical – solution: 0.05 USD/t cli

7. LITERATURE
[1] Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Vol. A25 1994 VCH, 3-527-20125-4
[2] Controlling Nitrogen Oxides, Nitrogen No. 197, May June, 1992
[3] NOx Reduction in the Cement Industry by Application of Multi-Stage Combustion (MSC) and
Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR) Techniques, Dr. L. Bretrup, Krupp-Polysius, Cemtech April,
1991
[4] An Overview of the Formation of SOx and NOx in various Pyroprocessing Systems, F.L. Smidth,
Peter Bechtoft Nielsen, Ove Lars Jepsen, IEEE, May 1990
[5] Stockstoffoxide NOx, Bildung im Zementofen und Reduktionsmöglichkeiten, NOx gerechte
Konstruktion für den Ofen LD 11, U. Fankhauser, VA 92/6086/D
[6] Reduction of NOx Emission in Cement Clinker Burning, A. Scheurer, VDZ, ZKG No. 3/1988
[7] NOx Minderung durch Einsatz eines Stufenbrenners mit Rauchgasrückführung vom Vorwärmer,
H. Xeller, ZKG 40 (1987) H.2, S. 57 - 63
[8] Brennstoffstufung ein wirksames Mittel zur Nox-Emissionsminderung, ZKG 42 (1989)
[9] Cement Kiln NOx Control, A.T. MacQueen and others, Radian Corporation California, 0-7803-
0960-X/93, IEEE 1993
[10] Flames "Semper Sursum", Tom "La Flamme" Lowes
[11] International Flame Research Foundation (IFRF), Ijmiden Cemflame Consortium, VA 92/50/D, F.
Schneider, 1992
[12] Activities of VDZ Committee "NOx reduction", ZKG No. 1/88, J. Kirsch, A. Scheurer
[13] The effect of burner design and operation and fuel type of cement kiln flames, IFRF Research
report CEMFlAME1, W.L. van de Kamp / J.P. Smart
[14] Die SO2 - und NOx - Emissionen bei modernen Zementdrehofenanlagen mit Blick auf zukünftige
Verordnungen, P.B. Nielsen
[15] Die Bedeutung der 17. Verordnung zur Durchsetzung des Bundes- Immissions-schutzgesetzes
(17. BImSchV) für die Zementindustrie (Verordnung über Verbrennungsanlagen für Abfälle und ähnliche
brennbare Stoffe in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland)
J. Waltisberg, HMB, Verfahrenstechnische Abteilung; "Holderbank" NEWS 2/91; 1991
[16] Die Bedeutung der 17. Verordnung zur Durchsetzung des Bundes - Immissions-schutzgesetzes
(17. BImSchV) für die Zementindustrie (Verordnung über Verbrennungsanlagen für Abfälle und ähnliche
brennbare Stoffe in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland)
J. Waltisberg, HMB, Verfahrenstechnische Abteilung; "Holderbank" NEWS 2/91; 1991
[17] Cost of NOx Emission Reduction of “Holderbank” Cement Kilns in European Union Countries, Th.
Lang, ETPS 99/7065/E, 1999
[18] “Rüdersdorf Emission Solved”, European Cement and Construction, p. Kehl at al., September
1998,
[19] Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Cement and Lime Manufacturing
Industries, Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC), European Commission-IPPC Bureau,
mars 2000
[20] Application of “Best Available Techniques” (BAT) in the German cement industry, M. Schneider at
al., Zement-Kalk-Gips, 2000, volume 53, pp.1-11

Sources and Reduction of SO2-Emissions

Arnaud De Luca
TPT 01/21069/E
1. Introduction
2. Chemical and physical Properties and environmental aspects of some Sulfur compounds
3. SO2 Emission Limits / Normal Emission
4. Sulfur Input into kiln system [4] [6]
5. Behavior of S-Compounds in the Process
6. SO2-Emission Reduction Possibilities
6.1 Reduction of Sulfur Input into the System
6.2 Modification of the Existing Process
6.3 Secondary Reduction Measures
7. Examples of SO2 Emission Reduction
8. Literature

Summary:
The SO2 emission of a cement plant depends on the
¨ type of the kiln
¨ quality of the raw material and fuel
¨ operating conditions of the kiln and the raw mill system
¨ secondary SO2 reduction measures
To reduce the SO2 emission from a pyroprocessing system, three basically different methods are
available:
¨ Maintain the existing process while reducing the sulfur input into the system
¨ Modify the existing process (primary reduction measures)
¨ Maintain the existing process while adding a separate gas cleaning unit for the exhaust gas
(secondary reduction measures)
With today's technology it is possible to reduce the SO2 emission to an acceptable level. The most
efficient method is the wet scrubber that has a very good SO2 removal efficiency (90-95%) and produces
synthetic gypsum. The drawback of this method is the high investment cost.
Others methods can be used like SO2 absorption with Ca(OH)2 in the preheater. The main drawback of
these methods is their limited SO2 removal efficiency.
A third method is of course the adjustment of the raw material.
1. INTRODUCTION
SO2 was one of the first air pollutant with which the public made very negative experiences. Mainly SO2
but also other pollutants from coal fires in the city of London were responsible for the death of 4000
people between December 5 and 9, 1952.
Today, the SO2 emission is known to be responsible for a part of the acid rain which is attacking plants
and animals, for increased pH of lakes and for corrosion and decomposition of buildings.
Today, the total worldwide SO2 emission is declining because of reduced sulfur content in the fuels and
scrubbers for large SO2 sources like coal or fuel fired power stations.
The SO2 emission of some cement plants is still on the high side and should be reduced in the future.
The formation of SO2 in kiln systems and methods to reduce them are presented hereafter.
2. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF SOME
SULFUR COMPOUNDS
Sulfur (S)
Sulfur is the 15th most common terrestrial element and the 9th most abundant element in the universe. It
is widely distributed in nature in different compounds as well as in pure form. The main sulfur content of
the lithosphere is estimated to be approx. 0.05%.
Physical Properties [1]
The melting / solidification point of normal sulfur is 119.3 - 114.5°C, depending on the mode of heating.
Density of solid at 20°C, Rhombic a 2070 kg/m3
Melting point Natural Rhombic a 110.2 °C
Density of liquid
115°C 1808 kg/m3
445°C 1614 kg/m3
Boiling point 444.6 °C
Density of vapor /density of air, 470°C 1.837
Chemical Properties
Molecular weight: 32,1 g/mol
Sulfur is one of the most reactive elements; it reacts directly with most elements except iodine, gold,
platinum and the noble gases. In humid air it is weakly oxidized, forming traces of sulfur dioxide and
sulfurous acid. At approx. 250°C, sulfur ignites in air and burns with a blue flame but the presence of
sulfur dioxide significantly raises the ignition point.
Pyrite / Marcasite (FeS2)
Common and important iron and sulfur mineral
Physical Properties [13], [2]

Pyrite Marcasite
Cristalline form cub. rhomb.
Density t/m3 5 4.87
Melting point °C 1'171 450
Solvent HNO3 HNO3

Chemical Properties [2]

Pyrite Marcasite
Molecular weight g/mol 119.98 119.98
Ignition temperature °C 350 - 550
Complete combustion °C 850 - 940

Four main reaction steps (Eqs. 3 - 6) make up the overall pyrite roasting reaction (represented by Eq. 7).
The specified enthalpy values [7] refer to 298 K:

2 FeS2 ® 2 FeS + S2 (g) DH = + 293 kJ/mol (1)

S2 (g) + 2 O2 ® 2 SO2 DH = - 723 kJ/mol (2)
2 FeS + 3 O2 ® 2 FeO + 2 SO2 DH = - 948 kJ/mol (3)
2 FeO + 0.5 O2® Fe2O3 DH = - 282 kJ/mol (4)
2 FeS2 + 5.5 O2 ® Fe2O3 + 4 SO2 DH = - 1660 kJ/mol (5)

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

Sulfur dioxide is produced industrially in greater quantities than any other single sulfur compound. It is
generated as the first stage in the manufacture of virtually all the sulfuric acid used by industry,
irrespective of the basic raw material.
Physical Properties [1]
Sulfur dioxide, SO2, is a colorless, non-flammable, toxic gas with a characteristic pungent smell and acid
taste.

Melting point (101.3 kPa) - 75.5°C

Dynamic viscosity at 0°C 368 Pas
Critical temperature 157.5°C
Boiling point (101.3 kPa) - 10.0°C
Latent heat of vaporization (at bp) 402 J/g
Standard density at 0°C (101.3 kPa) 2.93 kg/m3
Standard enthalpy of formation - 4636 J/g
Specific heat capacity cp (101.3 kPa):
0°C 586 J kg -1 K -1
500°C 816 J kg -1 K -1

Chemical Properties [1]

Molecular weight: 64.06 g/mol
Sulfur dioxide is very stable; thermal dissociation becomes significant only above 2'000°C. It can be
decomposed by shock waves, irradiation with ultraviolet or X rays or by electric discharge.
The reaction of sulfur dioxide with oxygen to form sulfur trioxide is industrially the most significant of all its
reactions because of its importance in sulfuric acid production. In the gas phase, it only takes place at
elevated temperatures and, for a satisfactory yield of sulfur trioxide, it requires the presence of a catalyst.
In aqueous solution, sulfur dioxide is oxidized to sulfuric acid at low temperature by air in the presence of
activated coke or nitrous gases, or by oxidizing agents such a hydrogen peroxide.
Environmental Aspects and Toxicology [1]
A substantially larger amount of sulfur dioxide than utilized industrially is produced by the combustion of
sulfurous fossil fuels and is discharged into the atmosphere with the flue gases. The calculated total
emission of sulfur dioxide from power stations, traffic, households, industry and trade in the Federal
Republic of Germany in 1975 amounted to approx. 3.6 x 106 t. In contrast, only about 2.7 x 106 were
used for that year's sulfuric acid production of approx. 4.2 x 106 t H2SO4.
In the last years the SO2 emissions from power plants in Germany were reduced continuously with the
installation of flue gas desulfurization plant and with the utilization of low-sulfur fuels, but emissions from
traffic, households, industry, etc. in 1990 still account for 620 x 103 t/a. Emissions from power stations
amounted to 320 x 103 t/a.
For worldwide atmospheric emissions, only rough estimates are available. For 1970, while global
emissions were estimated at 157 x 106 t SO2, only about 61 x 106 t were consumed in the production of
approx. 94 x 106 t of sulfuric acid. The worldwide cement production (1985) is estimated to about 700 x
106 t/a. Based on an average SO2 concentration of about 1000 mg/Nm3, the portion of SO2 emitted by
cement plants compared to the total anthropogenetic SO2 emission (200 x 106 t/a) is about 0.7% [5].
Large-scale emission of sulfur dioxide close to ground level has indisputably been the cause of some
spectacular environmental problems in the past. A large area around Sudbury, Ontario, was completely
sterilized by sulfur dioxide from primitive ore roasting operations around the turn of the century and much
of it is still barren as a result of the ensuing soil erosion. Calamitous sulfuric acid fogs occurred in Donora,
Pennsylvania, and London, England, in 1948 and 1952, when adverse climatic conditions prevented
sulfur dioxide from industrial sources and domestic coal fires from dispersing.
The causes of these episodes were correctly identified and the action taken to control ground level smoke
and sulfur dioxide concentrations has effectively prevented them from recurring. In the case of industrial
sources, however, this has often been achieved by merely building taller chimneys to disperse the sulfur
dioxide over a wider area and as the consumption of fuels has increased over the years it has been
argued that the problem has merely been shifted from the location where the sulfur dioxide is produced to
other locations downwind.
Considerable publicity has been given to the apparently increasing problem of acid rain and there does,
indeed, seem to be a correlation between the incidence of acid rainfall and the atmospheric transport of
pollutants from major industrial locations.
Establishing in any degree of certainty to what extent sulfur emissions are responsible for acid rain is,
however, complicated by incomplete knowledge of the magnitude of sulfur emissions from natural
sources, the atmospheric chemistry of sulfur and the importance of other potential acidulates such a
nitrogen oxides.
Nevertheless, the evidence linking sulfur dioxide pollution to acid precipitation has been mounting
gradually. A recent report by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, for example, has stated that there
appears to be a direct proportionate relationship between sulfur dioxide pollution and the amount of acidic
sulfates in precipitation.
Ill-effects of sulfur dioxide on humans and animals are mainly related to irritation and damage of the moist
mucous membranes by the formation of sulfurous acid. The odor threshold of sulfur dioxide in air is
between 0.3 and 2.5 ppm. In most human beings, concentrations of 5 - 10 ppm will lead to irritation of the
respiratory tract; in sensitive people they may produce spasms of the bronchi. Higher concentrations will
cause heavy irritative coughing, while breathing sulfur dioxide at concentrations above 400 - 500 ppm,
even for only a few minutes, is dangerous to life. The maximum workplace concentration is defined as 5
ppm (14 mg/m3).
Long-term exposure may possible lead to bronchopneumonia and, in extreme cases, to toxic pulmonary
edema with dyspnoea, cyanosis and cardiac-circulatory failure.
Sulfurous acid absorbed by the body is converted to sulfate and discharged in the urine, as evidenced by
an increase in urine acidity.
Plants are impaired by sulfur dioxide at even lower concentrations than human beings. Sulfur dioxide
levels of 1 - 2 ppm are enough to cause acute damage to the leaves of plants in only a few hours,
followed by necrosis, probably resulting from impaired photosynthesis.
Figure 1: Atmospheric Chemistry of SO2 [3]
Sulfuric Acid
Physical Properties
Pure sulfuric acid H2SO4 is a colorless, water-white, slightly viscous liquid, mp 10.4 C, bp 279.6°C. It can
be mixed with water in any ratio.
Chemical Properties
Molecular weight: 98.08 g/mol
Sulfuric acid is a strong acid with characteristic hygroscopic and oxidizing properties. Sulfuric acid, like
the sulfate ion, is chemically and thermally very stable.

SO2 + 1/2 O2 ® SO3 DH° = - 99.0 kJ (6)

SO3 (g) + H2O(l) ® H2SO4 (l) DH° = -132.5 kJ (7)

Environmental Aspects and Toxicology [1]

Sulfuric acid has a highly corrosive effect on the eyes, the mucous membranes and the skin, even in low
concentrations. Because it completely destroys living tissue, concentrated sulfuric acid causes burns that
penetrate deeply and heal only slowly. Swallowing sulfuric acid produces extreme pain in the digestive
tract, vomiting and shock and there is a danger of perforation.
Sulfuric acid vapors or mists irritate the eyes and the mucous membranes of the nose, pharynx and
respiratory tract, causing heavy coughing and breathlessness.
Sulfuric acid releases are highly deleterious with respect to ground and surface waters. The substance is
toxic to both fish and algae, both directly and as a result of reaction with other materials in the water. Any
concentration ³ 1.2 mg/L is considered lethal to fish: 6.3 mg/L or more causes death within 24 h.
Sulfur Trioxide (SO3)
Physical Properties
Gaseous SO3 Liquid SO3

Nominal density, g/L (0°C, 1013 mbar):3.57

Density (25°C): 1.9 g/cm3
bp, (1013 mbar): 44.8 °C
Specific heat Cp, kJ m-3 K-1
100°C 2.543
500°C 3.191 Vapor pressure,
20°C 0.26 bar
100°C 8 bar
Heat of evaporation (boiling point): 538 J/g
Critical temperature: 217.7 °C

3. SO2 EMISSION LIMITS / NORMAL EMISSION

Emission Limits

Germany 400 mg/Nm3 dry (no waste fuels)

Switzerland 500 mg/Nm3 dry
Europe 100 - 2400 mg/Nm3

Normal Emission
There is no normal SO2 emission level for cement kilns. The SO2 emission depends mainly on quantity
and quality of "S" input, kiln system and SO2 reduction systems. It is known that SO2 emission of cement
kilns can be between very low values of less than 50 mg/Nm3 and very high values up to 3500 mg/Nm3.
Figure 2: Average SO2 Emission according to a Holcim Survey
Figure 3: SO2 Emission for different kiln types

Result of PCA SO2 emission survey 1982 [4]

Assumption: wet: 2.1 Nm3 dry / kg cli (18 kilns)
long dry: 1.5 Nm3 dry / kg cli (12 kilns)
SP: 1.4 Nm3 dry / kg cli ( 5 kilns)
Precalciner: 1.4 Nm3 dry / kg cli (12 kilns)

4. SULFUR INPUT INTO KILN SYSTEM [4] [6]

Contained in the raw materials (mainly as FeS2) and the fuel, sulfur enters the process mainly in the form
of sulfates (gypsum CaSO4*2 H2O), sulfides (Pyrit: FeS2) and organic sulfur compounds. In the process,
the sulfur compounds may either be reduced or oxidized to form gaseous SO2.
Table 1: Sulfur content of kiln feed and fuels of the Holcim Plants in 1994

% SO3
Average Minimum Maximum
Kiln Feed 0.46 0 1.93
%S
Fuels Average Minimum Maximum
Coal 0.86 0.02 3.51
Pet Coke 4.22 1.01 8.3
Diesel Oil 2.61 0.02 3.5
Heavy Fuel Oil 2.86 0.12 11.6

Alternative Fuels Average Minimum Maximum

Liquid 0.56 0.11 2.01
Solid 0.92 0 3.9
Natural Gas 0.52 0 3.17
Tires 1.63 0.8 3.9
Waste Oil 1.16 0.5 2

5. BEHAVIOR OF S-COMPOUNDS IN THE PROCESS

Wet Kilns
A schematic representation of the sulfur circulation in a wet kiln is shown in fig. 4. Depending on the raw
materials, the conditions in the kiln burning zone and the internal circulation, 30 - 80% of the sulfate
compounds entering the kiln burning zone may decompose and form SO2 which leaves the kiln burning
zone with the exhaust gas together with the SO2 formed by oxidation of the organic sulfur in the fuel fired
into the kiln.
On passing through the calcining zone, the preheating and the drying sections of the kiln, some of the
SO2 will be reabsorbed in the raw materials but due to the poor contact between the kiln gases and the
raw materials, especially in the calcining zone, 40 - 60% of the SO2 from the kiln burning zone will be
emitted from the kiln.
In the preheating section of the kiln, the SO2 concentration in the gas may even be increased if the raw
materials contain sulfides which will burn here in accordance with equation:

+II-I >550°C III -II IV -II

4 FeS2 + 11O2 ______ä 2Fe2O3 +8 SO2 (8)

Having left the kiln, the exhaust gas usually only passes through a precipitator before being emitted to the
atmosphere through the stack.
Depending on the type of precipitator between 10 and 30% of the SO2 in the exhaust gas may be
absorbed in the raw materials at this stage. Taking into account internal circulation and the evaporation
and absorption rates mentioned, about 30% of the sulfur entering the kiln system will be emitted as SO2.
The emission will increase roughly in proportion to the total input of sulfur compounds in raw materials
and fuel.
Since the specific heat consumption of wet kilns is high, SO2 emission depends very much on the sulfur
content in the fuel. If the excess air is reduced below a certain level, a sharp rise in SO2 emission from
the kiln may occur, as local reducing conditions will increase SO2 formation in the burning zone and make
SO2 re-absorption in the kiln back-end more difficult.
Long dry kilns
Except for a possible slurry preheating section, the design of the long dry kiln is virtually the same as that
of a wet kiln.
Consequently, the SO2 absorption factors are comparable to those of wet kilns as mentioned above.
However, with the same type of raw material and fuel the SO2 emission from the long dry kiln system will
be lower than that from the wet kiln. This is due to the lower specific heat consumption and the fact that
the exhaust gases from the long dry kiln are often used for drying in the raw mill in which 20% - 50% of
the SO2 might be absorbed by intimate contact with freshly ground raw meal particles.
Figure 4: Behaviour of sulfur in a wet or long dry kiln system without raw mill

Preheater kilns
A schematic representation of the sulfur circulation in a dry-process preheater or precalciner kiln with
bypass is shown in Figure 5.
In 4 and 5-stage cyclone preheater kilns complete preheating of the raw meal takes place in intimate
contact with the exhaust gas from the kiln and in the lower stages the temperature reaches 850°C at
which point part of the raw meal starts to calcine.
The SO2 coming from the kiln is thus brought into contact with free CaO and CaCO3 at a temperature at
which the following reactions proceed relatively fast:

+II –II IV -II II IV -II

CaO + SO2 + ½ O2______ä CaSO4 (9)

+II IV –II IV -II II IV -II IV -II

CaCO3 + SO2 ______ä CaSO3 +CO2 (10)

In this way, nearly all SO2 formed in the kiln is absorbed by the hot meal and reintroduced into the kiln
and bound into the clinker. Only if the sulfur circulation between the kiln and the lower preheater stage
reaches extreme levels or in the case of local reducing condition in the kiln back-end and the riser duct
SO2 may escape via the lower stage. This will often be the case if coarse waste fuel (e.g. rubber tires or
pieces) is fired into the riser duct or kiln inlet.
Except for this situation, considerable SO2 emission from preheater kilns (without by-pass) will only occur
in case the raw materials contain non-sulfates such as pyrites which form SO2 already in the upper stage
cyclones where the temperature and the concentration of free lime and alkaline materials are too low to
ensure complete reabsorption of the SO2 formed, according to above two reactions (9, 10).
Normally, 30 - 50% of the sulfur present in the raw meal in the form of pyrites will leave the preheater as
SO2. Part of this is absorbed in the raw mill and the precipitator. Still, SO2 emission from the stack will
amount to 15 - 30% of the sulfur entering with the raw materials in the form of non-sulfates.
This means an SO2 emission of 500 - 1000 mg / kg cli for each per mil sulfur present as non-sulfate in the
raw materials.
Figure 5: Behaviour of sulfur in a preheater kiln system

Precalciner kilns
The precalciner kiln system in which the kiln gases pass the precalciner offers ideal conditions for
absorption of SO2 from the kiln due to the high amount of free CaO and a temperature of approx. 900°C
in the calciner.
But also other precalcining systems where kiln gases enter into contact with sufficient free CaO in the kiln
riser duct and the lower cyclones absorb SO2 from the kiln.
The only source of SO2 emission from the preheater of a precalcining kiln system is therefore any content
of non-sulfates in the raw meal which will generate SO2 in the upper preheater stages as explained
above. Many precalciner kilns in the USA have a kiln gas bypass. On leaving the kiln riser duct the kiln
gas is cooled by air dilution and/or water injection to 400 to 230°C (depending on the filter system). The
bypass outlet is placed to ensure the lowest possible dust concentration in the bypass gas.
This means limited possibility of absorption of the SO2 extracted with the kiln gases in the bypass duct.
Very often, more than 50% of the SO2 contained in the by-passed kiln gases will thus enter the
atmosphere via the stack. This might explain why the average SO2 emission from the precalciner kiln
systems is higher than that from the SP kiln systems.
It should be borne in mind that the evaporation factor for sulfur components in the kiln and consequently
the SO2 emission from the bypass may increase drastically if coal combustion in the precalciner is
incomplete. In this case, residual carbon from the calciner will enter the kiln inlet where it will create
reducing conditions, resulting in greatly increased sulfur "evaporation". Accordingly, improving the
combustion in the precalciner is a mean of reducing the SO2 emission from a system with bypass.
6. SO2-EMISSION REDUCTION POSSIBILITIES
To reduce the SO2 emission from a pyroprocessing system to a certain controlled level, three basically
different methods are available:
¨ Maintain the existing process while reducing the sulfur input into the system
¨ Modify the existing process (primary reduction measures)
¨ Maintain the existing process while adding a separate gas cleaning unit for the exhaust gas
(secondary reduction measures)
6.1 Reduction of Sulfur Input into the System
Raw Material
A reduction of the total sulfur input or very important for preheater kilns the total input of sulfides is often
possible. A sulfur-selective quarrying may not only reduce the total input of sulfur but also reduce its
fluctuations. The maximum SO2 retention capacity of a kiln system as described above is reached at the
lowest SO2 fluctuation. Because at very low sulfur input the absorption capacity of CaCO3 or Ca(OH) 2 is
not used completely whereas during very high sulfur input the SO2 generation is over the absorption
capacity of the raw meal. In some cases the SO2 emission stays below limit if the sulfur content in the
raw material is not fluctuating too much.
In the case of the Höver plant in Germany, the desulfurization with Ca(OH) 2 injection into the preheater is
working at its limit because of its very high sulfide input. As explained below, this method is only working
up to an SO2 emission of about 1000 mg/Nm3 dry. If Höver would not have a very homogenous sulfur
content in their raw meal it would not be possible to stay below the emission limit. Not even with Ca(OH) 2
injection.
The costs of selective quarrying or opening a new quarry should be compared with the costs of the
installation and operation of a system for secondary reduction measures.
A selective elimination of sulfur in the raw material is not yet developed.
Fuel
Reduction of the sulfur input via the fuel can usually only be attained by accepting a considerable
increase in fuel cost. Except for the case where the fuel can be replaced by alternative fuels.
A reduction of the fuel-sulfur will under normal conditions not reduce SO2-emission from preheater kilns
without bypass.
6.2 Modification of the Existing Process
Non-Preheater System ® Preheater System
As documented and explained above, preheater systems do have the lowest SO2- emission of all clinker
production systems.
This modification is reducing the SO2 emission significantly if:
¨ the SO2 emission is not mainly caused by non-sulfates input via the raw material
¨ the total input of circulating elements (S, alkali, Cl) is low enough to avoid a kiln bypass
This modification is reducing the SO2-emission because of:
¨ retainment of sulfates and fuel-sulfur by embedding sulfur in the clinker
¨ SO2-adsorbtion during compound operation in the raw mill
¨ lower heat consumption
Modification of fuel preparation and feed [8]
A reducing atmosphere in the kiln is increasing the formation of CO and the volatility of "SO2".
Therefore, the SO2 emission of preheater kilns with bypass, wet and long dry kilns and to a lesser degree
also of normal preheater kilns is increased if a reducing atmosphere is present in the kiln:
This can be avoided by better fuel preparation and feed as well as with an increased O2 concentration in
the kiln.
Coal, Coke:
¨ no oversized particles (residues on 90 mm sieve = 0,5 x % volatiles for coal)
¨ continuous feed (feeder, transport)
Oil:
¨ good atomization: burner nozzle e.g. Pillard, Unitherm, temperature, pressure
Alternative fuels:
¨ solid: no oversized lumps: e.g. chipped instead of whole tires, small bundles
¨ liquid: see "oil" above
Besides fuel preparation and feed also the O2 concentration in the kiln should be optimized to reduce the
sulfur volatility. To control the O2 in the kiln, a kiln inlet probe is recommended. O2 control with gas
extraction after the preheater is also possible but because of fluctuation of the false air intake into the
preheater it is less accurate.
In most cases, a compromise in the O2 concentration (reducing atmosphere) has to be found, because
the NOx-emission, fuel and power consumption can be increased by increasing the O2-concentration in
the kiln.
SO2 adsorption in the raw mill
The exhaust gas from preheater and long dry kilns are usually used in the raw mills to dry the raw meal.
The freshly ground raw meal in the raw mill has a large and very active surface where SO2 can be
adsorbed. The highest degree of adsorption (100%) can be found at very low SO2 concentration whereas
at very high concentrations (2500 - 3000 mg/Nm3 dry) like at the Untervaz plant only an adsorption of
about 30% is possible. In systems with an emission of about 1000 to 1500 mg/Nm3 dry an adsorption of
50% is normal.
The degree of adsorption in the raw mill is also influenced by the temperature and the humidity. A lower
temperature or a higher humidity is increasing the adsorption capacity.
Raising the proportion of compound to direct operation, time is reducing the time of high SO2 emission
and therefore also the effort of secondary measures (e.g. amount of Ca(OH) 2 added to the kiln feed).
6.3 Secondary Reduction Measures
Catalytic or non-catalytic elimination of SO2 (as it is known for NOx) is not reasonable because oxidation
would lead to SO3 and reduction to SH2, both would be more harmful than SO2. Therefore, only
absorption or adsorption of SO2 can be used as secondary reduction measures.
Wet scrubber
Wet scrubbers or flue gas desulfurization (FGD) plants remove sulfur oxide from the gas using scrubbing
slurry containing calcium compounds. The SO2 removal efficiency is up to 90-95% and the final product is
the so-called “synthetic gypsum” that can be used in cement.
Power stations or waste incinerator plants use this technology for many years.In cement industry, the first
scrubber was installed at the early 90’s. The first wet scrubber within Holcim group is in operation at ML
plant since March 2000.
The basic chemical reactions of SO2 absorption with limestone
SO2 + H2O Ô H2SO3 [1] Absorption
CaCO3 + H2SO3 Ô CaSO3 + CO2 + H2O [2] Neutralisation
CaSO3 +1/2 O2Ô CaSO4 [3] Oxidation
CaSO4 + 2H2O Ô CaSO4*2H2O [4] Crystallisation

Figure 6: Basic Reaction inside the Vessel

Ø Process
Step 1: Reaction between Calcium - slurry and SO2 in gas stream
The SO2 in the gas stream is scrubbed with slurry of finely ground calcium. This reaction gas/liquid takes
place inside a vessel where nozzles spray the slurry in counter current into the gas stream. The “rain
drops” of slurry fall to the bottom of the vessel and are recycled.
The fine mist carried in the ascending gas stream is removed by mist eliminators before being discharging
to the atmosphere.
The reagent is usually kiln feed or high-grade limestone ground separately. The reactivity of the reagent
depends, among other, on the percentage of CaCO3 and its finesse: the finer, the more reactive.
To insure a high SO2 removal efficiency, the ratio liquid/gas (L/G) has to be kept within a determined
range, specific for each scrubber type. If L/G is too low, the contact between calcium and SO2 is poor
(low SO2 removal) but if L/G is high, the energy consumption to spray more slurry will be too high.
Step 2: Oxidation - crystallisation
Once the reagent has reacted with SO2, the product, calcium sulfite (CaSO3) is oxidised to the so-called
synthetic gypsum. The final oxidation takes place in the upper part of the slurry. In most cases, blowers
are installed to provide enough oxygen for a complete oxidation.
In this upper part of the slurry also the gypsum crystallisation takes places. The fine particles (< 10 mm)
act as crystallisation seeds where gypsum crystals can grow.
Step 3: Dewatering
Once the gypsum concentration in the vessel reaches a determined density, a certain amount of slurry is
sent to the dewatering installation. During this last operation, the slurry moisture is reduced from about
90% to 10% H2O.
Different dewatering systems can be used like hydrocyclone, vacuum belt or centrifugation.
The final product is called “synthetic gypsum” and can be used with clinker in the same way as natural
gypsum.

Ø Main Process Parameters

There are only 3 main process parameters to operate a scrubber:
pH: SO2 removal depends on pH value. Therefore, pH in the vessel has to be kept within a certain range,
which is controlled by adding fresh limestone into the slurry. Normal pH range is between 5 and 6.
Nevertheless, this pH value depends on the level at which the pH is measured since, at the top of the
slurry, the pH is low (acid) and at the bottom the pH is higher due to the dissolution of CaCO3. Thus, this
pH range is specific for each scrubber.
Slurry density: slurry density control keeps the suspended solids at optimum level to prevent scaling and
to provide crystal growth for maximum dewatering.
Water balance: due to the intense water evaporation, fresh water is injected to keep the slurry height in
the vessel within a defined range. This fresh water is usually sprayed through the mist eliminator in order
to clean it.

Ø Synthetic Gypsum:
The synthetic gypsum quality depends on the reagent composition, especially the percentage of inert
particles (for kiln feed: SiO2, Fe2O3, Al2O3,…), and the remaining moisture after the dewatering process.
Based on the experience gathered up to now, the conversion of CaCO3 in gypsum is very good (less than
5% unreacted CaCO3 in gypsum) and almost no CaSO3*H2O has been detected. Therefore, without
considering the inert particles, the synthetic gypsum is very similar to natural gypsum and can be mixed
with clinker.

Ø Experience
The first wet scrubber in Holcim is in operation since March 2000 at Midlothian (Holnam-USA). The
reagent used is filter dust from the main bagfilter. This reagent is very fine and its chemical composition is
similar to the raw mix.
On a technical point of view, the system is reliable. Actually, the main issue is the gypsum water content
after the dewatering of about 40%. This high water content seems to be caused by the filter dust used as
reagent. In this case, the reagent is too fine and there are too many fine particles that can act as seed for
the crystal growth. Therefore the gypsum crystals are very small and water is strongly attracted around
these crystals. Hence, the current dewatering system (hydrocyclones and vacuum belt filter) is unable to
separate enough water from gypsum. Fortunately, the gypsum quality seems to be good enough to be
mix with clinker.

Figure 7: ML’s Scrubber: process

Figure 8: ML’s Scrubber: general view

Figure 9: ML’s scrubber: dewatering system

SO2 absorption with Ca (OH) 2 (slaked lime) [9]

A other common measure against SO2 emission is SO2 absorption with Ca (OH) 2.

It can be added to the exhaust gas:

¨ at the upper cyclone stage of the preheater together with the kiln feed
¨ in a scrubber after the kiln system
The addition of Ca(OH) 2 to the kiln feed is very successfully used in three Holcim plants with preheater
(RK, HV, UV) (see chapter 7). However, this technology has its limits. For instance only concentrations
not exceeding about 1000 mg SO2/Nm3 can be reduced. At the same time, the emission limit value
should be less than 400 mg SO2/Nm3.
If the normal SO2 emission is very high (> 1000 mg/Nm3) as it used to be in the Untervaz (UV) plant in
Switzerland, a separate SO2 scrubber after the preheater has to be considered. The only slaked lime
scrubber for a cement plant was built in the UV plant. There, the kiln exhaust gas flows through a Venturi
reactor with an expanded fluidised bed formed by the absorbent which consists of a blend of hydrated
lime (slaked lime) and raw meal [9]. A more detailed description of the UV reactor is attached (see chapter
7).
Experience showed that the temperature for SO2 absorption with slaked lime is very important. Efficient
absorption was only observed at temperatures above 350°C and below 70°C. Therefore, systems with
Ca(OH) 2 injection into the conditioning tower or Ca(OH) 2 in bagfilters do not have a sufficient SO2
absorption efficiency [10].

Figure 14 SO2-Reduction =f(Mol-ratio Ca/S)

Figure 15 SO2 REDUCTION WITH Ca (OH) 2

Replacement of Ca(OH) 2 power by other Ca-compounds

To save on the high cost of the fine slaked lime, other desulfurization agents were tested at the Höver
plant of Nordcement for their suitability. These were coarser slaked lime, powdered chalk and partly
calcined kiln meal. However, the results of these experiments were mostly unsatisfactory. The
effectiveness of the slaked lime currently in use was in no case anywhere near achieved. Powdered chalk
has the lowest effectiveness. The reactivity of the coarse slaked lime was also barely detectable due to
the small surface area. In the case of the partly calcined raw meal which had been pneumatically
withdrawn from the lowest cyclone stage of a preheater, a slight desulfurization effect could be discerned.
However, the technical problems in handling were so great that its further use was abandoned.
Tests with unslaked lime (CaO) were not carried out since on account of its lower reactivity compared with
slaked lime, the difference in cost does not justify the increased quantities required. Optimisation, e.g.
also for absorption of larger quantities of SO2, is only likely to be achieved by selecting a finer slaked
lime. Thus a material with a BET specific surface of 18 or 36 m2/g could certainly lead to fixation of larger
quantities of SO2.
Untervaz started to use a Ca(OH) 2-mud from a former dump of a carbide manufacturer. The mud has a
negative price and can be added to the raw material. This is reducing the Ca(OH)2-feed to the scrubber.
At the Fort Collins plant precalcined material (CaO) from the precalciner is added to the bypass exhaust
gas to reduce SO2-emission. In addition to that, bypass dust is recirculated in the bypass to increase the
concentration of SO2 absorbed in the dust. These measures are sufficient to stay below the SO2-limit.
Activated Coke Absorber
Activated coke is under presence of water a very efficient SO2 absorber. The only filter of this kind is
installed in the Siggenthal (SG) plant of "HCB. The SO2 emission is reduced by the filter from above 500
to below 50 mg/Nm3.
However, this type of absorber is very pricy. The Polvitec in SG is only economical because of the
contribution from the village of Zurich for burning their sewage sludge.
Sodiumbicarbonate Absorber
Obourg.
Passamaquoddy Absorber
SO2 scrubbing is only a side effect of the Passamaquoddy scrubber. As described in chapter 7 the main
purpose is to recover CKD to avoid dust dumping. The SO2 is first absorbed by the CaO in the CKD and
reacts afterwards with the alkali oxides in the CKD to form an alkali salt. The alkali salt is extracted and if
possible sold as a fertiliser.
7. EXAMPLES OF SO2 EMISSION REDUCTION
Below a collection of short descriptions of plants and their measures against SO2 emission is given.
Everybody is welcome to contribute to this collection.
SO2-emission reduction

Plant: Fort Collins (FC)

Capacity: 1500 t/d (design) / 1345 t/d (standard)
Raw material: Containing kerogen and sulfur (~10% as Pyrite)
Fuel type: Nat. gas, coal (0.44 % S), pet coke (4 to 5% S)
Plant description: 1-stage-preheater with precalciner
Supplier/equipment: Polysius preheater, Allis-Chalmers kiln
Initial SO2-emission problem: The SO2-limit of 150 ppm (i.e.~ 320 mg/Nm3) can not
[1], [2] always be maintained, (sometimes up to 300 ppm) and limits the kiln output. The SO2 emissions
originate from the bypass and not from the precalciner. Kerogen in the raw material is burned in the
calciner, combusted into CO2 and SO2. At the same time CaO reacts with SO2 if sufficient Oxygen is
available to form CaSO4 (SO2 scrubbing). The bypass is the control valve for the sulfur level in the
clinker. The bypass rate is 100 %!
Solutions investigated:
[2] The reason for the emission from the bypass is believed to be due to a limited quantity of CaO
being available in the bypass dust to combine with SO2 from the kiln. So adding some dust to the bypass-
duct would help. Since a lot of sulfur input into the system is from coal, the specific fuel input has to be
reduced.
The sulfur content of the kiln feed is rather high with 3.6%.
In order to control the SO2-emission, a splitter gate should be installed, in order to deviate a portion of
return dust to the bypass scrubber.

Solution realized:
[4] Dust return (mainly precalciner dust) from the bypass / precalciner bagfilter into the bypass duct
has been installed before 1994, however the return dust system needs further modifications.
Emissions reached:
[3] The necessary SO2-limit has been reached. Most of the time, no additional scrubber dust is used
for stack sulfur control. Consequently the low stack SO2 (average 40 - 50 ppm) would allow a lower waste
dust quantity.
Further Optimization:
[3],[4] The plant capacity should be increased up to 1600 t/d with several modifications (and reduction of
losses), without increasing the emissions. A modification of the kiln feed inlet is planned for 1995.

Literature:
[1] POLYSIUS: Telefax (1989), VA-Dok: FC, Reg. 2D
[2] Kupper, A.K.: HMC Report VA 91/5866/E, VA-Dok: FC, Reg.2A
[3] Bachmann, R.: HMC Report VA 94/4263/E, VA-Dok: FC, Reg.2A
[4] Kupper, A.K. and Bürki, Dr. P.: HMC Report VA 95/4288/E, VA-Dok: FC, Reg.2A
SO2-emission reduction

Plant: Höver (HV)

Capacity: 3'000 t/d (design), 2'900 t/d (standard)
Raw material: Sulfur components: Pyrite 0.05 - 0.45 %w/w
Fuel type: Coal (0.4%S), fuel oil, nat. gas; alternative fuels: whole tires (max. 10% of total heat
input)
Plant description: Kiln with 4-stage twin line suspension preheater and planetary cooler
Supplier/equipment: KHD kiln and preheater
Initial SO2-emission problem: SO2 emissions of up to 1300 mg/Nm3
[1],[2] (TA Luft = 400 mg/Nm3) In direct operation, up to 900 mg/Nm3 in compound operation
Solutions investigated: The following investigations were proposed:
[3],[4],[5] Reduction of SO2 emissions by lowering the exhaust gas temperature.
Lowering the temperature in the raw mill in compound operation.
Desulfurization with Ca(OH)2: different trials have been carried out. To reach an emission < 400 mg/Nm3,
the SO2 concentration in the stack should be held at about 350 mg/Nm3. The calculated amount (based
on trial results) of Ca(OH)2 needed to stay below the limit would have been 2.4 kg/t clinker in 1990 and
6.4 kg/t clinker in 1991.

Solution realized: Desulfurization with Ca(OH)2 addition to the kiln feed (bucket elevator). The
Ca(OH)2 is proportioned by speed control rotary valves with three independent pneumatic injection pipes,
which can be used simultaneously when required. The Ca(OH)2 addition was started up in November
1991.
Emissions reached:
[1] The addition of Ca(OH)2 is controlled by the measured SO2-concentration at the stack, in order
to stay below the TA-Luft limit of 400 mg/Nm3.
Further Optimization:
[1] Since the costs for slaked lime are quite high, different other desulfurization agents have been
tested:
· powdered chalk: low absorption efficiency
· coarse slaked lime: barely detectable effect due to small surface area
· partly calcined raw meal: slight desulfurization effect, but additional
technical problems.
· Tests with unslaked lime (CaO) have not been carried out, due to its low
reactivity compared with Ca(OH)2. A further optimisation could be reached, using a finer slaked lime
(higher surface area).

Literature:

[1] Boes, K.-H.: Measures to reduce the SO2 emission during clinker burning at Nordcement AG's
Höver works.
Zement, Kalk, Gips (1993), P.514-518
[2] Waltisberg, J.: HMB Aktennotiz VA 86/66/D,
VA-Dok: HV, Reg. 17
[3] Hasler, R.: HMB letter to Nordcement AG,
VA-Dok: HV, Reg. 17
[4] Waltisberg, J.: HMB Bericht VA 87/5437/D,
VA-Dok: HV, Reg.18
[5] Waltisberg, J.: HMB Bericht VA 91/5904/D,
VA-Dok: HV, Reg. 1

Figure A Slaked lime chemical and physical data [1]

 "Blütenweiss slaked white lime from Fels-Werke GmbH

Chemical and physical data

CaO 71.99%
MgO 0.65%
SiO2 2.00%
Fe2O3 0.45%
Al2O3 0.47%
SO3 0.27%
CO2 1.23%
Combined H2O 21.60%
Moisture 0.90%
BET approx. 10 m2/g
Ca(OH) 2 90.0%
Fineness:
R > 0.063 mm 4.0%

Figure B SO2 reduction efficiency with slaked lime addition

Keine KH-Zugabe = no slaked lime feed

KH-Zugabe = slaked lime feed
Zeit = time
SO2-Reduktion = SO2 reduction
Kalkhydratzugabe = slaked lime feed rate

Figure C Slaked lime silo and dosing

SO2-emission reduction

Plant: Rekingen (RK)

Capacity: 2'200 mtpd (design), 2130 mtpd (standard)
Raw material: Sulfur component: 0.55 % Pyrite
Fuel type: Coal 0.4%S, fuel oil 0.8%S, waste timber
Plant description: 4-stage-suspension preheater kiln
Supplier/equipment: Polysius kiln and preheater
Initial SO2-emission problem: SO2 emissions of up to 1200 mg/Nm3 (LRV-limit = 500 mg/Nm3) in
direct operation [LRV = Swiss clean air act]
Solutions investigated: Reduction of SO2 emissions by lowering the exhaust gas
[1],[2] temperature. Reduction from 180°C to 150°C results in a reduction of 50 mg/Nm3, the
same reduction is obtained by further lowering the temperature to 140°C.
Desulphurization with Ca(OH)2, added to the kiln feed only during direct operation leads
to a reduction of 400 - 450 mg/Nm3 at an initial emission of 750 - 1200 mg/Nm3
Solution realized: [3] Desulphurization with Ca(OH)2 addition to the kiln feed
3 kg/tcli (max. 17kg/tcli) during direct operation (20% of the operating time)
Costs are about 60'000 CHF/year
Emissions reached: The addition of Ca(OH) 2 is controlled by measuring the SO2 concentration in
the stack, in order to reach the limiting values of LRV, i.e. below 500 mg/m3.

Literature:

[1] Utzinger, K.: Reduktion der SO2-Emissionen durch Senkung der Abgastemperatur,
Versuchsbericht (1986), VA Dok: RK, Reg.17
[2] Scheuch, J.: Entschwefelungsversuche mit Ca(OH)2 im Ofendirektbetrieb, Versuchsbericht
(1986), VA Dok: RK, Reg.17
[3] "Holderbank" Cement Course: Source and reduction of emissions gaseous, VA 91/5882/E, P.7

Figure A Dosing of slaked lime to the kiln feed

SO2 -emission reduction

Plant: Siggenthal (SG)

Capacity: 2000 t/d (design), 1900 t/d (standard)
Raw material: [2] Sulfur: 0.7% S
Fuel type: [2] Fuel oil (2.3%S), dried sewage sludge, complete tires (1.3%S)
Plant description: Kiln with 4-stage preheater
Supplier/equipment: Polysius kiln and preheater (Dopol), Fuller grate cooler
Initial SO2 emission problem: SO2 emissions of up to 1500 mg/Nm3 in direct operation,
[1] up to 900 mg/Nm3 in compound operation (LRV-limit = 500 mg/Nm3) [LRV = Swiss clean
air act]
Solutions investigated: SG had a project to burn sewage sludge containing Hg and at the same time the
SO2 and NOx emissions where too high. A pilot plant with an active coke filter as well as an ammonia
injection into the riser duct was tested successfully. Mercury, SO2 and other pollutants were absorbed on
the active coke. NOx was reduced to N2 and H2O with ammonia injection.
Solution realized: A POLVITEC (Polysius Environmental Technology) active coke scrubber behind
the kiln EP was successfully commissioned in 1994. Beside SO2 and Mercury it is also filtering out other
pollutants like heavy metals, NH3, organic compounds and dust. The loaded coke is injected into the kiln
as a fuel substitution.
Investment cost: 30'000'000 CHF
Operating cost: 3.3 CHF/t cli
Emissions reached: [3] < 12 mg/Nm3 dry

Literature:

[1] Dr. R. Stenger, : HMB Bericht MA 92/93/D, VA Dok: SG, Reg. 2

[2] ATR, Annual Technical Report 1994,"Holderbank"
[3] Effektive Emissionsminderung bei Einsatz von Sekundärbrennstoffen im Zementdrehofen von
"HCB Siggenthal, Dr. 1§D. Rose, Dr. L. Brentrup, Krupp Polysius

SO2-emission reduction

Plant: Untervaz (UV)

Capacity: 1900 t/d (standard)
Raw material: Sulfur components: Pyrite and Markasit, usually 10 - 16 g SO3/kg clinker
Fuel type: [7] Coal (0.07%S), fuel oil; alternative fuels as dried sewage sludge, waste oil
(0.6%S), destillation residue (0.35%S), plastic (0.02%)
Plant description: Kiln with 4-stage-suspension preheater and planetary cooler (kiln III)
Supplier/equipment: KHD kiln, preheater and cooler; Lurgi SO2 -scrubber
Initial SO2-emission problem: SO2 emissions of up to 3600 mg/m3 (LRV-limit = 500 mg/Nm3) in direct
operation [LRV = Swiss clean air act]
Solutions investigated: In 1984/85 trials to lower the SO2 emissions by changing
[1],[2],[3],[4] the operating parameters have been carried out. Addition of Ca(OH)2 to the raw
meal: Reduction of up to 50% of SO2, still insufficient.
Because no possibility of lowering the SO2 emission of the Plant to the required 500 mg/Nm3 by
simple means as the one explained above could be found, the use of a scrubber had to be considered.
Because a wet SO2 absorber (washer) was too expensive (investment and operating costs) a dry
absorber was chosen.
Solution realized: A system consisting of a circulating fluidized bed supplied
[1],[2] by Lurgi, Germany, was started up in 1988. It works as follows:
The kiln exhaust gas flow through a venturi reactor with an expanded fluidized bed formed by the
absorbent that consists of a blend of hydrated lime (93% Ca(OH) 2) and raw meal (0.8-1.0t/h Ca(OH) 2
and 2.5t/h raw meal). The latter is mainly added to prevent caking of the very fine hydrated lime. Water is
injected to operate the reactor as close as possible to the water dew point and to promote the reaction
with the SO2. Due to the intensive contact of the exhaust gas with the absorbent in the fluidized bed at a
temperature (approx. 65°C) close to the water due point (approx. 58 to 61°C), the SO2 becomes very
effectively combined with the absorbent, whereby predominately calcium sulfite (CaSO3) is generated.
The absorbent then passes with the exhaust gas into an electrostatic precipitator. The bulk of the
precipitated absorbent is returned to the venturi reactor (approx. 175t/h), while the remainder is
discharged and either returned to the kiln feed or added to the cement.
The stoichiometric factor of Ca(OH) 2 to SO2 is about 2.3 to 2.6.
The pressure loss in the system is 2200 Pa. This results in a power demand for the fan of 315
kW. With the addition of 155 kW for the electrostatic precipitator and the transport systems, the total
power consumption of the system amounts to 470 kW.
Adding all the material to the kiln feed results in an increase of the SO3 content in the clinker from
1.0 to 1.3%. This is not desirable, but so far not of much concern, because it has turned out that the
additional sulfates in the clinker act as a gypsum substitute, so that the SO3 content of the cement can be
kept at 2.7% SO3 as before.
The investment for the whole desulfurization plant, including auxiliary installations, amount to 15
million CHF. The operating costs are about 2.2 CHF/t cli (Slaked lime 1.6, electrical power 0.4,
maintenance 0.5, gypsum substitution 0.3 CHF/t cli).
Emissions reached: [5] During the acceptance measurements in May 1989, the following values
have been reached:
Direct operation: 431 mg/m3
Compound operation: 418 mg/m3
Further Optimization: [6] In 1990 the circulating fluidized bed was operated with 1 t/h hydr. lime
and 2.5 t/h raw meal. It has been investigated to use hot meal instead of hydr. lime. Due to analyses of
hot meal, it seemed not to be possible to replace hydr. lime completely, but it should be tested whether a
part of the hydr. lime could be replaced

Literature:

[1] Bonn, W., Hasler, R.: Verfahren und Erfahrung einer roh- stoffbedingten SO2-Emission im Werk
Untervaz der Bündner Cementwerke. Zement, Kalk, Gips (1990), P. 139-143
[2] "Holderbank" Cement Course: Source and reduction of emissions gaseous, VA 91/5882/E, P. 5 -
6
[3] Hasler, R., Wickert, Dr.H.: HMB Bericht VA 86/5281/D, VA-Dok: UV, Reg. 17A
[4] Berclaz, Ch.:HMB Bericht VA 85/73/D, VA-Dok: UV, Reg. 17A
[5] Strahm, E., Waltisberg, J.: HMB Bericht VA 89/5665/D, VA-Dok: UV, Reg. 2
[6] Waltisberg, J.: HMB Aktennotiz VA 90/6/D, VA-Dok: UV, Reg. 2
[7] ATR, Annual Technical Report 1994,"Holderbank"

Figure A Burning of dried sewage sludge in a cement kiln

Figure B Circulating Fluidized Bed Absorber

SO2-emission reduction

Plant: Aalborg Portland (not in Holcim Group)

Capacity: 0.5 Mio. t/year of white clinker with 4 kilns
Raw material:
Fuel type: Fuel oil and pet coke
Plant description: Wet process plant
Supplier/equipment: FLS
Initial SO2 emission problem: Due to the white color of white clinker, and since in the
[1] white kilns very little sulfur is retained, only special fuel quality could be used. Most of the
sulfur was emitted as SO2 in concentrations of 500 - 800 ppm.
Solutions investigated: Since the fuel consumption is generally higher for white clinker and for a wet
process, in 1980 a conversion to a semi-wet process was considered. Due to high capital costs and
technical risks this investigation was not followed further.
The recovery of some of the waste heat seemed to be a more attractive solution. In combination
with the SO2-problem, a combined heat recovery and desulfurization process seemed to be very
attractive, and it was decided to build a pilot plant. From March 1989 to February 1990 a test program
was carried out. The degree of desulfurization was found to be 75 %.
Solution realized: The heat recovery and SO2 absorption unit for the four wet kilns consisting of 4
gas/water heat exchangers and 2 scrubber systems was commissioned in 1991.
The exhaust gas from the kiln passes first the gas/water heat exchanger before it enters the SO2
scrubber at a temperature of about 115°C. In the scrubber SO2 is absorbed in a slurry loaded with 6 10%
solids consisting of 98% CaSO4.2H2O and 2% CaCO3. The slurry is sprayed in counter current to the
exhaust gas and collected in the recycle tank at the bottom of the scrubber where it is oxidized with air
(CaSO3 + 0.5O2 ® CaSO4). A part of the slurry is pumped to a centrifuge where water and gypsum are
separated. The rest is reinjected through a circulation line into the scrubber. A chalk slurry of 30%
moisture is injected into the circulation line before the spray nozzles to replace the used and extracted
absorbens (CaCO3+SO2 ® CaSO3 + CO2). The optimum pH for the circulated slurry has been found to
be between 5.4 and 5.6 and is controlled by the amount of chalk slurry added to it.
The circulated slurry passes on its way from the recycle tank to the nozzles a heat exchanger to
preheat the water for the gas/water heat exchanger.
The exhaust gas leaves the scrubber with 75% less SO2 and a temperature of about 70°C.
Emissions reached: The scrubber reaches an SO2 reduction of 75-80%, i.e. the remaining SO2-
concentration is below 160 200 ppm.
Further Optimization: Further optimization concerning the desulfurization is not foreseen.

Literature:

[1] H.E.Borgholm: A new heat recovery and desulfurization plant for 4 wet kilns in Aalborg Portland.
35th IEEE cement industry technical conference in Toronto, IEEE catalogue (1993), 395 - 409.

Figure A Heat recovery and desulfurization plant of Aalborg Portland / Denmark

SO2-emission reduction

Plant: Dragon Products, Thomaston (Maine, USA), (not in Holcim group)

Capacity: [1] 4000'000 t/year
Raw material:
Fuel type:
Plant description: Wet kiln
Supplier/equipment:
Initial SO2 emission problem: SO2 emissions never were a problem (500 mg/Nm3).
[1] During the time when Martin Marietta owned the plant (i.e., before 1980), the US EPA
designed Thomaston, an upper class coastal residential area, a non attainment area (i.e. an area which
had not attained the required level of emissions). This was due to dust emissions from both kiln and
quarry (CKD). The Dragon plant discarded dust to produce a lower, but not a low alkali cement.
Solutions investigated:
Solution realized: [1],[2] The Passamaquoddy scrubber was commissioned in 1990. Conversion
is accomplished in the Recovery Scrubber by reintroducing into CKD the CO2 that was released during
calcining. Exhaust gas from the kiln is cooled in a heat exchanger (A) and bubbled through a reaction
tank (B) containing a slurry of CKD and water. CO2 in the gas reacts with CKD in the slurry to reclaim
CKD for kiln feed, while SO2 reacts with potassium sulfate in the CKD to form potassium sulfate in
solution.

CaO + SO2 0.5O2 ® CaSO4

CaSO4 + 2KOH + CO2 ® CaCO3 + K2SO4 +H2O
Reclaimed CKD is separated in a settling tank (C), rinsed in a secondary settling tank (D) to
remove potassium sulfate remnants, and returned to the cement plant as raw feed. Potassium solution is
pumped to the crystallizer (E) for recovery as dry potassium sulfate. Heat for the crystallizer is obtained
from the exhaust gas heat exchanger (F).
Emissions reached: [3] The exhaust gas SO2 elimination is claimed to be over 90%. Beside SO2
also HCl as well as ammonia and some less volatile organic compounds are absorbed.

Literature:

[1] Dust and Other Secondary Materials Management Using the Passamaquoddy Recovery
Scrubber
[2] The Recovery Scrubber , Passamaquoddy Technology
[3] Clean emissions valuable by-products, International Cement Review March 91

Figure A Recovery scrubber from Passamaquoddy

8. LITERATURE

[1] Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Vol. A 25, 1994 VCH,

3-527-20125-4
[2] Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 60th Edition, CRC-Press,
0-8493-0460-8
[3] Säurehaltige Niederschläge - Entstehung und Wirkung auf terrestrische Ökosysteme, 1984, VDI,
Kommission Reinhaltung der Luft
[4] F.L. Smidth, An overview of the formation of SOx and NOx in various pyroprocessing systems;
P.B. Nielsen, O.L. Jepsen, No. 96
[5] Der Anteil der Zementindustrie an den anthropogenen SO2- und NOx-Emissionen,
H. Wickert, "Holderbank" News 6, 1985, p. 15-16
[6] ATR-Databank 1994
[7] Kiln Optimization Seminar, Circulation Phenomena VA 90/5714/E, U. Gasser
[8] Kiln Optimization Seminar, Fuel Preparation / Firing Systems,
VA 89/5653/E, F. Schneider
[9] Environmental Protection Seminar, Sources Reduction of Emisisons (gaseous),
VA 91/5882/E, J. Waltisberg
[10] Parameter study on desulfurization in baghouse filter,
VA 90/5687/E, A. Edlinger, R. Hasler
[11] Massnahmen zur Minderung der SO2-Emission beim Klinkerbrennen im Werk Höver der
Nordcement AG, K.H. Boes
[12] Emissions of NOx and SO2 from cement clinker burning, V. Johansen, A.H. Egelov, Denmark

Figure 16 Influence of oxygen content in the kiln gas

C02 - Dedusting

General
Arnaud De Luca
TPT 01/21071/E (Replaces report no. PT 96/14047/E)
1. Introduction
2. Standard Technology for Dust Emission Reduction
2.1 Comparison between bag filter and electrostatic precipitator
3. Present State of Cement Kiln Emission
4. Present Legal Situation
5. Dust Charateristics

1. INTRODUCTION
Dust filters were the first secondary emission reduction measure in the cement industry. The motivations
for dedusting of exhaust gas and vent air are:
¨ Compliance with environmental regulations
¨ Reduction of product loss
¨ Protection of employees and equipment from harmful dust impacts (irritation plugging, erosion)
This paper is focused on the dedusting of kiln/raw mill exhaust gas and clinker cooler vent air. They are
the largest dust filters of the entire clinker production line. Because they have to provide both very high
reliability and efficiency under extremely severe conditions those filters have to fulfil the most difficult task
among all cement plant dedusting equipment. The basic working principles of the presented filters are
also valid for other applications.
2. STANDARD TECHNOLOGY FOR DUST EMISSION REDUCTION
Two types of filters have been widely used in the cement industry: bag filters (BF) and electrostatic
precipitators (EP). BF use the filtration technology and EP use electricity to collect the particles.
Some of the older dedusting technologies like gravel beds or multi-cyclones are still in operation but are
not build any more, mainly because they have difficulties to comply with today’s more stringent dust
emissions regulations.
2.1 Comparison between bag filter and electrostatic precipitator
Electrostatic Precipitator
EP used to be a very popular filter because of the low pressure drop, the little maintenance required and
the high efficiency under normal operating conditions. Today, the main problem of the EP is its efficiency
under not normal operating conditions. Transitions phases (direct/compound operation), or kiln
start-up/shut down always causes increased dust emission. Moreover, during high CO peaks the EP must
be shut down to prevent CO explosion.
Some decades ago, increased dust emission during such incidences where generally accepted by the
neighbours and the authorities. Nowadays, with the stronger environmental awareness of the people and
with more stringent emission limits (20 mg / Nm3, continuous dust emission control) it can be difficult to
achieve the required long term efficiency with an EP.
Nevertheless, an advantage of the EP can be the classification of the dust particles. The coarse particles
are collected in the first electrical field, the fine ones in the last. Condensables, like alkalis or chlorine are
enriched in the fine fraction of the dust. With an EP less dust has to be extracted from the filter to reduce
the concentration of the condensables in the system.
Bag Filter
Bag filters used to be very popular mainly in USA, especially the reverse air filters. For about 10 years,
this technology has spread all around the world and nowadays, for most of new plants or for new filters,
BF are chosen.

The main BF’s advantage is their very high efficiency that is unaffected by the process conditions. Their
main disadvantage is the high pressure loss, the additional maintenance cost for the regular replacement
of the bags.
More over they produce a not neglectible amount of waste (used bags). Depending on the local
regulations for waste elimination and the quality of bags their elimination can be expensive.

Figure 1: Dust emission comparison between EP and BF

Figure 2: Filter types for 9 new kilns

Plant Group Company Country Year of Commissioning Kiln/raw mill Filter Cooler filter
Saraburi Siam City Thailand 1995 EP EP
Lägerdorf Alsen Germany 1996 EP --
Davao UCC Philippines 1996 EP EP
Chekka SCL Lebanon 1997 Bag filter Bag filter
Devil’s slides Holnam USA 1997 Bag filter Bag filter
Gladstone QCL Australia 1997 Bag filter Bag filter
Hon Chong Morning Star Vietnam 1998 Bag filter Bag filter
Luga-it Alsons Philippines 1998 EP EP
Midlothian Holnam USA 2000 Bag filter Bag filter

Figure 3: New filters installed (not exhaustive)

Plant Group Compagny Country Year Filter Type

Mississauga SLC Canada 1996 Bag filter Gravel to Pulse jet
Rockhampton (lime) QCL Australia 1997 Bag filter EP to Pulse jet
Höver Alsen Germany 1998 Bag filter EP to Pulse jet
Cantagalo Holdercim Brasil 1998 Bag filter EP to Pulse jet
Eclépens HCB Switzerland 1998 Bag filter EP to Pulse jet
Lumbres COO French 2000 Bag filter EP to Pulse jet
Carboneras* Hisalba Spain 2001 Bag filter EP to Pulse jet
Gador* Hisalba Spain 2001 Hybrid filter EP to Hybrid filter

*: Not yet commissioned

3. PRESENT STATE OF CEMENT KILN EMISSION

According to the very much varying dust emission limits in countries where cement plants are operated
and the development in the dedusting technology, the average dust emission from cement kilns varies
between less than 10 up to 500 mg/Nm3 dry. Only a few exceptions are above 1000 mg/Nm3.
4. PRESENT LEGAL SITUATION
Dust was one of the first stack emissions that were regulated and is today still the only emission limit for
some plants. The reduction efficiency required is much higher compared to other emissions like SO2 or
NOx. The dedusting efficiency of modern dust filters is about 99.999% compared to only 95% of very
good SO2 wet scrubbers.
Dedusting efficiency
1)
where: ? = dedusting efficiency
r = clean gas dust content
 R = raw gas dust content

In Europe, emission limits are expressed as mass of particles per gas volume [mg/Nm3] and usually the
gas volume is calculated on dry base. In some countries the gas volume is referred to a certain oxygen
concentration, mostly 10% O2.
Emission Limits

Nm3dry= m3 at 273 K, 101300 Pa and 0% water

Europe: 20 - 50 - 500 mg/Nm3
Germany: 50 mg/Nm3 dry at 10% O2

In the United States of America not all plants do have a dust emission standard. But all of them have an
opacity limit, which is to some degree correlated to the dust emission.
For comparison reasons all emission limits/standards are indicated in mg/Nm3. The emission standards
in the USA are usually not using mg/Nm3 but ppm, lb/tdry feedgr/dscf, lb/1000 lbgas, b/hr, etc. To convert
them into mg/Nm3 certain assumptions were necessary.

USA (e.g.): 0.3 lb/tfeed, dry ca. 80 mg/Nm32%O2, wet

0.05 - 0.08 gr/dscf ca. 115 - 180 mg/Nm3dry
0.015 gr/acf ca. 60 mg/Nm32% O2, wet
5.5 lb/hr ca. 15 mg/Nm32% O2, wet

Some US plants also have to comply with PM10 limits. PM10 stands for particles smaller than 10 mm.
Particles smaller 10 mm are small enough to enter and mechanically damage the lungs. To express the
limits the same units as discussed above are used.

USA PM10 (e.g.): 0.016 gr/dscf ca. 37 mg/Nm32% O2, wet

4.7 lb/h ca. 13 mg/Nm32% O2, wet
0.015 gr/acf ca. 60 mg/Nm32% O2, wet t

US plants burning hazardous waste are regulated under BIF (Burners and Industrial Furnaces). Other
plants do have a state permit defining certain parameters like NOx, SO2 CO, particles (dust) and THC
emission. The limits for these emissions are called emission standards. These standards are individually
defined for each plant and usually represent the operating situation under certain conditions. Therefore,
the US standards are different from the emission limits in Europe where emission limits are valid for a
whole state or country.
All the above explained emission limits do include definitions how and when the compliance tests have to
be carried out. It is, e.g., very important whether the emission has to be measured continuously or not.
Some dust filters like electrostatic precipitators (EP) are very sensitive on process changes and can have
an increased dust emission during transition periods and may not be in compliance during that time.
5. DUST CHARATERISTICS
The characteristics of dust have a strong influence on the behavior and design of dust filters and on the
impact of the dust on its environment. Dust is characterized by
¨ Size
¨ Shape
¨ Hardness
¨ Chemical composition
¨ Mineral structure
¨ Electrical resistivity
¨ Specific weight
¨ Angle of repose
¨ etc.

Figure 4: Comparison of sizes and physical characteristics of various dusts

The character of the dust is defined by its origin and the different treatments like grinding, blending,
classifying or burning. Dust from a preheater kiln is much finer than dust from a clinker cooler and
because of this more difficult to separate.
Figure 5: Particle size distribution of some dusts from cement kilns

BAG FILTER
Arnaud De Luca
TPT 01/21071/E (Replaces report no. PT 96/14047/E)
1. Categorizing Bag Filters
1.1 Cleaning Method
1.2 Filter-Media Type / Temperature Capabilities
2. Filter Media
2.1 Selection Criteria
2.2 Properties of Various Media
2.3 Hydrolytic Influences
2.4 Woven Fabrics and Needle Felts
3. Cleaning Systems
3.1 Overall View
3.2 Pulse Jet Cleaning
3.3 Reverse Gas Cleaning
3.4 Comparison between Pulse Jet and Reverse Gas Cleaning

Bag Filter (BF)

The history of bag filters begins in 1886, when engineer Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig Beth, of Lübeck, was
granted the Patent 38396 for a "suction tube filter with automatic cleaning device". Since then, the bag
filter technology was continuously improved and is today at a level that makes it superior to any other
dedusting system.
1. CATEGORIZING BAG FILTERS
To better understand one's bag filter, it is helpful to determine where it fits among the various types of BF.
When one tries to group bag filters into a number of categories, it soon becomes obvious that the task is
not simple. There appears to be an exception to each of the rules. The creation of certain categories,
though they are not rigid, is yet very helpful.
1.1 Cleaning Method
One such approach is to group BF designs by cleaning method. There are three major cleaning methods:
shakers, reverse gas and pulse jets. In addition to these three dominant cleaning methods, there exist a
large number of other cleaning methods which are less often applied. Combinations of the three primary
methods have been occasionally employed. For example, reverse air and shake have been used in
combination and reverse-air with a pulse assist. Today, in cement plants mainly pure reverse gas or pulse
jet BF are applied.

1.2 Filter-Media Type / Temperature Capabilities

The filter-media type and temperature capabilities provide two other ways to categorize and view bag
filters.
¨ Media – types categories: Woven vs. felted media
¨ Operation Temperature:
· High-temperature (> 200°C)
· Medium-temperature (150 to 200°C)
· Low-temperature applications (< 150°C)

One should be aware of these distinctions and attempt to find where the collector in question fits; thus,
when considering operating or troubleshooting recommendations, one only applies recommendations that
are suited to the type of collector being used.
2. FILTER MEDIA
2.1 Selection Criteria
The filter medium is the all-important central feature of any dust collector operating on the filtration
principle. With the correct or incorrect choice of the filter material the whole dedusting operation, however
well received, will stand or fall in actual practice. Important criteria are:
¨ filter type, particularly cleaning principle
¨ gas temperature (average and peaks)
¨ composition and chemical properties of the gas
¨ raw gas dust load
¨ required dust load of the clean gas
¨ physical and chemical properties of the dust

Furthermore, the filter medium must satisfy the following conditions:

¨ high air permeability (low pressure losses)
¨ good mechanical strength
¨ good thermal stability at operational temperature
¨ good dimensional stability at operational temperature
2.2 Properties of Various Media
Wool and cotton, the only two raw materials that were available to our grandfathers for making filter media
have been nowadays, to a great extent, superseded by synthetic fibres. Even mineral and metal fibres are
used for special applications. Table 1 summarizes the main properties of various fibres. The most
extensively used ones in the cement industry are polyester, polyacrylnitrile, modified polyamide (aramide)
and glass fibre.
Table 1: Properties of Various Fibres for Woven Fabrics and Needle Felts

Special treatment of the fabrics and needle felts can significantly improve the properties of the bags.
Table 2: Special Treatment of the Bag Surface

Non-Fiberglass
Finish Purpose Available For
Singe Recommended for improved cake release Polyester, Polypropylene, Acrylic, Nomex,
Ryton, P 84 (felts)
Glaze Provides short-term improvements for cake release (may impede airflow) Polyester,
Polypropylene (felts)
Silicone Aids initial cake development and provides limited water repellany Polyester (felt and
woven)
Flame Retardant Retards combustibility (not flame- proof) Polyester, Polypropylene (felt and
woven)
Acrylic Coatings (Latex base) Improves filtration, efficiency and cake release (may impede flow in
certain applications) Polyester and Acrylic felts
PTFE Surface Treatments and Laminates For capture of fine particulate, improved filtration
efficiency, cake release Nomex, Polyester, Acrylic, Polypropylene (felt) (Laminates available in
Polypropylene, Ryton and Polyester only)
PTFE Penetrating Finishes Improved water and oil repellency; limited cake release Nomex (felt)
Acid Resistant Improved acid resistance and water retardance Nomex (felt)

Fiberglass
 Finish Purpose Applications
Silicone, Graphite Teflon Protects glass yarns from abrasion, adds lubricity For non-acidic
conditions, primarily for cement and metal foundry applications
Acid Resistant Shields glass yarn from acid attach Coal-fired boilers, carbon black, incinerators,
cement, industrial and small municipal boiler applications
Teflon B Provides enhanced abrasion resistance and limited chemical resistance Industrial and
utility base load boilers under mild pH conditions
Blue Max- CRF/70 Provides improved acid resistance and release properties, superior abrasion
resistance, resistant to alkaline attack, improved fiber encapsulation Coal-fired boilers (high and low
sulfur) for peak load utilities, fluidized bed boilers, carbon black, incinerators

2.3 Hydrolytic Influences

One of the greatest enemies of the textile filter media is hydrolysis. By this is understood the breakdown
of the molecular chain of the polymerizate by the action of moisture. Hydrolysis is intensified by the action
of heat, acids and alkalis.
Polyester, for example, should not be used under conditions in which moisture and elevated temperatures
occur in combination. Also aromatic polyamides (Nomex) are subject to hydrolytic influences at
temperatures above 100°C, especially if acids or alkaline agents additionally act as a catalyst.
Fortunately, in recent years chemical modification processes have emerged which have enabled these
polyamides and also polyester to be substantially improved in this respect.
2.4 Woven Fabrics and Needle Felts
Filter media are available either in the form of woven fabric (cloth) or felt fabrics (more particularly needle
felt). The structure of these two types of filter media is shown as follows:
Figure 1 Woven fabric and needle felt with supporting structure

Characteristic of woven fabric is its system of warp and weft threads crossing one another. Essentially the
fabric pores, i.e. the holes between the warf and the weft threads, are decisive with regard to the filter
properties. Effective fabrics for dust collection purposes have a free perforated area of about 40%.
Therefore, they must have a permanent dust crust to maintain their good filtering effect.
In contrast with woven fabrics, needle felts are "three-dimensional" filter media. Their active filtering
surface is located both on the surface and in the interior of the medium. The dust collection process,
beside the sieving effect as in woven fabrics, additionally takes place through inertia and barrier effects.
For reinforcement, needle felt can be provided internally with a supporting woven fabric interlayer which is
only of secondary importance as regards its dust- collecting effect but which serves primarily to give tear
resistance and dimensional stability to the material. The pore volume of needle felts is 60 - 90%. This
porous structure allows higher admission velocities with lower pressure drops and higher dust collection
efficiencies.
The filtration process for both types of filter media is shown in Fig. 2:
Figure 2 Dust Separation with Needle Felt and Woven Fabric

For the cleaning of the woven fabric bags reverse gas is usually used. The needle felt bag filters generally
have a jet pulse system for cleaning.
The high cleaning air pressure of the jet pulse allows the use of denser filter media which in turn achieve
higher dust collection efficiencies.
Special finishing or application of membranes on the bag surface become more and more important,
especially for the jet pulse filters (see table 2). The purpose of those treatments is to give the bags
improved resistivity against chemical and mechanical attack as well as optimum filtration efficiency and
cake release (especially for fine dust particulates). Bags with such a treatment may have a very much
improved filtering efficiency and therefore do not need any more cake formation on their surface to
achieve a good dedusting efficiency. Such bags can be operated with a much thinner dust crust and have
therefore a reduced flow resistivity.
Figure 3 Needle felts without and with membrane
3. CLEANING SYSTEMS
3.1 Overall View
Ten or twenty years ago, fabric filters used to be cleaned by rapping or shaking, sometimes in
combination with low-pressure air purging but in the early 1960's a new agent for filter media cleaning
was introduced: compressed air.
Fig. 4 gives a summary of the various cleaning principles used for bag filters.
Figure. 4 Cleaning Principles of Bag Filters

a, b: manual or mechanical, by rapping or shaking

c: mechanical, by vibrating
d: pneumatic, by reverse air flow (often combined with shaking or vibrating)
e: pneumatic, by compressed air (pulse jet)
Since most of the mechanically cleaned filters have been superseded by compressed air ones, mainly in
the cement industry, the mechanical cleaning devices will not be described further here.
3.2 Pulse Jet Cleaning
Pulse jet cleaned bag filters normally employ felted fabrics of various types. The raw gas enters the bags
from the outside. The cleaned gas flows through the centre of the bag to the clean gas plenum and from
there to the stack. The dust is deposited on the outer surface of the bag. To prevent bag collapse during
filtering, metal cages are inserted inside each bag. A periodic bag cleaning is required to remove excess
residual dust cake. This is accomplished by pulsing compressed air down into each filter bag. Bag
cleaning can be accomplished either with the compartment isolated or not isolated (off-line or on-line
cleaning, see Fig. 5).
The cleaning made is selected based on the particulates being filtered, process conditions and bag
quality.
Figure 5 Schematic of compartments in a pulse-jet cleaned baghouse filtering flue gas, purging (or
ventilating) prior to maintenance, cleaning bags and filtering flue gas again

Most "jet" filters use injectors for the periodic purging of the individual filter elements with a nozzle, usually
disposed centrally.
Figure 6 Injector with central nozzle

Each row of bags or each individual bag is equipped with an injector which operates as follows:
When the bag is in service, i.e. engaged in dust collecting, the clean gas flows from the interior of the bag
through the injector into the clean gas plenum.
When compressed air is released as a jet from the injector at a velocity which may be above or below the
velocity of sound (depending on its type and design), secondary air is entrained from the clean gas
chamber of the filter, and a purging air flow comprising the actual jet plus this entrained secondary air is
introduced into the filter bag. The ratio of secondary flow to jet flow is called mass flow ratio.
Cleaning the bags involves three stages:
1) The normal filtration gas flow is briefly interrupted by the barrier effect of the purging air flow in
the opposite direction.
2) The purging air injected into the bag expands it to its original circular section (Fig. 7) and removes
the dust cake which falls down into the dust bunker.
3) The purging air then flows outward through the filter medium in the direction opposite to that of
the raw gas flow.
A compressed air pulse of only 0.1 - 0.2 s duration is sufficient to perform all three above mentioned
stages. The pulse is applied at intervals of 1 to 10 minutes. Thus, the duration of the cleaning operation
amounts to only 0.02 - 0.3% of the overall operating time of the filter. Practically speaking, therefore, the
whole filter surface area is always available for filtration, and the net area is virtually equal to the gross
area.
Figure 7 Jet pulse bag charged from the outside

3.2.1 Guide Values for Jet Pulse Filters

Although there exist many different forms of construction of jet pulse filters it is possible to give some
guide values.
For common jet pulse filters, with vertical bags and nozzle injectors, the following data can be given:
Table 5:Typical data of jet pulse filters

Compressed air pressure (normal) bar 4–7

Low pressure bagfilter bar 0.8r
mass flow ratio - 3-6
Compressed air flow rate Nm3/m3h 0.05 - 0.10
spec. power consumption1) kW/m2 0.005 - 0.010

1) installed capacity
The main criteria that are defining the size of a jet pulse bag filter are:
¨ maximum actual gas flow
¨ maximum permissible air to cloth ratio (A/C)
Table 3:Recommended A/C ration m3/m2h for jet pulse filters

Kiln Exhaust Gas Clinker Cooler Vent Air Cement Mill

with Cyclone without Cyclone
55 – 65 60 – 80 60 - 70 90

3.2.2 Bag Dimensions

Jet pulse bag filter bags are smaller than bags from reverse gas bag filters because of the different
cleaning principles. The diameters of the bags are usually between 130 and 150 mm. The length of the
bag should be between 4 and 3 meters, if a conventional gas flow pattern is applied, which means, that
the gas enters through the hopper and then flows upwards, along the bags. In newer applications, the gas
is distributed partially through the hopper and partially horizontally to the bags. Together with new low
pressure cleaning, here larger bags of up to 6 m are applicable.
Generally longer bags are more difficult to clean and have therefore an increased compressed air
consumption. It is also very difficult to remove a bag of more than 3 to 4 meters length if it is filled with
dust because of a hole in the felt.
3.2.3 Bag Material
As mentioned above, most bags for jet pulse filters are made with needle felt. This material allows a
higher air to cloth ratio and resist the stress of the jet cleaning. For some exceptions (mainly bypass bag
filter) and other high temperature applications, fiber glass bags are used which resist the high
temperature and the aggressive environment.
Experience during the last few years showed that jet pulse bag filter (operated at lower temperatures, <
130°C) are more reliable and economical than others. At temperatures below 130°C low cost bags like
polyester or polyacrylnitril bags can be applied and the power consumption of the filter fan is reduced as
well.
The still on-going fast development of fabrics significantly improved the performance of bag filters. Due to
this development it is possible to install very efficient bag filters at cost that are in the same range or
below the cost of EPs.
Special treatment of the bag fabric surface allows for more frequent cleaning without increased dust
emission. The smaller dust cake on the bags is reducing the pressure drop and therefore saves fan
power.
3.2.4 Maintenance of Jet Pulse BF (for Kiln and Clinker Cooler)
Except for the valves and dust discharge equipment jet pulse BF have no moving parts. The most
important aspect for maintenance are the bags. Holes in the bags can significantly increase the dust
emission. Defective bags in reverse gas BF are replaced on line by isolating the respective compartment.
Modern jet pulse BF do not need compartments like the reverse gas BF but usually consist of about 4 to 6
modules (static stability) with manual outlet and inlet valves for each module.
3.3 Reverse Gas Cleaning
The reverse air cleaned bag filters usually contain woven filter bags. The raw gas enters the bags from
the bottom. It flows from the bag center to the outside of the bag. The dust is deposited on the inner
surface of the bag. Removal efficiency is improved and maintained by these particulate deposits (residual
dust cake). With time excess particulates are deposited on the bags and increase the system resistance
to the gas flow (pressure loss).
To allow the filter fan to operate within the design parameters and to reduce the fan power consumption,
this dust cake must be partly removed. Bag cleaning methods must be designed properly - not over
cleaning or under cleaning.
The bag cleaning process is triggered either by a timer or, better, when the pressure drop over the bag
filter reaches some predetermined level. A reverse air bag filter consists of several compartments, usually
of more than ten. When the bag cleaning process is started, the outlet valves of one of the compartments
are closed (off-line cleaning). Then, an auxiliary fan forces a relatively gentle flow of filtered gas
backwards through the compartment and bags to be cleaned. This causes the bags to partially collapse
inward, dislodging the dustcake. This falls through the bags, the thimble and the tubesheet into the
hopper. Metal anticollapse rings sewn into the bags along their length prevent complete bag collapse.
Fig. 5 is a schematic of compartments in a reverse-gas-cleaned BF showing operation during filtering,
cleaning and purging prior to shut sown or maintenance. To support the cleaning of the bags low
frequency, pneumatic horns ca be installed and used simultaneously with the normal reverse gas flow.
Table 4: Typical data of reverse gas filter

Reverse gas pressure mbar 30 - 40

Reverse gas flow m3/m2h 2.0 - 3.5
Power consumption (installed capacity) kW/m2 ~ 0.0075

The new generation of jet-pulse filters have significantly reduced the pressure drop over the filter and the
maintenance cost compared to the reverse gas filters.
Figure 8: Schematic of a shake / deflate-cleaned baghouse filtering flue gas, isolated prior to bag
cleaning (null), with deflation gas entering the compartment prior to bag shaking, bag shaking and purging
(or ventilation) prior to maintenance

The main criteria that are defining the size of a reverse gas by filter are:
¨ maximum actual flow
¨ maximum permissible air to cloth ratio (A/C)
¨ number of compartments

Table 5:Recommended A/C m3/m2h for reverse gas filter (net, net)1)

Operating modeCompound Direct

Kiln exhaust gas 30 36

1) A) Because one compartment is usually isolated for reverse gas cleaning only the filtering
area of n-1 compartments are used to calculate the A/C (net).
B) The of the reverse gas must be added to the filter inlet flow to calculate the total gas flow
passing the bags and the A/C (net).
C) A) + B) ® A/C (net, net)

3.4 Comparison between Pulse Jet and Reverse Gas Cleaning

The following table shows a comparison between pulse jet and reverse gas cleaning. Recent experience
shows that the dedusting efficiency of jet pulse filters is the same as or better than the efficiency of
reverse gas filters. Investment and operating cost of jet pulse filters are significantly lower compared to
reverse gas filters.

Table 5:Comparison of jet pulse filter with reverse gas filter for 4-stage preheater:

Kiln Bag Filters

Jet Pulse Reverse Gas
Bag quality Polyacrylnitrile Fiber glass
Relative cost for one set of bags ~ 1 ~3-4
Pressure drop [mbar] ~ 8 – 12 ~ 10 - 20
Bag cleaning 2) [Wh/kg cli] ~ 0.6 - 0.8 ~ 1.1 - 1.5
CT water pump [Wh/kg cli] ~ 0.6 - 0.8 1) ---
Filter fan [kWh/kg cli] 2) ~ 6.7 - 7.5 ~ 6.5 - 9.0

1) 1) Only during direct operation 2) Installed capacity

Table 6: Comparison of Investment Cost

Value given for a 4-stages preheater, dust emission < 30 mg/Nm3, plant located in Europe
Figure 9 Injector Systems for Pulse Jet Baghouse Cleaning

Figure 10 3-D View on Jet Pulse Bag Filter with Low Clean Gas Plenum

Figure 11 Pulse jet Bag Filter designed for Off-line Cleaning with High Clean Gas Plenum

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
Arnaud De Luca
TPT 01/21071/E (Replaces report no. PT 96/14047/E)
Electrostatic Precipitator (EP)
1. How does an EP work?
2. How EP Efficiency is determined
3. How EP Clean Gas Dust Content is determined
3.1 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Raw Gas Dust Content (R)
3.2 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Gas Flow (Q)
3.3 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Total Projected Collecting Area (A)
3.4 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Migration Velocity (w)
4. HT-Rectifier
4.1 Semi-Pulse Energization
4.2 Pulse Energization
4.3 Improvement of Voltage and Current Wave Form Shape
5. Voltage-Current Curves
6. Minimisation of Electrostatic Precipitator Trips

Electrostatic Precipitator (EP)

Our companies, and thousands more throughout the world, faced with a substantial environmental
challenge over the next few years. Increased governmental regulation and enforcement of clean air laws
will require your air pollution control equipment to consistently meet rigid performance standards. And with
an electrostatic precipitator that is always a challenge.
1. HOW DOES AN EP WORK?
Fig. 3 shows a schematic drawing of an electrostatic precipitator. An industrial precipitator has a number
of passages through which the gases pass at a velocity of about 1 m/s. The passages are formed by two
parallel rows of vertically mounted collecting plates and a number of discharge electrodes vertically
suspended between the collecting plates.
Normally the spacing of the discharge and collecting electrodes varies between 125 and 200 mm and the
voltage applied between them is 35 to 110 kV negative DC according to spacing, gas and dust conditions.
The high negative voltage applied to the electrically insulated discharge electrodes creates a strong
electrical field between the discharge electrodes and the earthed collecting plates. The highest strength
occurs near the discharge electrodes. As the voltage is raised, electrical breakdown of the gas close to
the electrode surface takes place. This breakdown, called "corona", appears as a bluish glow extending
into the gas a short distance beyond the surface of the discharge electrode.
The corona produces large numbers of gas ions, the positive ions being immediately attracted to the
discharge electrodes while the negative ions migrate towards the collecting plates.
Some of the moving ions attach themselves to dust particles suspended in the gas between the
electrodes. Dust particles are charged either by bombardment by the ions moving under the influence of
the electrical field, or by ion diffusion, both types of charging taking place simultaneously. The particle size
determines which type of charging is predominant, ion diffusion being the prevailing mechanism for
particle sizes below 1 micron.
Through the influence of the electrical field, the negatively charged particles migrate towards the
collecting plate to which they adhere while being electrically discharged.
These particles build up a layer of dust on the plate surface which is dislodged by rapping.
The dislodged particles fall by gravity towards the bottom of the precipitator, ending up in the bottom
hopper from where the dust is extracted by either mechanical conveyor (drag chain or screw conveyor) or
pneumatic type system.

Figure 1 How electrostatic precipitators work

2. HOW EP EFFICIENCY IS DETERMINED

There have been many attempts over the years to develop satisfactory equations based on fundamental
theories in order to enable the efficiency of a precipitator to be forecast. They are contained in a large
number of technical papers, which are conveniently summarized in H.E. White's book entitled "Industrial
Electrostatic Precipitation". Generally the performance of EPs can be expressed by the following Deutsch
formula:
2)
or
3)
where
= Efficiency of the electrical precipitator
= Particle migration velocity (m/s)
A = Total projected collecting area (m2)
Q = Gas flow (m3/s)
L = Field length (m)
v = Gas velocity (m/s)
s = Distance between collecting and discharge electrodes (m)

From equation 3 it follows that the dedusting efficiency of a precipitator depends on:
I the migration velocity w (m/s)
II the total projected collecting area A (m2)
III the gas flow Q (m3/s)
3. HOW EP CLEAN GAS DUST CONTENT IS DETERMINED
If equations 1 and 3 are combined then one can describe the clean gas dust content r in function of
R the raw gas dust content (g/m3)
the migration velocity (cm/s)
A the total projected collecting area (m2)
Q the gas flow (m3/h)
 [mg/m3] 4)

3.1 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Raw Gas Dust Content (R)
With respect to equation 4, one would expect that the raw gas dust content (R) is directly proportional to
the clean gas dust content (r). However, because the migration velocity is increasing with R, the effect of
R on r is much weaker than expected.
Figure 2 Example of correlation between raw gas dust content R and clean gas dust content r

3.2 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Gas Flow (Q)
The equation 4 shows that r is an exponential function of the inverse gas flow (Q). However, the migration
velocity () is also influenced by the gas flow. Therefore, the correlation of r and Q is not exactly according
to the equation 4 with = constant.
Figure 3 Example of a correlation between gas flow Q and clean gas dust content r for a modern
kiln EP during compound operation

At relative gas flows above 100%, r is increasing exponentially because of the exponential correlation of r
and Q (equation 4) and the amplifying effect of turbulence and dust re-entrainment from the collecting
plates.
The latter is overlaid by other effects mainly based on physical and chemical changes of the particulates
caused by the lower clean gas dust content (r).
At this point we already realize that the calculation of r is very complex because, unfortunately, migration
velocity w is not constant but a function of R, Q and other variables.
3.3 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Total Projected Collecting Area (A)
The total projected collecting area (A) is

[m2] 5)

where
l = Length of field (m)
h = Height of field (m)
G = Number of gaps of one field (-)
F = Number of fields (-)

The factor of 2 is required because both sides of the collecting electrodes are active during the dust
extraction process.
The correlation between A and r is about inverse to the correlation between Q and r (see equation 4). It is
important to notice that the required collecting area is increasing exponentially with the reduction of the
clean gas dust content.

Figure 4 Correlation between the projected collecting area A and the clean gas dust content r

3.4 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Migration Velocity (w)
Among the variables in equation 4 the migration velocity is the one with by far the most practical
significance. Not because it has a stronger impact on r than the others (see equation 4) but because it
represents the effect of all other variables besides Q, R and A on the EP efficiency.
Figure 5 Clean gas dust content r in function of the migration velocity w

The migration velocity can, somewhat simplified, be understood as the average velocity of the dust
particles in their migration from the discharge to the collecting electrode in the electrostatic field.
The migration velocity (w) itself is a function of many other variables like
¨ Nature of dust
· Electrical resistivity
· Size
Gas condition
· Temperature
· Volume
· Humidity
· Chemical composition
· Dust load
· False Air
¨ Energization of electrical fields
· Voltage
· Current
¨ EP design
· Gas distribution
· Electrode design
· Electrode cleaning

and these are only the most important ones.

With this information we can rewrite equation 4 as follows:
6)
For most of the mentioned variables there exist empirical graphs describing the correlation between the
variables and w. Some of these graphs were published but others are the secrets of the suppliers.
Various attempts to calculate w theoretically were not successful.
3.4.0.1 Electrical Resistivity of Dust
The electrical resistivity of the dust particles plays a very important part in the precipitation process and
depends mainly on the type of the dust, the gas temperature and the gas humidity.
Figure 6 Dust resistivity in function of temperature and dust source

Three ranges of electrical resistivity can be distinguished:

¨ less than 104 W cm
¨ 104 to 1011 W cm
¨ more than 1011W cm
For particles having a resistivity of less than 104 W cm the electrical conductivity is so high that although
they are charged in the normal manner and move normally under the influence of the electrical field, the
attainable dedusting efficiency is poor. The reason thereof is that as soon as they reach the collecting
electrodes, the electric charge leaks away so rapidly that the particles are repelled into the gas stream
and most likely escape with the outlet gases.
Dust types belonging to the range comprised between 104 and 1011 W cm show a favorable discharge
behavior. This means that neither particle repulsion nor back-ionisation occurs, i.e. the particles are nicely
deposited on - and sufficiently attached to the collecting electrode.
Cement industry dusts usually belong to these "easily" separating dusts. Dusts stemming from long dry
process kilns, suspension preheater kilns and grate clinker coolers, however, may occasionally develop
dedusting problems.
Particles having resistivities of more than 1011 - 1012 W cm can form within a very short period of time
an electrically insulating layer on the collecting electrodes leading to the so-called back-ionisation (back
corona) effect. With "back-ionisation" already captured dust is forced back into the gas flow and a
reasonable dedusting efficiency of the precipitator becomes impossible to obtain.
Figure 7 Back ionization of dust particles at high electrical resistivities

Dust resistivity at temperatures below 200°C is primarily determined by the amount of moisture present in
the gas. Therefore, a wet kiln will have a much lower resistivity than a standard long, dry or a preheater
kiln. In fact that was the reason why a water spray / conditioning tower was added to these kiln systems to
tread the exhaust gas.
The variation of the resistivity as a function of the moisture content of the raw gas is due to an extremely
thin conditioning layer on the particle surface which modifies the resistivity of the dust.
At higher temperatures (above 350°C) the particles become increasingly conductive and the gas
composition ceases to have much effect as a such.
Figure 8 Dust resistivity in function of the temperature and the dew point

At middle-range temperatures of about 200 to 250°C the resistivity curve of some dust reaches a
maximum.
Figure 9 Dust removal efficiency as a function of the EP operating temperature

3.4.0.2 Size of Dust Particulates

According to Stoke's law for particles larger than 1 mm, the migration velocity is directly proportional to
the particulates diameter.
Figure 10: Dedusting efficiency in function of the particle size

A dust with a mass mean diameter of 10 microns would require a precipitator only one-third the size of a
system collecting dust with a mass mean diameter of two microns. As you can see, v goes down when it
is dealing with particulate in the 0.5 micron range and then starts to improve in efficiency when the
particulate gets smaller (say 0.05 microns). That has to do with the two principals of particle charging
which predominate in a precipitator. Field charging predominance for particulate greater than 1 micron in
size and diffusion charging predominates for particulate less than 1 micron in size. That range around 1
micron is kind of a no-man's land where neither field charging nor diffusion charging has much effect.
That is why the efficiency drops dramatically and then improves once the particles get even smaller.
What are other consequences for the EP operation based on the correlation between v and particle size:
¨ EPs are classifying the incoming dust. The coarse particles are found in the first fields and the
fine fraction in the last fields.

This classifying of the dust can be used to extract selectively a dust portion enriched with condensibles
like K2O, SO3 and heavy metals, thus avoiding generation of larger quantities of "contaminated" dust or
enrichment of certain compounds in the process.
¨ Fine dust particulates and condensibles can be accumulated in the system and reduce the EP
efficiency if they are not extracted from the last field.
¨ The particle diameter of the clean gas dust is generally below 10 mm.
3.4.0.3 Gas Temperature T
Gas and particulate temperature are usually the same because the particulates are suspended in the gas
and the retention time of particulates in the gas is sufficient to reach a temperature equilibration.
The influence of the gas temperature T is mainly:
¨ Increased dust resistivity W at higher temperatures below 250°C (see para 1.3.4.2)
¨ Decreased dust resistivity W at higher temperatures above 250°C (see para 1.3.4.2)
¨ Increased actual gas flow Q at higher temperatures (see para 1.3.2)
3.4.0.4 Gas Humidity (dew point t)
The water of the raw gas is originating from:
¨ Combustion (4 CmHn + (4 m+n) O2 -> 4 m CO2 + 2n H2O)
¨ Water in ambient air
¨ Water in raw materials
¨ Water injection for gas conditioning

The dew point can be calculated as follows:

[°C] 7)
where:
Vf = Volume fraction of water vapour in the wet gas (m3 H2O / m3wet gas)
Ptot = Total pressure (bar)
As described in para 1.3.4.1 the dew point is influencing the electrical resistivity of the dust particulates at
temperatures below 250°C. This is responsible for the increased efficiency of the EP at higher dew points
Figure 11 Example for clean gas dust content in function of the dew point t at temperatures below
250°C

The figure above shows the strong effect of gas dew point t on EP efficiency h if no back ionization
occurs. With back ionization the clean gas dust content r would increase even faster at lower dew points.
A typical example for the influence of the dew point are preheater kilns switching from compound
operation (mill on) to direct operation (mill off). When the raw mill is in service, the moisture conditioning
(11 % to 12 % at 110°C) of the gas is optimum. When the raw mill goes off line, the spray tower preceding
both the raw mill and the EP cannot catch up quickly enough to increase the volume of water to make up
for the moisture content lost when the raw mill goes down.
3.4.0.5 Gas Composition (not including water vapour)
The gas composition of clinker cooler vent air is fairly simple, however, the composition of kiln exhaust
gas is a complicated cocktail of many different compounds.
Some compounds like SO2 can enhance the EP operation by reducing the resistivity of the particulate
surface.
Others like organic compounds or condensible alkalis reduce the EP efficiency. It is assumed that organic
compounds attached to the particulate surface can increase their resistivity. Condensible alkalis can occur
as very fine particulates < 10 mm significantly reducing the average migration velocity.
Condensibles like chlorides can increase the stickiness of the deposited dust on the electrodes which
leads to thicker dust layers on the electrodes. This would increase the total electrical resistivity of the dust
layer and therefore reduce the EP efficiency.
3.4.0.6 Gas Dust Load S, r and R
An increased raw gas dust load R has a positive effect on the migration velocity but cannot fully
compensate the raise in the clean gas dust content according to equation 4.
An increase of the clean gas dust content r is also increasing the migration velocity. According to the
explanation under para 1.3.4.2 the lower the clean gas dust emission is the lower is the diameter of the
dust particulates and smaller dust particulates have a slower migration velocity v than larger ones.
Therefore, the required collecting area A is increasing exponentially with the reduced clean gas dust
content r (see Fig. 6).
3.4.0.7 Energization of the EP
The collection efficiency of a precipitator is directly related to the total power for all fields on the
precipitator. In general, the higher operating power levels that each field can achieve, the higher collection
efficiency for that field.
Figure 12 Example for clean gas dust content r in function of the relative power input

Many people believe that a precipitator cannot work (achieve power levels) unless the gas is loaded with
dust. This question can be easily examined by energizing any field of an EP in air. By that, it is meant that
the kiln is not in operation, and that the temperatures have settled to ambient conditions. Furthermore, the
precipitator is not bottled up and dampers are open, allowing for a natural stack draft through the
precipitator. It is important to have some air movement in order to obtain a good "air load".
When a precipitator is energized in air, the following results could be obtained:
Table 1:Example of energization of an electrical field of an EP under pure air (without dust)

Precipitator Secondary Voltage (kV) Precipitator Secondary Current (mA)

0
1
5
10
15
16.5
24
28
30.6
33.5
34
35.2
36.3
36.8 0
0
0
0
0
1
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
750

Actual results are dependent on T/R set size, type of high voltage electrode, and the electrical clearance
between the electrodes.
The mA readings are synonymous with the actual current flowing in the precipitator. Current flowing in a
circuit is equivalent to the number of electrons that are moving past the point in that circuit.
For current to flow in a precipitator, that means that electrons need to flow from the discharge electrode to
the collecting electrodes in the precipitator. That means that the air in the precipitator must become a
conductor. It is easy to think of the various conductors and realize that an insulator is a very poor
conductor, a piece of copper wire is an excellent conductor, and an energized precipitator is somewhere
in between. The air load demonstrates that current does not start to flow in a precipitator until (in this
case) a voltage of 16.5 kV is achieved. That voltage is referred to as the corona onset voltage.
With moderate increases in voltage, a correspondingly increasing current results. If the alignment is
correct between the electrodes in the precipitator, then the air load test should achieve either the primary
or secondary current rating of the T/R set being energized. In the above example, we ran out of
secondary current (705 mA) first.
Therefore, in order to get corona discharge in a precipitator, dust particles are not required. However, the
concentration of particulate has a dramatic effect on the power levels in the precipitator. The term "space
charge" is used to indicate a precipitator field that is collecting a significant number of fine particles or a
heavy concentration of large particles. For our example, we will examine the latter, which is a common
occurrence in cement plant precipitator applications.
Space charge - high dust concentrations
As we saw in the section on air load, since there are no particles (dust) in the inter electrode space, there
can be no space charge. However, with the influence of a large concentration of large particles, see what
affect it has on these two wet process cement kilns. Kiln No. 1 has a cyclone mechanical collector in
series with the precipitator, whereas kiln No. 2 does not. The automatic voltage controls for those two
precipitators were found to be operating as follows:

Table 2:Energization of two EPs with different dust loads Kiln No. 1: low dust load, kiln No. 2: high dust
load

Unit Amps Volts mA kV kW Sparks/Minute

Kiln No. 1-1 123 337 664 50.1 27 0
Kiln No. 1-2 142 247 758 36.2 23 0

Kiln No. 2-1 9 232 39 57.5 1a 20

Kiln No. 2-2 16 324 71 52.0 2 14
Kiln No. 2-3 115 465 940 48.0 38 3
Kiln No. 2-4 120 346 924 35.1 28 0

Because kiln No. 2 does not have the mechanical collector preceding it, the dust loading (concentration)
is significantly higher than kiln No. 1. The voltage control readings show the affect of space charge.
Space charge is indicated by high voltages, but more importantly, by extremely low current. It is the
absence of current flow that can be of significance.
When asked what is the more important parameter, precipitator voltage (kV) or precipitator current (mA),
often times people will say kV. They are partially correct in most cases, but not in this case. Precipitator
voltage is responsible for pushing the dust particles toward the plates. Current is responsible for keeping
them there. So although kiln No. 2, field 1 has a lot of pushing forced, (57.5), it has no holding force. Most
of the dust re-entrains onto the next field.
The other important point to note is that sparking in a precipitator (an electrical breakdown of the gas) is
directly related to the precipitator voltage levels. That is why inlet fields have sparking (because of the
high kV) whereas outlet fields sometimes do not.
If one looks at the flow of current from the transformer / rectifier to set to the high voltage electrodes
through the dust laden gas, to the collecting plate and back to the T/R set (through earth ground) as
shown in Fig. 15 the effect of the ion mobility may become apparent.
The air load demonstrated that in air without dust, the main current carriers are the free electrons and the
negative ions. These two characters can be compared to running backs on a football team. They are very
swift moving and seek the holes, and the mA meter counts a lot of them during an air load.
With the introduction of dust into the precipitator, the ion mobility changes dramatically. The charged
particles, which move very slowly, establish a "particulate space charge" in the inter electrode space. Fig.
15 gives an idea of their relative velocity.
The affects of high space charge can be both influential and detrimental. On the positive side, high
voltages created by space charge in turn create higher "electric fields". The electric field is the pushing
force against the dust particles, accelerating them towards the collecting plates. Higher accelerations
toward the collecting plates can result in increased efficiencies.
However, as in our example in table 2, kiln No. 2 was operating with very low current levels. Therefore,
the space charge enhanced the particulate collecting field (high voltages), but also contributed towards a
suppression of the corona current. Corona current directly affects particle charging. The higher the
particle charging ensure that the dust loss due to particle re-entrainment is diminished. If the corona is
suppressed, this can promote re-entrainment. That is the case on kiln No. 2.
Figure 13 Relative velocity (mobility) of current carriers

The peak value of the precipitator voltage is limited by the dielectric constant of the gas. The arc-over
voltage is the only value which determines the maximum possible precipitator voltage. The total power
input and therefore the EP efficiency h are strongly influenced by the applied voltage.
8)
where
Im = Mean secondary current
Up = Secondary peak voltage
Uv = Average secondary voltage
The factors determining the maximum possible precipitator voltage can change quickly. Therefore, the
efficiency of the automatic voltage control, that is adjusting the voltage to operate at the maximum value,
is directly correlated with the EP efficiency.
The functioning of HT-rectifiers and automatic voltage control is explained in para 1.4.
The electrical operating behaviour is also changing over the length of the field. Gas turbulence and
distribution, dust content and particulate size at the EP inlet are very different from the ones at the EP
exit. Therefore, to optimize the energization of the EP the electrodes should be subdivided mechanically
and electrically in the length direction.
Figure 14 Clean gas dust content r in function of the number of independent electrical fields at
constant collecting area A
3.4.0.8 EP Design
The equipment parts with the main influence on the migration velocity are:
¨ Gas distribution screens
¨ Electrode
¨ Electrode cleaning systems
Gas distribution
In general terms the ducting leading to the precipitator and the inlet and outlet funnels should be designed
to ensure a proper gas velocity distribution in view of utilizing the whole collecting area and avoiding
negative velocity effects. From a practical viewpoint this implies different requirements to the gas
distribution in the different parts of the precipitator, and too strictly formulated numerical rules for deviation
from uniformity may not be justified.
The inlet gas distribution must be sufficiently uniform to secure a reasonable uniform current distribution.
This is especially important for precipitators for processes with high resistivity dust and fine particles. A
rule of thumb says that the standard deviation of the gas velocities in the EP should be below 30%.
The velocity profile at the outlet should be specifically selected to reduce the risk of re-entrainment in the
bottom region.
Sneakage of dust laden gases around the electrically energized electrode system must be kept at an
absolute minimum, in particular at the bottom part of the precipitator. And large eddies in the bottom
hoppers caused by the velocity "slip" at the bottom of the electrode system may aggravate the influence
from sneakage because particles already picked up by the hopper are swept into the main flow again.
High local velocities may scour away already precipitated dust from the collecting plates. In this case a
good gas distribution combined with high average velocity may not be superior to a bad gas distribution
combined with low average velocity.
The gas distribution may influence the dust space charge distribution and thereby the current distribution
in a separately energized precipitator field. In areas with low velocities or, in extreme situations, areas
with recirculating flow, the particle concentration will be much lower than in corresponding areas with
higher velocities. Consequently the power input will be limited in the high velocity areas causing a
reduction in overall efficiency. In particular with high resistivity dust such uneven current distribution will
cause back ionization and frequent sparking, resulting in lower average voltage and current and
increased dust re-entrainment. Due to the turbulence the gas distribution in each separate duct will tend
to improve through the precipitator, thus smoothing the dust space charge. However, a skew cross
distribution at the field inlet will not be smoothed to the same extent, and so the horizontal gas distribution
should be fairly uniform in order to maintain a proper current distribution.
Finally, high local gas velocity, combined with high dust content, can result in erosion of the edges of the
collecting plates and other internal parts of the EP. Low gas velocity can cause dust build ups.
The cross section of an ideal EP should be designed to achieve an average gas velocity of
¨ Kilns 0.8 - 1.0 m/s
¨ Clinker coolers 0.7 - 0.9 m/s
The gas velocity should not drop below 0.5 m/s to maintain a suitable gas distribution.
Electrode design
The electrodes have two duties. First emission of electrons (discharge electrode) and second the
collection of the dust (collecting plate).
The energization of the fields or in other words the supply with voltage and current is influenced by the
discharge electrode design. Various electrode designs to achieve optimum voltage or / and current are
employed by the suppliers. An important factor is the corona onset voltage which depends mainly on the
radius of the electrode (plan strips) or the radius of spike peaks. The corona onset voltage is increasing
with the above mentioned radius.
Figure 15 Corona discharge voltage in function of the discharge electrode radius

In applications, where a high current is required (high dust load, low resistivity), the electrode radius
should be small. In situations, where current must be reduced and voltage increased (high resistivity dust
-> back corona) electrodes with larger radius (without peaks) can improve the efficiency.
Since corona discharge is also greatly affected by dust settling, the discharge electrodes need rapping,
which means that their oscillation behaviour is of utmost importance. Best results have been obtained
with rigid frame-mounted electrodes or rigid electrodes.
For maximum collection efficiency, the collecting plates must be rigid to maintain the critical spacing
between the different electrodes and withstand bowing during operation. At the same time, they must
facilitate the efficient transfer of rapping energy for effective cleaning. Not optimum cleaning can
amplitude back corona effects and generally reduce the EP efficiency.
4. HT-RECTIFIER
The High Voltage Rectifiers are responsible for optimum energization of the EP under different operating
conditions. Optimum energization means:
¨ Clean gas dust content r below the target
¨ Minimum energy consumption

The precipitator energization has a very strong influence on precipitator collection efficiency. As a result of
this recognition, the microprocessor-based controller for precipitator high voltage power supplies have in
recent years become the general standard. These programmable, fast reacting, digital controllers can
implement sophisticated control strategies through their monitoring of secondary current and voltages,
including differentiation of reactions according to type of arc or spark in the precipitator, arc quenching,
fast voltage recovery after arcing without reignition of the arc, automatic current limitation to the nominal
current at overload or short circuit conditions and operation at a precipitator current level just below the
onset of "back corona". They continuously control flash-over rate and power input to the precipitator for
optimum performance.
Figure 16 Automatic voltage adjustment. Behavior of EP voltage at constant arc-over limit

Most microprocessor-based transformer / rectifier controllers have or can easily be supplemented with an
option for semi-pulse energization, as described in the following:
4.1 Semi-Pulse Energization
An inexpensive method for reduction of precipitator power consumption, and in some instances also
improvement of precipitator performance, is also known under various trade names such as semi-pulse
intermittent energization and energy-control.
Semi-pulse energization is implemented at a conventional thyristor controlled full wave transformer /
rectifier simply by suppressing for instance two out of three, or four out of five half waves. The ripple of
the precipitator voltage hereby becomes more pronounced than with conventional energization, resulting
in a voltage wave form that resembles a DC base voltage superimposed with long duration pulses.
The intermittent nature of the corona discharges gives this form of energization certain properties
resembling those of the later discussed pulse energization. Semi-pulse has, in some cases, been able to
improve the performance of precipitators operating with medium to high resistivity dust, but as a rule not
to the same degree as pulse energization. Its main advantage is the resulting power savings. Power
saving up to 90% and emission reduction of up to 50% were reported.
Figure 17 Voltage wave form for semi-pulse energization

4.2 Pulse Energization

Advances in high-power switching technology in recent years have made it possible to develop pulse
energization systems with sufficient reliability and capacity to energize large precipitators.
With pulse energization short duration, high voltage pulses are repetitively superimposed on a DC base
voltage. Some energy conserving pulse energization systems utilize pulses with a duration in the order of
100 microseconds and pulse repetition frequencies up to 200 pulses per second.
Pulse energization makes it possible to attain more favorable electrical conditions for high resistivity dust
than is obtainable with conventional DC energization. Pulse energization, therefore, can successfully be
used to improve the performance of an existing precipitator operating with high resistivity dust or to
reduce the size of a new precipitator installation for a high resistivity application, as for instance with the
so-called "hot" precipitators for kilns. Power saving of up to 90% and emission reduction of up to 60%
were reported.

Figure 18 Voltage wave form for pulse energization

4.3 Improvement of Voltage and Current Wave Form Shape
Modern precipitator power supplies include silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR's) and current limiting
reactors (CLR's). SCR's and CLR's are designed to produce an optimum energization of the EP at one
specified process condition. Since it is known that this condition can change very frequently, the current
and voltage input have to be adjusted continuously. Operation of CLR's at conditions which are not
according to the design specifications can produce a poor current wave form shape (poor form factor)
which leads to a reduced power input. This can be corrected with a variable inductance current limiting
reactor (VI-CLR).
Figure 19 Improving wave form shape with variable inductance current limiting reactor

Another more expensive way to increase the power input is the utilization of a 3-phase energization. The
transformer is operated with a square wave voltage with a frequency of 500 Hz. This produces a very flat
direct voltage that can under certain circumstances result in a higher power input. Unfortunately, very little
experience is available for this system.
Figure 20 Improving current wafe form shape with 3-phase energization

Intelligent EP control systems do limit the power input if additional power input does not result in
significantly reduced dust emission (see Fig. 14).
5. VOLTAGE-CURRENT CURVES
A voltage-current curve to a precipitator troubleshooter is like a stethoscope to a cardiologist. When a
precipitator is running, we cannot see what is happening inside that might affect its performance.
However, by a close examination of the relationship between the voltage and current levels in the
operating precipitator, one can predict what is affecting performance.
A V-I curve is run by taking the voltage controls to zero then slowly increasing the power levels, recording
both the kilovolts and milliamps at convenient intervals (usually 50 mA or 100 mA) until the voltage control
sparks over. A curve can then be drawn from the points collected utilizing the "X" axis for the kilovolts and
the "Y" axis for the milliamps. Some typical V-I curves for a dry process cement kiln are shown on Fig. 23.
Note that the voltage and current corresponding to each field reflects the voltage and current relationships
as first shown in Table 2 of our precipitator example.
When there are problems with the operation of the precipitator, Fig. 24, would be more helpful for
troubleshooting. For example, the high resistivity dust as indicated by low current levels in the outlet fields
may show up as the "moderately high" dust resistivity curve shown on Fig. 24. This short, stubby curve
shows corona onset voltage as normal (say around 18 kV), but current level only increases to a very low
level as opposed to the way an outlet field should, as shown on Fig. 23.
This contrasts with a misalignment of the electrodes (wire-to-plate spacing) in the precipitator.
Misalignment exhibits itself by a very low corona onset voltage (the electrical clearance is decreased),
and the spark over.
These curves can also be utilized to show if there is excessive dust buildup on the high voltage
electrodes. Excessive dust buildup exhibits itself almost as if the wire diameter of the high voltage
electrode has been increased. Dust buildup on the wire has the same effect of increasing the corona
onset voltage from the normal range of 15 - 20 kV on up to 25 to 35 kV. The problem with wire buildup is
that you are not able to achieve as high a current as if the wires were clean. Remember, a precipitator
needs both high voltage and high current levels.

Figure 21 Normal precipitator voltage-current (V-I) curves

Figure 22 Abnormal precipitator current-voltage curves

Table 3: Influence of some variables on EP's dedusting efficiency

 Variables Variation Efficiency Dust Emission
Raw gas dust content R ì ì ì
Gas flow Q ì î ì
Collecting area A ì ì î
Electrical resistivity of the dust W ì î/ä ì/æ
Temperature T1 (<200°C) ì î ì
Temperature T2 (>300°C ì ì î
Particle size Æ (> 1 mm) ì ì î
Humidity (t) ì ì î
Organic emission c ì î ì
Power input P ì ì î
Standard deviation of gas distribution ì î ì
Misalignment of electrodes ì î ì
Speed of the controller for EP energization ì ì î

6. MINIMISATION OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR TRIPS

Electrostatic precipitators (EP) for dedusting of kiln/raw mill exhaust gases are normally protected against
gas explosions by installing a shut-off CO-level. If the CO concentration in the exhaust gas rises above a
defined level, the EP fields are shut off to suppress sparks in the EP that could trigger an explosion.
Grounding (shutting off) the EP results in dramatically increased dust emissions, observed as a huge dust
cloud hanging over the plant.
Therefore, HMC-TPT and ETPS have elaborated guidelines for a systematic approach, which will allow
any plant to reduce the number of EP trips due to CO peaks excluding those produced by power failures
to below 5 trips per year (objective). The approach consists of three steps:
1. Assessment of the current situation with respect to all main factors influencing EP trips.
2. Comparison of the current situation with the desired, optimum situation (gap analysis) and
identification of the optimization potential and priorities
3. Optimization according to (2.), which may include:
· Process optimization for minimization of the CO levels
· Optimization of the CO analysis system to assure availability, reliability and speed of information
on CO levels
· Optimization of the reaction to the measured CO levels, e.g. fact based CO limit or optimized EP
power management.

Figure 23: 3 Phases to minimise electrostatic precipitator trips

These 3 phases are developed and detailed in a handbook that can be directly used in the plants in order
to improve the situation.
“Handbook for Minimization of Electrostatic Precipitator Trips”, report TPT 01/21056/E
Figure 24 Longitudinal Section of a 2-Field EP (Lurgi)

Figure 25: 3D view on a 2-Field EP (ELEX)

Figure 26 Insulator Chamber FLS (Type C)

Figure 27 Electrode System (Lurgi)

Figure 28 Collecting Electrode Rapping System (Lurgi)

Figure 29 Suspension and Rapping of Discharge System (Lurgi)

Figure 30 Gas Distribution Screen (FLS)

Figure 31 Dust Removal System (FLS)

Dedusting Concepts for Cement Kilns

Arnaud De Luca
TPT 01/21071/E (Replaces report no. PT 96/14047/E)
1. Concept 1
1.1 Kiln Exhaust Gas
1.2 Clinker Cooler
2. Concept 2
2.1 Kiln Exhaust Gas
2.2 Clinker Cooler
3. Concept 3
3.1 Kiln Exhaust Gas
3.2 Clinker Cooler
4. Concept 4
4.1 Kiln Exhaust Gas
4.2 Clinker Cooler
5. Concept 5
5.1 Kiln Exhaust Gas and Clinker Cooler Vent Air
6. Conclusion

Dedusting Concepts for Cement Kilns

Because of the changing needs and the different filter and cement production technologies, the concepts
for cement kiln dedusting are numerous. Each of them has certain advantages and disadvantages.
The dedusting of preheater kilns with waste heat utilization (raw mill) and great cooler is the most difficult
case. Therefore, the following examples will be based on such a modern cement kiln system.
Chart 1 shows the different possible dedusting concepts. Within the presented concepts there is still some
differentiation possible; e.g. the bag filter concepts can be further differentiated by the fabric quality or the
type of pulse jet that is applied.
Figure 1 Different dedusting concepts

It can be seen that the first decision which must be made is, if the kiln and clinker cooler shall be
dedusted separately or in one common filter. The standard solution is to use two filters, one for the kiln
and one for the cooler, but we will see later that the simultaneous dedusting in one filter has some
important advantages.
1. CONCEPT 1
Separate dedusting of kiln exhaust gas and clinker cooler vent air.
1.1 Kiln Exhaust Gas
1.1.1 Concept
¨ Conditioning tower before ID fan to cool the exhaust gas to below 150°C during direct operation
¨ 3 fan system (separate raw mill fan and cyclones)
¨ Electrostatic precipitator without pre-separation chamber
1.1.2 Advantages
¨ Length of duct between preheater and conditioning tower very short because the conditioning
tower is placed ahead of the ID fan. Therefore, the investment costs are reduced.
¨ Improved raw mill control because of separate mill fan
¨ Possibly reduced operating cost compared to bag filter
¨ Less false air intake and danger of corrosion at the electrostatic precipitator because of small
negative static pressure (due to 3 fan system)
¨ No precollection required at the filter (due to raw mill cyclones)
1.1.3 Disadvantages
¨ Strong load changes on the ID fan because of different gas temperatures during direct and
compound operation (due to conditioning tower before ID fan)
¨ More false air intake into conditioning tower and higher corrosion risk because of strong negative
static pressure (60 - 40 mbar) compared to conditioning tower positioned after ID fan
¨ Over all dedusting efficiency of electrostatic precipitator is lower compared to bag filter
1.2 Clinker Cooler
1.2.1 Concept
¨ Electrostatic precipitator
1.2.2 Advantage
¨ Possibly reduced operating and investment cost
1.2.3 Disadvantage
¨ Efficiency of electrostatic precipitator is lower compared to bag filter

Figure 2 Concept 1

2. CONCEPT 2
Separate dedusting of kiln exhaust gas and clinker cooler vent air.
2.1 Kiln Exhaust Gas
2.1.1 Concept
¨ Conditioning tower before ID fan to cool the exhaust gas to below 150°C during direct operation
¨ 2 fan system (no separate raw mill fan and cyclones)
¨ Electrostatic precipitator
2.1.2 Advantages
¨ Length of duct between preheater and conditioning tower very short because the conditioning
tower is placed ahead of the ID fan. Therefore, the investment costs are reduced.
¨ Slightly reduced pressure drop between ID fan and filter fan because of missing raw mill cyclones
(compare Concept 1)
¨ Possibly reduced operating and investment cost compared to bag filters
2.1.3 Disadvantages
¨ Strong load changes on the ID fan because of different gas temperatures during direct and
compound operation.
¨ Increased false air intake and corrosion at the filter because of very strong negative static
pressure
¨ Electrostatic precipitator need separate precollector chamber
¨ Efficiency of electrostatic precipitators is lower compared to bag filter
¨ Gas recirculation to operate raw mill is increasing the required filter size (due to 2 fan system)
2.2 Clinker Cooler
¨ See concept 1

Figure 3 Concept 2

3. CONCEPT 3
Separate dedusting of kiln exhaust gas and clinker cooler vent air.
3.1 Kiln Exhaust Gas
3.1.1 Concept
¨ Fresh air intake before and / or after the ID fan to cool the exhaust gas to below 240°C
¨ 3 fan system (separate raw mill fan and cyclones)
¨ Reverse gas bag filter
3.1.2 Advantages
¨ No cooling tower and water injection required
¨ Higher overall dedusting efficiency than electrostatic precipitator
¨ Simple filter inlet temperature control
¨ Reduced corrosion in the filter because of high operating temperature and low dew point
¨ No precollection required at the filter (due to raw mill cyclones)
3.1.3 Disadvantage
¨ Higher operating cost than electrostatic precipitator and jet pulse bag filter
¨ Very large filter
¨ If the temperature control fails it is possible to burn the bags
¨ With a bad design it is possible that the pressure drop over the filter is increasing to a point where
the capacity of the filter fan is not sufficient anymore to pull the gases
3.2 Clinker Cooler
3.2.1 Concept
¨ Cooling of the vent air with air to air heat exchanger (designed for up set conditions)
¨ Jet pulse bag filter; preferably equipped with polyester bags
3.2.2 Advantage
¨ The air to air heat exchanger serves as a compensator in case of upset conditions and allows
therefore a very smooth operation of the filter.
¨ Higher overall dedusting efficiency compared to EP
3.2.3 Disadvantage
¨ If air to air heat exchanger and the jet pulse are designed properly, there are no real
disadvantages in this concept. With a bad design it is possible to damage the bags during heat
excursions or to increase the pressure drop over the filter up to the point where the capacity of the filter
fan is not anymore sufficient to pull the gases.
Figure 4 Concept 3

4. CONCEPT 4
Separate dedusting of the kiln exhaust gas and clinker cooler vent air.
4.1 Kiln Exhaust Gas
4.1.1 Concept
¨ Cooling tower before ID fan to reduce the temperature to below 150°C during direct operation
¨ Fresh air intake to reduce the gas temperature to below 120°C
¨ 3 fan system (separate raw mill fan and cyclones)
¨ Jet pulse bag filter; preferably with polyacrylnitrile bags.
4.1.2 Advantages
¨ Length of duct between preheater and conditioning tower very short because the conditioning
tower is placed ahead of the ID fan. Therefore, the investment costs are reduced.
¨ Good mill control because of separate mill fan
¨ Reduced investment and operating cost compared to reverse gas bag filter
¨ Less false air intake and reduced corrosion risk at the filter because of low negative static
pressure (due to 3 fan system).
¨ No precollection required at the filter (due to raw mill cyclones)
4.1.3 Disadvantages
¨ Strong load changes on the ID fan because of different gas temperatures during direct and
compound operation
¨ More false air intake into cooling tower and higher corrosion risk because of strong negative static
pressure 860 - 40 mbar) compared to CT after ID fan
¨ Slightly higher pressure drop between ID fan and filter fan because of the raw mill cyclones
¨ Very reliable temperature control required to protect the bags
¨ Higher risk for corrosion at filter because of low operating temperature
¨ With a bad design it is possible that the pressure drop over the filter is increasing to a point where
the capacity of the filter fan is not sufficient anymore to pull the gases.
4.2 Clinker Cooler
See Concept 3.

Figure 5 Concept 4

5. CONCEPT 5
Simultaneous dedusting of the kiln exhaust gas and clinker cooler vent air in one jet pulse filter.
5.1 Kiln Exhaust Gas and Clinker Cooler Vent Air
5.1.1 Concept
¨ Reduction of the clinker cooler vent air dust concentration in a cyclone
¨ Direct operation: mixing of the clinker cooler vent air with kiln exhaust gas and reducing the
temperature to below 120°C in an air to air heat exchanger
Compound operation: reducing the clinker cooler vent air temperature and mixing it with the exhaust gas
from the raw mill in a air to air heat exchanger
¨ 3 fan system (separate raw mill fan and cyclone)
¨ Jet pulse bag filter preferably with polyacrylnitrile bags
5.1.2 Advantages
¨ Only one filter
¨ No cooling tower
¨ No water injection
¨ Simple temperature control
¨ Reduced gas volume compared to all other solutions
¨ No precollection required at the filter (due to raw mill cyclones)
¨ Good mill control because of separate mill fan
¨ Reduced investment and operating cost compared to the other bag filter concepts
¨ Less false air intake and reduced corrosion risk at the filter because of low negative static
pressure.
¨ Only one stack
¨ Clinker cooler gas can be used to dry raw material in the raw mill
¨ No visible plume at the stack because of the reduced dew point (no water injection and "dry"
clinker cooler vent air)
¨ No load changes on the ID fan
5.1.3 Disadvantages
¨ Because of raw mill cyclones slightly higher pressure drop between ID fan and filter fan
¨ Kiln and clinker cooler not controlled by separate fan
¨ Portion of the clinker cooler dust is mixed with the kiln dust

Figure 38 Concept 5

6. CONCLUSION
All concepts have certain advantages. Therefore, one cannot produce a ranking without respecting the
individual situation of the plants. Those that require a very reliable dedusting without short time dust
emission peaks should chose a bag filter concept. In case of water shortage the concepts 3 and 5 without
cooling tower are most suitable.
If alternative fuels are burnt it is possible that CO peaks are produced more frequently than without,
especially during the commissioning phase of the waste feed equipment. The plants that are burning
alternative fuels or those that are planning to do so are usually under more intensive observation by the
neighbours and the authorities. Frequent dust emission peaks caused by EP CO-shutdown or changes of
process conditions may be very embarrassing when asking for a permission to burn alternative fuels or
when applying for extension of the permit.
Therefore, bag filters, especially the pulse jet type, will be for many plants the preferred solution for the
future.
C03 - Maintenance

FOCUS PROGRAM MAC (MAINTENANCE CEMENT)

CORPORATE PROGRAMS, October 1996
1. Executive Summary
1.1 Objectives and expected Results of the Program MAC
1.2 Content of MAC
1.3 Approach
2. Objectives
3. Content
4. Approach
4.1 “Buy-in“
4.2 Analysis
4.3 Ownership
4.4 Project-Implementation
4.5 Continuous improvement
5. Project Organization and Resources
5.1 Local resources
5.2 External Support: Peter Chadwick
6. Training
7. Computerized Maintenance System
8. Cost/Benefit of MAC

1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
There is a gap between the actual state of maintenance in the cement plants of the Holcim group and
what could be expected: Lack of availability of the equipment, upward trend of maintenance cost and high
inventories of spare parts. Corporate Programs of HMC together with four plants of the Origny group, of
Alsen-Breitenburg and of Holnam designed, tested and fine-tuned the focus program MAC to bridge this
gap.
1.1 Objectives and expected Results of the Program MAC
MAC is a program to improve substantially the maintenance activity in our cement plants. The objective is
to maximize the total maintenance benefit which consists of three elements:
¨ plant output, measured by a new Key Performance Indicator:
OEE (Overall Equipment Efficiency)
¨ direct maintenance cost
¨ NOA utilized
It is estimated that MAC will have the following impact on those three elements

Short-term
(annualized benefit at the end of MAC) Mid-term
(2-3 years after Focus program)
OEE + 5% + 10%
Direct Maintenance Costs - 10% - 25-30%
Spares Inventory - 5% - 20-30%

1.2 Content of MAC

The program MAC reinforces or introduces a proactive and systematic way of doing maintenance. The
main elements contributing to excellent maintenance can be presented in form of a pyramid

The fundamental elements are at the bottom. As we move upwards the elements become more
sophisticated. The program MAC results in some elements fully implemented (green color) and some
elements in progress (yellow color).
It must be stressed that the program MAC represents a back-to-basics approach, combined with a
sustainable behaviour change.
1.3 Approach
The program MAC is structured into four general phases followed by continuous improvement.

Going through those phases guarantees

¨ a shared understanding of the improvement potential of a specific plant
¨ sufficient training for a behaviour change
¨ a solid base for future continuous improvement
The implementation will be done by a local team coached by HMC staff and external consultants.
2. OBJECTIVES
The objective of the focus program MAC is to bridge the gap between the current state of maintenance in
our cement plants and what could be called excellent or world class maintenance. This means
substantially improving our maintenance activities. Doing so will maximize the Total Maintenance Benefit
(Fig. 1) which consists of three elements:
¨ plant output, measured by a new Key Performance Indicator: OEE
(Overall Equipment Efficiency) - see Fig. 2 for definition
¨ direct maintenance cost
¨ NOA utilized
Fig. 1: Total Maintenace Benefit

OEE as a new Key Performance Indicator in Holcim is defined as:

Fig. 2: OEE Definition

OEE = Availability x Performance x Quality

OEE therefore gives an indication how well the installed equipment is used. The maintenance activity has
a big impact on the availability; but there is also an impact on the other two factors.
Expected MAC-Impact on Total Maintenance Benefit:

Short term
(annualized benefit at the end of MAC) Mid term
(2-3 years after Focus program)
OEE + 5% + 10%
Direct Maintenance Costs - 10% - 25-30%
Spares Inventory - 5% - 20-30%

Remarks:
¨ Additional benefits will also be a reduction of replacement - investments due to an increased
equipment-life-time with improved maintenance.
¨ The benefits indicated in the table represent what can be expected on the average of all our
plants; some individual plants, however, might have higher or lower results depending on what they have
been doing in the past few years.
¨ The OEE-objective represents a potential for additional tons. The realization of this potential,
however, cannot be done by MAC because it depends entirely on the market conditions.
All those objectives are percentages. The impact in USD can be calculated as follows:
¨ OEE-improvement by 5%: Using the price, volume and margin situation 1996 of the Portland
plant of Holnam as a basis, this works out to be an impact of USD 1.89 per short ton or USD 1.7/t.
¨ Maintenance cost: The average maintenance cost in the HBK group is estimated to be around
USD 8.--/t. A reduction by 25% therefore has an impact of USD 2.--/t.
¨ Lower inventories: No calculation has been made. Based on German figures the impact is
estimated to be within USD 0.2 to USD 0.5/t.
Taken together the total impact will be between USD 2.2/t (without OEE) and USD 4.2/t (with OEE).
3. CONTENT
The focus program MAC reinforces or introduces a proactive and systematic way of doing maintenance
by:
¨ Concentration on fundamentals (back-to-basic approach), such as work-orders, machine history,
break-down-analysis etc.
¨ Training on the job of the plant-workforce as well as of the management.
¨ Changing of the behaviour, thereby guaranteeing sustainability.
¨ Building the base for subsequent continuous improvement.
The main elements of world class maintenance can be presented in form of a pyramid (Fig. 3 and full-size
in Appendix 1). This pyramid has been drawn in such a way that the most fundamental elements are at
the bottom. Subsequent layers of "bricks" can only be built on elements already existing.
Fig. 3: Expected MAC-Attainment

The color code used in this pyramid shows the evolution towards world class maintenance:
¨ Fully installed at the end of the MAC program.
Status: satisfactory maintenance
¨ Process initiated during the MAC program. Fully installed within 1-2 years
after the MAC program, resulting in good maintenance.
¨ To be addressed in the continuous improvement phase after MAC.
Necessary to achieve world class maintenance.
à Input elements for maintenance
To measure the progress and control the systematic application of the maintenance system, a set of Key
Performance Indicators (KPI's) are introduced in the management report system with MAC. These KPI's
are:

OEE: Overall Equipment Efficiency as a factor of:

Availability x Performance x Quality
where

(to be defined with MAC)

Work-Order Coverage: Ratio of available direct maintenance hours to hours covered by work-orders
Maintenance Productivity: Ratio of earned standard labor hours compared to planned hours.
Backlog: Amount of total direct maintenance hours needed to do all pending jobs on work-orders
Direct Maintenance Costs: as the sum of:
· material cost
· labour cost
· subcontracted services used in maintenance.
Direct maintenance costs should be also split into:
a) current maintenance
b) major repairs
Spare parts inventory: indicating the amount of all spares on inventory.

4. APPROACH
In order to realize the necessary change, there has to be an approach with a twin focus on technical
systems development and people organizational development as shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4: The development of world class performance in maintenance

Based on the information gathered so far most of our plants seem to be in stage 1. The MAC program will
bring them to stage 2 or 3 depending on their actual status. Stage 5 - required for world class
maintenance - will be achieved within 3 to 5 years after MAC, with the consequent usage and further
development of the elements in the pyramid.
In each plant the MAC program will run through five phases as shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5: Basic Approach
Those five phases can be described as follows:
4.1 “Buy-in“
to the need and benefits of such a program by management at company and plant level, through a shared
understanding of the improvement-opportunities. This buy-in phase consists of two steps:
a) A company-visit to:
· present MAC to the local management
· get familiar with the actual situation and the specific needs of maintenance
· propose and discuss the steps needed to carry out the analysis and
ownership phases
Based on the result of that visit, local management will decide how to proceed with MAC in their
company-specific case.
b) A preparation of plant staff for the analysis with the objective to get commitment to the process as
well as to integrate/co-ordinate other ongoing initiatives in the plant with MAC. Part of this preparation
phase should be a visit to a plant where MAC is actually implemented. This will show the approach in
praxis and help to understand better the whole process.
4.2 Analysis
of the plant to determine on the one hand specific potentials in the areas of increased output,
maintenance cost reduction and spare-parts reduction. On the other hand to identify the detailed
implementation approach required to realize the potentials.
4.3 Ownership
of the project by company and plant management and full commitment to the potentials and therefore
objectives of the project.
Based on the cost/benefit-ratio a decision how to proceed with the project will be made by local
management.
4.4 Project-Implementation
with the 3 steps of:
a) Joint definition in detail of the problems, obstacles, tools and skills to be tackled.
b) Participative development and installation of the systems, processes and behaviours to be
improved, in the form of cross-functional teams, each focusing on one of the three aspects of the overall
maintenance benefit.
c) Transition of activities from a project base to incorporation in the day-to-day activities at all levels
of the plant and company, thereby fine-tuning them to adapt fully to the individual needs. By including
them in the day-to-day activities and closing the information loop through the different levels of hierarchy
the activities are essentially being sustained and can lead to the next phase.
4.5 Continuous improvement
of the maintenance level and results achieved to attain world class maintenance in the medium to long-
term.
The MAC program requires between 6 to 9 months per plant, depending on the actual situation of its
maintenance activities and the readiness of management and staff to embrace change.
5. PROJECT ORGANIZATION AND RESOURCES
A key success factor to achieve a sustainable improvement is the continuous “take over“ of “project
activities“ into the “day-to-day business“. To support that process the typical project organization (see Fig.
6) is integrated into and works within the actual structure and not in parallel.
Fig. 6: Typical Project Organization

To implement the MAC program in a plant requires a substantial number of resources. As indicated in the
organization chart in Fig. 6 the Support Team (4-6 people) should comprise local resources working
together with HMC staff and external consultants. There were and are two reasons for working with an
external consultant: Know-how transfer and need of resources. The external consultant chosen - Peter
Chadwick Ltd. - provides both: down-to-earth know-how in maintenance and trained consultants willing
and able to work in all parts of the world.
5.1 Local resources
The majority of the resources will come from the companies themselves. Therefore early on a list of
potential candidates must be established, a selection made and the necessary training (see section 5)
given.
One of the beneficial consequences of the focus program MAC will be the creation of a group of very
skilled individuals in the area of organization, planning and implementation in HMC and the companies.
These individuals will develop into maintenance, production and plant management positions, or higher, in
the future, thereby facilitating succession planning in management.
5.2 External Support: Peter Chadwick
The know-how and skills for the maintenance program and specifically for the behaviour change required
to perpetuate the results is provided by Peter Chadwick Ltd. Initially all plant projects will be led by
consultants from Peter Chadwick. In a second phase HMC and company staff will take on more
importance in the support teams, to ultimately be able to run these projects without any Peter Chadwick
support. This “take-over“ from Peter Chadwick will depend upon the availability of trained local- and HMC-
resources.
6. TRAINING
A number of training workshop modules (see Fig. 7) have been developed to properly prepare support
team members or provide the context and conceptual groundwork for company and plant staff during the
project. These modules on their own can not create the behaviour change required to achieve the
sustainability of results - this is only done through the continuous on-the-floor involvement, coaching of
management and employees and utilization of tools and skills - but it creates the framework and
conceptual understanding to improve acceptance of change.
Fig. 7: Training Modules

Most of the training, however, will be done on the job and will be given by the external consultants and the
HMC staff.
7. COMPUTERIZED MAINTENANCE SYSTEM
As shown in the maintenance pyramid, the element "computerized maintenance systems" is located in
level 4 and therefore not directly targeted by MAC. However, during the analysis the project team will
check how efficient an eventually existents system is used and define the needs to optimize the usage if
possible. The experience so far has clearly shown the need "go back" and practice with the maintenance
staff the systematic application of the redefined maintenance manually, that means with "paper and
pencil"! The move towards a "computerized maintenance system" should only be done, when all the user
know how to use system elements like work orders and reports in their daily routine. As many of our
companies are in the process of installing SAP, a special task force is actually working with SAP with the
objective to give a clear recommendation how MAC and SAP links together. So far it has been concluded,
that (whenever possible) MAC should be done:
a) before installing PM module, and
b) in close coordination with the SAP project group.
8. COST/BENEFIT OF MAC
The one-time investment for the program would lie between USD 0,7 and USD 1,0 per ton of cement.
This investment is to be compared with the projected saving of USD 2.5 to 4.2, half of which should be
achieved at the end of the formal MAC project. These figures are estimates based upon experiences in
the pilot plants. The specific costs and savings for each plant are estimated at the end of each analysis
phase as basis whether or not to go for MAC.

The Maintenance Elements

1. Maintenance Requirements Pyramid

1.1 Description
1.2 Purpose
1.3 Examples
2. Critical Asset
2.1 Description
2.2 Purpose
2.3 Examples
3. Works Order System
3.1 Description
3.2 Purpose
3.3 Examples
4. Daily / Weekly Plan
4.1 Maintenance Master Schedule
4.2 Weekly Plan
4.3 Daily Plan
5. Maintenance KPI’s
5.1 Description
5.2 Purpose
5.3 Examples
6. Daily Maintenance Report
6.1 Description
6.2 Purpose
6.3 Examples
7. Maintenance Cost Structure
7.1 Description
7.2 Purpose
7.3 Examples
7.4 Description
7.5 Purpose
7.6 Examples
8. Production Plan
8.1 Description
8.2 Purpose
9. Spares Policy & Management
9.1 Description
9.2 Purpose
9.3 Examples
10. Standards & Specifications
10.1 Description
10.2 Purpose
10.3 Examples
11. Asset History System
11.1 Description
11.2 Purpose
11.3 Examples
12. Weekly Maintenance Report
12.1 Description
12.2 Purpose
12.3 Examples
13. Maintenance Cost Report
13.1 Description
13.2 Purpose
13.3 Examples
14. Resource Skills Matrix
14.1 Description
14.2 Purpose
14.3 Examples
15. Budget
15.1 Description
15.2 Purpose
15.3 Examples
16. Bill Of Materials (BOM)
16.1 Description
16.2 Purpose
16.3 Examples
17. Maintenance Master Schedule
17.1 Description
17.2 Purpose
17.3 Examples
17.4 Overview
17.5 Description
17.6 Purpose
17.7 Examples
18. FMEA / RCM
18.1 Description
18.2 Purpose
19. RCM Approach
20. MTBF / MTTR / MTBCF
20.1 Description
20.2 Purpose
20.3 Examples
20.4 MTBF (Hours)
20.5 MTTR (Hours)
20.6 MTBCF (Hours)
21. Predictive Routines / Condition Based Monitoring
21.1 Description
21.2 Purpose
21.3 Examples
22. Plant Master Plan
22.1 Description
22.2 Purpose
23. Multi-Skilling
23.1 Description
23.2 Purpose
23.3 Examples
23.4 Description
23.5 Purpose
23.6 Examples
24. Computerized Maintenance Systems
24.1 Description
24.2 Purpose
24.3 Examples
25. Autonomous Maintenance
25.1 Description
25.2 Purpose
25.3 Examples
26. Business Plan
26.1 Description
26.2 Purpose
27. Area Work Teams
27.1 Description
27.2 Purpose
28. Process Maintenance Teams
28.1 Description
28.2 Purpose
28.3 Examples
28.4 Description
28.5 Purpose
28.6 Examples
28.7 Examples
29. Integrated Process / Maintenance System
29.1 Description
29.2 Purpose
29.3 Examples
30. Glossary Of Terms

1. MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS PYRAMID

Asset Numbering System (HAC/PNS)

1.1 Description
¨ Unique asset numbering system describing :
· All assets (to the lowest discrete maintainable level)
· Its physical location
¨ The equipment numbering system should be consistent for a plant and ideally, but not
necessarily, across the whole business
1.2 Purpose
¨ Allow tracking of reliability, activity and costs against each item of maintainable asset
¨ It is a requirement for basic history reporting
1.3 Examples
¨ HAC, PNS Code
2. CRITICAL ASSET
2.1 Description
¨ Failure of the asset (for more than n hours) interrupts production of the finished product
¨ Failure of the asset may result in a failure to meet legislative, safety or environmental
requirements
¨ Failure to repair the asset immediately will result in significant damage to that or another item of
equipment
¨ No other back-up equipment is available
¨ The equipment requires special or external attention
2.2 Purpose
¨ To focus and prioritize maintenance effort for maximum gain
2.3 Examples
¨ Kiln Girth Gear, Mill Drive, Cooler Grates
3. WORKS ORDER SYSTEM
3.1 Description
¨ Information and control system providing :
· - Instruction to perform a task
· - The priority of the task
· - Task description
· - Feedback of what was done, lost time and parts used
3.2 Purpose
¨ Controls and monitors maintenance activity
¨ Provides an auditable trail for all jobs
¨ Provides feed to other information systems
3.3 Examples
¨ Mapcon / SAP / Marcam / etc. Works Order System
4. DAILY / WEEKLY PLAN
LEVELS OF MAINTENANCE PLANNING
4.1 Maintenance Master Schedule
¨ Capacity and Resource Planning
¨ Medium Term (13 weeks)
¨ ‘What-If’ Modeling
4.2 Weekly Plan
¨ Weekly Scheduling
¨ Task Prioritization
¨ Planning of skills, resource and equipment requirements
4.3 Daily Plan
¨ Allocation of tasks to individuals
¨ Flexing of the plan on a daily basis

5. MAINTENANCE KPI’S
5.1 Description
¨ The key operational performance measurements which can be used to manage Maintenance or
an area within Maintenance
¨ A KPI should have a base, plan and target
¨ For a KPI to be useful it should be timely and capable of being influenced by the person using it
5.2 Purpose
¨ Allows performance to be measured and reviewed
¨ Enables good fact based business decisions
5.3 Examples
¨ Management Report, Daily/Weekly Operating Report (DOOR)
and Short Interval Controls
¨ OEE, Availability, Performance, etc.
6. DAILY MAINTENANCE REPORT
6.1 Description
¨ Timely reporting of plan attainment of maintenance activities and equipment performance
including cause of variation
6.2 Purpose
¨ To allow structured review and to assign corrective actions to improve towards the agreed target
levels
6.3 Examples
¨ SIC Log sheet
7. MAINTENANCE COST STRUCTURE
7.1 Description
¨ Definition of the level of detail for cost reporting
7.2 Purpose
¨ Systematic cost roll up to enable analysis and reporting on all required asset levels
7.3 Examples

SHORT INTERVAL CONTROL (SIC)

7.4 Description
¨ Regular monitoring and control of a process or activity
¨ The frequency of SIC should reflect the span of control that an individual has to influence the
process or activity
7.5 Purpose
¨ To identify problems early and prevent them of becoming
bigger ones
7.6 Examples
¨ Maintenance activities
¨ Operation performance [t/h]
¨ Maintenance costs

8. PRODUCTION PLAN
[Input Element to Maintenance System]
8.1 Description
¨ A Weekly Plan indicating production requirements for the week should be broken down into Daily
Plans indicating target production levels
¨ The Production Plan should be linked to the Maintenance Plan to identify the agreed equipment
availability for both maintenance activities and production needs
8.2 Purpose
¨ To support the co-ordination of activities and requirements between Production and Maintenance
Note: The production plan is not a development of “MAC”. However the production plan is an important
input to the maintenance system as described above. The maintenance system as developed by “MAC”
will feed the production plan with more accurate information and therefor help to improve its content.
9. SPARES POLICY & MANAGEMENT
9.1 Description
¨ Spares policy and management takes into account:
· Spares criticality
· Lead-Time of critical spares
· Economic Order and Stocking Quantities
· Parts Availability and Quality
· Inter-plant parts sharing agreements
· Systematical planning and control (reporting) of spare parts in order to maximize availability and
minimize cost
9.2 Purpose
¨ To maximize critical equipment availability at minimum cost
¨ A stocking policy is a pre-requisite for maintaining a spares management system
9.3 Examples
¨ Decision whether or not to store a kiln tyre
10. STANDARDS & SPECIFICATIONS
10.1 Description
¨ Standard short Description of a planned or routine maintenance activity like :
· What needs to be done
· How it should be performed
· The optimum time to complete it
· How many people are required
· What skill or trade is required
· What materials & tooling
· Quality and safety requirements
· Standard short description of failure cause
· Standard short description of lost time causes
10.2 Purpose
¨ To enable the identification of lost time and to provide clear and consistent instruction of the best
way to perform a task.
¨ Clear identification of failure causes in order to make statistical analysis
10.3 Examples
¨ Instructions for a routine inspection or tensioning of a belt
11. ASSET HISTORY SYSTEM
11.1 Description
¨ A performance history record for each item of asset including:
· Downtime and number of failure
· Descriptions of major failures
· Causes for those failures
· Maintenance activities performed
· Maintenance costs
11.2 Purpose
¨ Allows the simple analysis showing basic history and performance of all assets.
¨ Supports strategic or capital decisions.
11.3 Examples
¨ Equipment performance log book
¨ Work Order History
12. WEEKLY MAINTENANCE REPORT
12.1 Description
¨ Timely reporting of maintenance KPI’s to allow the review and analysis of maintenance activity
and equipment performance.
12.2 Purpose
¨ To allow structured review and to assign corrective actions to improve towards the agreed target
levels
12.3 Examples
¨ Maintenance KPI Report.
¨ Management Report
13. MAINTENANCE COST REPORT
13.1 Description
¨ A life-cycle cost analysis system to determine the true costs of operating and maintaining an item
of asset.
13.2 Purpose
¨ To enable improved decision making including repair, replacement or re-engineer decisions.
13.3 Examples
¨ Cost Report out of machine history (top ten spendings)
14. RESOURCE SKILLS MATRIX
14.1 Description
¨ Matrix identifying the skills needed for all people who perform maintenance activities.
14.2 Purpose
¨ To identify the skills base, needs /gaps and training requirements for an individual or group of
people in order to optimize skills flexibility.
14.3 Examples
¨ Human Resource Training records.
15. BUDGET
15.1 Description
¨ The Budget should explicitly identify projected maintenance costs by period including:
· Labor
· Materials
· Spare parts
· Major Project
· Contractors
¨ The Budget should be linked to the planned KPI’s levels.
15.2 Purpose
¨ To identify and plan maintenance costs and to set operating targets.
15.3 Examples
¨ Annual maintenance budget
16. BILL OF MATERIALS (BOM)
16.1 Description
¨ Explosion of all of the parts and consumables, to the level of each purchasable item, required to
maintain an item of asset.
16.2 Purpose
¨ To identify the parts required to perform all maintenance activities.
¨ Maintenance Planning and Stock Management.
¨ Maintainability improvement.
16.3 Examples
¨ Asset - Spare Part identification/relation, (HAC-PNS)
17. MAINTENANCE MASTER SCHEDULE
17.1 Description
¨ A long term plan (3 month) indicating all maintenance activities and the resources required to
complete them, considering :
· Labor Availability
· Labor Productivity
· Planned / Predictive Maintenance Routines
· Task Priorities
· Materials and Spare Parts Availability
17.2 Purpose
¨ To identify maintenance resource requirements and to optimize maintenance efforts.
17.3 Examples
¨ 13 week Master Schedule for the cement grinding area
17.4 Overview

PLANNED MAINTENANCE ROUTINES (PMR’s)

17.5 Description
¨ Routine activities designed to minimize the risk of unplanned failures, including:
· Routine overhauls
· Fixed frequency replacement of parts or equipment
17.6 Purpose
¨ To minimize unnecessary downtime and increase predictability by reducing the level of unplanned
maintenance.
17.7 Examples
¨ Replacement of Cement Mill liners every 20’000 hrs. of production.
18. FMEA / RCM
18.1 Description
¨ Failure Mode Effect Analysis (FMEA) is an analytical tool to systematically establish the failure
mode and effect of a failure.
¨ Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM) is a process, utilizing FMEA, for determining what
maintenance, if any, should be performed in order to respond to the demands for :
· Safe Operation
· Environmental Protection
· Production Quality
· Plant Availability
18.2 Purpose
¨ To proactively identify the optimum maintenance activity.
19. RCM APPROACH
A continuous process for determining the optimum preventive maintenance plan for each item of
plant in its operating context.

20. MTBF / MTTR / MTBCF

20.1 Description
¨ Indicators to measure maintenance effectiveness
· Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF)
· Indication of the average time between failure for an item of asset.
· Mean Time To Repair (MTTR)
· Indication of the average downtime duration for an item of asset.
· Mean Time Between Cause & Failure (MTBCF)
· Indication of the MTBF by specific cause.
20.2 Purpose
¨ To measure and focus on the correct alignment of maintenance activity.
20.3 Examples
¨ Focus Maintenance activities in the “Bottle Neck” area.
20.4 MTBF (Hours)
Total Time Controlled - Duration of Breakdowns
________________________________________
Number of Breakdowns
20.5 MTTR (Hours)
Cumulative Downtime
_____________________
Number of Breakdowns
20.6 MTBCF (Hours)
Total Time Controlled - Duration of Breakdowns by Cause
_________________________________________________
Number of Breakdowns due to that cause
21. PREDICTIVE ROUTINES / CONDITION BASED MONITORING
21.1 Description
¨ Predictive inspection routines, condition based monitoring and condition based maintenance to
asses the condition of equipment to predict failure and perform planned maintenance activities.
21.2 Purpose
¨ To minimize the level of intrusive maintenance.
¨ To optimize the use of asset lifetime.
21.3 Examples
¨ Oil analysis to determine change.
¨ Vibration measurement to determine the optimal time to replace a rolling bearing.
22. PLANT MASTER PLAN
[Input Element to Maintenance System]
22.1 Description
¨ A long term plan (1 to 3 year) indicating :
· Production Requirements
· Labor Availability
· Training Plan
· Major Maintenance Activities
· Investments
22.2 Purpose
¨ To identify planned major maintenance activities and investments in order to optimize resource
requirements (capital, people, training).
Note: The Plant Master Plan is not a development of “MAC”. However the Plant Master Plan is an
important input to the maintenance system as described above. The maintenance system as developed
by “MAC” will make a sound base for updating the Plant Master Plan.
23. MULTI-SKILLING
23.1 Description
¨ Training of all operational employees in the core maintenance skills either between Process
Operators and Maintenance Technicians or between different trades.
¨ Note : Multi-Skilling does not mean that everyone should be expected to do everything.
23.2 Purpose
¨ To maximize labor utilization.
¨ Basic requirement for Autonomous Maintenance
23.3 Examples
¨ Quarry truck drivers doing their own oil changes.
¨ Production doing daily inspection.
SHUTDOWN CYCLE TIME COMPRESSION (CTC)
23.4 Description
¨ Approach for planning, controlling and reviewing activities during a shutdown period in order to
minimize downtime:
· Critical path planning to identify and manage parallel or critical activities
· Value Added (VA) / Non-Value Added (NVA) analysis to identify and remove non-essential
activities.
23.5 Purpose
¨ To minimize equipment downtime by identifying activities which can be performed outside of a
shutdown or in parallel
¨ To minimize equipment downtime by improving maintainability.
23.6 Examples
¨ Kiln shut down
¨ Mill shut down
24. COMPUTERIZED MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS
24.1 Description
¨ Integrated, comprehensive maintenance management system linked to all of the other relevant
business systems including purchasing, stock control, engineering & finance.
24.2 Purpose
¨ To automate the development and management of maintenance information.
¨ Note : It is only appropriate to fully automate the maintenance system once it has been
developed, tested and utilized in a live application.
24.3 Examples
¨ Mapcon / SAP / Marcam / JDE / etc.
25. AUTONOMOUS MAINTENANCE
25.1 Description
¨ High frequency maintenance tasks which can be performed routinely by the immediate operator,
outside the control of the planning system. Often utilizing check sheets or where the operator does not
need to be told to do a task.
¨ Dependent upon behavioral change and true ownership of the process.
25.2 Purpose
¨ To devolve and simplify maintenance tasks.
25.3 Examples
¨ Simple lubrication, cleaning to identify contamination, gauge marking.
26. BUSINESS PLAN
[Input Element to Maintenance System]
26.1 Description
¨ A long term plan (5 year) indicating the company's strategies and activities, and the resources
required to complete them, considering :
· Market Development
· Business Focus
· Labor Availability
· Training Plan
· Investments
· KPI’s Targets
· Mission
26.2 Purpose
¨ To manage direction of business.
¨ To identify operation resource requirements and to optimize operation efforts.
Note: The Business Plan is not a development of “MAC”. However the Business Plan is an important
input to the maintenance system as described above. The maintenance system as developed by “MAC”
will make a sound base for updating the Business Plan.
27. AREA WORK TEAMS
27.1 Description
¨ Individuals from the Maintenance and Process functions aligned to an area responsible for the
operation, maintenance and improvement of all assets in that area, supported by specialists (assessor)
when required.
27.2 Purpose
¨ To create ownership of the process and to ensure continuous improvements.
28. PROCESS MAINTENANCE TEAMS
28.1 Description
¨ A Multi-Functional Team replacing discrete or Cross-Functional Maintenance and Process
Operator teams.
¨ Everyone is a ‘Maintainer Operator’.
28.2 Purpose
¨ To minimize maintenance cost whilst maximizing flexibility.
28.3 Examples

RISK BASED MAINTENANCE (RBM)

28.4 Description
¨ Extension of the RCM process to determine the optimum maintenance approach based upon cost
and reliability requirements within a changing environment.
28.5 Purpose
¨ To achieve the optimum operational cost for a business.
28.6 Examples
¨ When there are no sales and the silo is full, why incur the cost of fixing an item of asset?
28.7 Examples
¨ Risk Profile
29. INTEGRATED PROCESS / MAINTENANCE SYSTEM
29.1 Description
¨ Systems developed and utilized for process control used to take maintenance decisions. These
would include expert systems, rate loss and downtime accounting systems.
29.2 Purpose
¨ To return rate to optimum or to predict the deterioration of plant condition in order to identify
maintenance requirements.
29.3 Examples
¨ Computerized maintenance system linked with a fully developed “TIS”
30. GLOSSARY OF TERMS

MAC MAintenance Cement

KPI Key Performance Indicator
ESLH Earned Standard Labor Hours
W/O’s Works Orders
BOM Bill of Materials
CTC Cycle Time Compression
SIC Short Interval Control
PM Preventive Maintenance
PDM Predictive Maintenance
CBM Condition Based Monitoring
FMEA Failure Mode Effect Analysis
RCM Reliability Centered Maintenance
OEE Overall Equipment Efficiency
MTBF Mean Time Between Failure
MTTR Mean Time To Repair
MTBCF Mean Time Between Cause and Failure
RbM Risk based Maintenance
HAC Holcim Asset Code
PNS Part Numbering System
TIS Technical Information System
DWOR Daily / Weekly Operating Report
PMR Planned Maintenance Routines

The main focus of MAC: Equipment efficiency, Maintenance Systems, Spares Management

1. An Introduction to the OEE Concept

1.1 Team Development
1.2 Design engineers have the skill to design the car ...
1.3 The driver competes on the track ...
1.4 The driver competes on the track ...
1.5 The team
1.6 If Design ignored input ...
1.7 The driver ignored the pit ....
1.8 And the pit team only focused on their needs ....
1.9 Successful and winning teams work together
1.10 Both the driver and the pit team have input into design
1.11 As the car is developed there are constant reviews of progress
1.12 It is not difficult to draw the parallel to cement production ...
1.13 Motor racing uses indicators to measure performance ....
1.14 Under the MAC we do not want complex measures of performance ...
1.15 A common unit of measure helps establish where we are and where we want to be
2. Maintenance Management Control Systems
2.1 Why do we need effective maintenance systems?
2.2 Sailing a small ship within sight of shore requires little data - just the weather report perhaps
2.3 But in times of danger data is vital...
2.4 Behavioural Change
2.5 The need for behavioural change
2.6 Control the whole...
2.7 THREE TYPES OF BUSINESS SYSTEMS
2.8 What systems do
2.9 There are three major maintenance activities
2.10 Can we answer some of the following questions…
2.11 Short Interval Control
2.12 PERFORMANCE SYSTEMS
2.13 BASIC SYSTEM ELEMENTS
2.14 THE COMMUNICATIONS STRUCTURE
2.15 SYSTEM CONCEPTS
2.16 Typical phases
2.17 SYSTEM CONCEPTS - GENERIC MGMT. CONTROL
2.18 What do Management Control systems do for our business?
2.19 Control the whole... by controlling the parts
3. Spares Management
3.1 THE NEED TO BE COMPETITIVE
3.2 The financial performance of any plant can be evaluated by a simple formula
3.3 Costs are made up of many things, one of which is the costs of the spares held
3.4 Some of those will be critical…
3.5 One area often neglected in operations is the quality of maintenance spares held…
3.6 Where do we begin?
3.7 Set the policy
3.8 Spares Management is juggling
3.9 Spares Management is understanding
3.10 The Objective - Financial
3.11 The Objective - Operational
3.12 To manage spares we must understand spares
3.13 The two steps in bringing greater control to spares holdings
3.14 The 20 / 80 theory
3.15 COST
3.16 MOVEMENT
3.17 Stock Rotation
3.18 It is useful for the MAC teams to overlay certain definitions as they consider cost
3.19 ONGOING CONTROL
3.20 INDICATORS
3.21 THE KEY TO SUCCESS

1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OEE CONCEPT

1.1 Team Development

The principles that underpin the concept of OEE (Overall Equipment Efficiency) can be vividly illustrated
by turning to the world of motor racing.
Motor manufacturers assemble a team with the sole objective of winning Formula One Grand Prix’s and if
possible, the World series. A Team Manager is selected and he is instrumental in selecting the various
people he will need to achieve the goal. It is interesting to note that although racing drivers themselves
are celebrities in their own right, the goal is for the Manufacturing team to win.
1.2 Design engineers have the skill to design the car ...

The design team will be drawn from engineers with many different disciplines. There will be those who
specialise in suspension systems. Others will be experts in aerodynamics, focusing on the vital job of
reducing wind resistance. Others will specialise in the various aspects of engine manufacture, from
ignition systems to lubrication systems. Each very knowledgeable in their own field.
1.3 The driver competes on the track ...

A Formula One driver who is successful is a celebrity. They seek fame and are blessed with a not
inconsiderable amount of ego. They have to have skill - and courage, yet they must also have patience so
that when lying in second place they can tactically choose the right point at which to challenge for the
lead. They must know their machines and know the various circuits that go up to make the world series.
1.4 The driver competes on the track ...

Mechanics, like the engineers, will come from different disciplines. They are responsible for preparing the
vehicle for the race and for maintaining it during the race. They need to be able to handle the stress of
working under extreme pressure when a pit stop occurs and be able to work as part of a team.
1.5 The team

Many different disciplines, many different personalities, all focused toward achieving victory. At the
moment of victory the driver is the one who wears the laurels and gets the champagne. The team are left
to celebrate away from the limelight and television cameras. Yet all participated in the victory. Victory
would not - could not - be gained unless each had built their own personalities and skills into the
achievement of one common goal - crossing the line first in one of the most competitive arenas that it is
possible to envisage. But it could all have been so very different.
1.6 If Design ignored input ...

Imagine how it would have been if the design team had totally ignored the needs of the remainder of the
team. Let’s concentrate on designing a car that we like - that is a marvel of engineering - but not really
suited to Formula One, let alone winning. Sometimes design niceties have to be sacrificed because of a
maintenance requirement that will allow the pit team to meet the stringent times required for a pit stop if
there is to be any hope of being in the first five - let alone out in front. Driver needs must be catered for.
What use is a superb car if the driver becomes so fatigued that concentration has failed by the fifth lap.
1.7 The driver ignored the pit ....

Even when in front there are times when the car just has to come in for maintenance. It would be very
little use for the driver to go blasting past the pit, when signalled to come in, then break down halfway
round the circuit. At any given moment there will be decisions to be made that are in the interest of the
goal of the team, not individual needs.
1.8 And the pit team only focused on their needs ....

There are often moments when, just having completed one pit stop, the car has to come back in again.
Weather conditions might change quite dramatically and what were the right tyres one lap earlier are now
totally unsuited for the new conditions. When this happens the pit team must effect a pit change on
successive laps.
1.9 Successful and winning teams work together

To be successful a team must all work together to meet the common goal - victory. Ideas must be shared.
When a pit stop is taking too long then it has to be examined in detail, using everyone’s input. Is it a
design problem or a skill problem with members of the pit team? Is it a method change that’s required - or
an engineering change? Personalities no longer count. Always the common goal of victory keeps the
team focused on the goal.
1.10 Both the driver and the pit team have input into design

Problems are discussed and new ideas tried out, first in theory, then in practice. If engineering input is
required then the engineering specialist will attend the group’s discussion. The problem is a team
problem. The common function is winning - everything and everyone is secondary to that.
1.11 As the car is developed there are constant reviews of progress

When the solution is found everyone included in the problem solving process is congratulated. There is
only one common measurement for team success - winning. Because the measurement is so visible
there can be no one function that is successful at the expense of the others. There may be secondary
measurements under the umbrella of winning, for example the time taken for a pit stop, the top speed of
the vehicle, the number of laps completed without breakdown, but each one of these indicators needs the
input of more than one function in the solution. More importantly, no one function can solve its own
problems at the expense of the others.
1.12 It is not difficult to draw the parallel to cement production ...

It is not too difficult to draw the comparison between the world of Formula One and the less glamorous
but more practical world of the cement industry. The roles are very very close to the roles undertaken in
Formula One. The skills required are also very similar. The need to measure performance by the team
remains the same need in cement business performance as it does in Formula One - a single overall
indicator supported by other indicators for problem solving.
1.13 Motor racing uses indicators to measure performance ....

As we have already seen, the world of Formula One uses these series of indicators to measure
performance. In production we need the total overall indicator by which the team - as a whole - can
measure degrees of success and benchmark themselves against the competition.
1.14 Under the MAC we do not want complex measures of performance ...

These indicators must be straightforward and reasonably simple to understand. Just as the Team
Manager will look at lap times in Formula One (Short Interval Control) so we need something that is
reasonably easy to calculate so that we can measure business performance on a short interval basis
also. Trying to calculate the amount of oil in the gearbox by weighing the vehicle and subtracting from it
the manufacturer’s specified weight is not an indicator that will be useful and straightforward.
1.15 A common unit of measure helps establish where we are and where we want to be

In the process of MAC such an indicator has been introduced and is termed Overall Equipment Efficiency
(OEE) This measures the efficiency of the production team as a whole, where the production team is
defined as being everyone involved in ensuring that the product is delivered to the client at the right
specification, on time.
2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS
2.1 Why do we need effective maintenance systems?
You can get management books on a wide range of topics from strategic planning through to team
building but it is very difficult to obtain books on the subject of “ Effective Management Control Systems “.
Yet management can only be as good as the systems that support them. Shipping spends a vast amount
of money on navigational systems - companies put satellites into space to improve communications into
space to improve communication speed and accuracy yet in many companies managers have to wait
three to four weeks after the end of the financial period for the accounting system to produce the numbers
so that they can begin to see where they are financially.
Many times the data input to these systems is suspect; often data is mismatched in that one statistic will
be relating to a different time period or scope than another.
2.2 Sailing a small ship within sight of shore requires little data - just the weather report perhaps

In the same way that sailors need navigational systems to plot a course and to periodically check how
they are doing against that course, managers need systems to plot the course of the company and to
periodically check whether they are on course or are drifting.
As seafaring companies need to know not only what money they will make at the end of the journey, but
also how they are doing day to day in terms of longitude and latitude, speed and depth of water,
companies need to know how much money they will make, providing they stay on course.
On the high seas constantly checking latitude and longitude is the seafarers way of guaranteeing they will
make port, so management need to be able to check the equivalent data to ensure that, at the end of
each month, budgetary goals will be achieved.
2.3 But in times of danger data is vital...

At sea conditions can change quickly. It is not always fair weather sailing. In business conditions can
change quickly also and effective management control systems will help management navigate through
difficult times. Management need to know, as soon as possible, if they are drifting off course so that action
can be taken immediately. A small deviation from course on Monday will be large deviation by Friday if
corrective action is not taken quickly.
A Management Control system should be capable of telling management not only how well they have
done but also how well they could have done. For without the process of continuous improvement the
sunrise companies of today become the sunset companies tomorrow. For many years the Americans won
the America cup in sailing until finally the Australians won. When asked what the secret of success was
the skipper replied “ There wasn’t any one thing- it was lots of little things. If I had to choose one thing that
made the difference it was attention to detail. Systems must provide attention to detail.
2.4 Behavioural Change

When we consider upgrading systems the ultimate goal must never be forgotten. Systems are upgraded
so that, through using them, management may improve operational performance, and therefore, financial
results using the upgraded systems management must adopt new patterns of behaviour so the link
between systems, change and results is developed. Upgraded systems provide the opportunity for
management change; management change generates improved results. But it is not just management
that need to change. Who will provide the upgraded data? Who will input data into the systems? The
improvement of systems requires change at all levels. Not only must management embrace this change
but they must also act as role models for the rest of the organisation. The essential factor that must be
present in any system for it to be effective is compliance - that is everyone must play their part. No-one
will play their part unless management comply to the system requirements, thereby acting as a role model
for the remainder of the organisation.
2.5 The need for behavioural change

There is a saying that if you continue to manage the business as you have always managed the business
then the results will continue to be the same.
The converse of this is true and this is the definition of madness. “ Madness is continuing to manage the
business as you have always managed the business and expecting that, somehow, mysteriously, results
will improve.
Management cannot rely upon luck to improve the results of the business, neither can they live in a world
of madness. To change the results being achieved something must be done differently. Too many
companies focus upon investment in new machinery and technology and the only way towards improved
results, ignoring that there are so many opportunities to create improvements within the organisation
through behavioural change. The major behavioural change is to focus more upon detail.
2.6 Control the whole...

To be effective Management Control Systems must do this questioning for management. It must
distinguish between activity that is productive and activity that is non productive, and naturally identify
periods when activity has not occurred at all, although these are generally not filtered so effectively by the
mind. An effective system will provide a continuous monitoring of an operation through its complete cycle
from forecasting to planning, through the mechanisms of control to a reporting element that will alert
management to situations where their intervention is required. By providing this continuous cycle
management will be able to see when the decisions they have made have been effective.
2.7 THREE TYPES OF BUSINESS SYSTEMS

There are many types of system and one person’s perception of the word “ system “ may vary
considerably from another. There are fire alarm systems, systems for working out numbers on the lottery,
computer systems and rail systems or networks.
The systems referred to in business fall into three major categories. Financial systems are the systems
that forecast and track the financial performance of a company. These operate at the higher level of the
business. Then, at the lower level, there are operational systems. These are the systems that control the
product or service ordered and will contain data such as colour, quantity, due date etc. and are
underpinned by the specifications of a product and the parameters of a service. These tell us what we
have to do and to what standard. Finally there are Management Control Systems that tell us how well we
did what we had to do.

Financial systems operate at the highest level of a company. They track the financial result of doing
something. They are monthly in nature, use financial terms ( return on investment etc.) and use money as
the common language. They tend to appear three to four weeks after the end of the period under
consideration.
Operational systems are one-off. Once the activity has occurred the system cycle is complete.
Management Control Systems monitor the activity levels that occur because of the operational system
and track how well we did what we had to do. Management Control Systems talk in terms of productivity,
utilisation and focus on lost opportunity. By controlling these factors, on a shorter time base than the
financial systems, the financial result will be more likely to occur as planned.
2.8 What systems do

Because Management Control Systems focus on activity levels the principles they are built upon will be
applicable to almost any type of operation. Selling might be creative but it consists of activities. In some
operations the activities might be less defined than in others but the underlying principles will remain true.
An administration functions through activities in the same that a production unit does, so there is no
reason to believe that one can be controlled - yet the other can not. Accountants would never accept that
an operation which was predominantly administration should not have a budget, yet in many instances
management fail to accept that the same principles of control that apply to production should also apply to
administration operations. In the same way that a financial system will focus on the financial parameters
of that operation a management control system needs to focus on the activities of that same operation.
2.9 There are three major maintenance activities
Viewing maintenance from the high ground there are three major types of activity. The first is routine
maintenance. Routine maintenance tasks have frequencies attached to them and the work required to be
done should be specified in the routine maintenance procedures (operational system)
The second type of work carried out by a maintenance department is that of breakdowns - work on plant
and assets that fail during service.
The third type can be termed major overhauls, those activities that occur on a larger and less frequent
basis than preventive maintenance, although it can be argued that overhauls are just larger types of
preventive maintenance.
2.10 Can we answer some of the following questions…

A simple test of how effectively an operation is being controlled is to ask some basic questions about that
operation.
How many hours of routine maintenance is going to be done next week - and the week after. Do we have
the resources for it? Are we maintaining our plan or is there routine maintenance work outstanding? If so -
how many hours will be required to bring the backlog down to zero?
How many hours are spent annually on breakdowns? Is there a pattern of how those hours are spent?
How long should a job take? How long is it taking? Can we reduce the gap between the two. To be really
in control the answers to all these questions - and many more beside - must be readily available. This can
only be achieved through an effective management control system.
2.11 Short Interval Control

The first principle that must be inherent in a system is that of short interval control (SIC) The more
frequently performance is monitored the quicker management recognise, through he system, that a
problem has occurred. For this to occur actual performance must be noted and recorded. This actual
performance must then be compared to a realistic plan, that is a plan that has been derived from an
accurate standard.
The system must also show when a problem has been recognised and solved. This function is effected by
the KPI’s which will rise back to planned level when the problem has been solved.

The short interval control function is the heart of the system. It occurs at the point of execution of the
activities. Once an effective standard has been developed then this can form the basis of the planning
capability. Planning can be set up on a weekly basis. This weekly plan can be lifted to a higher level by
forecasting on a monthly basis giving the basic elements of the system as short interval control,
supported by a weekly and monthly planning function.

At the monthly level of the management control system we have arrived at the same level as the budget
and a link needs to be established between the budgetary system and the Management Control System.
This can be done through what is termed the Master Schedule, which forecasts the resources needed to
meet the budget forecast. So where the budget is forecasting labour cost the management control system
forecasts hours. Where the budget forecasts material costs the master schedule will forecast parts and
materials in terms of volume required. This link, between the management control system and the budget,
illustrates how, by controlling activities and materials on a short interval basis, we can manage more
predictability into the budget. It must be remembered that so far generic principles have been discussed
and these need to be tailored to differing situations. What is applicable to a fast moving production
operation may not be translated into a maintenance function in the same way.

The planning has now been structured on a short interval, weekly and monthly basis, linked to the budget
through the master schedule, which encompasses the forecasting and planning elements of the system.
The link to the control element of a system is effected through the short interval control which both plans
and reports against the plan. In the reporting function of the system the reporting elements can be
matched against the planning elements to ensure that a clear focus is kept on what variances are
occurring at a short interval period, weekly and monthly. This is important because the type of problems
that occur at these frequencies will differ in nature. This difference in the nature of problems will direct
how the management structure will align with the management control system. Many of the problems
experienced at the short interval control level will be of short duration. Because this point of the system is
at the point of execution of the activities this function can be handled by first line management (Level 1)
Problems of a longer term nature but still linked to the execution of activities can be handled by mid-
management (Level 2) At the monthly level problems of a longer term nature will need to be dealt with
and these will more revolve around structural and strategic decisions.
2.12 PERFORMANCE SYSTEMS

By constructing a system in this manner the four integral blocks of any system will be inherent in within
that system. Obviously these are inherent in any system but will vary in nature according to the nature of
the system under review. In both the financial system and the management operating system the forecast
is annual and monthly. The management control system differs from the budgetary system in that it
focuses upon the hours and materials required to meet the expected demand, not upon the cash value of
those resources. The management control system differs from most financial systems in that beneath the
monthly level it has a weekly and a short interval function. The short interval function may be as short as
hourly or as long as daily, depending on the operation for which it is being designed.
2.13 BASIC SYSTEM ELEMENTS

Looking at these elements in more detail: The forecast projects the hours required to meet the operational
targets, together with the materials and tooling required to support those hours and related back to the
forecast budget levels of financial performance. The planning element breaks the overall monthly plan
down into smaller elements of a weekly nature which builds in the basis for shorter term control
underneath the monthly frequency of both the budget and the master schedule. The short interval control
breaks this interval down even further, monitoring short term achievements through the Key Performance
Indicators (KPI’s) and finally the repairing element will be matched to each level of the planning function,
the focus being to provide a basis for review of planned performance against actual, with the KPI’s
(planned and actual) indicating where variance shave occurred.
2.14 THE COMMUNICATIONS STRUCTURE

As has been discussed earlier, the management structure must be aligned to the management control
system so that communication concerning problems experienced and actions taken can be handled
effectively and efficiently by the management structure. At the level of day to day activities the first line
management (Level 1) will handle short term problems. Longer term problems need to be passed to the
next level of management on a structured basis and this is done through a scheduled performance review
meeting. As this is normally carried out on a daily basis this is termed the Daily / Weekly Operating
Review Meeting. The document that records daily performance is termed the Daily/Weekly Operating
Report (DWOR). Finally mid-management review performance with plant management (Level 3) on a
weekly / monthly basis, the communication structure providing s structured pathway for the highlighting
and solution of problems.
2.15 SYSTEM CONCEPTS

In the development of a system which will meet the parameters of an effective “Management Control
System” certain inherent characteristics must be in place. The whole of an operation can only be
controlled by controlling the individual parts of the operation. How detailed these parts are must be taken
into account during system design. Systems are only effective when used and unless everyone who is
required to use the system actually uses the system then that system will not be fully effective. We can
only control what we can measure. We measure through Key Performance Indicators and these will
restore to the planned level of performance when management action against any problem has been
successful. Finally the information generated by the system must be timely, so that management can use
it to proactively control and not posthumously review what has happened.
2.16 Typical phases

The term “Installation” of a system means that the system has been designed, is in place and is being
used by the management team to more effectively control the operation. To ensure this happens
effectively five stages must be observed. The first stage is gaining acceptance of the need for upgraded
systems. Unless people see the need then they will not see the need to be involved. The second stage is
compliance; this means people will be involved in the design of the system, the development of the
controls and the setting of the standards(if they don’t exist) that will be used for the planning element of
the system. The third step is understanding what the system is communicating and this is a function of
training. Fourthly, management must use the system and if the four first steps are undertaken correctly
then the fifth step, commitment to continuing to use the system to maintain and improve on the results,
will fall into place.
2.17 SYSTEM CONCEPTS - GENERIC MGMT. CONTROL

The diagram of how the system links together is termed the “Generic System Flow” and is indeed generic.
The elements of the system have already been covered in terms of the typical structure. The budget
determines the levels of the master schedule which then enables the monthly plan, weekly plan and short
interval control detail to be generated. Reporting is against the planning element. Systems need to be
dynamic and the generic system flow shows a series of key meetings, all supported by an “Action Log”.
An action log records what needs to be done, who will do it and the due date on which the action will be
completed. The review meetings shown are either for the purpose of commitment to a plan or to review
performance, highlight variances (which indicate problems) and to agree the actions to be taken to solve
those problems.
2.18 What do Management Control systems do for our business?

Effective Management Control Systems provide vital guidelines for management. Firstly they define
clearly the managerial routines and disciplines that need to be observed to optimise the control over an
operation. The major advantage is that these are not only clearly defined but agreed at all levels. Another
key characteristic is that management is based upon fact rather than upon personality. Clear plans and
regular reporting against those plans in meetings supported by Action Logs, avoids procrastination by any
level of management. Everyone in the organisation has clearly defined goals, thus avoiding anxiety and
ambiguity. By designing the system on how well we could do, not just on how well we did, the basis for a
continuous improvement culture is put in place. By reducing the cycle of firefighting more time is freed up
for management to focus of proactive rather than reactive management
2.19 Control the whole... by controlling the parts

An effective system must contain the elements of forecasting, planning, control and reporting. It must
enable management to collect data, analyse the data make decisions based upon the analysis and then
ensure that these actions are implemented. The inherent structure of the system must be such that the
whole operation is controlled by controlling the parts.
3. SPARES MANAGEMENT
3.1 THE NEED TO BE COMPETITIVE

How well a company is doing can be expressed quite simply as incomes minus outgoings. Companies
need to make profit to set aside money for reinvestment in training, process development and product
development. Therefore, one key aspect of asset management is the money spent on spares. Like every
other aspect of upgrading performance it requires two stages. Stage 1 is a reassessment of current
practices and the current levels of spare parts, their usage and applicability at this point in time, given
other initiatives that are being taken in preventive maintenance. The second focus needs to be on
ensuring that we have the systems for the future to ensure that whatever improvements are made are
maintained. Management is not just about making one-off improvements. It is about generating a climate
where continuous improvement is the natural way of life.
3.2 The financial performance of any plant can be evaluated by a simple formula

As has been stated, profit is the difference between revenue and costs. There are many areas of costs
ranging from the cost in losses when the plant should be operating to the loses incurred when
maintenance staff are unable to work because of shortage of parts. The temptation is to generate a
culture of just in case, where that little bit extra is held “just in case“ it is needed. The term “management“
when applied to levels of spare parts means balancing the need for “just in case“ a part may not be there
with “just sufficient“ to ensure that the plant will be maintained but that the cost of holding such spares is
not a burden on the business. Another way of looking at the the situation of spares is to ask the simple
question: “Is this a maintenance organisation or a warehousing organisation?” Every time a spare part is
purchased the difference between the revenue and the costs narrows. Every piece of spares bought that
is not vital means that the organisation must sell more to maintain the margin. In the climate of today the
market place is very competitive
3.3 Costs are made up of many things, one of which is the costs of the spares held

It is not just the direct cost that hits the organisation. Costs for spares have hidden costs that often far
outweigh the cost of the part itself, obviously depending on the actual price of the part. Requisitions have
to be made out .. stationery costs are inflated. They have to be processed .. maintenance time and
administration time is involved. Goods are received .. distribution costs are incurred. Finally they have to
be stored and this soaks up more cost. Even stock checks take longer because higher levels of inventory
are involved and we are now back on the circle of increased administration costs. An efficient company
holds “just sufficient“ stock so that the plant is maintained but cost is kept to the minimum. This means
managing stocks so that they move. Non moving stock is frozen money. The only exception to this rule is
for strategic stock, that is stock that is maintained because the impact of not having it available when
needed would be catastrophic.
3.4 Some of those will be critical…

An examination of the stock held by maintenance departments shows that parts fall into three major
categories. There are those stocks, as we have said, that are critical or strategic, spares that must be
held because if they are needed and are not available there would be a complete and sustained loss of
production. Some will not be so critical, where even if they are not held, the lead time to obtain them is not
so long that production can not be protected. Finally the third type of spares .. left-overs from days gone
by. It is easy to fall into the trap of using spares to cushion the effect of poor systems. Because the
systems are unable to predict with reasonable accuracy when the parts will be needed the temptation is
to hold some, sometimes a substantial some, just in case. Because the systems do not flash a light when
a piece of equipment is replaced and spares become obsolete they sit on the shelf, gathering dust and
incurring cost. Because the systems do not identify needs common to all plants, strategic parts are held
by every plant.
3.5 One area often neglected in operations is the quality of maintenance spares held…

There is a term used by many organisations when referring to spares and that is quality. Quality, in this
case, does not refer to whether the part is in good quality condition but refers to the need for holding the
part. How essential is this part to the well being of production? There is a tendency for parts to be raised
in quality in order to overcome shortcomings in the systems and procedures in place. To improve the level
of parts management requires that this quality element is questioned, as are the systems in place. One
additional part on the stock list may not seem much, but multiplied by that situation many times over in
one location, then multiplied by the number of locations throughout the organisation, it soon builds up a
figure that would build several additional plants; fund a much more aggressive stance in the market place;
and give the competition cause for concern if it was realised.
3.6 Where do we begin?
Because the sensitivity of parts’ availability is critical to production sustainability, it is vital that any
approach is logical and well thought out. We can not afford to take risks or, if we do, they must be
calculated risks that have been carefully evaluated. Anyone can reduce the level of stocks - just turn off
the tap and the flow of spares will fall. But which of the spares that have been reduced are vital? How
much of the stock in the stores is moving stock and how much is dead stock? The answers to these
questions can only be arrived at by a systematic and detailed approach. The first steps are to tackle those
areas that have a very low risk. As more data is developed then the more controversial and sensitive
areas can be dealt with. It will take time to develop some of the data but we can not afford to sit and wait.
We must not put off until tomorrow what our competitors are doing today.
3.7 Set the policy

The MAC approach advocates that all functions within a company become involved in working together to
identify opportunities for improvement and to realise them by working out solutions to the problems that
have created the opportunity for improvement. The advantage of this approach can be seen in spares
management where production can assess the impact on the production element of the company, and the
maintenance function can assess the degree of difficulty in affecting the repair. Together the two
viewpoints give a complete picture of the factors affecting a given situation and illustrates the value of
treating maintenance not as a discreet focus but as a process that will benefit from input from all the
disciplines. When dealing with factors that can have a major impact on production it is sensible to ensure
that as broad an input of knowledge and experience as possible act as an input to the situation.
3.8 Spares Management is juggling

Spares management never will be, and can not be, a precise science. It is a case of using the best input
available to weigh up all the factors impacting on the situations and then making the best possible
decision in the light of the known facts. The more facts and data available the better the decision but there
will always be the need for management expertise and experience in assessing the areas where data will
not be available and in arriving at a decision that can be supported by all. The reality of the situation is
that there will have to be a juggling of the commercial needs of the organisation, with the cost of carrying
the level of spares held. Then there is the aspect of customer services which will vary from plant to plant.
In some plants there may be excess capacity, in others none. The range of equipment will also vary from
plant to plant; some plants may have a narrow range of equipment, others a wide range. Finally the
availability of spares, or lead time, may vary from region to region.
3.9 Spares Management is understanding

Criticality of parts will vary according to the impact on the production process. If the part is required for a
support item that will have no direct impact on the production process the rules governing the holding of
those parts will vary from those of a part that can have a direct impact on production. The lead times for
parts will also have an impact on holding levels. The lead time is the time between the time when the part
is ordered and the time when it becomes available for maintenance use. This will vary according to not
only the part type but also the supplier. For one supplier, two parts can have separate lead times. For one
part two suppliers may have different lead times. Then for every part held there is a different usage rate.
To begin to manage spares more efficiently all these aspects of parts need to be understood if they are
not known already. Where data does not exist it has to be generated.
3.10 The Objective - Financial

Any spare part that is not being used represents money that is frozen. This money costs the organisation
twice over. Firstly, there is the cost of carrying that money which means that interest will be incurred.
Secondly, there is the lost opportunity to have invested that money and by earning an income from it
rather than paying someone else for using it. The objective of spares management is to reduce the
money that is frozen and not free for use. The objective is to achieve a position where the minimum of
money is tied up in spares, but at the same time doing so in a climate where an emphasis is being placed
upon the increment of plant availability. This will require management of a different nature than has been
used in the past. One fact is indisputable; however efficient spares management has been in the past
there will still be room for improvement. The amount of money involved in holding spares is not only
phenomenal but represents money that is not value added. The financial objective of the spare parts
initiative is to reduce this sum.
3.11 The Objective - Operational

The achievement of the financial objective for spare parts management will require a detailed examination
of the systems and procedures currently in use. The objective of the operational section of the spare parts
management approach is to ensure that the right systems are in place to see that the right part is
available at the right time for the right piece of equipment. The parts must be held in the right quantity and
be the right quality. To achieve this goal will require a detailed examination of the systems currently in use
to understand how they deal with lead times, usage rate and criticality and to upgrade them if they are not
effective for management needs. This will require understanding the documentation of the current system,
developing a set of principles upon which effective spares management can take place, and then
upgrading the systems to meet these principles. These are the actions that fall under the umbrella of the
MAC approach.
3.12 To manage spares we must understand spares

The message that comes through again and again when the subject of spares management is raised in
any management seminar is “ in order to manage spares we must understand spares.” The beginning of
the understanding of spares is to understand why spares are held in the first place. There are only two
reasons why spares are held. The first is to ensure that plant availability is maximised. When a plant is
running it earns an income but when it isn’t running it costs. Plant availability is the outcome of a good
partnership between production personnel and maintenance. The second reason spares are held is to
ensure that the maintenance team can remain productive at all times. When maintenance can not be
productive, preventive maintenance falls behind and a back log develops. When a backlog of essential
maintenance builds up the probability of failure increases. Spares availability has a direct impact on both
plant availability and maintenance productivity. It makes the difference between a virtuous circle where
maintenance catch failures before they occur or a vicious circle where maintenance are always one stage
behind the failures.
3.13 The two steps in bringing greater control to spares holdings

So the approach for improving the control of spares is two fold. The first is to analyse the current situation
which will require developing data to understand a wide range of operational characteristics. In addition to
an understanding of lead times and criticality it will be necessary to understand far more about the
frequency of need. Preventive maintenance does not always meet the exact needs of the equipment and
in many cases has been proven to actually do more harm than good. To ensure that preventive
maintenance assists plant availability and doesn’t hinder it new maintenance indicators will need to be
developed if they don’t already exist. Mean time between failures (MTBF) is critical to understanding
when parts will be required but even this knowledge does not give the whole picture. What actually
caused the failure, termed mean time between causal failures (MTBCF) is more meaningful and will
indicate the exact focus of maintenance.
3.14 The 20 / 80 theory

The 20 / 80 theory is a common theory in management. It states that in any given situation 20 % of the
causes will create 80% of the effects. Of course, it is not strictly accurate but it is a generalisation that is
very useful in the management of many situations. Obviously once again up to date, accurate data is
required. Where this is not available we must rely on the perceptions of the people involved as to which
are the 20% of the root causes that are generating 80% of the effects. However, once again caution must
be used in connection with statistics. They are there as a guide line and management must decide if a)
the information makes sense and b) it is giving an accurate base of information from which good
management decisions can be made. A 20/80 analysis of cause and effect in accidents highlighted the
fact that 17% of drivers are company car drivers and cause 80% of the accidents. Suggested solution?
Pass legislation to force all companies to give their drivers advanced driving lessons. Impact high cost.
Question: “how many miles do company drivers do in relation to ordinary drivers?” “Is kilometres per
driver a more accurate key performance indicator?”
3.15 COST

In the investigation into the reduction of spares one objective is to reduce the amount of money frozen in
spares and therefore it makes common sense to examine the relationship between categories of items
and the value of those items. Do 20% of the items held account for 80% of the cost, or a near
approximation of this relationship? This relationship would, if it existed, give management the chance to
focus first on high cost holdings. A small percentage reduction in the large cost areas will probably be far
greater in impact than a large reduction in a small cost area. This does not mean that we focus only on
the 20/80 relationship. It merely gives management a starting focus point where large gains may be made
quickly with the minimum of effort.
3.15.1 Actions

Step 1 in this process is to determine the number of items held by category. The detail to which this is
taken has to be the subject of common sense and a very quick assessment can be made by using the
estimated number of items and cost per item to give a guidance in this process. Once the range of items
held and the detail to which it will be taken are established, then the next step is to determine the
numbers held by time. By time infers reviewing the average holding levels over a given time period as
usage of the parts may rise and fall dramatically, particularly if they are used in major overhauls. The
value per item can then be inserted into the equation and the total cost of holding each item can be
arrived at. Once this has been achieved then by plotting the value of each item as a percentage of the
total cost against the total cost the “high ticket” items will appear. This process is termed Pareto analysis
and in this exercise is being used only to determine if 20% of the items (cause) makes up 80% of the cost
(effect)
3.15.2 Pareto analysis

A typical Pareto analysis chart is shown in the above illustration. On the vertical axis the percentage
refers to the percentage of total cost generated by the items plotted along the bottom. Any spreadsheet
application will automatically carry out the steps of calculating the cost of each item against the total cost
and will then sort them into descending order. Setting up a spreadsheet in this way is a good investment
for two reasons. Firstly, the spreadsheet can be used to generate “what if “ scenarios. What if we could
reduce the cost of carrying these items by 15%? Secondly, as the level of cost of items is reduced by
management actions the new levels can be entered into the spreadsheet. And thirdly, the situations with
spares will never remain static. Actions taken under other initiatives, such as Failure Mode Effect Analysis
(FMEA) will have an effect on spares holding levels and the spreadsheet model will act as a dynamic tool
between these initiatives and the spares management focus.
3.15.3 The ABC Analysis

It is useful, as in so many management situations, to have a common language in which to converse and
exchange information. Common language reduces the risk of misperception and breakdowns in
communication through the misinterpretation of information. The items that fall into high cost areas are
called A parts and should always be the focus of management actions. There will be a group of items that
fall outside the 20% of the items accounting for 80% of the cost and these are termed B items or parts.
These should not be ignored but will be the second phase of management attention. Finally there will be a
group of parts who cost level is minimal and where the effort of reducing the cost will be totally out of
proportion to the management time and effort involved. These are termed C parts. As many actions are
taken in other areas these categories may become fluid. A parts may become B parts; conversely B parts
may become A parts. The analysis is an interactive link to all other initiatives
3.15.4 Under the MAC umbrella work teams will now examine these A class items…

Under the concept of MAC working teams or groups will have been formed to examine the A class items.
The analysis is just the beginning of the process. There are at least two important questions to be
answered. The first is: “Are we holding too many?” The second is: “Can we reduce the level of current
and average holdings?” The difference between these two - current and average holding - is that of a
seasonality factor. Holding levels may vary according to the season - that is - different points in time. This
is particularly pertinent to a maintenance situation where some items are held for frequent preventive
maintenance routines and others are held for major/annual overhauls. This time element is of particular
importance in maintenance, high value items being held for overhauls because money starts to cost the
minute the items are received and paid for. This begs the question: “Can we hold off longer before we
order the items?” followed by: “Can we gain more favourable payment terms?” These questions illustrate
the two aspects of spare parts management the teams must focus on. “What is the operational aspect of
this situation?” and: “Can we manage the money flow better?”
3.15.5 To do this they will need to focus on…

The expertise of the group will be called into play to answer the first part of the three statements, namely,
“how critical is this item to the production process?” Factors which will influence the answer to this
question will be whether the item is a discreet item or not. Discreet can have two meanings in this
situation. The first definition of discreet is whether the asset for which the item is held is a one off in the
process flow. If this asset fails there is no alternative asset that can be brought into the production
process. The second description relates to the points where this item can be used. Is this part common to
many different types of plant items? Obviously an item which is discreet to one asset, which in turn is a
discreet part of the process flow will be viewed differently from a part that is not discreet to one asset, that
is it is used in many different types of equipment, none of which are discreet process items. The second
factor that needs to be taken into account is: “How long does it take to get one of these?” If they are off
the shelf items from a local stockist this will have different connotations than an item that has to be
especially ordered and takes three weeks to arrive.
3.16 MOVEMENT

The Pareto analysis of cost per item as a percentage of total cost is a financial way of looking at spares
holdings and brings into focus not just the value of the items but the management of cash flow as well.
Lead times will have been considered and here the work team will have solicited the help of the
purchasing function. The view of payment terms will have brought the finance department into the team
arena but the work group, to be efficient, must only invite in those specialists that are needed when they
are needed. To have specialists included in the standing composition of the work group will not be
productive for them of the group. The work team will be a core of individuals who have a deep
understanding of the core process and who have the authority to co-opt other people on to the team as
and when they are needed.
3.16.1 Movement can be classified as zero, some a lot

Another way in which the Pareto analysis principle can be applied is by looking into movement. The
frequency of movement will indicate a degree of importance related to constant need and use, but will not
indicate criticality. This frequency of use is important for one specific aspect of planning spare parts
holding efficiencies. But first, the common language of movement. Some items will be high usage,
frequently ordered but frequently used. Some will be of medium frequency usage and some will have zero
usage or as near makes no difference. Naturally the time span under review needs to be the same for all
items being reviewed and usually is defined as annual use. How many of these items are used on an
annual basis? In general terms low usage items should should reflect a low level of holdings and vice
versa, high usage, higher holdings.
3.16.2 Usage / Holdings matrix
To help in the process of evaluating holding levels against usage a matrix can be developed where one
axis indicates the holding level and the other records the frequency of movement. The exact definitions
for each of the three levels of holdings can be determined locally by the work teams but would be
something in the order of zero, 1-5 and greater than 5. The movement categories would reflect the zero
movement position, 1 - 20 and greater than 20 per annum. By analysing the holding levels and the
movement frequencies items can be entered on the matrix. Once again the point must be made that this
is not a precise statistical science; it is merely a way of focusing management onto those areas where
there may be the greatest opportunity for improvement. Common sense must always prevail because of
the strategic stock definition. A zero movement item with a holding of one may be strategically essential to
the maintenance of maximum plant up time.
3.16.2.1 The green area denotes where usage matches holdings

With reference to the illustration above certain situations will appear natural for the relationship between
holding levels and usage. Zero usage for example, related to zero holding (bottom left hand corner) would
appear to make sense. A low holding level (1-5) allied to a low movement (1-20) would also appear to
make sense. In general the area shaded (green) indicates where holding levels plotted against
movements rates seem to have a common sense logic. However, the findings should always be
questioned. A low holding level, an average of one half an item per annum ( the item is on stock for six
months of the year) allied to a usage rate of one, may indicate that the item is ordered to far in advance.
Is this because of excessive lead times or because purchasing have not been given specific guidelines?
Could an alternative supplier be found to provide this item at a lower lead time? The interaction of
conditions means that the work teams must stay very flexible in their thinking.
3.16.2.2 Top left indicates excessive cost.

Some general guidelines can be used when viewing the holding against the movement matrix. The top
left area of the matrix generally indicates excessive cost being incurred with regards to spares holdings.
The holdings are high whereas the movements are low. Likewise the bottom right hand side of the matrix
will tend to indicate areas of plant risk, that is items that have a high movement but low holdings. This is
where the knowledge of the work teams comes into its own. Nothing is seldom what it appears to be but
then again nothing must ever be accepted at face value. The faithful serving words of management must
always be in constant use: “Why, when, how, what, who, and where“; these valuable words will, in many
cases, expose some flaw in the logic that was initially used to determine the organisational practices that
are now reflected on the Movement / Holding matrix.
3.16.2.3 The exception to the movement rule

Over-riding all the logical arguments for reducing stock levels will be two important aspects of any
maintenance organisation: “Are these items strategic in that they need to be held to avoid a total plant
shutdown in the event that the in process part fails?” and: “What is the lead time for this item?” However,
the terms “criticality”, “strategic” and “lead times” can often cloud the thinking process, particularly when
viewed solely from a maintenance process. The objective of the spares management process is to
minimise the capital involved whilst maintaining or improving customer service. This does not mean that
production availability must be 100% and that it must be protected at all costs. Availability is a function of
demand and process management and it is possible to maintain customer service with less than 100%
availability. A part is critical to production but production can stand downtime of four hours when this part
fails. This part is held at another plant which is two hours away and can be fitted in one hour if work to
remove the defective part is started when transport is despatched to collect the spare. Spare parts
management is questioning all aspects of the holding and usage matrix.
3.16.2.4 Non critical

The top left hand side of the matrix, where holdings are high and movements are low may indicate a
situation which is often referred to as a “dead stock “ situation. Why are a large number of items being
held that are never used? With the vast amount of communication that is required in a plant, is it possible
that the communication process has broken down and that a particular item of plant that used to require a
high replacement of parts has been replaced by a more durable item that requires less replacements, but
the communication to the stores function went adrift or never happened? Anything that does not move is
“dead stock“ and must be viewed with suspicion. Why is money being frozen in something that never
moves? Dead stock clutters up the system. Is it very valuable? Often not. But there are options. Is there
another plant still using this item? If so perhaps it can be transferred there. Is this item still in use
anywhere? - it could be sent back to the supplier and a credit obtained. Finally, when all other options are
exhausted it could be sold for scrap; at least it will be out of the picture.
3.17 Stock Rotation

The third aspect of spares management is a term called rotation. Rotation is a ratio that rates the levels of
stock held against the annual usage. This is calculated by dividing the quantity of the part held by the
annual usage. This will generate a ratio and once again the Pareto analysis principle can be used to
relate the ratio for a particular item to the ratios of all other items held. In order for this relationship to be
meaningful, an understanding of the ratio is needed. It is probably easier to understand this by taking
some examples

An item has a rotation ratio of 0.25. This means that the annual usage is twelve and the average holding
level is three. £ divided by twelve equals 0.25. What would be the rotation ratio for an item that has an
average holding of 10 and a usage of 100 per annum? Holding (10) divided by usage (100) gives a
rotation ratio of 0.1. In terms of the efficient use of money the lower the ratio the more efficiently money is
being used. A number that is approaching zero is the most efficient ratio here is. Zero would indicate that
the minute the part was received it was used - just in time maintenance. The most costly ratio is that of
infinity - parts are held but never used. The objective of spares management is to achieve wherever
possible, (compatible with he goals of the programme), the lowest possible rotation ratio for all parts.
However, two factors will come into effect. The first is once again the criticality factor. The second is the
return on investment of management time. Overall cost of the item will play a pat in this initiative.
3.18 It is useful for the MAC teams to overlay certain definitions as they consider cost

The whole process of making decisions based around the holding of spares is one where the generation
of accurate and pertinent data, overlaid by knowledge of both the production and maintenance processes,
plus a healthy dose of common sense, is the ideal situation. The work teams that focus on spare parts
management must always wear 2 hats, that of the technical specialist and that of the accountant. This
requires a special degree of objectivity which will be enhanced if the team can focus on facts rather than
historic practice, past experience etc... For example, past experience may be that a particular item has
always been difficult to obtain. This does not necessarily mean that it will always be difficult to obtain. A
deeper understanding of the factors affecting spares parts holding costs is also important so these will be
explored a little deeper. Several factors affect spares holding costs, for eg. criticality (which has been
raised on many occasions), expandability, rotability, prediction and obsolescence.
3.18.1 CRITICAL PARTS

Critical parts have been defined before as those parts that will cause a major impact on production
capability if a failure of a plant item occurs and there are no spares immediately available. This criticality
is not a function of impact, rather a function of the degree of difficulty in either locating a source of
supplier for the item or finding a supplier who can provide the item with minimum lead time. If the part is
readily available and can be supplied at extremely short notice, the wisdom of permanently holding one of
these items needs to be questioned. Just because historically this situation has occurred does not mean
that these conditions still apply. Perhaps alternative suppliers could be, or indeed have been found.
Perhaps the nature of the criticality has changed. Is it possible that, because of the market conditions a
year ago the part was critical but now the market conditions have changed and we are set up for a
condition that no longer exists?
3.18.2 EXPENDABLE PARTS

Expendable parts is a term used to describe parts that are automatically discarded at the end of their life
cycle. These are essentially parts that can not be over-hauled or are not deemed to be worth overhaul
because the cost would not be in relation to their value. (Unless they are obsolete and can no longer be
obtained). The major aspect of cost reduction in this situation is to locate a supplier who can generate
shorter lead times. This will reduce the holding against use and reduce the rotation ratio. Another aspect
of the management of this spares situation is the possibility that a supplier can be found who can provide
the item to an improved specification, that is with longer life. By reducing the number of parts used per
annum the number held can also be reduced. It is true that this move might well bring the rotation ratio
right back to where it was before but this illustrates the interaction of the various aspects of spares
management. The rotation ratio might have remained the same but the average holdings will have been
reduced having an effect on the carrying costs for this item.
3.18.3 ROTABLE PARTS

Rotable parts is a term used to describe those parts that are overhauled at specific intervals or are
overhauled when when there is an indication of need. These are normally of high value because the cost
of overhaul must be justified in relation to the value of the part. There are two aspects that need to be
looked at in respect to rotable parts. The first is the possibility of maintaining central holdings. The second
is taking an objective look at the frequency at which the part is overhauled and the means by which
overhaul is determined if it is being determined through a monitoring basis. If this is not the case then a
means of monitoring the condition of the part needs to be considered and will probably already have
fallen into the province of a work group looking at reliability centred maintenance (RCM) or risk based
management (RbM). This is an example of where the work of one initiative may impinge on the work of
another and stresses the need for effective intercommunication between work groups.
3.18.4 PRODUCTION PARTS

Production parts are those parts whose life tends to be related to the volume of use. In many instances
this relationship will be governed by the production hours scheduled. With a good system for tracking this
relationship the need to replace these items becomes quite predictable and can be scheduled through the
preventive maintenance (PM) system. The management of spare parts in this instance is much more
straightforward than in most other cases. The stock needs to be managed against use. A low rotation ratio
must be obtained through the management of lead times, minimum order batch sizes (MOBS) and
quantity reorder levels (QRL’s)
3.18.5 OBSOLETE STOCK

Obsolete stock is indicated by no usage against some stock holding (the holding/usage matrix) or a very
high rotation ratio (some stock level but no usage for a considerable time) The longer the period of non
use the more likely it is that the stock has come become obsolete. Obsolete stock situations leave a
working group with few options. Is there another plant where the asset for which the item was originally
needed is still in operation? If so arrange to transfer it there. If not is the supplier still distributing this item
to customers? If so perhaps it can be returned and a credit obtained. Finally, is there any scrap value? -
an option which is a last resort but which at least brings in some revenue and clears the stores of items
that will only cloud the spares management picture.
3.19 ONGOING CONTROL

The whole process of spares management in order to minimise financial cost whilst maintaining or
improving customer service is an interactive process. New equipment is commissioned, old equipment
becomes obsolete. Supplier practices change and lead times shorten. Preventive maintenance routines
are reviewed and ways of extending them are found or criticality is designed out of something that was a
critical item for years. Ongoing spares management, to be effective, must be continuous and can not be
measured purely by looking at stock value levels. These tell us how well we are doing, not how well we
could do.
3.20 INDICATORS

Effective spares management is all about using several indicators. The ones we have reviewed have
been not just the financial indicators but operational indicators as well. Stock rotation, holding levels and
usage levels are all influencing factors in the decision process which determines stock levels for
maintenance spares. Because parameters will change due to changes in lead times, criticality, etc., the
20/80 theory (Pareto analysis) is not just a one off tool but part of a continuous process of data, analysis,
decision and action, the whole underpinned by the financial and operational indicators.
3.21 THE KEY TO SUCCESS

The key to success - to a competitive edge over the competition - the ability to not put off until tomorrow
what our competitors are doing today - is an interactive spares management system that links financial
performance to operational indicators through which management can continue to ask the question -
why?

CONDITION MONITORING

1. The Maintenance Environment Today

2. Types of Maintenance Tasks
3. What is Condition Monitoring
4. Advantages
5. Implementing a Condition Monitoring Task
6. The P-F-Curve
7. Limits
8. How Often is a Task to be Performed
9. Condition Monitoring Methods Without Instruments
10. Condition Monitoring Methods Using Instruments
10.1 Types of Techniques
10.2 On-Condition Techniques
10.3 Inspection Techniques
10.4 List of Techniques
11. Outlook
12. Conclusion
13. References
14. Annexes
14.1 Condition Monitoring Task
14.2 Condition Monitoring Techniques and their Applications
14.3 Annexes 3

Summary
There have been many changes in the world of maintenance in the past few years. Predictive
maintenance is one of the strategies to be used today to guarantee optimal performance at the lowest
possible cost. Condition monitoring is a tool needed for predictive maintenance and the main requirement
for it, is that it proves to be cost-effective.
On-line condition monitoring techniques are gaining importance in the field of maintenance, sometimes
incorporating on-line diagnoses of the results. These include:
¨ Data from the process side since it can give a hint of a maintenance related problem.
¨ Expert systems and statistical process control (SPC) techniques for the evaluation of trends used
to support decision making.
For a proper selection of a specific CONDITION MONITORING task it is crucial to know the characteristic
of the failure it is meant to prevent.
Most failures give a warning that they are about to occur (potential failure). With condition monitoring
deviations from the normal condition are detected. Based on these readings decisions can be made as to
what corrective maintenance action has to be carried out and when.
Suggestions are made of guidelines for the proper selection and implementation of condition monitoring
tasks and the condition monitoring techniques described.
1. THE MAINTENANCE ENVIRONMENT TODAY
The world of maintenance has drastically changed in the past few years. The requirements have been
growing and still are. The main aspects that maintenance has to cope with today are:
¨ Higher Plant Availability and Reliability
¨ Greater Cost Effectiveness
¨ Greater Safety
¨ Better Product Quality
¨ No damage to the environment
¨ Longer Equipment Lifetime
The first two points are focused on, because they are easy to quantify by means of money.
Maintenance strategies have to be selected to produce the lowest overall cost possible.
Overall costs include:
¨ Prevention cost
¨ Repair cost
¨ Secondary damage cost (e.g. a bearing sizes due to a broken tube oil line)
¨ Loss of production (due to the down time of the equipment)
2. TYPES OF MAINTENANCE TASKS
Apart from servicing it is possible to split maintenance tasks into three types.
Two of them do not need condition monitoring:
¨ Breakdown Maintenance; where the equipment is left in service until it fails. This can be both,
dangerous and expensive.
¨ Scheduled Overhaul and Exchange; where the equipment, or part of the equipment, is restored or
changed irrespective of its state. This is expensive and increases the risk of premature failures.
The third type strongly depends on condition monitoring:
¨ Predictive Maintenance; where the equipment, or part of the equipment, is to be restored or
changed the moment before it fails. One could say “Just in Time”.
3. WHAT IS CONDITION MONITORING
For many people “Condition Monitoring” is vibration analysis. In this paper we will look at it in a much
broader sense.
Condition monitoring is everything which helps us to establish the state of equipment or the part to be
maintained. Based on the findings, it is possible sometimes to estimate the residual lifetime of it.
According to standards [1], condition monitoring can be explained as:
¨ Measures to establish and evaluate the actual condition.
¨ It serves to recognize that repair work has become necessary at a time sufficiently early to allow
preparation for such work, thereby permitting the work to be performed according to a schedule and
avoiding secondary defects.
The term “Inspection” is also often used in this context.
Most failures give some warning of the fact that they are about to occur. This warning is called a potential
failure. It can be defined as an identifiable physical (abnormal) condition which indicates that a failure is
either about to occur or in the process of occurring.
With different techniques we intend to detect these deviations to the normal condition. These are
condition monitoring techniques
Condition monitoring detects deviations to the normal conditions
The actual state of equipment can be established in different ways:
¨ Continuously or periodically
On-line measurements or routine checks every certain time period
¨ Directly or indirectly
E.g. weight belt / power consumption of the drive
¨ Qualitatively or quantitatively
As a measured value or subjective (this noise is louder than normal)
¨ With or without instruments
4. ADVANTAGES
Predictive maintenance and therefore condition monitoring is applied to reduce overall cost. That means
substituting secondary damage and down time cost, by the expense to avoid them (prevention cost).
Therefore:
Condition monitoring has to be cost-effective.
Based on experience condition monitoring very often proves to be cost-effective.
The benefits are:
¨ Prolonged equipment life time
¨ Minimized unscheduled downtime
¨ Fewer unnecessary overhauls
¨ Less stand-by equipment
¨ More efficient operation
¨ Increased safety
¨ Improved quality performance
5. IMPLEMENTING A CONDITION MONITORING TASK
The need for a condition monitoring task can come from various sources:
¨ Out of the risk assessment process [2]
¨ From a cost/benefit analysis
¨ Dictated by law
¨ etc.
The steps to establish a task can be seen on the flow sheet in Annex  1.
6. THE P-F-CURVE
For the suitable selection of a specific condition monitoring task it is crucial to know the characteristics of
the failure it is meant to prevent.
The condition monitored has to have a correlation to the failure; e.g. there is no sense in monitoring the
temperature if there will not be a temperature rise before the equipment fails.
The characteristic’s in which failures occur can be visualized in a diagram which plots the condition
against time. This forms a curve degrading in time. An example with some explanations can be seen in
the following picture.
The P-F-Curve

The most common curves are degrading faster in time or are linear.
The function of the curve is not necessarily age related. It can start at any time. But when a failure starts
to occur it will progress according to that curve.
The P-F-Interval is the time taken between the occurrence of a potential failure (detection possible) and
its decay into the failure itself.
In reality P-F-Interval’s are not necessarily consistent. In fact they can vary over a considerable range of
values. For most purposes the shortest P-F-Interval should be taken into account.
A sudden impact from the environment (e.g. Overload, foreign object, etc.) can cause a immediate
deterioration of the condition into a functional failure. There is no P-F-Interval associated to these kinds of
occurrences.
7. LIMITS
There are some limits for the application of condition monitoring.
The failure occurs without warning or too fast to undertake any action (P-F-Interval close to zero); there is
no condition monitoring task to prevent it from occurring.
The deviations are too small to be detected or if it is impossible to establish limits for the condition to be
monitored.
The P-F-Interval is so inconsistent, that no meaningful task interval can be established. The ultimate limit
is given by the cost for the task in comparison to the money saved.
8. HOW OFTEN IS A TASK TO BE PERFORMED
As a guidelines the frequency of a condition monitoring task has to be half of the (shortest) P-F-Interval of
the failure. Therefore the frequency for the task depends mainly on two things:
¨ the characteristic in which a failure occurs
¨ the deviation needed to detect a potential failure
The characteristics of the failure is predetermined mainly by design and equipment operation. This fact
does not give maintenance the possibility to act directly on them.
The only way to influence the frequency is to recognize a potential failure earlier in time. This means the
deviation from the normal condition will be less and therefore the method of detecting the deviation has to
be more sophisticated.
In the case of a detected abnormal condition (potential failure), the frequency can be adjusted if the repair
task will not be carried out immediately and the future development of the failure is not known well (lack of
experience, inconsistencies of the P-F-Interval). The idea is to have the equipment, or part, remain in
service for as long as possible.
9. CONDITION MONITORING METHODS WITHOUT INSTRUMENTS
The basic condition monitoring methods are use of the human senses:
¨ sight
¨ sound
¨ smell
¨ touch
They exist as long as mankind and should not be forgotten even in the high-tech-times of today. These
methods can be improved on by using simple instruments (magnifying lenses, mirrors, etc.). However, the
disadvantage of inspections by human senses are that they are relatively unprecise, and therefore the
associated P-F-Intervals are usually very short. Most of the smaller deviations tend to be beyond the
range of the human senses and need specialized instruments to be detected.
10. CONDITION MONITORING METHODS USING INSTRUMENTS
We have learnt that a longer P-F-Interval means that the task needs to be done less often, and/or that
there is more time to take whatever action is needed to avoid the consequences of the failure. In fact this
will save money.
This is why so much effort is being spent on trying to define potential failure conditions and develop
techniques for detecting them with the longest possible P-F-Interval (as early as possible).
Still one has to bear in mind that it has to be cost-effective.
10.1 Types of Techniques
In this paper the techniques using instruments are divided into two main groups:
¨ On-Condition Techniques; where the equipment remains in service
¨ Inspection Techniques; where the equipment has to be shut down or even dismantled
The above mentioned division is not the only one, neither are the following ones.
Some of the techniques can be used for more than one purpose. In Annex 2 a table can be found with
various methods and their possible applications.
10.2 On-Condition Techniques
On-condition techniques have the advantage that the equipment can remain in service. In some cases
they even have to be in service; e.g. dynamic measurements. Therefore there is no production loss cost
associated with this type of measurement and they do not need special co-ordination with the production.
For this reason on-condition techniques have become popular over the past few years. However, they are
normally more expensive and the results are sometimes difficult to interpret. Often it is necessary to take
baseline readings and decisions have to be based on trends rather than on single measurements.
Very often this type of task is carried out on a regular basis by “inspectors” following a given route in the
plant.
A possible way of dividing them into smaller groups is by type of measurements:
¨ Dynamic; e.g. Vibration Analysis, Acoustic Emission, Torques
¨ Temperature; e.g. Thermography, Fibre Loop
¨ Particle and Chemical Analysis; e.g. Spectrometric Oil Analysis, Ferrography
¨ Electrical; e.g. Meggers, Resistance
10.3 Inspection Techniques
Many inspection techniques are well known and have been used in the cement industry for a long time.
They include a wide range of solutions from simply determining the length with a tape measure to x-ray
testing where expensive equipment is needed and good skills are necessary to handle them.
A possible way of dividing them into smaller groups is by the failure they detect:
¨ Surface Degradation (Wear, Corrosion, Cracks, a.s.o.); e.g. Magnetic Particle Test, Dye
Penetration Test, Endoscopy
¨ Internal Deficiencies; e.g. Ultrasonic Measurements, X-Ray Testing
¨ Properties; e.g. Hardness Test
¨ Dimensions; e.g. Meters, Calibration, Shell test
¨ Alignment; e.g. Laser Distance Measurements, Lead Wire
¨ Leaks; e.g. Pressure Testing, Ultrasonic Leak Detection
10.4 List of Techniques
In Annex 3 different condition monitoring techniques are described in detail. For every technique the
following parameters are given:
¨ Condition moitored
¨ Applications
¨ Technical Base
¨ P-F-Interval
¨ Advantages/Disadvantages
¨ Skills necessary
¨ Standards applied
¨ Approx. Cost
¨ Supplier/Products
11. OUTLOOK
Taking into consideration all maintenance methods applied today a major movement towards on-condition
monitoring techniques can be seen. This movement is expected to continue and to accelerate in the
future.
Together with the on-line monitoring the on-line diagnoses of the results will gain in attraction, because
the expert systems have, and still are becoming more powerful and easier to handle.
To involve process data into the condition monitoring is another step on the way to “Excellence in
Maintenance”. A higher power consumption of the equipment or a quantity/quality decrease of the product
can be a hint of a maintenance related problem.
With the availability of long term data, statistical process control (SPC) techniques for the evaluation of
trends can be used to help determine the actual condition of an equipment. Apart from others, two
valuable tools to be applied for condition monitoring are:
¨ Moving X-bar Charts
¨ EWMA Charts (Exponentially Weighted Moving Average)
Both of them cope with the small amount of measured values available over the time period.
For the evaluation of on-line data (process or maintenance) a much wider field of SPC-techniques are
worthwhile for consideration.
12. CONCLUSION
Condition monitoring is a tool needed for predictive maintenance. It is one of the tools for state of the art
maintenance to cope with the requirements that it is confronted with; basically to guarantee optimal
performance at the lowest possible cost. Therefore, every condition monitoring task has to prove to be
cost-effective.
For the proper selection of a specific task it is crucial to know the characteristic’s of the failure it is meant
to prevent.
Most failures give a warning of the fact that they are about to occur (potential failure). With condition
monitoring, deviations to the normal condition are detected. Based on these readings, decisions can be
made regarding what maintenance action has to be carried out and when.
As a guideline the frequency of a task has to be half of the P-F-Interval of the failure, i.e. half of the time
to elapse between the possible detection of a potential failure and its decay into the failure itself. The only
way to lower the frequency is to recognize a potential failure earlier in time. This means the deviation from
the normal condition will be less and the method of detecting it has to be more sophisticated.
On-line techniques are gaining importance in the field of maintenance, sometimes incorporating on-line
diagnose of the results.
Data from the process side has to be involved as well, since it can give a hint of maintenance related
problem.
Expert systems and statistical process control (SPC) techniques for the evaluation of trends can be used
to support decision making.
13. REFERENCES

[1] BS 3811; British Standard Nº 3811; Maintenance terms in tero technology, 1974
[2] “Holderbank’s” Risk based Maintenance Policy; Information Brochure; Author: Holderbank
Management & Consulting Ltd.; 1993
[3] NDE Handbook Non-destructive examination methods for condition monitoring; Author: Knud G.
Bøving; 1989
[4] RCM II; Reliability-centered Maintenance; Author: John Moubray; 1993
[5] VA 92/6008/E; Efficient Condition Monitoring of Rolling Bearings; Author: H. Burger, 1992
[6] VA 83/5012/E; Author: W.H. Bürgi, 1983 Methods of Detecting Damage in Machine Parts;
[7] VA 84/92/E; Scheduled Maintenance; Part A: Setting up a Maintenance Plan; Author: U.W. Hess,
1986
[8] VA 82/4922/E; The HMC Maintenance Philosophy; Author: U.W. Hess, 1988

14. ANNEXES
14.1 Condition Monitoring Task

14.2 Condition Monitoring Techniques and their Applications

14.2.1 Annex 2.1
On-Condition Techniques

14.2.2 Annex 2.2

Inspection Techniques

14.3 Annexes 3
14.3.1 Acoustic Emission
Conditions monitored
Plastic deformation and crack formations caused by fatigue, stress and wear.
Applications
Metal materials used in structures, pressure vessels, pipelines and mining excavations.
Technical Base
Stress waves are emitted by the materials which are subjected to loads, due to the crystallographic
changes. These stress waves are received by a transducer and amplified at an impulse analyser and fed
to a X-Y plotter or an oscilloscope. The curve is evaluated visually.
P-F Interval
Several weeks, depending on the application
Experience and knowledge necessary
Equipment functioning and interpretation of the results: An experienced and trained technician
Advantages
Remote detection of flaws: Covers entire structures: Measuring system set up very quickly: High
sensitivity: Only limited access to test objects required: Detects active flaws: Only relatively low loads are
required. Can sometimes be used to forecast failure load.
Disadvantages
The structure has to be loaded: A-E activity is highly dependent on materials: Irrelevant electrical and
mechanical noise can interfere with measurements: Gives limited information on the type of flaw:
Interpretation of results may be difficult.
Standards
ASTM in preparation
Estimated Costs
Ultraprobe USD 6’000.—
Stethoscopes USD 1’000.—
Supplier/Products
SPM/ELS-12
Keel Engineering (CH) / Ultraprobe
Westhill (South Africa)
14.3.2 Graded Filtration
Conditions monitored
Particles in lubricating oils (such as iron, copper, lead, chromium, aluminium, silicon, etc.) caused by
wear, fatigue and corrosion.
Applications
Enclosed lubricating and hydraulic oil systems, such as gearboxes, engine sumps, hydraulic systems, etc.
Technical Base
An oil sample is diluted and passed through a series of membranes (filters) with decreasing particle
passing size. The collected particles are counted under a microscope according to the element and size.
Its statistical distribution is shown in a graphical form. The analysis of the characteristics of the distribution
of the particles shows whether the wear is normal or not.
P-F Interval
Usually from several weeks to months.
Experience and knowledge necessary
Sample: a laboratory assistant; analysis of the characteristics for the distribution of the particles: An
experienced laboratory technician or an engineer.
Advantages
Can determine whether wear is normal or not. Relatively cheap. Can be used to compare one element
with another.
Disadvantages
It is not an on-line technique: A high degree of experience is necessary to interpret the results of the
sample. Identification of particle elements is difficult
Standards
ISO 4406
Estimated Costs
USD 2’000.—
Supplier/Products
Schak 01 (CH)
Cortec Corporation (USA)
14.3.3 Ferrography
Conditions monitored
Wear, corrosion and fatigue
Applications
Enclosed lubricating and hydraulic oil systems such as gearboxes, engine sumps, hydraulics, etc.
Technical Base
Wear particles are separated magnetically from the lubricating oils onto an inclined glass plate by means
of a instrument known as a ferrograph. The particles are distributed along the length of the slide
according to their size. The slide is treated so that the particles adhere to the surface when the oil is
removed. The total density of the particles and the ratio of large to small particles indicates the type of
extent of wear and the analysis is made by means of a technique which is known as bichromatic
microscopic examination. An electron microscope can also be used to determine the particles shapes and
provide an indication of the cause of the failure.
P-F Interval
Usually several months
Experience and knowledge necessary
To extract the sample and operate the ferrograph: A semi-specialized operative suitable trained. To
analyse the ferrogram: An experienced technician.
Advantages
More sensitive than the emission spectrometry at the at early stage of engine wear: measures particles
shapes and sizes.
Disadvantages
It is not an on-line technique: measures only the ferrormagnetical particles: Requires an electron
microscope for a more profound analysis.
Standards
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
BP, Mobil
14.3.4 Magnetic Plugs
Conditions monitored
Wear and fatigue
Applications
Equipment with closed lubrication systems, such as reductors, collectors of motor oil, compressors, etc.
Technical Base
In the lubrication system a magnetic plug is mounted so that it is exposed to the circulating lubricant. The
small metal particles in suspension in the oil and the unfastened metal scales due to fatigue, are captured
by the magnetic force. The probe is taken out by regular intervals and the adhering particles are
examined under a microscope. An increase in the quantity and size of the particles indicates a potential
failure. The particles have different characteristics (form, colour and structure) according to the type and
location of the failure.
P-F Interval
From days to weeks
Experience and knowledge necessary
To pick up a sample: A semi-specialized operator trained accordingly. To analyse the particles: An
experienced and trained technician.
Advantages
It is a cheap method to monitor the contamination of liquids. Only a ordinary microscope is required to
analyse the particles. Some plugs may be taken out during operation.
Disadvantages
Short P-F interval: Experience is necessary to interpret the results.
Standards
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
14.3.5 SHELLTEST
Conditions monitored
The deformation of the shell of a rotary kiln, rigidity of shell and tyre and the play between them.
Applications
Shell of rotary kilns
Technical Base
The linear movements of a pin which is in contact with the surface of the shell is registered on a paper
during a complete revolution of the kiln. There exist mathematical relations to the deformations of the
shell. This procedure is carried out three times every 120° of the circumference of the kiln at various
planes. Additionally the relative movement between the tyre and the shell is measured placing the pin on
the shell and a plate with a paper on the tyre.
P-F Interval
Usually several months.
Experience and knowledge necessary
An experienced operator
Advantages
It is an on-line technique; long p-f intervals
Disadvantages
The evaluation of the results needs experience. Kiln operation does have a significant influence on the
mesurement results.
Standards
Estimated Costs
Shelltest equipment USD 10’000
Supplier/Products
Holcim Group Support Ltd.
Phillips
14.3.6 Lead Wire Test
Conditions monitored
Alignment, contact area
Applications
Alignment of tyre / roller kiln
Technical Base
A lead wire is passed between the tyre and a roller. The moulding of the wire is drawn on a sheet. This
procedure is carried out three times per tyre every 120° of the its circumference for both rollers. The form
of the wire is evaluated for: alignment, straightness of the surface, contact area and stress points.
P-F Interval
Usually several months
Experience and knowledge necessary
No experienced or special knowledge is required
Advantages
Cheap and easy, it is an on-line technique.
Disadvantages
There is no quantitative result; additional measurements are required (oil film on the shoulders) for the
evaluation of the alignment of the rollers. Kiln operation does have a significant influence on the
measurement results.
Standards
Estimated Costs
< USD 100
Supplier/Products
14.3.7 Thermometer, Thermocouple
Conditions monitored
Elevated temperatures due to wear, overloading, etc. at the surface or inside of an equipment
Applications
Refractory, reductors, motors, etc.
Technical Base
The electrical resistance of a wire changes with the temperature. The tension loss over the resistance is
measured. In case of a PT100 the resistance at 20°C is 100 Ohm.
P-F Interval
From several hours to several days depending on the application.
Experience and knowledge necessary
Permanent installation: A specialist. Measurements with portable equipment: A suitable trained semi-
specialized operator
Advantages
Cheap and easy to apply the portable equipment: often used as on-line measurement through the
process control system
Disadvantages
In some cases the P-F interval is short - various hours
Standards
Estimated Costs
PT100: > USD 200
Digital thermometers: > USD 1’500
Supplier/Products
Rikenta (CH); Ahlborn (D); Endress + Hauser
Keithley, Bailey, Foxboro, Kent
14.3.8 Spectrometric Oil Analysis
Conditions monitored
The wear of the following elements can be detected: iron, copper, lead, chrome, aluminium, molybdenum,
tin, silver, zinc, nickel, silicon, sodium, boron
Applications
Circulating oil systems
Technical Base
The contaminants in a sample of oil are measured by emission or atomic absorption spectrometry. The
emission spectrometry excites the metallic impurities in the sample with a direct high voltage (15’000 V),
causing the impurities to emit characteristic radiation’s which can be analysed.
The atomic absorption spectrometry works on the principle that every atom absorbs light of its own
specific wave length. The oil sample is diluted and vaporised in an acetylene flame, and the presence of
each element is determined using a light source of the appropriate wave length. In this way, the wear
particles are identified, quantified and qualified so that the source of deterioration can be located. The
graphs of the wear rates for each metal show deteriorating or improving conditions.
P-F Interval
Usually from several weeks to months.
Experience and knowledge necessary
To take out a sample: A semi-specialized, suitable trained operator. To operate the spectrometer: a trained
laboratory technician. To analyse the results of the sample: an experienced chemical analyst.
Advantages
This test, of atom absorption, is comparatively cheap (sometimes it can be included in the service of the
oil supplier): More reproducible at lower concentrations: Emission spectrometry is much faster than the
atomic absorption spectrometry.
Disadvantages
Normally the analysis have to be made by specialised contractors (or oil suppliers) because the
equipment and experience is lacking (long response time).
Standards
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
BP, Mobil
14.3.9 Strain Gauges
Conditions monitored
Forces and deformations on parts
Applications
Gear reductor, structures, shafts, drives, etc.
Technical Base
The resistance of the wire changes linearly to the prolongation caused by the deformations. This
resistance is measured by a bridge circuit.
P-F Interval
Several weeks to several months
Experience and knowledge necessary
An experienced technician is required to decide the position and affix the strain gauges as well as
evaluate the results.
Advantages
Long P-F interval
Disadvantages
The measuring equipment are expensive, an external expert is required.
Standards
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
MEC; Brüel & Kjær
14.3.10 Stroposcopy
Conditions monitored
Fissures, wear, direction, rotation speed and alignment in rotating and oscillating parts.
Applications
Rotary equipment such as shafts, ventilators, etc. for fissures or wear; check coupling for distance
between the plates, loose screws, etc., balancing of rotary equipment (together with vibration
measurement equipment)
Technical Base
The eyes follow the movement of one part in relation to the frequency in which it is illuminated. The
frequency of the stroboscope is adjusted until the part appears to be stationary. Then the part can be
inspected.
P-F Interval
Depends on the application; from several days to weeks
Experience and knowledge necessary
No experience or special knowledge is required.
Advantages
Easy to use and cheap, it is an on-line technique.
Disadvantages
Gives the impression that the part does not move, therefore security aspect should be kept in mind.
Standards
Estimated Costs
USD 500
Supplier/Products
Picostrob; Tourostrob
14.3.11 Test Coupon
Conditions monitored
General and localised erosion and corrosion such as metal loss and pitting
Applications
Petrol refineries, process plants, gas transmission plants, underground structures, monitoring of cathode
protection, abrasive slurry transport, water distribution systems, atmospherique corrosion.
Technical Base
Usually coupons are produced from mild, low carbon steel with a low coal content or of a grade material
which duplicates the wall of a vessel or pipe. The coupons are carefully prepared, weighted and
measured before they will be exposed. After the coupons have been submerged in the process flow for a
period of time (from several weeks to several months) they are removed and checked for weight loss and
pitting. From these measurements, the relative metal loss of the tube walls can be calculated and pitting
can be estimated.
P-F Interval
Several months
Experience and knowledge necessary
A suitable trained specialist
Advantages
Very satisfactory when corrosion is constant: Useful in dangerous areas where the electrical dispositives
are prohibited: Fairly cheap: Indicates the type of corrosion: Widely used.
Disadvantages
Results take time: The response to dangerous corrosive conditions is low: The use of coupons requires
several personnel: The determination of the rate of corrosion usually takes several weeks: Information
about temporal or abnormal conditions are not supplied.
Standards
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
14.3.12 Thermography
Conditions monitored
Temperature variances caused by wear, corrosion, fatigue, leaks, poor electrical connections, etc.
Applications
Power transmission lines, transformers, refractories, electrical switchgear, building insulation, hydraulics,
bearings, gas mains (dirt accumulations), etc.
Technical Base
Thermography extends the human vision to infrared waves. It is based on the principal that all objects
above absolute zero (-273°C) emit infra-red radiation. An infrared camera that produces a live thermal
picture detects this energy. Temperature differences of the surface are seen as light and dark areas and
false colours. The thermal drawing can be recorded by a video camera attached to the display screen or
directly onto a floppy-disk.
P-F Interval
A few days to several months depending on the application
Experience and knowledge necessary
Operation of equipment: A trained specialist. Interpretation of results: An experienced technician.
Advantages
Stationary or moving objects can be examined at any distance without touching or influencing the
temperature of the object: Photographs and videotapes provide a permanent record: Examinations are
carried out at safe distances from dangerous gases and high temperatures: Equipment portable and quick
to use.
Disadvantages
Inaccessible components have to be uncovered: Costs: Needs specialist to interpret results: wide range
of applications are needed to justify cost of the equipment.
Standards
Estimated Costs
Portable systems USD 1’500 - 6’000
Complete systems (including software) USD 50’-100’000
Supplier/Products
AGEMA: Thermovision
AHLBORN: Raynger
HENZ: Infratherm
Land (USA); Williamson (USA); Kane May
14.3.13 Temperature Indicating Paint
Conditions monitored
Equipment temperature at surface
Applications
Refractories, thermal treatment
Technical Base
A chemical substance is applied to the machine surface. If the temperature exceeds the design
temperature of the substance, the state changes from solid to liquid. Although the temperature is
lowered afterwards, the traces of the liquid are still visible.
P-F Interval
From days to several weeks depending on the application
Experience and knowledge necessary
No experience of special knowledge is required.
Advantages
Cheap and easy to use; provides a maximal temperature indication
Disadvantages
Indicates only a temperature limit; several paints are needed to cover temperature range; Once the
temperature has been exceeded a new paint is required.
Standards
Estimated Costs
USD 30 per tube or pencil
Supplier/Products
Medicina (FL): Tempil
14.3.14 Vibration Monitoring
Conditions monitored
Changes in the vibration frequencies caused by wear, fatigue, corrosion, imbalances, disalingnment,
loosening, etc.
Applications
Rotating and oscillating machines in general such as reductors, ventilators, motors, etc.
Technical Base
Vibrations are produced by the movement of the machine or a part of it. The most important
characteristics that can be measured are: displacement, speed, acceleration, frequency, phase, using an
accelerator or a speed sensor, a vibrometer, filters, oscilloscopes, etc. Several methods exist to evaluate
the vibrations (e.g. wide band, broad band, octave band, etc.) each of them has its advantage for a
special problem
P-F Interval
From days to weeks depending on the application
Experience and knowledge necessary
To operate the measuring equipment: an appropriate trained technician; To interpret the results: An
experienced technician, sometimes of superior level
Advantages
Cheap and compact: Test during service; can be portable or permanently installed. The interpretation can
be based on established acceptance criteria for the condition such as VDI 2056
Disadvantages
An in depth analysis requires an expert and a relatively long analysing time. Different evaluation
techniques are needed to cover a case in detail
Standards
VDI 2056 ISO 3945
Estimated Costs
Simple Instrument USD 1’000
Date collector, including software approx. USD 30’000
On-line system for several measuring points > USD 60’000
Supplier/Products
IRD; Bruel & Kjaer; Karl Deutsch; Schenk, MAAG, ABB; SPM
14.3.15 Visual Inspection
Conditions monitored
The range of conditions is enormous: Function, condition, surface, integrity, dimensions, shape, material,
etc. of a piece of equipment in any industry not only for condition monitoring but also for damage analysis
Applications
For all equipment
Technical Base
Human sense is the technical base, sometimes supported with simple auxiliary instruments such as
mirrors, lamps, etc.
P-F Interval
From several days to several months depending on the application
Experience and knowledge necessary
An attentive operator
Advantages
Most important method; cheap and easy, can be realised by operators of every level and education
Disadvantages
Human senses are limited: results are subjective and sometimes they can not be quantified.
Standards
DIN58220; DIN 8524; DIN 8563
BS 5289; BS 4080; ISO 3058; ASME sect V Art. 9
Estimated Costs
Nothing for inspections that are carried out during the daily work.
Supplier/Products
14.3.16 Sight
Conditions monitored
The range is enormous: Function, condition, surface, integrity, dimensions, shape, material, etc. of an
equipment or of a part of any industry not only for condition monitoring but also for damage analysis.
Applications
For all equipment
Technical Base
Use of eyes
P-F Interval
From several days to several months depending on the application
Experience and knowledge necessary
An attentive operator
Advantages
Very important method; cheap and easy, can be realised by on an every day base.
Disadvantages
Human senses are limited; results are subjective and sometimes they can not be quantified.
Standards
DIN 58220; DIN 8524; DIN 8563
BS 5289; BS 4080; ISO 3058; ASME sect V Art. 9
Estimated Costs
Nothing for inspections made by the operators during the daily work
Supplier/Products
14.3.17 Sound
Conditions monitored
In majority: loosening, wear and forces
Applications
For all equipment or moving parts
Technical Base
Use of ears
P-F Interval
From several hours to several months depending on the application
Experience and knowledge necessary
An attentive operator
Advantages
Very important method: cheap and easy, can be realised by operators
Disadvantages
Human senses are limited, results are subjective and sometimes they can not be quantified.
Standards
Estimated Costs
Nothing for inspections made by the operators during the daily work
Supplier/Products
14.3.18 Smell
Conditions monitored
In majority leaks and forces (overloads)
Applications
For all equipment or moving parts, electrical, tubes, tanks, etc.
Technical Base
Use of nose
P-F Interval
From minutes to several hours depending on the application
Experience and knowledge necessary
An attentive operator
Advantages
Cheap and easy, can be realised by operators
Disadvantages
Human senses are limited; results are subjective and sometimes they can not be quantified, P-F interval
is very short.
Standards
Estimated Costs
Nothing for inspections made by operators during the daily work
Supplier/Products
14.3.19 Touch
Conditions monitored
In majority loosening, wear and property
Applications
For all equipment
Technical Base
Use of hands
P-F Interval
From several hours to several months depending on the application
Experience and knowledge necessary
An attentive operator
Advantages
Cheap and easy, can be realised by operators
Disadvantages
Human senses are limited; results are subjective and sometimes they can not be quantified; can be
dangerous (hot surfaces, splinters, etc.)
Standards
Estimated Costs
Nothing for inspections made by operators during the daily work
Supplier/Products
14.3.20 SPM (Shock Pulse Method)
Conditions monitored
Shock waves due to fissures, wear, disalignment, insufficient lubrication, etc.
Applications
Rolling element bearings, pneumatic impact tools, valves of internal combustion engines
Technical Base
A accelerator detects the shock waves transmitted by the machine. The signals passes through a band
pass filter which selects only frequencies exceeding 10 kHz. This high frequency input is converted into
square pulses. The peak values of these pulses are read off as a measure of bearing damage.
P-F Interval
Depends on the application, but usually several weeks to months
Experience and knowledge necessary
An experienced and suitably trained technician
Advantages
Long P-F intervals: Equipment portable: Simple to use, on-line technique
Disadvantages
Not suitable for slow-moving machinery with high levels of product impact noise unless adaptive noise
cancelling” is also used. Application is limited to a shock impulse measurement and transitory signals.
Standards
Estimated Costs
USD 3’000
Supplier/Products
SPM Instrument AG
AE Advanced Engineering, Rolle (CH)
14.3.21 Dye Penetrant Examination
Conditions monitored
Surface discontinuities, fissures, etc. caused by fatigue, wear, surface shrinkage, grinding, heat treatment,
laminations, corrosion, corrosion stresses
Applications
Ferrous and non ferrous materials such as welds, machined surfaces, shafts, boilers, plastic structures,
compressor receivers, etc.
Technical Base
The penetrant liquid is applied to the test surface and sufficient time is permitted for it to penetrate the
surface discontinuity. The excess surface penetrant is removed. A developer is applied which draws the
penetrant from the discontinuity to the test surface where it is interpreted and evaluated. The liquid
penetrants are categorised according to the dye type (visible dye, fluorescent or penetrates of double
sensity) and the required procedure to eliminate them from the test surface (washable with water, post
emulsified or solvent removed)
P-F Interval
From several days to several months depending on the application
Experience and knowledge necessary
To apply the penetrate: a semi-specialized suitable trained operator. Interpretation: A suitable
experienced technician
Advantages
The sets of visible penetrate dye are very cheap but the fluorescent sets are a lot more sensitive. Detects
surface discontinuities also on non ferrous materials.
Disadvantages
Fluorescent penetrates require an darkened area for inspection; Not an on-line technique, monitors only
surface-breaking defects; It cannot verify materials with a porous surface; use is limited at temperatures
from 0° to 50°C.
Standards
DIN 54152; BS 4416
ASTM-E 165; MIL-I-25135
Estimated Costs
USD 40 per set
Supplier/Products
ARDROX; MAGNAFLUX; CASTROL
14.3.22 Eddy Current Testing
Conditions monitored
Surface and sub-surface discontinuities caused by wear, fatigue and stress, detection of dimensional
changes produced trough wear, strain and corrosion, determination of material hardness.
Applications
Ferrous materials used for boiler tubes, heat exchanger tubes, hydraulic tubing, hoist ropes, railway lines,
etc.
Technical Base
A test coil carrying alternating current between 100 kHz and 4 MHz induces eddy current in the part
being inspected. Eddy current detours around cracks, becoming compressed, delayed and weakened.
The electrical reaction on the test coil is amplified and recorded on a cathode ray tube or direct reading
meter.
P-F Interval
Several weeks, depending on the application
Experience and knowledge necessary
An experienced and suitable trained technician.
Advantages
Applicable to a wide range of conducting materials. Can work without surface preparation. High defect
detection sensitivity: Strip chart recorder provides a permanent record
Disadvantages
Poor response from non-ferrous materials. Usually an external specialist is required.
Standards
ASNT; DIN
Estimated Costs
from USD 3’000
Supplier/Products
Förster (Germany)
14.3.23 Endoscopy
Conditions monitored
Surface cracks and their orientation, oxide films, weld defects, corrosion, wear, leaks
Applications
The internal visual inspection of narrow tubes, bores and chambers of engines, pumps, turbines,
compressors, boilers, etc. in several industries
Technical Base
These instruments are known as endoscopes or borescopes. The light is channelled with mirrors or fibre
cables to allow inspection of otherwise inaccessible points of view. If the light is insufficient, an external
light can be sent through some of the fibre cables. For this an equipment producing cold light is used. It
lightens the area so that photographs can be taken or video equipment used.
P-F Interval
Several weeks depending on the application
Experience and knowledge necessary
An experienced and suitable trained operator
Advantages
A detailed inspection of the surface in inaccessible areas can be obtained without having to dismantle the
pieces; photographs can be taken to provide permanent records. They can be magnified; portable
equipment.
Disadvantages
Only surface defects can be detected; Not an on-line technique; when equipment with cold light source,
video camera, etc. is used, the method becomes costly
Standards
Estimated Costs
Inflexible: USD 2’000; with fibre cables USD 5’000-10’000
Complete systems: USD 30’000-50’000
Supplier/Products
Volpi; Classen + Co; Olympus
14.3.24 Electrical Resistance (Corrometer)
Conditions monitored
Integrated metal loss (i.e.: total corrosion)
Applications
Petroleum refineries, process plants, gas transmission plants, underground structures, cathodic protection
monitoring, abrasive slurry transport, water distribution systems, atmospheric corrosion
Technical Base
The system is composed of a probe and an instrument to read it. The probe consists of a wire, strip or
tube of the same metal in the plant being monitored. The electric resistance of the probe which is
measured by a bridge circuit, increases as the probe cross-section decreases with corrosion. This
increase in resistance enables total metal loss to be read out which is easily converted to corrosion rate
P-F Interval
Depends on the application and on the corrosion rate. Usually several months.
Experience and knowledge necessary
A trained specialist
Advantages
When plotted against a time scale, yields both corrosion rate and total metal loss; Can be used in any
environment. Portable equipment available. On-line monitoring possible: In-plant equipment provides
permanent records: Interpretation normally easy.
Disadvantages
Gives no indication of whether the corrosion rate at a particular time is high or low; portable equipment
provides no permanent record.
Standards
ASTM D 1776-79
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
14.3.25 Hardness Test
Conditions monitored
Propriety of a material (hardness, crystallisation)
Applications
Shafts, gears, wear plates (i.e. clinker cooler), laminations, castings, welds
Technical Base
A test body is accelerated and collides with the test surface. The resistance of the material against
penetration of the body into the surface is an indication of the hardness. Two types of evaluations are
used depending on the method applied: A typical dimension (i.e.diameter) of the trace of the test body on
the surface is measured or the energy difference of the test body is measured before or after the collision.
For both methods the value is converted in hardness using tables.
P-F Interval
Depends on the application, but usually from several weeks to months
Experience and knowledge necessary
A suitable trained operator
Advantages
Rapid and simple measurements
Disadvantages
Application in a plant limited: inaccuracy of approx. 10%, Not an on-line technique. The measurement
point has to be easily accessible.
Standards
Estimated Costs
Equotip USD 4’000; Poldi USD 600
Supplier/Products
Poldy Hammer
Equotip
Shore Hardness Tester
14.3.26 Dimension Measurement
Conditions monitored
Dimensions of parts and dimension changes due to deposits or wear
Applications
For all equipment or parts such as shafts, bearings, tubes, etc.
Technical Base
There exist a wide variety of methods
A dimension is measured with a calibrator, a micrometer, etc. The results are in units of length and are
compared with previous or basic values.
A dimension is compared with a calibre. The results are in a digital form , it “DOES” or “DOES NOT” have
the required value including tolerances.
The contour of a part is formed with a wire and compared with the previous or basic contours.
P-F Interval
Depends on the application, but usually from several weeks to months
Experience and knowledge necessary
No experience or special knowledge is required.
Advantages
Cheap and simple to use and evaluate
Disadvantages
Difficult to apply to big dimensions; only a decision “YES” or “NO” in the case of calibre’s, not an on-line
technique
Standards
ISO
Estimated Costs
Very depending on the technique selected, from USD 100 for calibrators, micrometers, etc.
Supplier/Products
14.3.27 Laser
Conditions monitored
In the majority dimensions or distances between two points are measured or it is used for alignment
purposes
Applications
Kilns, transport ways, couplings, etc.
Technical Base
It is the modern form of the theodolite. A laser source is used to create an uniform and visible light of an
exact wave length. This light is sent to a point on the surface. With a second instrument this point is also
adjusted to this point, producing a triangulation measurements and evaluating them trigonometrically.
With another Methode the beam is reflected and the difference at the source is evaluated.
P-F Interval
Depends on the application, but usually from several weeks to months
Experience and knowledge necessary
A suitable trained technician
Advantages
Rapid, can be measured without contact, measurement possible with the equipment in service.
Disadvantages
Relatively expensive, practice is required.
Standards
Estimated Costs
Coupling alignment systems USD 10’000
Supplier/Products
Optalign FLS (kiln alignment service)
14.3.28 Theodolite
Conditions monitored
In the majority dimensions or distances between two points are measured or it is used for alignment
purposes
Applications
Kilns, transport ways, coupling, etc.
Technical Base
Triangulation measurements and evaluating them trigonometrically
P-F Interval
Depends on the application, but usually from several weeks to months
Experience and knowledge necessary
A suitable trained technician
Advantages
Rapid and relatively cheap, can be measured without contact, sometimes possible with the equipment in
service
Disadvantages
Practice is required, limited use in a cement plant
Standards
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
14.3.29 Leak Testing
Conditions monitored
Leaks in tube systems and tanks, etc.
Applications
Distribution systems, tanks and vessel for oil, petroleum, lubricants, chemicals, liquid alternative fuels,
etc.
Technical Base
The range of methods is so great that only the types are mentioned:
- by lost quantity
- by pressure differences: see also Pressure Test
- by tracing substances
P-F Interval
Depends on the application, but usually from several weeks to months
Experience and knowledge necessary
A semi-specialized suitable trained operator. In some countries a certification is required to be allowed to
perform the tests
Advantages/Disadvantages
The range of techniques is so great that the advantage of one technique is the disadvantage of the other.
Some are simple to use and cheap.
Standards
BS 3636; ASTM-E 432-71
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
14.3.30 Voltage Generator
Conditions monitored
Resistance of electrical isolation
Applications
Electrical Circuits
Technical Base
The measurement is based on the ratiometer principle using two moving coils connected mutually at right
angles (90°) within a permanent magnetic field. The reference coil is connected in series to a constant
resistance, the other (deflecting coil) in series with the isolation resistance to be measured. The amount of
deflection is a function of the resistance of the isolation. Test voltages of 250 to 10’000 V are used.
P-F Interval
From months to years
Experience and knowledge necessary
Operator or technician, depends on the voltage
Advantages
Simple and known technique
Disadvantages
No on-line technique
Standards
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
14.3.31 Magnetic Particle Test
Conditions monitored
Surface and near-surface cracks and discontinuities caused by fatigue, wear, laminations, inclusions,
surface shrinkage, grinding, heat treatment, hydrogen embrittlement, laps, seams, corrosion fatigue and
corrosion stress.
Applications
Ferromagnetic metals such as compressor receivers, welds, machined surfaces, shafts, steel structures,
boilers, etc.
Technical Base
A test piece is magnetised and then sprayed with a solution containing very fine iron particles over the
area to be inspected. If a crack exists, the iron particles will be attracted to the magnetic flux leaking from
the area caused by the discontinuity and give an indication. These leakage fields act as local magnets.
The indication is then interpreted and evaluated. Fluorescent magnetic particle sprays provide greater
sensitivity and inspection should be carried out under ultra-violet light in a darkened room.
P-F Interval
From days to months depending on the application
Experience and knowledge necessary
Application: a suitably trained semi-specialized operator, Interpretation: an experienced technician.
Advantages
Reliable and sensitive: relatively cheap and simple; independent of temperatures
Disadvantages
Detects only surface and near surface cracks: Time consuming: Contaminates clean surfaces: Not an on-
line monitoring technique; only for ferromagnetic materials.
Standards
DIN 54130 and following; BS 4397
MIL 1949; ASTM-E and ASME-SE various
Estimated Costs
USD 3’000
Supplier/Products
Tiede; Magnaflux
14.3.32 Oilproof Lacquer
Conditions monitored
Alignment, contact area
Applications Girth gear/pinion, gears
Technical Base
A coloured liquid is applied to the contact surface of one of the two parts. When the equipment is moved
the coloured area comes into contact with the opposite part and leaves a “fingerprint” on it. Those are to
be examined for colour distribution.
P-F Interval
Depends on the application, but usually from several weeks to months
Experience and knowledge necessary
No experience or special knowledge is required
Advantages
Cheap and simple to use
Disadvantages
There is no quantitative result; clean surfaces are required.
Standards
Estimated Costs
USD 50 per 0.2 litres
Supplier/Products
14.3.33 Electron Fractography (Replica)
Conditions monitored
The growth of fatigue cracks
Applications
Metallic components in motor vehicles, industrial equipment, etc.
Technical Base
Every fracture has its own “fingerprint”, in that the history of the fracture process is imprinted on the
fracture surface. By studying a replica of the actual fracture surface with an electron microscope, it is
possible to establish the causes and circumstances of failures.
P-F Interval
Depending on the application
Experience and knowledge necessary
Replica of the fracture surface: suitably trained technician. Analysis and reading: experienced engineer.
Advantages
Failures can be analysed with a high degree of certainty: No damage caused the actual to fracture
surface when replica is made.
Disadvantages
Electron microscope is expensive: High degree of specialisation required to read the results: Not an on-
line monitoring technique: Inaccessible components must be dismantled.
Standards
DIN 54150
ISO 3057
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
14.3.34 Pressure Test
Conditions monitored
Leaks, fissures, fractures and deformations in tanks, pressure vessels, etc.
Applications
Tanks for, gas, pressured air, etc.
Technical Base
For security reasons the tests should be carried out using water or oil if possible. The systems have to be
adequately ventilated. Higher pressures than required during operation are introduced to the system to
see if it can withstand them. The percentage of overpressure required before rupture, depends on the
safety regulations applicable.
P-F Interval
“YES” or “NO” decision
Experience and knowledge necessary
A semi-specialized suitably trained operator. In some countries certification is required before testing can
be carried out.
Advantages
This test can be combined with a leak test, cheap and simple to do.
Disadvantages
Not an on-line technique, The components have to be emptied and cleaned before and after the test.
Standards
BS 5430
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
14.3.35 Radiography (X-Ray)
Conditions monitored
Surface and sub-surface discontinuities caused by fatigue, stress, inclusions, lack of penetration in welds,
gas porosity, intergranular corrosion and stress corrosion.
Applications
Ferrous and non-ferrous materials, welds, steel structures, plastic-structures, metallic wear components
of engines, compressors, gearboxes, pumps shaft, etc.
Technical Base
A radiograph is produced by passing x-rays or gamma rays through materials which are optically opaque.
The absorption of the initial x-ray depends on thickness, nature of the material and intensity of the initial
radiation. The areas exposed become dark when the film is developed. The degree of darkening depends
on the amount of radiation reaching the film. It will be darkest where the object is thinnest. A crack,
inclusion or a void is observed as a dark patch.
P-F Interval
Several months
Experience and knowledge necessary
Use of equipment: a suitably trained and skilled technician. To interpret the results: a highly skilled
technician or engineer.
Advantages
Provides a permanent record, detects defects in parts or structures not visually accessible
Disadvantages
Sensitivity often low on crack-line defects: Two-sided access sometimes needed; external expert
required; security precautions elevated; costly
Standards
Estimated Costs
USD 6’000 - 300’000
Supplier/Products
Specialised companies
14.3.36 Linear Polarisation Resistance (Corrator)
Conditions monitored
The rate of corrosion in electrically conductive corrosive fluids
Applications
Cooling water systems, municipal water systems, heat exchanger, desalination plants and pulp and paper
mills and in the plants where the measurement and/or the corrosion control is required in acid water
systems
Technical Base
Corrosion rate is measured by the electro-chemical polarisation method with two or three probes and a
measuring instrument. The principle is based on the fact that a small voltage applied between a metal
specimen and a corrosive solution will produce a current. The ratio of voltage to current is inversely
proportional to the corrosion rate so it provides a measure of the corrosion rate increase.
P-F Interval
Depends on the application and the corrosion rate. Usually several months
Experience and knowledge necessary
A suitably trained operator
Advantages
Provides a direct indication of the corrosion rate and pitting tendency: Measures corrosion as it occurs:
Some instruments provide a record of the corrosion condition: Automatic detection and control available:
Sensitive to very low corrosion rates: Portable equipment available: Rapid measurement: Interpretation
normally easy
Disadvantages
Portable equipment does not provide a permanent record: Readings must be adjusted when taken in high
sensitivity corrosive media: Gives no information on total corrosion.
Standards
ASTM D 2776
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
14.3.37 Liquid Chromatography
Conditions monitored
Changes in lubricant properties such as alkalinity, acidity, ash, flash point, insoluble, viscosity, etc.
Applications
Enclosed oil systems such as transformers, engine sumps, compressor sumps, hydraulic systems, etc.
Technical Base
Liquids are selectively absorbed by passing through a column of finely divided absorbent material. The
separate liquids are then set free by passing a mixture of two solvent liquids, with different polarities,
through the column. Light liquids appear first from the column and complex liquids last. The analysis
appears on a strip chart recorder, or a screen, and the area under each peak is measured to determine
the respective liquid concentrations
P-F Interval
Depending on the degradation rate of the lubricant and the application, but usually several weeks.
Experience and knowledge necessary
Operating the equipment and interpretation of results: a laboratory technician who has passed a course of
chromatography.
Advantages
High sensitivity: Quick sampling and analysis: Strip chart provides a permanent record
Disadvantages
Considerable skill is needed to interpret results: Equipment not portable: Wide range of applications
required to justify purchase: Not an on-line monitoring technique: not widely used in maintenance
Standards
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
14.3.38 Ultrasonic
Conditions monitored
Surface and below surface discontinuities caused by fatigue, heat treatment, inclusions, lack of
penetration and gas porosity in weld, laminations, etc. as well as material thickness.
Applications
Ferrous and non-ferrous materials related to welds, steel structures, boilers, boiler tubes, plastic
structures, shafts, compressor receivers, etc.
Technical Base
A transmitter sends an ultrasonic pulse into the test surface and a receiver amplifies the return pulse to an
oscilloscope. The echo is a combination of return pulses from the opposite side of the test piece and from
any intervening discontinuity. The time elapsed between the initial and return signals and the relative
height indicate the location and severity of the discontinuity. A rough idea of the size and shape of the
defect can be gained by checking the test piece from another location.
P-F Interval
From several weeks to several months
Experience and knowledge necessary
An experienced and suitably trained technician
Advantages
Applicable to the majority of materials, relatively low costs, no expensive preparations needed
Disadvantages
Difficult to differentiate types of defects, evaluation relatively difficult; Problems with complex geometrical
pieces, superficie has to be machined.
Standards
Estimated Costs
USD 8’000
Supplier/Products
Krauträmer; Karl Deutsch
14.3.39 Potential Monitoring
Conditions monitored
Corrosive states of plant (active or passive) such as stress-corrosion cracking, pitting corrosion, selective
phase corrosion, impingement attack, etc.
Applications
Electrolyte environments such as chemical process plants, paper mills, electrical generating plant,
pollution control plants, desalination plants, etc. best suited to materials of stainless steel, nickel-based
alloys and titanium
Technical Base
This technique takes advantage of the fact that, from the point of view of corrosion, a metal which is in a
passive state (low corrosion rate) has a noble corrosion potential, while the same metal in an active state
(higher corrosion rate) has a much less noble potential. The potential changes when passivity breaks
down, and measurements can be made using a voltmeter of about 10 megohm input impedance and full-
scale deflection of 0.5 to 2 volts
P-F Interval
Depends on the material and the corrosion rate
Experience and knowledge necessary
Signal detection is normally easy, but sometimes an experienced engineer is needed to interpretate de
results further
Advantages
Monitors localised attack: Fast response to change
Disadvantages
Small potential changes can be influenced by changes in temperature or acidity: Does not give a direct
measure of corrosion rate or total corrosion: Not widely used: Expert assistance may be required for
interpretation
Standards
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
Rohrback Instruments

Quality Inspections for Cement Plant Equipment

W. H. Bürgi, R. Burkhalter, T. Elvermann
PT 97/14233/E (Revision 2, February 1999)
1. Introduction
2. Objective of quality inspections
3. Examples of damages
4. Reasons for defects
5. Inspection methods / tests
6. Supplier’s / manufacturer's inspections
7. Steps of quality assurance
8. Quality inspection program
9. HMC as an inspection company – Benefits
10. Concluding Remarks
11. Annexes

Summary:
Quality is not an invention of the twentieth century. Conscientious manufacturers have always been
endeavored to assure the good quality of their products. But through the demand for substantial cost
reduction, manufacturers reduced or outsourced their internal quality control.
Suppliers also place their orders to manufacturers in low cost countries where quality control is not yet
sufficiently observed.
At the same time cement machines change to always larger dimensions and capacities. With this trend
new problems appear as well.
Our statistic shows that during the last few years only 60% of the items inspected are without any
shortcomings. Out of the 40% rejected due to non-conformances, 2% could not be repaired and had to be
discarded and re-fabricated. If not detected during the inspection, this would have caused substantial loss
of production due to the down time, which means a loss of money and in the worst case even loss of
customers.
The Vision for our Quality Control Equipment was therefore clearly defined.

No break downs in the Holcim group due to components failures on purchases of new equipment

The objective of quality services is always the profit of the purchaser. The investment into quality will be
paid back in lower production costs as the items are more reliable (less down time), lower maintenance
costs (breakdown maintenance) and a longer live time (reduction of NOA).
One of the most important points from the very beginning is to include adequate quality requirements
(specifications) in the purchase order/contract to assure a trouble free roll-out. Following this procedure
the quality requests have to be included in the contract and the supplier has to follow it. Each deviations
from the specifications must be communicated with the inspectors and needs an agreement. After a
seriously review of operating requirements it can lead into longer guarantee time, price reduction or
manufacturing of a new part.
Finally, from HMC experience we can say: Quality depends very much on the suppliers care – and regular
quality inspections remind them for this responsibility.
1. INTRODUCTION
For the purchaser of a production plant, new machine or component the mayor problem is normally the
loss of production due to equipment break down and less the cost of a replacement. The failed item is
sometimes still under guarantee. Due to production loss, substantial loss of sales or even loss of
customers can occur.
To avoid unexpected down time due to manufacturing defects of items, companies started to contract
independent inspectors to supervise the quality control of the manufacturer. The history of the quality
inspection service at Holcim shows typically this evolution.
Recalculating the main items as girth gears, gear boxes and kiln tyres to influence its design was the first
step. Anyhow, damages still occurred and it was found that some of the reasons were manufacturing
defects. The experience with quality inspections showed that still nowadays it is necessary to supervise
the fabrication through an independent body. This not only because the suppliers move their production
into low price countries, but also because sometimes there is poor quality produced even in well-known
companies with normally good products.
Consequently Holcim's objectives were set:
¨ Achieve high reliability of the equipment at adequate cost
¨ Maximize effective life time of assets
¨ Form the suppliers to deliver the expected quality
¨ Train our inspectors in supervising efficiently and precisely the quality inspections
Full responsibility for the products remains with the supplier and the quality inspections have to be cost
effective. Therefore our inspections are limited to important items as mentioned in Annex 1.
2. OBJECTIVE OF QUALITY INSPECTIONS
The objective of quality inspection services is always the profit of the purchaser. The investment into
quality will be paid back in lower production costs as the items are more reliable (less down time), lower
maintenance costs (breakdown maintenance) and have a longer life time (reduction of NOA). Further
valuable information with regard to applied materials and procedures, which normally are not supplied by
the manufacturer, are handed out.
3. EXAMPLES OF DAMAGES
In a cement plant the catalogue of possible examples of damages is quite long, e.g.
¨ Cracked / fractured girth gears and pinions
¨ Cracked / fractured kiln tyres, rollers, shafts
¨ Cracked kiln or mill shells
¨ Cracked mill end-castings and flanges
¨ Damaged roller mill bodies
¨ Damaged roller press rollers etc.
4. REASONS FOR DEFECTS
Reasons for defects are many fold. In some cases it is lack of knowledge, unfavorable design or a price
that was too low for a good quality product. It may be added that the production of large castings not only
demands excellent knowledge and modern facilities but also involves a great deal of luck. Errors, such as
insufficient supervision or checks, a carefree attitude, fatalism and taking calculated risks up to deliberate
attempts to cheat have all been observed.
The life cycle of an equipment/component explains very well that the quality of a part is “made” at different
stages, starting with the design (specification) followed by the manufacturing (inspections) and finally at
the installation.

The quality inspections focus on the manufacturing of the equipment/component, which is a very
important step in its life. Defects can originate in every manufacturing step: casting, forging, welding,
machining or assembling. The most common defects are:
¨ Material inhomogeneities
¨ Cracks
¨ Surface deficiencies
¨ Dimensional/Geometrical errors
5. INSPECTION METHODS / TESTS
During the course of fabrication of components / machines quite a series of quality tests are carried out
and different inspection methods are applied.
¨ Destructive Testing (Mechanical tests and Chemical analysis)
¨ Non-destructive testing
* Ultrasonic test
* Magnetic particle test
* Dye penetration test
* Hardness test
* Dimensional check
¨ Verification of procedures / documents
Destructive Testing and Chemical Analysis
Materials samples taken from the component in question are tested for the ultimate strength, yield
strength, elongation, reduction of area and impact energy. Their chemical composition is analysed as
well. The values received are compared with current standards and specifications.
Visual Testing
Visual testing includes checking of general appearance, surface quality, dimensions, conformity with
drawing, functions and is the most often employed method and the one which has proved its worth for
acceptance inspections of cement equipment.
Ultrasonic Testing
The most difficult of the above mentioned test methods might be the check for internal defects with
ultrasonic sound waves. The microstructure of the material, the geometry and surface quality of the test
piece has an important influence on the sound waves. A broad and permanent experience is needed to
interpret the respective signals on the screen.
A wide variety of ultrasonic probes is available, each of them has its special features. For the inspection of
cement equipment it is not possible to take advantage of all technical possibilities (as for nuclear
equipment) owing to the high cost. Therefore, a certain risk of failure during operation can not be
excluded.
Magnetic Particle Testing
A test piece is magnetized and then sprayed with a solution containing very fine iron particles over the
area to be inspected. If a crack exists, the iron particles will be attracted to the magnetic flux leaking from
the area caused by the discontinuity and giving an indication. These leakage fields act as local magnets.
The indication is then interpreted and evaluated. Fluorescent magnetic particle sprays provide greater
sensitivity; the inspection should be carried out under ultra-violet light in a darkened room.
Dye Penetration Testing
The penetrant liquid is applied to the test surface and sufficient time is permitted for it to penetrate the
surface discontinuity. The excess surface penetrant is removed. A developer is applied which draws the
penetrant from the discontinuity to the test surface where it is interpreted and evaluated. The liquid
penetrants are categorized according to dye type (visible dye, fluorescent or penetrates of double
sensity) and the required procedure to eliminate them from the test surface (washable with water, post
emulsified or solvent removed).
Hardness Testing
A test body is accelerated and collides with the test surface. The resistance of the material against
penetration of the body into the surface is an indication of the hardness. Two types of evaluations are
used depending on the method applied: A typical dimension (i.e. diameter) of the trace of the test body on
the surface is measured or the energy difference of the test body before and after the collision is
measured. For both methods the value is converted in hardness and/or strength using tables.
Verification of Procedures / Documents
No quality inspection is complete without the verification of the welding and heat treatment
procedures/parameters (if applicable) and the complete documentation. This documentation includes all
forms completed during the manufacturing and the quality inspection. It has to come along with the part
for further reference at the plant in case of a failure during the operation phase.
Inspectors Qualifications
The inspectors carrying out quality checks on components and machines during fabrication must have
knowledge, sufficient training and practical experience in the different testing methods and management
of such jobs.
Documents and Arrangements necessary for Quality Inspections
In order to be able to carry out tests, certain specific information and documents about each component
must be available. Also the necessary arrangements for the inspectors must be provided by the supplier.
These needs are listed in Annex 2 which should become part of the purchasing contract in case HMC is
entrusted with the quality control.
6. SUPPLIER’S / MANUFACTURER'S INSPECTIONS
In most cases the supplier is not or only up to a certain degree the manufacturer. He plans his order to a
sub-supplier, e.g. a foundry, forge, gear maker etc. The manufacturer (sub-supplier) must perform quality
inspections himself at various stages of manufacturing according to contractually agreed specifications,
standards and procedures. He is, together with the supplier, fully responsible for ensuring that his
products meet the specified qualities.
In practice however we experience too often that the manufacturer does not bear sufficiently the
responsibility for the quality of his products. Statistical data collected by Holcim show that only about 60%
of the items inspected were without any shortcomings.
Out of 40% rejected due to non-conformances, 2% could not be repaired and had to be discarded and re-
fabricated (see Annex 3). If not detected during inspection, many of these cases would have later caused
substantial loss of production due to downtime of the installation.
7. STEPS OF QUALITY ASSURANCE
In order to avoid the above-mentioned shortcomings and non-conform behavior of
manufacturers/suppliers it is recommended to engage an independent quality inspection company. This
should, whenever possible, take place before signing the purchasing contract, specially when working
with a new supplier.
The consultant can help to define and verify the expected quality level of the products as well as the
inspection methods / procedures to be applied. The various steps of the proposed proceedings are shown
in Annex 4.1 and 4.2.
If the inspection company is contracted late, the purchaser will not get the full profit of their experience.
Also the work for the company becomes much more difficult, since the manufacturer will not accept any
directions from them towards better quality. Especially if it would cause additional work for fabrication or
testing and if such activities will add cost (reduce his margin).
In the worst cases experienced, at the time of involvement of the inspection company, fabrication had
progressed so far that only a final inspection was possible. If there are any mayor deficiencies detected
then, they can not be corrected anymore or only with a substantial loss of time and money. Both endanger
the delivery and installation schedule of the item.
8. QUALITY INSPECTION PROGRAM
Not all components and machines are in the same way critical for failures or for the time when failures
occur. HMC established a list of the most important items regarding
¨ Highest stress
¨ Influence on the operation reliability
¨ History of similar items
¨ Long delivery
¨ High cost items
The list is presented in Annex 1. For each component mentioned its priority for inspection is also indicated
(1= high priority).
Depending on its type of material, way of fabrication and complexity every component has an individual
inspection program. While some are only checked once at the end of fabrication, others are checked two
or three times at different stages. In Annex 5 a typical inspection program with three inspections is shown:
¨ After casting and pre-machining (before any welding repairs are carried out)
¨ After construction/repair welding and heat treatment
¨ Final inspection after completion
Certain tests are performed on a random basis others are full-scale tests. The extent of the non-
destructive test amounts generally to 100%, but can be reduced according to requirements.
9. HMC AS AN INSPECTION COMPANY – BENEFITS
HMC members of the inspection team can look back on a 20 years experience in machine techniques,
maintenance and trouble shooting. Operational problems are therefore not new for them.
HMC is now on the way of establishing their own inspection specifications for the key components. These
can then be used as a "bar" for new suppliers specifications or directly for placing an order.
Whether HMC sends their own or assigned inspector, all of them are highly trained and experienced
inspectors. Training and knowledge exchange is a permanent issue also in the field of quality control.
Once a customer entrusts HMC with the quality assurance and inspection of their purchases, an
independent party will watch his interests as if they were their own.
Some specific benefits are:
¨ The risk of unexpected sudden and premature failure is generally largely reduced. Such a failure
could incur a downtime for carrying out of a (temporary) repair up to 3 weeks, resulting in a great loss of
production with corresponding high monetary loss.
¨ If the quality inspection reveals shortcomings or deficiencies, action can be taken in time to avoid
or shorten a delay in the delivery schedule of the item.
¨ Information that is not included in the documentation from the supplier will also be provided to the
purchaser.
¨ An item unacceptable from a quality point of view will be disclosed to the client, the supplier will
have to provide a replacement of acceptable quality.
¨ Due to the long time we have been in this business, we know most of the respective suppliers
and their products very well; all the particularities and specialties, but, most of all, also their weak points.
This allows for more effective inspections.
¨ Due to the well-structured documentation and the valuable hints given, lower maintenance cost
can be expected and the lifetime of the parts may be increased.
Based on their knowledge, our inspectors can decide on the spot about the impact of any such problem.
Furthermore, they have the full back-up support of our department. Additionally, we are always able to call
in specialists within our organization for process matters. This makes the inspections very efficient and
effective, i.e. less time (and money ) is needed.
All this will help that erection, commissioning and operation will be more efficient and economic.
10. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Quality inspections are not only a matter of costs but also an investment for the lifetime of new products
and will be paid back by lower operation costs (reliability, lifetime). Besides the assurance of greater
reliability in operation they also provide valuable information on the product. Therefore purchasers should
look at it in the same manner as at an investment for a new line or an upgrade of a plant. However, no
quality can completely exclude all risks.
The quality requirements have to be determined together with the supplier and set down in the
acceptance specification before signing the contract. They should actually form an integral part of the
purchase contract or order.
In the long run the collaboration between the customer (plant) and the manufacturer/supplier has to
become closer, so that only good quality items are delivered, even if there is no third party carrying out
additional inspections. Unfortunately we are still far away from that point.
11. ANNEXES
Annex 1

Recommended item to be inspected No. of Inspections Inspection Priority

Kiln
Kiln Roller 2 1
Kiln Roller Axle 1 1
Thrust Roller 1 2
Tyre 2-3 1
Tyre Shell Section 1 1
Shell Section (10 pieces) 1 2
Planetary Carrier 1 2
Tube Mill
Mill End2-3 1
Mill Flange 1-2 1
Mill Body 2 1
Mill Shell Section 1 1
Mill Shell with Tyre 2-3 1
Tube Mill Tyre (Bandage) 2 1
Slide Shoe 1 2
Vertical Mill
Grinding Table 2 1
Roller Yoke (Polysius) 2 1
Roller Carrier (FLS, Pfeiffer, etc.) 1 1
Rocker Arm (Loesche, Onoda) 1 2
Fork (Loesche, Onoda) 1 2
Roller Body [if GGG] 1-2 2
Roller Shaft 1 2
Table Liner (Segment) 1 2
Roller Wear Segment/Tyre 1 2
Roller press
Roller Body (Studded/ Welded Design) 1 1
Roller Segments 2 1
Roller Shaft 1 1
Bearing Block 1 2
Roller Press Frame 1 2
Drives
Girth Gear (Cast) 3 1
Girth Gear (Welded) 2 1
Pinion 1 1
Pinion Shaft 1 1
Mill Gear Drive 2 1
Mill Gear Planetary Carrier 1 1
Kiln Gear Drive (Mechanic Standard) 1 2
Kiln Gear Drive (Mechanic Direct) 1 2
Kiln Gear Drive (Hydrostatic) 1 2
Roller Press Drive 1 1
Various
Hammer Crusher Shaft 1 1
Main Process Fan 1 2
Reclaimer Chain 1 2

Annex 2

Documents and Arrangements necessary for Quality Inspections

The following documents are to be provided to Holcim at least one month before inspections:
¨ Fabrication program
¨ Inspection program of supplier
¨ Manufacturer for each item to be inspected (company address, telex, fax, telephone-No.,
responsible person for quality inspection, place of fabrication)
¨ Acceptance specifications for each item to be inspected (acceptance criteria, state of item when
inspections take place, scope, etc.)
¨ Applied standards for non-destructive testing and other inspections
¨ Drawings (fabrication and assembly if available)
¨ Guarantee clauses of contract for items to be inspected
Documents and certificates to be provided to Holcim during inspections or latest at the final inspection
(two sets):
¨ Non-destructive testing
¨ Surface quality
¨ Hardness test
¨ Materials (chemical composition, mechanical properties)
¨ Record of dimensions
¨ Heat treatment (indicating temperatures, heating, holding and cooling time)
¨ Welding (indicating properties of electrodes, preheating and post heating procedures, type of
welding, welder legitimation)
¨ Map of defects of repair welds (indicating place and size of defects/repair welds)
All the above mentioned documents have to be delivered in the language specified in the contract. This
also applies to documents from sub-suppliers.
Arrangements of Inspection
The HMC's inspectors and additional inspectors from the client must be given access to manufacture at
any time (time to be co-ordinated in advance).
The HMC's inspector must be given due notice (at least 5 working days in advance) of the individual
inspection stages by the supplier. Provision should be made by the supplier to allow the examination of
several items at the same time (if possible) to minimize traveling expenses.
All inspections will be carried out together with the supplier whereby all tests and measurements are to be
performed by the manufacturers' personal using their own instruments and equipment.
In case of suspect results of inspections the HMC inspector has the right to demand additional suitable
inspections.

Annex 3

Annex 4.1
Quality Control of New Equipment

Annex 4.2
Quality Control of Individual Spare Parts

Annex 5
GIRTH GEAR (CAST)
INSPECTION PROGRAM
For the quality assessment of a cast girth gear three inspections are to be carried out at different stages
of the manufacturing.
First Inspection
After casting and pre-machining (before any welding repairs are carried out)
¨ Visual inspection
¨ Ultrasonic test of the internal material homogeneity (100%)
¨ Magnetic particle test of the surface in general and the areas of casting defects (100%)
¨ Dimensions
¨ Review of repair welding and heat treatment procedure
Second Inspection
After repair welding and heat treatment
¨ Visual inspection
¨ Magnetic particle test of repaired areas
¨ Ultrasonic test of the repaired areas
¨ Witness of material strength test (tensile and yield strength, elongation and reduction of area,
impact work)
¨ Hardness test across repair welds and at gear rim
¨ Dimensions
The second inspection can be dispensed if only minor repair welding is necessary. In this case the
material strength test would be carried out either during the first or the last inspection.
Third Inspection
Final inspection after completion. The two gear halves must be assembled.
¨ Visual inspection
¨ Magnetic particle test of tooth (100%) and remaining areas
¨ Hardness test of tooth flanks
¨ Surface roughness test of teeth
¨ Tooth rectilinearity (if straight teeth)
¨ Tooth contact of pinion with girth gear (if possible)
¨ Dimensions in general and of toothing in particular
¨ Review of documents and certificates

The extent of the Non Destructive Tests amounts generally to 100%. It can be reduced on the HMC
inspector's decision.

C04 - Gas Analysing Systems

PRACTICAL GAS ANALYSIS IN CEMENT WORKS

H. Nyffenegger
PT 98/14340/E (substitute for 93/4080/D)
1. Introduction
2. Purpose
3. Definitions
4. Measuring Methods
4.1 In-situ measurement
4.2 Extractive measurement
4.3 Measuring points
5. Gas Sampling
5.1 Kiln inlet (measuring point A)
5.1.1 Preheater kilns (cyclone preheater and grate preheater kilns)
5.1.2 Wet kilns and long dry kilns
5.1.3 Special instructions for gas sampling at the kiln inlet
5.2 Other measuring points (B to G)
5.2.1 Kiln inlet chamber and riser duct (measuring point B)
5.2.2 Lower cyclone stages (measuring point C)
5.2.3 Upper cyclone stages (measuring point D)
5.2.4 Downstream of cyclone or grate preheaters (measuring point E)
5.2.5 Downstream of electrostatic filter (measuring points F, G)
5.2.6 Coal pulverising mill
6. Gas Sampling Probes
6.1 Sampling probes in the temperature range 900 to 1500°C
6.1.1 Siemens type FLK
6.1.2 Harman & Braun type 60S (formerly type 13)
6.1.3 Hartmann & Braun type H (Holcim probe)
6.2 Sampling probes in the temperature range 500 to 900°C
6.3 Sampling probes in the temperature range below 500°C
7. Sample Gas Preparation
7.1 Sample gas pipe
7.2 Sample gas coolers
7.2.1 Specifications of a suitable sample gas cooler
7.3 Sample gas pump
7.4 Flow control and distribution
7.4.1 Simple gas control
7.4.2 Electronic gas volume control
7.5 Sample gas filters
7.5.1 Coarse filters
7.5.2 Fine filters
7.5.3 Valves
7.5.4 Pressure control valve
7.6 Adjustment
7.7 Further information on sample gas preparation
7.7.1 Sample gas discharge
7.7.2 Tightness test
7.7.3 Filter condition monitoring
7.7.4 Analyser room
7.8 Space requirement
7.9 Location
7.10 Climatic conditions
8. Analysers
8.1 Infrared absorption
8.1.1 Space case, sulphur dioxide (SO2)
8.2 Ultra-violet absorption
8.3 Paramagnetism
8.3.1 Oxygen analysers
8.4 Flame ionisation (FID)
8.5 Solid-state electrolytic systems
8.5.1 Zirconium dioxide
8.5.2 Other electrochemical measuring methods
8.6 Multi-component measuring systems
8.6.1 Sick GM 31
8.6.2 OPSIS AR 620; ER 650
8.6.3 LDS 3000 diode laser of AltOptronic (Sweden)
8.6.4 Advance Cemas FTRI of Hartmann & Braun
9. Recording and Evaluation
9.1 Trend curves, recorders
9.2 Averaging computers
9.3 Data logging
9.4 Emission computers
10. Maintenance and Quality Assurance
10.1 Visual checks
10.2 Adjustment checks, cleaning
10.2.1 Tightness checks
10.3 Replacement of wearing parts
10.3.1 Sample gas pump
10.3.2 Cleaning sintered metal and ceramic filters
10.3.3 Fine filters
10.3.4 Gas analysers
10.4 Function test
10.5 Test gases
10.5.1 Mixing test gases
10.6 Fault signals
10.7 Automated maintenance equipment
11. Measuring Errors
11.1 Sample gas sampling
11.2 Sample gas preparation
11.2.1 Sorption and chemical reaction
11.2.2 CO reduction
11.2.3 NO2 formation in the probe and sample gas preparation system
11.2.4 SO2 reduction in the probe and sample gas pipe
11.2.5 SO2 reduction of the filter dust of the sampling probe
11.2.6 Interaction with a liquid
11.3 Volumetric errors due to the solubility of accompanying components
11.4 Gas analysers
12. Special Functions of Gas Analysis
12.1 CO monitoring for protection of electrostatic filter
12.1.1 Basic concept of filter shutdown
12.1.2 Optimisation of CO measurement
12.1.3 Specifications
12.1.4 Shutdown procedure
12.1.5 Special devices
12.1.6 Laser analysers
12.2 Monitoring of coal pulverising mills
12.2.1 Limiting values
13. Conversion Factors
14. Literature

SUMMARY
The measurement of individual process gas components in connection with emissions and for the
purpose of process optimisation is increasingly becoming one of the most important procedures in cement
works. Measuring techniques have advanced to the extent that there is now virtually no such thing as a
problem that cannot be solved technically with the necessary specialised knowledge and means.
In principle, distinction is to be made between analysers that measure (in-situ) directly in the measuring
channel (process gas flow) and extractive measuring instruments. Extractive measuring instruments
measure in a partial gas flow that is prepared prior to entering the analysers according to specifications
(sampling). Extractive measuring instruments are mainly used in process measurement, as the conditions
with respect to temperature and dust loading does not permit the use of the in-situ technique.
The point at which measurements are carried out is mainly a question of the measuring problem involved.
The extent of sampling increases with increasing process temperature at the sampling point. For gas
sampling at the kiln inlet and up to gas temperatures in excess of 500°C, cooling and an emergency
cooling or withdrawal system is required. Withdrawal devices with compressed-air drives are more
reliable for emergency use, so that preference is given to electric drives.
The separation of dust from the sample gas preferably takes place as close as possible to the entrance of
the sampling probe. Sintered metal filters (alloyed steel) clog less quickly than the usual ceramic filters.
Compared to the filters outside the sampling probe, internal filters require less maintenance and are
smaller in volume. Wet sampling probes are considered out-dated.
Three systems for gas sampling at the kiln inlet are described here in brief: Siemens type FLK, Hartmann
& Braun type 60 and type H (Holcim probe). The latter has proved highly reliable in use worldwide. For
gas sampling below 500°C, in addition to standard products, proposals are submitted for the specific
construction of sampling probes.
The purpose of sample gas preparation is to supply the analysers with qualitatively and quantitatively
specified sample gas. The apparatus used for this purpose must be generously dimensioned and
equipped. This requirement applies in particular to the sample gas pump, sample gas cooler and sample
gas distribution. The temperature in the measuring cabinet should be between 15° and 25°C. A monitoring
system must inform the control system of any irregularities such as “insufficient sample gas”, “system
being adjusted”, etc.
The analyser room must provide the ambient conditions for the perfect functioning of the instruments, i.e.
free from vibrations, as close to the sampling point as possible, free from dust and between 15° and
25°C. As it also serves as a workroom for maintenance personnel, it must offer sufficient space, good
ventilation and a low noise level as possible.
The analysers used for the determination of individual components in the sample gas are based on
different physical effects such as light absorption. Paramagnetism, flame ionisation and solid-state
electrolysis. The instrument functions and theoretical relationships will be dealt with only insofar as they
are of significance for practical application. When choosing analysers, the manufacturing company is not
as important as the specifications and local services offered.
The majority of gas components (CO, NO, SO2, CO2) can be measured with NDIR (non-dispersive
infrared analysers). They are simple, sturdy, robust, durable and maintenance-friendly. Disturbing cross-
sensitivities to CO2 and water vapour are appropriately corrected.
When measuring SO2 with NDIR analysers by the classic method, undefinable quantities of SO2 are
absorbed in the sample gas cooler. Corrections are possible by acidifying the condensate in the sample
gas cooler or using hot NDIR analysers. Preference is given to the use of in-situ analysers.
Oxygen cannot be measured with light-sensitive analysers. The most reliable analysers are still
considered to be those that exploit the magnetic properties of oxygen. The life of solid-state electrolytic
systems such as zirconium dioxide probes is limited and depends on the gas composition. Improved
electrochemical measuring cells have been more widely for the past few years and have a useful life of
three years. They are small, lightweight, require a minimum degree of evaluation and are therefore used
more and more in extractive multi-component analysers.
The flame ionisation detector is used for measurement of the total hydrocarbons (VOC = Volatile Organic
Compounds). The increasing requirements for continuous measurement of the VOC - in connection with
alternative fuels - are maintenance-intensive.
Microprocessor technology makes it possible to use well-known and new measuring methods and
therefore to measure several components simultaneously. For the installation or replacement of
measuring instruments, only the use of multi-component analysers is possible.
The GM 31 in-situ analyser of Messrs Sick enables three gas components to be measured
simultaneously. Compared with the earlier GM 21 (SO2 and dust) and GM 30 (additionally NO) series, the
GM 31 does not offer dust measurement.
The AR 620 and AR 650 series of Opsis are modern emission measuring instruments. Depending on the
type and number of components to be measured, infrared or ultra-violet light used to the two together.
The analyser or analysers are connected to the receiver at the measuring channel via glass-fibre cable
(light conductor). Control, monitoring and evaluation is carried out by a standard PC. The analysers have
been used several times with good experience.
The new gas analysers with lasers are expected to have a promising future. These are in-situ analysers
that offer the benefits of high sensitivity, short response times and high stability. They could provide the
ideal preconditions for CO monitoring, but are (still) relatively expensive.
Of the extractive measuring instruments, good experiences have been made with the CEMAS FTIR
analyser of Hartmann and Braun. The analyser can be programmed with all IR selectable components. In
order not to alter the originality of the sample gas, all gas conducting parts are heated.
Recording the measured values with strip chart recorders should still suffice for a general overview.
However, in the majority of countries, digital evaluation of emissions is required according to specific
criteria. In the field of process optimisation, the measured values are also only useful when available in
the required form, e.g. as mean values, spreadsheet for further evaluation, etc. At the kiln inlet, averaging
or damping for lump fuel (tyres) feeding in precalcining is absolutely necessary. In modern plants, the
measured values can be partly or wholly processed by the process control system.
The reliable functioning of each measuring instrument depends largely on the maintenance provided.
Visual checks and function tests must be carried out according to the age of the measuring instruments
and the specifications of the supplier.
Personnel must be suitably trained. Critical spare parts such as the sample gas pump, filters valves,
seals, etc., must be carried in stock.
The gas analysers must be checked according to the manufacturer’s instructions and emission
measurements carried out in compliance with the local requirements and corrections made as necessary.
If test gas should (still) be required, this must be obtained in good time. Any fault signalling devices must
be checked for proper functioning.
Theoretically, maintenance can be reduced by appropriate automation. Adjustment via internal analyser
reference devices has proved highly disadvantageous in this respect. However, if solenoid valves should
be required for the application of test gas, their usefulness is negligible or negative. Solenoid valves in
sample gas are highly susceptible to faults. For this reason, sample gas changeover from two or more
measuring points to the same analyser group is not considered worthwhile.
The accuracy of gas analysis as a whole is often overestimated, whereby the analysers are least to blame
in this respect. Significant errors occur when sampling (representative) due to sorptions and reactions in
sample gas preparation.
Gas analysis also has special monitoring functions for protection against explosions in the electrostatic
filter and coal pulverising mills. Simple monitoring of the CO content is usually not sufficient for the
protection of the electrostatic filter. The consequences are unnecessary shutdowns of the filter. In
addition, reference is made to a new analyser of Messrs Sick, which has been designed specially for this
task.
Finally, a table is provided showing the various conversion factors from ppm to mg/m3 for the relevant gas
components.
1. INTRODUCTION
Gas analysis is among the most important, but also the most sophisticated methods of measurement in
cement works. This is due to the constantly growing demands in the field of gaseous emissions and
related requirements. Gas analysis fulfils an equally important function in the field of automation, where
the reliable and exact measurement of certain gas components plays an essential role.
Advances in the field of gas analysis have taken place parallel to the trend of demands, so that one can
hardly speak of “technically unsolvable problems” any longer. If problems should nevertheless occur, they
are mainly due to the following
¨ Incorrect choice of equipment
¨ Lack of specialised knowledge
¨ Underestimation of expenditure involved (investment and/or maintenance expenditure)
¨ The aim of this report is to prevent problems of this kind occurring when renewing and adding gas
analysing apparatus.
2. PURPOSE
The continuous measurement of the constituents of certain components in the gas flows (gas analysis) in
cement works consists of three areas of activity:
a) Emission measurements (pollutants, e.g. NO, SO2, CO, etc.).
b) Safety measuring systems (e.g. CO monitoring in filtering plants, monitoring of coal dust silos,
etc.).
c) Process measuring systems (e.g. O2, CO, NO) for optimisation of the combustion process.
Important for all these activities is a high availability of the measuring equipment and sufficient accuracy
of the measured values. The report therefore attaches particular importance to sample gas sampling and
preparation, maintenance and quality assurance as well as possible measuring errors. Finally, hints and
practical advice are given, based on many years of experience.
3. DEFINITIONS
Indication delay (90% time) of an analyser or a measuring instrument: The time that elapses from a
sudden change in the gas concentration at the entrance of the analyser or probe up to indication of 90%
of this change.
Downtime: The time during which faulty conditions of the measuring instrument and their correction
unforeseeably make the generation of measuring or adjusting signals impossible.
Accompanying gas: Sample gas without the gas components to be measured.
Extractive sampling: The sample gas is extracted as a partial gas flow from the process gas prior to
analysis and conditioned.
Gradient monitoring: Monitoring the gas concentration change gradient (e.g. control of CO cut-off).
In-situ: The measuring instrument is located in or on the process gas duct; analysis is carried out in the
process gas (e.g. optical dust content measuring instrument or zirconium oxygen probe).
Adjustment: Setting or adjustment of the gas analyser with test or zero gas with the aim of adjusting the
indication of the gas analyser as close as possible to the gas concentration to be measured in the sample
gas. With newer analysers, this can also take place with built-in gas-filled glass cuvettes.
Calibration: For a given measuring instrument, determination of a valid relationship between the indicated
measured value or the value of the output signal and a reference value that comes closest to the true
measured quantity. Determination of the scale divisions of a measuring instrument with the aid of a
reference measuring method (generally required only for officially specified continuous emission
measurements).
Life zero: A specific quantity (normally mA) prevails in the electric output signal when the analyser
physically measures “zero”. The advantage of this system is that the output signal is electrically set to
“zero” only if the electrical measuring circuit fails.
Sample gas: That part of the process gas extracted from the process gas and passed to the analyser for
measurement.
Sample gas preparation: The entire equipment used for the qualitative and quantitative preparation of the
sample gas to ensure that the same conforms to the specifications of the analysers.
Measuring equipment: All devices and instruments required for the measurement of gas component
concentrations.
Measured quantity: Physical quantity, the numerical value of which is to be determined by measurement.
Measured component: The gas component in sample gas, the concentration of which is to be measured.
Zero gas: Test gas used for the adjustment or readjustment of the zero of a gas analyser.
On-Line: The measured quantity is coupled directly with the process.
Test gas: Gas with a known composition for adjustment or readjustment of gas analysers. It consists of
the measured component and one or several accompanying gases (e.g. nitrogen/ carbonic acid +
measuring component).
Cross-sensitivity: Influence of the concentration of a disturbing component on the measuring result of
another gas component under identical measuring conditions.
Representativity: The correspondence of the measured signal with the definition of the measured quantity,
e.g. the composition of the gas at the kiln inlet measured at a point in relation to the average gas
composition over the entire cross-section.
Disturbing component: Component in the sample gas that falsifies the measured value, e.g. if the gas
analyser has a cross-sensitivity or chemical reactions distort measurements.
Dead time of an analyser or measuring instrument: The time that elapses from a sudden change in the
gas concentration at the entrance of the analyser or probe up to the start of the indication of this change.
Availability: The time during which the measuring instrument generates usable signals.
Supply pressure: The sample gas pressure necessary for supplying the analysers.
VOC Volatile Organic Compounds: Volatile organic hydrocarbons.
Maintenance time: Time required for maintenance of the measuring instrument (planned preventative
maintenance).
4. MEASURING METHODS
4.1 In-situ measurement
In-situ measuring methods mainly offer the following advantages:
¨ No gas sampling
¨ Sampling forms a path in the measuring channel (as opposed to a point in extractive methods)
¨ Undelayed indication
¨ Less maintenance
¨ Good long-term stability
In-situ measuring methods are used increasingly in modern measuring techniques.
Two different measuring principles are in the foreground:
¨ Solid-state electrolytic and
¨ Optical systems
Stabilised zirconium dioxide is a typical solid-state electrolyte with whose properties oxygen can be
measured directly in the process (similar to thermocouples) (see chapter 8.5.1). This measuring method
has proved reliable in the cement industry. In individual cases, the useful life of the zirconium sensors was
unsatisfactory, as their activity was destroyed by certain accompanying gases.
Optical instruments are flanged directly on to the gas channel to be measured (e.g. chimney). These
consist of a transmitter (normally light) and a receiver or reflector arranged opposite. While passing
through the channel, the light beam emitted from the transmitter (infrared, ultraviolet or laser) is changed
by certain gas components. After appropriate processing, this change results in the measured quantity
(see chapter 8.6).
Optical measuring instruments (8.6.1, 8.6.2, 8.6.3) are used mainly for the measurement of pollutant
emissions, e.g. dust content, SO2, NO, etc. The range of instruments available for measuring further gas
components is increasing in line with technological advances. The application of optical measuring in-situ
instruments is restricted by two factors; the dust content and the given length of the measuring path,
which is in direct relation to the sensitivity. For use in the cement works, these restrictions mean that they
only function in pure gas and their application is limited solely to the measurement of emissions, although
good experience has been made in this respect. Thanks to improved representativity, in-situ measuring
methods are technically superior to extractive methods.
Investments in-situ instruments are generally higher compared with extractive measuring instruments. As
will be shown later, additional investments in in-situ measuring methods are justified under certain
conditions. The level of maintenance is normally less, but partly more sophisticated than extractive
measuring instruments, from a technical point of view.
The measured values of in-situ instruments are always based on gas in an operational condition.
However, values in a standard condition are usually required, .i.e. at 0°C, 1013mbar, dry. For conversion
to the standard condition, the parameters pressure, temperature and moisture must be known or
additionally measured.
4.2 Extractive measurement
The measuring procedure is subdivided into different stages:
¨ Sample gas sampling
¨ Sample gas supply
¨ Sample gas preparation
¨ Analysers
With the exception of the dust content, the majority of components can be measured by the extractive
method. In-situ measuring instruments offer the following advantages:
¨ Several analysers can be connected to the same sample gas preparation apparatus.
¨ The positioning of dust and heat-sensitive analysers is more flexible.
¨ Adjustment and calibration is simpler (with built-in reference cuvettes or test gas).
Drying the gases during gas preparation by means of cooling to a dew point of about 3°C can be
disturbing for certain components. These are logically water vapour (H2O) sulphur dioxide (SO2) and
certain hydrocarbon compounds (VOC) (see chapter 8.4).
To exclude disturbing influences during sample gas drying, there are instruments with operating
temperatures that are far above the dew point (up to 250°C). The components of these instruments are
subject to increased load when exposed to these temperatures, which inevitably leads to an increased
susceptibility to faults. Experiences made with an instrument of this type are described in chapter 8.6.4.
The multiple advantages of extractive measuring instruments, compared with in-situ measuring methods,
are confronted with a slightly higher level of maintenance, although the maintenance necessary for the
extractive measuring method is less demanding than that required for in-situ measuring instruments.
4.3 Measuring points
Figures 1 to 3 show the typical measuring points at various kiln systems (cyclone preheaters, grate
preheaters and wet kilns). The associated tables show the usually measured components as well as the
purpose of their measurement. The choice of measuring point at the kiln system at which measurements
are to be made, depends primarily on the purpose of measurement.
Figure 1: Measuring Points at Cyclone Preheater Kilns

Figure 2: Measuring points at the grate preheater kilns

Figure 3: Measuring points at wet kilns and long dry kilns

5. GAS SAMPLING
5.1 Kiln inlet (measuring point A)
At the rotary kiln itself, only the measuring point at the feed end of the kiln is realisable with reasonable
effort. The components normally measured there are needed as reference quantities for an optimal
combustion process (usually O2, CO, NO).
To prevent distortion of the measured signals due to false air from the kiln inlet seal, the probe tip must be
located distinctly within the rotating part. The sampling conditions at the kiln inlet vary considerably,
depending on the type of kiln (preheater kilns, long dry kilns and wet kilns).
5.1.1 Preheater kilns (cyclone preheater and grate preheater kilns)

Process conditions at the sampling point

Gas temperature 1000 to 1300°C
Dust content >100g/m3 (cyclone preheater)
Dust content >5/g/m3 (grate preheater)
Dew point temperature 35 to 40°C

The process gas contains large proportions of alkalis, chlorides and sulphates that are subject to high
local and time variations. Depending on the process and raw material situation, the alkali compounds
combine with the dust to form strongly adherent deposits. To counteract their effects to make gas
sampling possible at all, elaborate measures are necessary from a measuring point of view.
Owing to the high temperatures, the provision of external cooling is necessary for all types of sampling
probes in the area of the kiln inlet.
Mounting sampling probes
The principle mounting arrangement is shown in Figure 4. Owing to the wide range of kiln systems
available, it is impossible to define an exact mounting point for all types of kilns in advance. The following
criteria play a dominant role:
¨ Available space
¨ Accessibility
¨ Direction of rotation of the kiln
¨ Internals in the kiln inlet chamber
According to experience, the gas composition at the kiln inlet is not homogeneous. In consequence, the
sample is only representative of the average gas composition to a limited degree, irrespective of where
the probe is positioned. The measuring point or sampling point in the rotating part of the kiln, as will be
shown later, cannot be determined primarily on the basis of measuring criteria. An individually adapted
interpretation of the measured values (averaging), correlation with disturbance variables, etc.) is far more
important here than the position of the probe (see chapter 9).
The mounting position shown in Figure 4 is for reference only. Positions and dimensions can vary
considerably from plant to plant. The undisturbed, reliable function of the probe and the warranty that no
false air will be drawn in from the kiln inlet seal always has the highest priority.
The probe must be easily accessible. If necessary, special platforms must be erected. A lifting device
placed above the probe will considerably facilitate maintenance. The minimum distance between the
platform railing and probe axis should be about 1.3m (at least on one side).
As the probe consists of relatively long sections, the access way must not be too narrow. The mounting
position should be accessible via steps not ladders.
Pokeholes, which must be operated regularly, are located in the immediate vicinity of the probe. It must
be ensured that the sampling probe does not interfere with the working space provided for maintenance
personnel.
In principle, the probe must be mounted on the side where the direction of rotation of the kiln shell is
directed downwards. If conditions do not permit, the other side can also be selected, provided the probe
can be positioned at a sufficient distance to the material bed.
Meal inlet pipes, pokeholes, measuring connections, etc., mostly restrict free selection of the mounting
position, the main aim is to minimise hindrance of maintenance personnel.
The inevitably cooled probe surfaces encourage the formation of deposits in the kiln inlet chamber. These
deposits not only hinder subsequent removal of a probe, they can negatively influence the geometry of
the kiln inlet chamber and also cause pressure loss. To prevent this happening, it is recommended to
regularly blow-out the gap between the pipe and probe by means of a mounted air cannon. The pipe must
be dimensioned, so that a gap of about 25mm is produced between the probe and inner pipe wall.
Figure 4: Mounting of the gas sampling probe at kiln inlet

5.1.2 Wet kilns and long dry kilns

Process conditions at the sampling point:

Temperature wet kilns 150 to 200°C
Temperature long dry kilns 250 to 500°C
Dust content wet kilns about 40g/Nm3
Dust content long dry kilns about 300g/Nm3
Dew point temperature 60 to 70°C
Dew point temperature long dry kilns 35 to 40°C

Under these conditions, gas sampling is much simpler than for kilns with preheaters. No cooling of the
probe is necessary and the measured signal has improved representativity, as better intermixture of the
gases takes place due to the internals (chains, crosses). With regard to positioning, mounting conditions,
etc. roughly the same conditions apply as for kilns with preheaters.
5.1.3 Special instructions for gas sampling at the kiln inlet
Cyclone and grate preheater kilns
The above process conditions show that gas sampling from this difficult environment requires particular
measures:
¨ Owing to the high temperature, the sampling probe must be cooled.
¨ A filter system must ensure that the large amounts of diversely structured dust is removed prior to
sample gas preparation
¨ Very often, deposits build up at the sampling system and clog the probe entrance, so that
measures must be taken for their prevention.
Probe cooling
Liquid cooling is used for all known probes. The cooling medium, which is usually water, transfers the
heat in a closed system to water-air or water-water heat exchanger to prevent calcareous deposits. The
energy produced varies considerably. Depending on the condition of the probe surface, a large amount
(clean surface) or small amount (dust or deposits on the probe) must be removed. Based on experience,
an energy flow of maximum 30kW per probe meter must be removed within the kiln (probe with 10cm
outside diameter). In extreme cases, the energy flow varies between 1kW and 30kW per probe meter.
According to experience, the risk of deposit formation increases with reducing probe or cooling circuit
temperature. As a countermeasure, some probes are operated at higher temperatures. This takes place
by controlling the cooling circuit or by internally heating the probe.
If a water-air heat exchanger is used, it must be taken into account in dimensioning that the maximum
cooling capacity is still sufficient even with heavy clogging of the heat exchanger surfaces. It is also
recommended to add an anti-freeze to the water in cold regions.
In order to better control incrustations and deposit build-up in and on the probes, cooling systems were
developed which enable the probes to be operated at higher temperatures. An example is the steam
jacket probe. This probe functions as a heat conducting tube, whereby the heat of evaporation of water is
used as a heat carrier to the directly flanged-on heat exchanger (condenser).
The probe temperature is 120 to 150°C, the internal pressure is 1.5 to 5 bar. The probe only functions
properly if it can be mounted almost vertically (less than 30° from the vertical axis). This requirement
virtually excludes the mounting method shown in Figure 4 in an almost horizontal position, so that its
possible applications are very restricted.
If a synthetic heat carrying liquid is used instead of water, the probes can be operated at even higher
temperatures (up to 200°C) (see chapter 6.1.1).
Safety and maintenance equipment
In the event of failure of the cooling system, the probe would be damaged within a few minutes.
Countermeasures are essential. For emergency cooling purposes, water supplied from storage tanks can
be used and feed directly into the probe circuit if required. Emergency cooling systems of this kind must
also function in the event of a total power failure. Pneumatically operated withdrawal devices have proved
more reliable than emergency cooling systems (see Figure 5). Since compressed air can be stored
without problems, pneumatic operation has the advantage that the probe can be withdrawn from the
danger, zone even in the event of a total power failure, within a reasonable time. The automatic insertion
and withdrawal device also has further significant advantages:
¨ Regular insertion and withdrawal prevents the formation of deposits on the probe and their build-
up.
¨ Maintenance is considerably facilitated.
All connections to the probe (hoses, cables, etc.) must be flexible.
Dust filtration in the probes
With dry filtration, the sample gas is withdrawn from the process by suction in an unpurified condition.
Dust separation takes place inside the probe or at its outer end. The produced dust must be removed
from the filter from time to time. Whether this takes place manually by replacing the filter element or
automatically by blowing back into the sampling space, the sample gas flow is always interrupted. This
interruption has a negative effect on the availability of the measuring instrument. To prevent condensation
of any kind, the filter must have a minimum operating temperature of 150°C.
Figure 5: Probe extraction device

With wet filtration, the sample gas flows through a water curtain at the probe tip. This produces a slurry of
water and dust, which together with the sample gas discharges through the wet probe, which in contrast
to the dry probe is inclined outwards. The slurry discharges, the gas is dried and passed to the analysers.
Wet filtration has the disadvantage that various gas components are also dissolved in water. SO2 is
completely washed out and the CO2 concentration reduces to an uncontrollable degree. As a result of this
change in the total composition, the relative contents of the other gas components increase, so that the
composition of the sample gas is no longer correct. If the injector water circulates in a closed system, the
circulated water becomes acidic and behaves virtually inert towards CO2. However, susceptibility to
corrosion of all parts coming into contact with the water must be observed.
The level of maintenance necessary with wet filtration is slightly less and above all technically less
demanding than with dry filtration. However, in view of the distortion of measured values and the reliable
dry systems that are currently available, its application is no longer recommended.
Filter cleaning
The dust separated in the dry filter must be removed from time to time. The degree of clogging of the
filter, including the gas sampling probe, can be determined by means of a vacuum gauge arranged
between the filter and sample gas pump. The maximum permissible value for cleaning differs from plant
to plant and must be individually determined.
Compressed air is normally used for cleaning and removing the dust from the filter. If the filter is arranged
at the outer end of the probe, cleaning should take place in two stages.
1) Loosening the dust via the sample gas pipe.
2) Blowing out the dust via a separate compressed-air pipe.
The compressed air must be free from oil and water. Oil in the purging air produces incorrect CO in the
filter and excessive moisture encourages encrustation of the filter.
With regard to gas sampling, the conditions for the wet kiln and long dry kiln are considerably simpler than
for preheater kilns. The lower temperatures usually obviate the need of probe cooling. The lower dust
load enables the use of simpler filter systems without special cleaning, as used following the heat
exchanger in the case of dry kilns (see chapter 6.3).
5.2 Other measuring points (B to G)
5.2.1 Kiln inlet chamber and riser duct (measuring point B)

Process conditions at the sampling point:

Gas temperature 820 to 1300°C
Dust content 200 to 1200g/m3 (N.tr.)
Dew point temperature 35 to 40°C

In the kiln inlet chamber and riser duct, as at the rotary kiln inlet, local and time-related concentration
differences can be expected. Above the meal inlet of the lowest cyclone, there is no longer any danger of
a deposit build-up through circulated materials. However, the gas composition no longer corresponds at
this point with the gas composition in the rotary kiln inlet. It is distorted by the reduction of CO in the riser
duct and through dilution with false air and CO2 from deacidification of the burned product.
When burning secondary fuel, the measuring point must be arranged below the secondary fuel inlet.
With regard to gas sampling, virtually the same conditions apply as at the kiln inlet. This applies similarly
to a large extent to sampling from the calcining chambers of grate preheater kilns.
5.2.2 Lower cyclone stages (measuring point C)
From a measurement point of view, gas analysis in this area is virtually pointless, particularly in plants
with pre-calcining. However, if measurements are still carried on a frequent basis, these are not for
measurement reasons, but the more favourable conditions with regard to sampling (deposit formation and
temperature) than further below, e.g. in the rotary kiln inlet. A cooling system is necessary in any event.
5.2.3 Upper cyclone stages (measuring point D)

Process conditions at the sampling point:

Gas temperature 400 to 550°C
Dust content 200 to 1200g/m3 (N.tr.)
Dew point temperature 35 to 45°C

Protection of the electrostatic filter against explosions due to impermissible CO concentrations,

presupposes a rapid reaction of the gas analysis (see chapter 12.1). For this task, gas sampling below
the uppermost cyclone stage is preferable, as the residence time of the main gas flow in the uppermost
cyclone stage prolongs the reaction time of the monitoring device. Two-section preheater systems should
always be provided with two complete measuring instruments (one for each section).
The sampling conditions are relatively simple. No cooling is necessary. In order to achieve rapid reaction
times, the maximum amount of gas must be drawn in (60 to 300 l/h). However, as the amount of gas
increases, so too does the dust content in the sampling system, so that, depending on the particular
system, it must be separated by the filter and blown back again. More suitable for this purpose are probes
whose filters are located directly in the gas flow (internal filter probes) than those with external filters (see
chapter 6.3).
5.2.4 Downstream of cyclone or grate preheaters (measuring point E)

Process conditions at the sampling point:

Gas temperature for rotary kilns with cyclone preheaters 300 to 400°C
Gas temperature for rotary kilns with grate preheaters 100 to 150°C
Dust content for rotary kilns with cyclone preheaters 20 to 70gm/3 (N.tr.)
Dust content for rotary kilns with grate preheaters 2 to 10g/m3 (N.tr.)
Dew point temperature for rotary kilns with cyclone preheaters 35 to 45°C
Dew point temperature for rotary kilns with grate preheaters 50 to 65°C

At the point, similar conditions prevail for gas sampling as in the riser duct (measuring point D). In the
case of grate preheaters, this point approximately corresponds with the conditions downstream of the
grate, but less dust loading. To be taken into account for CO monitoring in grate preheater kilns is the fact
that no cooling tower is usually available to delay the residence time of the gases in a positive sense. For
this, the gas quantity can be increased on account of the low dust loading.
5.2.5 Downstream of electrostatic filter (measuring points F, G)

Process conditions at the sampling point:

Gas temperature 100 to 150°C
Dust content >50mg/m3 (N.tr.)
Dew point temperature 50 to 65°C

In the majority of cases, the components relevant for emission are measured. Preference must be given
to the point downstream of the fan, as the gas composition is no longer subject to change before the
exhaust gas discharges from the stack. Owing to the turbulence of the process gas in the plant sections
and fans, it can generally be assumed that the process gas is well intermixed.
Owing to the probability of filter shutdowns, gas sampling requires a dust filter as provided at the
measuring points in the raw gas flow. The high dew point makes it necessary for the probe to be heated
at the critical points. No differences exist with regard to the type of kiln (cyclones, grate preheaters or wet
kilns).
5.2.6 Coal pulverising mill
Gas analysis in the area of the coal pulverising mill serves solely for the purpose of quickly detecting
smouldering fires and/or potentially explosive gas concentrations. The possible measuring points are
shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6: Measuring points at the coal grinding plant

Upstream of coal pulverising mill (measuring point H)

Process conditions at the sampling point:

Gas temperature 250 to 350°C
Dust content 20 to 70g/m3 (N.tr.)
Dew point temperature 35 to 45°C

In filter (measuring point I)

Process conditions at the sampling point:

Gas temperature 90 to 110°C
Dust content >50mg/m3 (N.tr.)
Dew point temperature 50 to 70°C

The measuring point in the filter serves especially for monitoring glow nests when the coal pulverising mill
is stationary. Owing to the large filter volume, glow nests can only be detected quickly enough with
sufficient circulation of the process gas. For this reason, 200-300m3/h process gas should be drawn out
by suction via a separate gas pipe and fed back again at the filter inlet when the coal pulverising mill is
stationary. The gas sampling probe is then arranged in the gas pipe. When the coal pulverising mill is in
operation, the gas pipe is closed via a valve.
Downstream of coal pulverising mill fan (measuring point E)

Process conditions at the sampling point:

Gas temperature 90 to 100°C
Dust content >50mg/m3 (N.tr.)
Dew point temperature 50 to 70°C

Coal dust silo (measuring point L)

Process conditions at the sampling point:

Gas temperature >60°C
Dust content 1 to 1000g/m3 (N.tr.)
Dew point temperature >35°C

The gas sample is preferably positioned in the silo roof.

6. GAS SAMPLING PROBES

In principle, gas sampling probes can be divided into three categories according to temperature range:
· Sampling probes in the temperature range 900 to 1500°C
· Sampling probes in the temperature range 500 to 900°C
· Sampling probes in the temperature range up to 500°C
The following assessment of various gas sampling probes is based on the manufacturer’s documents as
well as our own experience and information from the works, if available.
6.1 Sampling probes in the temperature range 900 to 1500°C
This category includes gas sampling at the inlet of preheater kilns with and without pre-calcining.
6.1.1 Siemens type FLK
Brief description
Compact gas sampling system with special cooling fluid permitting probe operating temperatures up to
230°C. The condensation of alkali vapours and in turn the danger of incrustations is drastically reduced.
The suction opening is arranged on the side of the probe tube and should be located in the flow
slipstream. This arrangement offers selective dust separation. An electrically or pneumatically operated
insertion / withdrawal device is an integral part of the probe.
Design: Extremely compact and professional design. Oval stainless steel sampling tube.
Suction opening: Lateral, about 30mm in diameter
Mounting tube: 325mm diameter (relatively large)
Dust removal filter: External, heated, blow-back with compressed air, large volume
Maximum probe length: 3200mm

Comment
Despite effective measures, stubborn blockages can occur, particularly when kiln operation is loaded by
high alkali circuits. Owing to the lateral arrangement of the suction opening, the gases within the probe
tube flow through an elbow. The removal of incrusted deposits from this elbow is far more difficult due to
poor access than if the gases were drawn out by suction at the end of the stem and through a straight
tube. In view of the turbulent flow conditions at the sampling point, it is doubtful whether lateral suction
results in selective dust separation.
The large overall volume of the dust filter permits a relatively large gas throughput. The resulting delay
and damping of the indication is of little significance from a measurement point of view.
Available for the drive of the withdrawal device is either an electric motor or compressed-air drive. As
compressed air can be stored without problems, the compressed-air drive offers more reliability than an
electric motor in the event of a power failure. Emergency operation with crank handle is also provided.
With difficult kiln operation, alkali condensation can occur and block the entrance of the probe, as already
mentioned, despite increased operating temperature.
6.1.2 Harman & Braun type 60S (formerly type 13)
Brief description
Gas sampling probe with closed cooling system (cooling medium water) and temperature control.
Integrated emergency cooling system with fresh water. Lateral arrangement of two suction openings
(Figure 7).
Comment
Widely used. Functions well in non-extreme alkali conditions. The same remarks apply here with regard to
the lateral arrangement of the suction openings as for the Siemens system.
With large amounts of dust, the filter must be blown-out at brief intervals, The resulting loss of signal can
have a critical effect on the availability of the measuring signal.
The operating temperature is too low to completely prevent alkali condensation. An automatic insertion
and withdrawal device is optionally available.
Figure 7:

6.1.3 Hartmann & Braun type H (Holcim probe)

Brief description
The main features of this probe are the automatically functioning mechanical removal of any incrustations
at the probe inlet as well as a new type of filter system (see Figure 8). Cooling takes place in a closed
system (cooling medium water) with temperature controller.
About 20 probes of this type are in use worldwide and are functioning efficiently. Marketing takes place
via Messrs ELSAG BAILEY Hartmann & Braun in Frankfurt under the designation type H.

Design: Probe body of alloyed steel

Suction opening: At end of stem, about 40mm in diameter
Probe temperature: External, 30 to 85°C, internal up to 250°C
Mounting tube: 150mm in diameter
Dust removal filter: Internal, heated filter of sintered metal, cleaning with compressed air
Maximum probe length: 3000mm

Thanks to its modular concept, the probe can be provided with the same insertion and withdrawal device
as type 60.
Figure 8:
Comment
This sampling system has proved highly reliable in practical use, even under difficult conditions. The
availability satisfies the high requirements of “high-level control systems”. The maintenance costs are low
thanks to the simple and maintenance-friendly design of the system.
6.2 Sampling probes in the temperature range 500 to 900°C
With regard to the sampling probes, similar conditions prevail in this temperature as at higher
temperatures (e.g. at the kiln inlet of preheater kilns).
However, the danger of incrustations is lower. Cooling of the probes is essential down to 500°C, so that in
principle, the same sampling probes can be used as in the higher temperature range.
Temperatures between 500 and 900°C are typical for cyclone preheater kilns in the area of the lower
cyclone stages (measuring point C). As already noted, measurements there are almost pointless,
particularly in plants with precalcining. If measurements are still to be carried out despite this, steam jack
probes are considered ideal for this purpose when mounted vertically in the cyclone roof.
6.3 Sampling probes in the temperature range below 500°C
Typical for the application of such probes are the measuring points downstream of the heat exchanger or
grate preheater, upstream or downstream of the electrostatic filter as well as at the kiln inlet of wet or long
dry kilns. Cooling is unnecessary. With regard to the place of use or purpose of measurement, there are
certain differences in the design of the probes (e.g. mounting length). Decisive for the quality of these
probes is the dust filtration. The discovery of fine-pore filter tubes of sintered stainless steel brought about
great advances. The level of maintenance is low, a block-back device is unnecessary. The sample gas is
clean and available for weeks to months without interruption. Probes with such filters are not available
from established suppliers. They still use fine ceramic filters that enable a comparatively long useful life.
However, it must be ensured that the gas conducting tube is heated at the penetration point (Figure 9).
The optimal porosity of sintered metal filters is only 0.5m. As the main proportion of the dust particles is
larger, the pores clog at a correspondingly slow rate. According to experience, they have a useful life of
four weeks to several months, depending on the properties of the dust. If the pressure drop becomes
excessive due to clogging, the filter tubes can be cleaned with acid.
With wet kilns and long dry kilns, the probes must be lengthened, depending on the size of the smoke
chamber. In order to ensure the necessary mechanical strength, supporting tube of a larger diameter
must be mounted, into which the probe is inserted.
A further important element is the heating in the penetration zone from the measuring channel to the
outside. In order to prevent any kind of condensation, the temperature must not fall below 100°C at any
point.
For all gas conducting parts, stainless steel, e.g. No. 1.4541 or 1.4571 must be used.
Figure 9: Gas sampling probe, up to 500°C

7. SAMPLE GAS PREPARATION

The purpose of sample gas preparation is to supply the downstream gas analysers with sample gas, so
that it conforms qualitatively and quantitatively with the specifications of the analysers. Such an
arrangement normally consists of the following elements:

· Supply > Sample gas pipe

· Drying > Sample gas cooler
· Delivery > Sample gas pump
· Dosage > Controller
· Distribution > Pressure control valve
· Calibrating option > Manual or automatic

Experience has shown that the availability of a measuring instrument depends essentially on a properly
functioning sample gas sampling and preparation. Insufficient sample gas preparation leads to fouling in
the gas analysers and not infrequently to expensive damage.
7.1 Sample gas pipe
The probe itself as well as the sample gas pipe between the sampling probe and sample gas cooler
should be heated to between 100 and 150°C (for measurements with FID devices up to 200°C). This
heating has the following purpose:
¨ To prevent condensation and freezing of the condensate at low temperatures, because:
· Condensation in the sample gas pipe can distort certain measured values.
· Incrustations and blockage of the sample gas pipe are accelerated by the formation of
condensate.
¨ To delay the conversion of NO into NO2 during emission measurement.
Heated sample gas pipes are available in various qualities:
¨ Low price pipes with a self-regulating heating band and
¨ Pipes with resistance heating and separate temperature controller
For selection purposes, it should be noted that with heating band controlled pipes, the temperature is
limited to a maximum of 105°C. This temperature does not normally suffice for process measurements
but for emission measurements. The following specifications must be observed:

· Inner tube material: Teflon

· Inner tube dimensions: Outside diameter 6mm
Inside diameter 4mm
· Connection ends: Clamping ring tube fittings
· Control: Thermocouple with controller
· Protective sleeve: PVC or metal

Heated pipes are relatively expensive. When planning a measuring system, the sample gas pipes must
therefore be as short as possible. The following points must be observed:
a) If only O2, CO or NO is measured, heating can be dispensed with if the sample gas pipe (several
metres) is short and can be laid with uninterrupted gradient from the sampling point to the ample gas
cooler (no siphons).
b) Possible installation of the sample gas cooler in the vicinity of the sampling point.
For automatic compressed-air cleaning via the sample gas pipe, it must be ensured that this has sufficient
pressure resistance.
For connections, high-quality stainless steel clamping ring fittings, e.g. Swagelok, Serto or similar, must
generally be used.
7.2 Sample gas coolers
Sample gas coolers serve to remove most of the water vapour from the sample gas at temperatures of
about 3°C and keep the residual content at a constant value. The latter is important particularly for
emission measurement. The temperature indication of the sample gas cooler normally shows the
operating temperature of the cooling medium. If the sample gas cooler is subject to excessive load or
ambient temperature, the sample gas temperature at the cooler outlet can be considerably higher than
the indication. The dew point temperature then no longer corresponds with the cooling medium indication.
The sample gas cooler is usually accommodated in a cabinet together with the analysers and the
remaining sample gas preparation apparatus. Instead of using long heated sample gas pipes, it may be
advantageous to install the sample gas cooler immediately downstream of the sample gas probe in a
separate equipment cabinet.
Condensate collecting tanks have the disadvantage that indication of the measured values is greatly
delayed due to the additional volume. The produced condensate should therefore be pumped out using
automatic hose pumps or diaphragm liquid pumps.
7.2.1 Specifications of a suitable sample gas cooler

Dew point at outlet +5°C (±1°C)

Dew point stability ±0.25°C
Temperature at sample gas inlet max. 180°C
Dew point at sample gas inlet max. 80°C
Gas flow max 100l/h
Ambient temperature +5 to +45°C
Cooling capacity 860kJ/h, 25°C
Material of gas conducting parts Teflon, PVDF
Permissible gas pressure min. 3 bar
Volume max. 100cm3
Sample gas connections 6mm or 1/4”
Time until ready for measurement max. 30 minutes

Also available for the majority of sample gas coolers are moisture monitoring devices at the sample gas
outlet. Such devices are urgently recommended.
7.3 Sample gas pump
Mainly diaphragm and compressor pumps are used. The sample gas volume necessary for the gas
analysers is between 30 and 100l/h. In order to keep indication delays to a minimum, a larger sample gas
volume is often extracted from the process gas. The excess sample gas can be diverted via a bypass
shortly upstream of the analyser. If possible, a large part of the measuring instrument should be operated
under pressure, as false air can infiltrate during suction phase.
Sample gas pumps installed upstream of the sample gas cooler must be heated. This arrangement has
the advantage that no false air is sucked in the event of leaks in the sample gas cooler. However,
according to experience, heated pumps are more susceptible to faults than cold operated pumps, so that
arrangement downstream of the sample gas cooler is still more advantageous.
The pump capacity should be generously dimensioned in respect of the suction pressure. The flow rate
must be dimensioned, so that the available gas flow about 1.5 to 2 times higher than that required by the
analysers according to specifications. Throttling of the flow preferably takes place on the low-pressure
side.
With throttling on the pressure side, a pressure control valve must ensure that the pressure downstream
of the pump does not increase to an unnecessary degree. Significant pressure drops in the sample gas
encourages the formation of powdery salts (white powder). The following diagram shows the
characteristics of a suitable sample gas pump.
¨ Vacuum
¨ Excess pressure
¨ Gas flow [l/min] at 20°C
Figure 10:

7.4 Flow control and distribution

The arrangement for control and distribution of the sample gas depends on the number and specifications
of the analysers to be supplied. Multi-component analysers with only connection solve the problem of gas
distribution internally. However, as soon as two or more analysers have to be supplied with gas, the inlet
pressure must be taken into account in distribution. At a low supply pressure, the analysers can be
connected in series. If analysers have to be connected with varying supply pressure, they must be
connected in parallel via appropriate gas distribution.
7.4.1 Simple gas control
Figure 11:

The flowmeter monitors and controls the set sample and test gas volume. Rotameters fitted with variable
limit transmitters are normally used for setting the flow rate. The signal transmitters should signal
especially when the necessary flow is not reached. This is particularly important for gas analysers with
safety functions.
As already mentioned, not all gas analysers have the same conditions with respect to supply pressures.
Optical analysers normally require less pressure than oxygen analysers, for example, which use the
paramagnetic measuring principle. However, special attention must be given to the supply pressure of the
analysers when dimensioning the sample gas preparation apparatus. As soon as several analysers have
to be operated, parallel connection is recommended, despite the additional work involved. For this
purpose, the sample gas flow must be divided appropriate to the number of gas analysers to be supplied.
The following flow diagram shows how this division can take place. The sample gas pump supplies a
common supply pipe, which is under increased sample gas pressure. A spring-loaded pressure control
valve controls the pressure in this pipe. The excess sample gas is diverted. A further, slightly more
elaborate option, is to use a separate sample gas pump for each analyser.
Parallel connection with pressure control valve

Figure 12:

7.4.2 Electronic gas volume control

The available electronic flowmeters are reliable and should be used to an increasing extent for automatic
gas volume control purposes.
These are flowmeters whose measuring principle is based on a thermal measuring bridge, whereby the
transported heat of a flowing substance is used as an indicator. The calibrated reference quantity is
normally air. For other gas compositions, appropriate correction values (e.g. CO2) must be used for
conversion.

Figure 13:

Tests with automatic control have confirmed that the reliability of the gas supply can be considerably
improved with this system. It offers decisive functional advantages compared with rotameters and is less
susceptible to faults. A constant gas flow positively affects overall gas analysis in every respect. Since the
controllers have a throttling effect on the gas flow, they are preferably arranged on the suction side of the
pump. For flow indication purposes, a volume-proportional signal is available. This enables ideal
monitoring via the control system. In addition, a rotameter (without needle valve) can still be used for
monitoring locally.
7.5 Sample gas filters
7.5.1 Coarse filters
Coarse filters are normally installed inside or downstream of the probe, so that a large proportion of the
dust is already separated before the sample gas enters the sample gas preparation apparatus. If sintered
metal filters with a porosity of <0.5m are already used in the probe, the sample would be sufficiently
clean. Nonetheless, fine afterfiltration directly upstream of the analysers is recommended, as impurities
can also infiltrate the system downstream of the probe. Ceramic filters of silicon carbide, mineral fibres or
filter casings of borosilicate glass fibres are also frequently used. Silicone carbide composites have a high
separation efficiency of about 99.9% at an average grain diameter of 1.2m and are temperature resistant
up to 660°C.
The disadvantage of all these filters compared to sintered metal filters, apart from their lower separation
efficiency is that they have to be cleaned and blown out or replaced at shorter intervals
7.5.2 Fine filters
For separation of the dust particles and sublimated salts left behind in the sample gas, membrane filter,
e.g. of glass fibres or PTFE should be provided.
Recommended is a combination of membrane filter and condensate monitor. The condensate monitor
measures a change in the electrical conductivity between two electrodes. If a limiting value is exceeded,
the sample gas pump is stopped and the fault is indicated in the control room.
7.5.3 Valves
Changeover valves
If automatic blowing out of the filter and/or probes is required, the gas path must be able to be diverted
automatically. For this purpose, stainless steel solenoid valves or mechanically/ pneumatically operated
ball sliding valves of Teflon (housing) and stainless steel (ball) are used.
Valves installed in moist sample gas (upstream of the sample gas cooler) must be mounted on a
temperature-controlled valve plate in order to prevent corrosion as a consequence of the dew point not
being reached.
Valves, particularly solenoid valves, have the tendency to leak, even when slightly fouled. They enable a
high degree of automation of the measuring instrument, e.g. automatic calibration, however, experience
has shown that their susceptibility to faults almost cancels out the convenience they are expected to
provide (see chapter 11.7).
7.5.4 Pressure control valve
The purpose of the pressure control valve is to ensure that the supply pressure of the analysers remains
fairly constant. The excess gas delivered by the pump discharges via a spring-loaded body. The nominal
pressure of the valve must be slightly higher than the highest specified supply pressure of all parallel
connected analysers.
7.6 Adjustment
The necessity of regular adjustments depends on the purpose of the analysis and the stability of the
analysers. For emission measurements, a rotation of one to two weeks is sufficient, provided the
regulations in the country concerned do not contain any tighter requirements. During adjustment, a
preferably manually-operated two-way directional control valve switches the gas supply to a bottle
containing test gas. Newer gas analysers are normally provided with an automatic adjusting device. By
means of an internal or external command a glass cuvette filled with the respective gas is inserted into
the sensor and the analyser is automatically readjusted. During this time, the last measured value
remains indicated, so that the subsequent signal processing system is not disturbed by the procedure.
With older analysers that do not have this type of automatic device, operating personnel or the process
control system must be informed of the adjustment. With CO monitoring systems, activation of the
automatic filter shutdown system must be prevented.
Analysers with so-called calibrating cuvettes have the big advantage that no more test gas is necessary.
Manufacturers and most nationally customary regulations accept this type of adjustment over a period of
2...3 years. After this time, the analysers must be overhauled and inspected and readjusted by an
appropriately licensed institute.
7.7 Further information on sample gas preparation
7.7.1 Sample gas discharge
No sample gas must discharge into the analyser room. Every gas outlet must be connected to a pipe and
discharged to the atmosphere or returned to the main gas flow. Pipes with large cross-sections must be
used in order to prevent any back pressure.
7.7.2 Tightness test
An option should be provided to easily connect the sample gas pipe gas-tight to a nitrogen bottle directly
downstream of the sampling probe.
The complete measuring apparatus is purged with nitrogen with the gas preparation apparatus operating
normally. The oxygen analyser shows “zero” indication soon afterwards. After several minutes, the
nitrogen supply is interrupted, so that a vacuum is produced in the system. Caution! The regulating valves
on the test bottles are often not vacuum-tight. If the measured value of the oxygen analyser should
increase again within a space of about 20 seconds, this means that there is a leak in the system. An
increase of several per cent within several minutes is considered normal.
7.7.3 Filter condition monitoring
The suction pressure is a good indicator of the condition of the filter or filters between the probe and
sample gas pump. By measuring this pressure with a pressure transmitter or contact pressure gauge, the
automatic cleaning process can be initiated when a certain level is reached. As a result of this optimising
measure, the measured signal is not interrupted unnecessarily and the filters are cleaned or blown back
before being irreversibly clogged.
7.7.4 Analyser room
The accuracy and reliability of gas analysis essentially depends on temperature variations, vibrations,
draughts, dust, moisture and electrical interference fields being avoided. For this reason, the gas
analysers including sample gas preparation apparatus should be installed in a closed room or equipment
cabinet that can be locked to prevent unauthorised access. In the analyser room, the individual
instruments and apparatus must be arranged with an emphasis on clarity and easy accessibility, so that
rational operation and maintenance of the measuring equipment is ensured.
Figure 14:

7.8 Space requirement

For the analysers and sample gas preparation apparatus, a double 19” equipment cabinet with one field
respectively for the gas preparation apparatus and analysers is normally sufficient. However, other
equipment is often installed in this clean, air-conditioned analyser room. In such cases, it must be
ensured that sufficient room is provided to enable maintenance personnel to move freely and that there is
adequate room for material (e.g. test gas bottles, tools, etc.) and additional space.
7.9 Location
In principle, the analyser room should be located as close as possible to the measuring point. This aspect
is particularly important for CO monitoring, where fast indication is necessary. Unheated sample gas
pipes must be laid descending to the sample gas cooler. It is therefore advantageous when the analyser
room is located one floor below the sampling point.
If space is available at a suitable location that is not exposed to excessive dust, heat radiation and noise,
a switchgear cabinet is sufficient for accommodating the measuring equipment. A separate, closed room
is unnecessary under such conditions. The volume to be air-conditioned can be considerably reduced as
a result.
7.10 Climatic conditions
The temperature in the analyser room or cabinet should be able to be regulated between 15 and 25°C.
For this purpose, heating and ventilation is necessary; a cooling unit must be provided to counteract heat
radiation. The ventilation fans must be provided with efficient dust filters. All filters produced during gas
analysis must be discharged to the atmosphere.
8. ANALYSERS
The determination of individual components in the sample gas is based on various physical basic
principles, such as:
¨ Light absorption
¨ Paramagnetism
¨ Flame ionisation and
¨ Solid-state electrolytic systems
All newer analysers process the analogue signals output by the sensors digitally. Digitalisation has
provided the following advantages:
¨ Increased operating convenience (menu guidance)
¨ Multi-channel technology
¨ Automatic adjustment
¨ More compact design
¨ Increased stability
¨ Remote monitoring and control via modem and/or data bus
The internal functions of the analysers will not be dealt with here. Sufficient information in this respect is
provided in the manufacturer’s documents and technical literature. Important for practical application is
knowing how to use the various measuring methods effectively.
The manufacturer plays a secondary role in analyser selection from a qualitative point of view. Measuring
equipment faults are rarely attributed to faulty analysers. It goes without saying that only types designed
for industrial purposes are suitable for use in cement works and certainly no laboratory equipment.
Suitability for industrial purposes means, for example:
¨ Solid, totally enclosed housing (degree of protection IP 65 or IP 54)
¨ Insensitivity to vibrations
¨ Minimum temperature application range 15 to 35°C
¨ Insensitivity to system disturbances
¨ Isolated (floating) output signals
The majority of established manufacturers are in a position to meet these specifications. Service and
spare parts availability are therefore more important than the purchase price. If measuring equipment is
already available and the above criteria are met, there is no reason to change manufacturers when
purchasing new equipment or additions.
8.1 Infrared absorption
With the exception of oxygen, the majority of interesting gas components can be measured by infrared
absorption. Available are analysers for extractive and in-situ application. In the main, infrared is used for
the extractive method. The following advantages are offered by these NDIR (non-dispersive infrared)
analysers:
¨ Broad application spectrum
¨ Relatively simple method, favourable price
¨ Robustness
¨ Low wear, long useful life
¨ Good stability
The not particularly high sensitivity of the NDIR analysers does not normally pose a problem in the
cement industry. The smallest measuring range, e.g. for CO is about 100ppm, for NO about 500ppm and
for CO2 about 20 %. Cross-sensitivities to water vapour and CO2 are present. Water vapour as a
disturbing component plays a secondary role when the gases in the sample gas cooler are dried with
sufficient stability. The cross-sensitivity of CO2 is usually within the tolerance when compensated in the
analyser. The influence can be further reduced when an amount of CO2 corresponding to the average
value of the sample gas is mixed with the test gas. As the CO2 content in the cement process is
extremely high, unestablished analysers should be tested in this respect prior to their use.
The most well known manufacturers today produce multi-channel NDIR analysers, enabling the prices per
measured component to be distinctly reduced. The majority of manufacturers also offer analysers in
different quality classes (low-cost analysers). As a rule, the low-cost analysers are not temperature-
stabilised, but temperature-compensated and are therefore not as stable as the analysers at the top end
of the price scale. However, if external fluctuations are kept to a minimum, the temperature-compensated
analysers meet the requirements in the majority of cases.
8.1.1 Space case, sulphur dioxide (SO2)
In principle, NDIR analysers are suitable for the measurement of SO2. However, tests on kiln systems
with cyclone preheaters have shown that insufficient SO2 is measured with extractive sample gas
sampling and preparation (in accordance with DIN 2462, page 4). The magnitude of the deficiency can
vary considerably and can therefore not be calibrated. These measuring errors are attributed to chemical
reactions of the SO2 with NH3 (ammonia) in the sample gas cooler (see chapter 11.2). The following
options are available to eliminate these errors:
¨ Acidification of the condensate by addition of phosphoric acid in the sample gas cooler (TÜV)
tested method developed by and available from Hartmann & Braun).
¨ Use of a “hot analyser” (measurement with moist sample gas).
¨ In-situ measuring method
With the addition of about 8 to 12ml phosphoric acid (5%) in the sample gas cooler, the pH of the
condensate reduces to a value below 1.5. The reaction of the SO2 with ammonia is accordingly
prevented.
It is obvious that hot analysers, whose entire measuring system must function at temperatures between
150°C and 250°C, are more susceptible than cold analysers. According to experience, the heated sample
gas pump causes the greatest problems.
With in-situ measuring instruments, no distortion through chemical reaction is noticeable. As part of
comparative tests, they showed to be more reliable than measuring instruments with extractive sampling
and sample gas cooler. However, absolute measured values in mg/Nm3 are initially available after
calibration using a reference measuring procedure. In addition, if “dry” standard values are required, the
correction must be corrected with the moisture and temperature of the sample gas.
8.2 Ultra-violet absorption
The difference of the NDUV analysers compared with NDIR is mainly that they are less cross-sensitive to
water vapour and CO2 and higher sensitivities can be achieved. In the cement industry, NDUV analysers
were initially used for the measurement of NO components. Meanwhile, the less expensive NDIR
analysers are being more widely used for NO and have proved reliable.
8.3 Paramagnetism
Oxygen does not have a usable spectrum either in IR or UV light. In future, laser analysers /chapter 8.6.3)
will be the first to be able to measure oxygen with light in addition to other components. The paramagnetic
properties of oxygen (oxygen molecules are strongly attracted in a magnetic field) are still used for
oxygen measurement, however with a declining trend. In practice, two methods are widely used:
¨ The magnetic torsion balance
¨ Thermomagnetic oxygen measurement
8.3.1 Oxygen analysers
In recent years, analysers operating on the torsion balance or also dumb bell principle have become
increasingly popular.
The measuring effect is based solely on the magnetic forces of the oxygen molecule and is therefore
comparatively less cross-sensitive to other gas components. However, the measuring chamber reacts
sensitively to dirt and condensate.
The paramagnetism of oxygen reduces with increasing temperature. This thermomagnetic effect is used
in so-called annual chamber or hot wire analysers for O2 measurement. The advantage of these
analysers is that the measuring chambers contain no sensitive internals, so that they are less sensitive to
dirt and are also easier to clean than analysers that operate on the torsion balance principle. However,
the measuring method is cross-sensitive to other gases and only functions accurately with a known or
more constant accompanying gas composition.
8.4 Flame ionisation (FID)
This measuring method is used for measurement of the volatile content of unburnt hydrocarbons (VOC)
(Volatile Organic Compounds). Organic carbon compounds contained in the sample gas are ionised in a
hydrogen flame. The ion quantity is almost proportional to the number of carbon atoms involved in
combustion. The ionic voltage is detected with the aid of an electrode and brought to indication via a high-
resistance amplifier. Propane gas in nitrogen is normally used for calibration purposes.
Continuous measurements with the flame ionisation detector (FID) are increasingly prescribed, as soon
as alternative fuels are burned. FID analysers are unfortunately susceptible to faults and require
considerable maintenance by suitably trained personnel.
The entire sample gas preparation system must not fall at any point below the sample gas temperature,
i.e. the sampler, sample gas pipe and pump must be heated. The temperature in the ionisation chamber
of the FID analyser is normally about 200°C.
Modern multi-component systems such as OPSIS are capable of measuring the majority of interesting
VOC compounds as individual components. Programs for direct measurement of the volatile
hydrocarbons (VOC) have also been developed. Initial tests have shown almost one hundred per cent
correlation with FID values. This means that in countries where non-explicit FID measurements are
required, an OPSIS or perhaps also some other type of multi-component analyser will preferably be used
at a later time.
8.5 Solid-state electrolytic systems
8.5.1 Zirconium dioxide
Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) has the characteristic of building up a differential voltage at varying partial
pressures and temperatures between 500 and 1000°C due to the flow of oxygen ions. This effect is used
for the purpose of oxygen measurement by exposing both sides of a ZrO2 membrane heated to about
800°C to varying oxygen concentrations (sample gas and reference gas). The supplied voltage is tapped
and measured on the two surfaces of the membrane with thin, porous platinum electrodes. The measured
potential difference increases exponentially with the oxygen concentration difference. To be noted is that
the indicated measured values are based on gas in a moist condition.
In addition to the advantageous zirconium dioxide based in-situ measuring instruments, there are also
extractive types that are hardly worth mentioning.
8.5.2 Other electrochemical measuring methods
Electrochemical measuring cells (EC cells) have the characteristic of supplying a voltage in the presence
of certain components proportional to the concentration. As they are small and lightweight and require
only a small number of peripheral devices, they are used mainly for portable measuring equipment (e.g.
flue gas controls), although they had proved unsuitable for use in the cement industry in the past.
However, in recent years, suitable EC cells have been developed that offer advantages mainly for oxygen
measurement. The oxygen sensor may not be used when the accompanying gas contains H2S, chlorine
or fluorine containing compounds, as well as heavy metals and aerosols. The guaranteed useful life is
three years. The many years of good experience prompted the majority of manufacturers to complement
the NDIR analysers with EC cells for oxygen measurement.
8.6 Multi-component measuring systems
Development in the field of analysis has witnessed significant advances. Thanks to modern
microprocessor technology, large computer capacities and high speeds, measuring methods are
employed that enable disturbing secondary effects to be compensated by calculation and new techniques
to be used, for example:
¨ Gas filter correlation technique (GFC)
¨ Fastfourier transformation technique (FTIR, FTUV) Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy
(DOAS)
¨ Laser Diode Spectrometer (LDS), etc.
Without going into details about the individual techniques, the following points are of importance:
¨ Multi-component analysers are less expensive for simple measuring tasks with more than one
component than individual analysers in all respects.
¨ When using alternative fuels, the necessity may arise that new, particularly critical pollutant
components have to be measured. This aspect justifies the use of flexible, programmable measuring
instruments.
The suitability of multi-component measuring instruments in the cement industry has been demonstrated
by many years of reliable use. In the following, three instruments will be presented that have proved
reliable and are state of the art. These are both extractive and in-situ measuring instruments.
8.6.1 Sick GM 31
Sick, Waldkirch (D), is a pioneer of the design and construction of in-situ measuring systems. The
instruments GM 21 for dust, and later, the GM 30 for NO SO2 and dust, have been used successfully for
more than ten years. The successor instrument, GM 31, differs considerably from its predecessors in two
ways:
¨ Dust can no longer be measured with this instrument.
The flanged design as a so-called lance instrument does not measure the whole channel cross-section.
The GM 31 is designed for the components SO2, NO, NH3 and NO. A maximum of three of these
components can also be measured simultaneously. Despite the lack of the benefit of dust measurement,
the GM 31 is a low-cost emission measuring instrument, which complemented with a dust measuring
instrument for systems not subject to particular requirements, meets all specific requirements.
8.6.2 OPSIS AR 620; ER 650
Within the Opsis measuring system, a light beam is projected on to a receiver and then passed through a
glass fibre cable to the Opsis analyser.
In emission measurement, the light beam or measuring path continues through the interior of a stack or
exhaust gas duct. Every gas absorbs light in known spectral regions of the total light spectrum, in a
manner that is characteristic of the respective gas. This enables the analyser to detect and measure
gases defined by the user. The results can be indicated in real-time or used for statistical and further
processing purposes.
Opsis uses a scientifically researched principle for the identification and measurement of concentrations
of various gases: Differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS) which is based on the Lambert-
Beer Law. It describes the correlation between the absorbed quantity of light and the number of molecules
in the light path..
As every gas has its own unmistakable absorption spectrum, the so-called “finger print”, the
concentrations of several different gases can be determined simultaneously in the light path. With the
DOAS method, a light beam is sent from a special light source - a Xenon high-pressure lamp - over a
specific path; by means of complex, computer-aided calculations, the light losses through molecular
absorption along the path are evaluated and analysed. The light of the Xenon lamp contains both the
visible spectrum as well as the ultra-violet and infrared wavelengths. The light is detected by a receiver
and passed on via a fibre optic cable to the analyser. This fibre optic cable makes it possible to install the
analyser at a sufficient distance from any harmful environmental influences at the measuring point.
The analyser consists, among other things, of a high-performance spectrometer, a computer and the
associated control unit. The spectrometer breaks down the light with the aid of an optical grid in narrow
wavelength bands. This optical grid can be adjusted for examining an optimal wavelength region.
The light is converted into electrical signals. A narrow slot moves at high speed across the detector; this
combines a large number of instantaneous values that provide an image of the spectrum in the relevant
wavelength region This scanning procedure is repeated a hundred times per second; the recorded
spectrums are added up in the multi-channel memory of the evaluation unit until their evaluation.
Evaluation is carried out individually for each wavelength region and is based on the comparison of
absorption curves. The respectively last recorded absorption spectrum is compared with a computer
calculated spectrum. The calculated spectrum consists of a summation of the reference spectrums for the
respective evaluation. The computer alters the size factors for each reference spectrum until optimal
correspondence is achieved, so that the various gas concentrations can be calculated with high accuracy.
In order to be able to measure a diverse range of gas components as possible, the light spectrums must
be divided into IR and UV. Measurement is similarly divided into a UV spectrometer and an IR
interferometer. Depending on the components to be measured, both or one of the two instruments is
used. Both instruments are usually necessary for comprehensive measurement of cement kiln exhaust
gases.
The system is approved as a recognised emission measuring instrument worldwide.
For calibration: In principle, each component must be calibrated at last once (as part of the
commissioning procedure). This takes place either via a convention method or by inserting cuvettes
circulated by test gas in the light path. In this simple way, the work involved in the normally usual
convention method is avoided. In two works of the ChB, these measuring instruments have proved highly
reliable and may be referred to as standard-setting technology.
8.6.3 LDS 3000 diode laser of AltOptronic (Sweden)
The design is basically comparable with OPSIS. However, as a light source, a semiconductor laser is
used. The LDS 3000 enables measurements to also be carried out in aggressive atmospheres with a high
dust content; this takes place in a way that the special features of the diode laser are utilised in
conjunction with a patented signal evaluation method. The instrument can distinguish whether a change
in transmission is due to dust or a change in the gases to be measured.
The LDS 300 can be used for measurements in atmospheres with a varying dust content up to 50g/m3,
depending on the size of the dust particles.
The light spectrum of the semiconductor laser can be adjusted to the absorption lines of the gas
component to be measured via temperature and current. This ensures that measurement can only take
place on a selected absorption line of the respective gas. The absorption lines of the remaining gas
components are on other wavelengths and do not influence measurement.
In the three years in which the LDS has been used, continuous tests were carried out in order to
determine the stability of the system. It emerged that no recalibration of either the zero or measuring
range were necessary.
The diode laser is located in the main unit, from where the laser beam is passed via an optical fibre to the
sensors at the measuring points. The distance between the instrument and the measuring point can be up
to 1000m. In the main unit, the laser beam is scattered in an optical distributor and so enables
simultaneous measurements on three different process measuring levels.
The short measuring time of the LDS 3000 provides direct information (t90<1 sec). This is made possible
by in-situ measurement, the high efficiency of the diode laser and appropriate signal evaluation. The short
resonance time depends on the number of measuring points, as the laser light is scattered in a fibre-optic
distributor and passed on to all measuring points simultaneously. Each measuring point can therefore
function independently of the other measuring channels.
Thanks to its unusually short reaction time, this measuring system was to be able to considerably improve
the CO monitoring of electrostatic filters. Measurement directly following WT would perhaps be possible,
since the manufacturer mentions that up to 50g/m3 dust has no influence. Unfortunately, the measuring
distance this value applies to is unavailable.
The following gases can be measured at the present time:

Gas ppm, at 1m mg/m3, at 1m

NH3 0.6 0.4
O2 200 260
H2O/NH3 200/1 150/0.7
H2O 0.3 0.2
Hcl 0.3 0.4
HF 0.3 0.4

Also other gas components can be measured on request.

The LDS 300 is one of the first laser analysers to appear on the market. At present, the price is (still)
relatively high. Development is absolutely in line with the trend and could also be used advantageously in
the cement industry in the near future.
8.6.4 Advance Cemas FTRI of Hartmann & Braun
Development has also continued with extractive measuring instruments. Hartmann and Braun builds in
addition to the maximum four-component measuring NDIR systems a modern FTIR (Fastfourier
Transformation Infrared) spectrometer, which has identical functions to those of the OPSIS, but is
designed as an extractive measuring instrument. It offers high selectivity as well as easy upgrading to
additional infrared components. Based on the measuring principle and automatic zero correction,
calibration is only necessary twice a year to maintain the smallest measuring ranges. All parts coming into
contact with the sample gas: Sampling system, sample gas preparation system and measuring cuvette
are heated to 100°C. The instrument features a self-diagnosis system and, as with all modern instruments
of this type, can be monitored by H & B Service and faults diagnosed via an integrated modem.
A German cement works has had good experience over a two-year operating period. The instrument is
overhauled twice a year as part of a maintenance contract. The weak point, the hot gas pump, is changed
each time or the diaphragms replaced as a precautionary measure.
9. RECORDING AND EVALUATION
Following the measured values on the basis of recording strip charts is advantageous for the general
assessment of a process sequence. In the area of emissions, the majority of countries require that
measured values are prepared according to certain, adapted criteria; hourly and daily average value,
criteria relating to the observance or non-observance of limiting values, etc. In such cases, digital
processing of the measured values is unavoidable.
9.1 Trend curves, recorders
For the purpose of clarity, not too many components should be recorded simultaneously. Strongly varying
signals must be appropriately dampened. Monitors or line recorders are better suited for this purpose than
dotted-line recorders. Scaling should correspond with the actual physical values. This applies particularly
to life-zero signals. For strip chart recorders, a paper feed rate of 20mm/h is standard.
9.2 Averaging computers
When lump fuel (e.g. tyres) is fed into the precalcining zone, the measured values at the kiln inlet are
subject to extreme fluctuations. Without damping of averaging, the signals are difficult to interpret. It has
emerged that sliding, linear averaging is easier to interpret than logarithmic damping, as individual values
are less important in linear averaging. The more favourable intervals for optimal averaging are between
10 and 15 minutes. Figures 15 and 16 show the behaviour of the signals of a 1500-7/d kiln with tyre feed
without averaging and with various averaging times.
Figure 15:

Figure 16:

9.3 Data logging

The interpretation of measured signals on the basis of trend curves is too rudimentary for sophisticated
tasks. Visual comparisons of such curves easily lead to misinterpretations. In connection with
optimisations or in the search for faults in the process, the signals from gas analysis must be processed
with other measured quantities from the system in the PC. A precondition for this is that the data can be
digitally acquired, logged and input into the PC. In plants with modern process control systems, this
precondition is usually met. Where this is not the case or as part of temporary measurements,
independent data logging systems should be used for data recording purposes.
9.4 Emission computers
The form of documentation of the measured emissions is prescribed in more and more countries. In
Europe, there are plants whose emission computers are connected via a data line to the authorities
concerned. The emission computers are normally designed for documentation of the following values:
¨ Half-hourly average values
¨ Hourly average values
¨ Daily average values
¨ Exceeded limiting values
Emission computers primarily meet the officially prescribed evaluation and documentation of emission
values. As the emission data also contains valuable process-relevant information, they are also useful for
the operator. Depending on the regulations of the country concerned, the valuation of emission values
can be taken over from internal process control systems.
10. MAINTENANCE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE
Reliable continuous operation of continuous gas analysis is dependent not only on the efficient design of
the measuring equipment, but also on systematic maintenance and repair. The maintenance work to be
carried out can be subdivided into the following categories.
¨ Condition check
¨ Adjustment check, cleaning
¨ Replacement of wearing parts
¨ Function test
Table 4 shows the maintenance intervals of a typical gas analyser. Maintenance must be carried out daily
(D), weekly (W), monthly (M), quarter yearly (QY), half yearly (HY) or yearly (Y). The time cycle of the
individual working procedures depends on the system-specific conditions and essentially on the age of
the measuring equipment. The work undertaken is noted in a logbook for practical purposes.
Table 4:Maintenance Intervals

Function Test
Replacement of worn parts
Adjustments, checks, cleaning works
Visual checks
Sample gas preparation:

Flow measurement (floating body instrument)

Suction pressure (Manometer)
Humidity in the sample gas pipes
Function check of the wetness monitor
Heated sample gas pipe temperature
Sample gas cooler condensate pump
Sample gas pump check and replace membrane
Tightness check
Cabinet air conditioning
Magnetic valves, function and tightness check
Cabinet cleaning

Probes:

Tightness check
Cooling
Filter change
Cleaning

Analyzers:

Indication plausibility
Adjustement
Filter change
Total overhaul

D
D
D

D
D

W
M

HY

QY

HY
QY

QY

3Y

HY
Y

HY
HY
QY

HY

Y
Y

QY

The operating conditions and type of construction of the equipment used varies considerably. Instructions
for maintenance and repairs must be adapted to local conditions and defined according to individual
experience.
10.1 Visual checks
The term visual check includes visual inspection of the equipment, indicating instruments, signal states
and checking heated parts for a hot or cold condition by trained and experienced personnel.
10.2 Adjustment checks, cleaning
This category includes adjustments, readjustments, etc., of conditions which can change for different
reasons.
10.2.1 Tightness checks
Vacuum check
The hose connections at the probe are sealed and the sample gas pump is started. The maximum
vacuum which the pump can produce must be noted when commissioning the measuring equipment. At
maximum vacuum, the part of the pump is closed and the pump stopped. The sample gas preparation
system up to the sample gas pump (suction area) is considered tight when the vacuum does not change
significantly for a period of 5 minutes following temperature equalisation.
Nitrogen check
See Chapter 7.7
10.3 Replacement of wearing parts
When replacing parts, it must be ensured that no leaks occur. According to experience, weak points in this
respect are filter housings and connecting points in the sample gas pipe. Suitable sealing material must
be available at all times, so that any type of seal, union, etc., can be replaced if there is the slightest
suspicion of a leak.
10.3.1 Sample gas pump
The sample gas pumps are usually diaphragm pumps, whose diaphragm and valve plates should be
replaced at least once a year.
The ball bearings of the motor and eccentric should be replaced every two years in continuous operation.
Standby sample gas pumps should be available.
10.3.2 Cleaning sintered metal and ceramic filters
Ceramic filters can be cleaned with diluted hydrochloric acid (1 part concentrated hydrochloric acid to 10
parts water). The filters must be placed in the acid for about 2 hours.
The parts must subsequently be flushed with water pressure from the inside to the outside, blown out with
compressed air and dried in a drying cabinet at about 100°C.
10.3.3 Fine filters
The filter element should be replaced at regular intervals, e.g. every three months. Fine filters with
condensate monitor are tested by moistening the filter element. The instrument must then respond.
10.3.4 Gas analysers
The gas analysers are tested with test gases or by means of the built-in calibrating cuvettes and
readjusted if necessary. For testing with gases, it must be ensured that the flow rate roughly corresponds
with the operating values. When selecting the test gases, the specifi-cations of the instrument
manufacturer must be observed. The gas analysers should be adjusted at regular intervals, at least every
two weeks. Adjustments must be noted in the maintenance report. If significant adjustments are required,
or the adjustment range limits (greater than 80% or less than 20%) are reached, the instrument must be
tested and inspected if necessary.
Wearing parts are, e.g. emitter, receiver, diaphragm motor.
For zero readjustment, nitrogen is normally used. With the exception of oxygen measurement, air can
also be used as a zero gas if the analysers are not too sensitive.
For sensitivity adjustment, a test gas is used that normally consists of the measuring components and
nitrogen. For compensation of the residual moisture, it is advantageous to feed the test gas upstream of
the sample gas cooler. The test gas concentration for sensitivity adjustment should be 80 to 90% of the
respective measuring range end value.
10.4 Function test
This term means that certain functions gas analysis are extensively tested, e.g. to ensure that the
detector in the fine filter responds if moisture is present and the sample gas pump is stopped.
10.5 Test gases
As initially mentioned, new gas analysers no longer require any test gases. The internal calibrating and
control options ensure that the accuracy is maintained over a long period (normally two years). After this
time, the analysers should be tested by the manufacturer’s service department and in particular the
internal control devices (calibrating cuvettes) checked. Test gases are available in various accuracy
classes according to particular directives, e.g. VDI 3490, sheet 2. Depending on the manufacturing and
analysis accuracy, distinction is made between three classes. The test gases are delivered with analysis
certificates that contain all essential data, such as:
¨ Measuring component and accompanying gas
¨ Test gas production method
¨ Measuring component concentration
¨ Relative error of this concentration
¨ Pressure of container filling
¨ Minimum application pressure
¨ Minimum and maximum storage temperature and maximum test gas storage time (limit date)
The concentration specified on the analysis certificate should be written in large and easily readable
letters on the test gas bottle.
The test gases are available in bottles of varying size. A 10 litre bottle (about 1100mm high, preferably of
aluminium) is normally sufficient for a two-year supply. The bottle pressure is between 100 and 200 bar,
depending on the gas composition. The main valve must be closed after each use. Test gas deliveries
max take time in certain regions; this should be taken into account when the bottle pressure starts to get
low.
10.5.1 Mixing test gases
Certain gas components can be combined as a mixture in a bottle. This possibility considerably facilitates
maintenance (fewer bottle transports and savings on gas bottle hire charges). Caution! New multi-
component gas analysers must only be tested with gas mixtures but not calibrated. Only individual
components in nitrogen are permitted for calibration.
With one exception, all standard components can be mixed together. This exception applies to oxygen
O2.
With oxygen analysers, the measuring range should be such that air can be used for calibration. Nitrogen
must always be used as a residual gas.
Example of a test gas mixture:

Component Chemical symbol Analyser measuring range Concentration in test gas

Sulphur dioxide SO2 3000ppm 2800ppm
Carbon monoxide CO 5% 0.45%
Nitrogen monoxide NO 2000ppm 1900ppm
Carbon dioxide CO2 as accompanying gas 25%
Nitrogen N2 as residual component 74.08%

The accuracy of the test gases reduces the more components are mixed. The number of mixing
components is thus limited.
Further, general information on test gases is provided in the annexed instructions.
10.6 Fault signals
Faults in the measuring instrument should be indicated by status signals, e.g.:
¨ Insufficient pressure in the suction pipe (blockage of the probe or gas path)
¨ Excessive pressure in the suction pipe (possible failure or leakage of a solenoid valve)
¨ Status signals of the analysers (failure of the analyser or electrical fault)
¨ Operating temperature of the sample gas cooler or failure of the sample gas cooler
¨ Operation of the condensate monitor (can indicate failure of the sample gas cooler or faulty
water-cooled probe
¨ Adjustment/operation changeover valve should automatically inform the control room that the
measuring equipment is being serviced and is therefore not ready for operation
¨ Minimum contact of flowmeter (insufficient sample gas)
Status signals for measuring equipment faults are checked for their plausibility by simulated operating
deviations.
10.7 Automated maintenance equipment
Theoretically, numerous maintenance procedures can be automated, e.g. automatic zero and limit range
adjustment, sample gas flow rate control, blowing out of the filter, etc. However, sample gases are media
that can give rise to various difficulties.
They have a corrosive effect, contain dust, must not be adulterated, can be very moist, etc., to mention
but a few of the unpleasant characteristics that make automation difficult.
Practice shows time and again that solenoid valves are the weak point within measuring equipment, so
that only valves of the best quality must be used for evaluation. The number of necessary solenoid valves
increases with an increasing degree of automation; due to their susceptibility to faults, the failure rate also
increases, so that the savings expected from automation are accordingly lost.
The same applies when a group of analysers is switched to two or more measuring points with the
intention of saving on expensive analysers. Apart from the operating difficulties, experience has shown
time and again that the saved investment costs are quickly absorbed by the corresponding maintenance
costs.
11. MEASURING ERRORS
The accuracy of gas analysers is often overestimated. The reason for gas analyses being relatively
inaccurate is not because of the analysers, as is often assumed. The following examples explain the most
important influences responsible for this.
11.1 Sample gas sampling
Significant measuring errors can occur as a result of non-representative sampling. In rotary kiln systems,
these occur particularly at the rotary kiln inlet and kiln inlet chamber measuring points. These measuring
errors occur mainly at the “filter” measuring points in coal pulverising mills.
11.2 Sample gas preparation
11.2.1 Sorption and chemical reaction
In the probe and sample gas preparation system, sample gas components can react with each other.
These reactions are reinforced by catalytic effects. Furthermore, reactions with dust or gas conducting
components are possible.
11.2.2 CO reduction
At high temperatures (above 600°C), CO is reduced to a large degree depending on the residence time.
This effect is the reason why only cooled probes may be used at temperatures above 500°C.
11.2.3 NO2 formation in the probe and sample gas preparation system
At temperatures of about 100°C and a concentration of 900ppm NO, the theoretical formation rate of NO2
is about 0.5ppm per second.
At lower temperatures and high gas residence times, this formation takes place more rapidly. The
indication delay of the NO measuring equipment should therefore be as short as possible.
11.2.4 SO2 reduction in the probe and sample gas pipe
Rust, dust deposits, non-ferrous metal parts (especially copper) in the gas path of the sample gas can
reduce SO2 up to 100%. For the sample gas pipes and all other gas conducting parts, Teflon, high-
alloyed steel or steel with special coating (e.g. PTFE) must therefore be used.
11.2.5 SO2 reduction of the filter dust of the sampling probe
SO2 reacts with the CaCO3 and CaO contained in the filter dust of the sampling probe with the formation
of CaSO4. With high dust contents in the process gas, measuring errors of up to 100% can occur. SO2
can therefore only be measured fairly accurately process gas with a low dust content. This applies in
particular to SO2 measurements in the rotary kiln inlet. Tests have shown that SO2 is initially indicated
only a short time after cleaning the filter. Within several minutes, the indication falls to zero again,
because the SO2 is absorbed in the dust building up in the filter.
11.2.6 Interaction with a liquid
Errors due to the solubility of the measuring component
The solubility of certain measuring components in water must be taken into account for wet sampling
probes. If the injector water of the wet sampling probe is not fed into the circuit, CO2, NO2 and SO2 can
go into solution, depending on the probe design.
Condensation of the water vapour which is separated as water in the sample gas cooler by the extractive
method, can also distort gas analysis. This is of particular significance for SO2 emission measurement
when low concentrations are present. The theoretical solubility of SO2 in water is low and could be
compensated by appropriate calibration. However, tests on cement kiln systems in a direct operating
mode have shown that measuring errors for SO2 are far above the theoretical distribution equilibrium
when SO2 reacts with other gas components such as NH3. An SO2 measuring device can be tested for
these errors by the sample gas being transferred from the sampling probe directly into concentrated
sulphuric acid (H2SO4) as the drying medium and not via the sample gas cooler. If distinct differences in
the measured value indication occur, a chemical reaction is most probably taking place in the sample gas
cooler.
Apart from SO2, NO2 also dissolves in the condensate of the sample gas cooler. However, since the
proportion of NO2 in the total NO concentration can be disregarded with proper sampling, the resulting
measuring error can normally be disregarded.
11.3 Volumetric errors due to the solubility of accompanying components
If accompanying components, e.g. CO2 go into solution, the concentration of the other measuring
components increases. The partial absorption of CO2 in an injector probe, increases, e.g. the O2
concentration.
11.4 Gas analysers
The accuracy of the gas analysers, provided they are in a perfect condition, is not an issue. If a gas
analyser is viewed as a whole, the analyser is the most accurate link in the measuring chain, with a few
exceptions. The analyser manufacturer’s specifications relating to cross-sensitivities, disturbing
components as well as temperature and pressure influences must be observed.
12. SPECIAL FUNCTIONS OF GAS ANALYSIS
12.1 CO monitoring for protection of electrostatic filter
If, for any reason, combustible gases should develop (ring fractures, faults in fuel dosage, etc.), in the kiln
system, there is a risk of a potentially explosive mixture forming in the electrostatic filter. High-voltage
discharges inside the filter cause sparks, which can lead to explosions in a gas atmosphere of appropriate
composition.
As a safety measure, the CO component of the gas discharging from the kiln system is measured. Once a
certain level is reached, the high-voltage should be switched off before the gases reach the electrostatic
filter. Measurement can initially take place in precalcining plants following complete combustion in the
auxiliary firing equipment, i.e. in the uppermost cyclone stage of the heat exchanger at the earliest. The
residence time of the gases from this point to the electrostatic filter is relatively short (several seconds)
and varies considerably from plant to plant (with or without cooling tower, combined/direct operation, etc.).
Filter monitors, whose effect alone depends on an adjustable maximum value, reassure responsible
personnel, however, they are not optimal solutions. On the one hand, unnecessary filter shutdowns are
initiated, on the other hand, it is not ensured that they would operate promptly in an emergency. A tried
and tested possibility of optimising this process is offered by sequential filter shutdown.
12.1.1 Basic concept of filter shutdown
Compared with the usual method, filter shutdown is optimised in two essential steps. The first step
consists of shutting down the filter chambers step by step. The second step consists of taking into
account a “reducing” or “increasing” CO trend.
The residence time of the gases in the electrostatic filter itself is used in order to further delay shutdown.
The filter chambers are shutdown at approximately five second intervals, depending on the size and gas
flow rate. However, as soon as CO measurement indicates a reducing trend, the shutdown cycle is
stopped.
12.1.2 Optimisation of CO measurement
The following measures must be taken in order to make CO measurement as efficient as possible:
¨ Short distance between sampling point and analyser
¨ Large sample gas volume (up to 300l/h setting;short delay time)
¨ Small volumes in gas path, particularly in sample gas cooler
¨ Select analyser with fast response time
¨ Use double measuring system for two-section WT systems
¨ Formation of logical signals “CO increasing” and “CO reducing”
12.1.3 Specifications
¨ Selection of measuring point according to Figure 1
¨ Gas preparation system appropriately adapted according to Figure 12
¨ NDIR gas analyser, measuring range 0 to 5%, CO with 3 adjustable maximum limiting values
¨ Arrangement of a shutdown procedure
With regard to the CO analyser, it should be noted that the same must have a high measuring range for
CO monitoring. It cannot be used simultaneously for continuous CO observation, as the normal CO
content is below the detection limit of this analyser. If CO is to be continuously measured, a second
analyser with a much lower measuring range of 5000ppm (0.5%) must be used.
12.1.4 Shutdown procedure
The procedure for shutdown of the individual filter chambers is shown on the basis of two examples in
Tables 5 and 6. The specified numerical values of the shutdown sequences and the CO level are only
guide values and must be adjusted to the respective plants.
For CO values below 10%, a risk of explosion is virtually excluded. However, the threshold values must
be set far lower, as the measurement reacts with delays despite optimal preconditions (dead time +
indication delay).
Table 5:Switching procedure, for a simple heat exchanger kiln with 3-changer filter

Table 6:Switch-off pocedure, for a two strings heat exchanger kiln with 3-chamber filter

12.1.5 Special devices

Sick GM 950
Via an in-situ sensor (zirconium dioxide) CO is measured at a high response rate and processed to a
shutdown command if required. As zirconium is fairly instable as a CO indicator, extractive supplied
semiconductor sensors correct any deviations.
The device is new and still in the testing phase. The currently available test results have been positive up
to now. The measuring method is relatively elaborate and the device gives the impression of being
somewhat complex. During the test, no functional disturbance occurred.
12.1.6 Laser analysers
In-situ laser analysers offer promising prospects as already mentioned in chapter 8.6.3. It is conceivable
that low-cost options will soon be available, as several measuring points can be served with the same
analyser, e.g. filter monitoring (upstream and downstream of the filter) and various points in the coal
pulverising mill.
12.2 Monitoring of coal pulverising mills
In the safety concept of coal pulverising mills, the monitoring of critical gas components covers only a
small part of the necessary equipment and measures. In addition, coal pulverising mills vary considerably
in their design, so that the application and function of gas analysis is always determined as part of the
entire plant.
12.2.1 Limiting values
In 1984, the following limiting values were listed by a working group of the Association of German Cement
Works (VDZ):

O2 content in moist exhaust gas downstream of the filter 14%

Temperature at mill inlet (coal moisture 12%) 400°C
Gas temperature downstream of mill upstream of filter 120°C
Gas temperature downstream of filter 120°C
Gas temperature upstream of filter minimum 30°C above dew point about 75°C
CO concentrate during filter shutdown 50ppm
Operation with hot gas generator 70ppm
Operation with kiln exhaust gase not practical
Pressure upstream of mill -1.5bar
Coal dust temperature 110°C
Air temperature of pneumatic transport 80°C

The limiting value for the oxygen concentration applies only to plants with inert gas operation. All other
limiting values are the same for the safe operation of inert and non-inert gas operated plants. For coal
pulverising mills heated with kiln exhaust gas, CO monitoring is not practical during operation, because
the gases from kiln operation contain up to 10 times more CO than the limiting value of 70ppm permits.
CO shutdowns of the electrostatic filter for the kiln, must be coupled with the filter of the coal pulverising
mill.
This information on the safety equipment of coal pulverising mills only contains the most important
information and is intended to draw attention to the complexity and importance of such plants.
13. CONVERSION FACTORS
Conversion of the gas components from volume to units of weight and vice versa, is often the cause of
errors in adjustment or interpretation. Such errors occur most frequently in connection with NO and NO2.
The problem with these NO components is that the instruments measure NO, but the emission must be
converted to NO2.
Furthermore, emissions are considered in weight-related units (mg/m3), but the instruments and the test
gases are often specified in volume-related units (e.g. ppm or %)

Conversion from [ppm] to mg/m3 Factor f = M

22.4

Whereby M = Mol mass (kg/kmol) of the gas components

Table 7

Components Converted to Mol mass [M] Factor (f) 1/f

CO CO 28.01 1.25 0.80
NO NO 30.01 1.34 0.75
NO NO2 46.01 2.85 0.49
NH3 NH3 17.03 0.76 1.32

Example
Given:
¨ Test gas with 8.75ppm NO
¨ NO analyser, measuring range 0-2000mg/m3NO
Required:
¨ Analyser indication at 875ppm
¨ How much NO2 in mg/m3 corresponds to the adjusted value 875ppmNO?
Solution:

¨ Analyser indication = 875 x 1.34 = 1172mg/m3 NO

¨ Emission value NO2= 875 x 2.05 = 1794mg/m3 NO2
¨ or from mg/m3 NO to mg/m3 NO2 1172 x 1.53 = 1794mg/m3 NO2

14. LITERATURE
1) Verein Deutscher Zementwerke (VDZ) (Association of German Cement Works):
2) Continuous Gas Analysis in Cement Works, Notice VT9, June 1990
3) B. Thier: Safe Operation of Coal Pulverising Mills. ZKG 4/1984, page 163
4) M. Ascherfeld and W. Fabinski Multi-component Analyser for Oxygen and Infrared Active Gases.
tm Technisches Messen 59 (1991) Volume 5
5) H.G. Loos, Erlangen: A New Operational Compact Gas Sampling Device for Cement Rotary
Kilns. ZKG NO. 6/1987
6) M. Birrer, H. Nyffenegger: Gas Sampling at the Kiln Inlet with Improved Probe.
7) “Holderbank” NEWS 6/90
8) K. Utzinger: Reduction of Dust Emissions on Startup and CO Shutdowns of the Electrostatic Filter
at the Rekingen Works. “Holderbank NEWS 7/8 (1986)
9) Bronkhurst High-Tech B.V., Ruurlo, Holland: Operating Manual for Mass Flowmeters and
Controllers for Gases
10) KNF Neuberger (Switzerland) AG, CH 8362 Balterswil: Prospectus and Data Sheet for
Diaphragm Compressors and Vacuum Pumps
11) Annette Schröck: Preparation of Decision-making Criteria for Plant Operators for Purchasing an
Emission Measuring Instrument. Thesis SS 1992 (available from Messrs Sick)
1)

C05 - High Level Control

HIGH LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEMS

U. Haberstich
PT 98/14350/E (Revision of PT 94/4191/E)
1. Introduction
2. Evolution of HLC Systems
3. Specific Requirements of a HLC System
4. Process Optimization with HLC
5. Principles of Operation
6. Benefits and Keys of Success
7. How to justify an investment in HLC
8. Conclusion
9. References
10. Annex

Summary
For more than 30 years, the cement industry has been exploring computer-based techniques to control
and optimize the operation of cement kilns. The major reasons behind these endeavours are clinker
uniformity, savings in energy consumption, increase in production, savings in refractory consumption and
NOx reduction. Basically, cement kilns are difficult to control because of their non-linear, multivariable,
behaviour and the poor quality of the available process signals. After several trials to describe the burning
process with mathematical models a new approach in cement kiln control was investigated in 1980.
Operator control strategies were studied, and a detailed record of the operator’s behaviour was made
while controlling the kiln. These “fuzzy” rules can imitate multivariable control actions and can combine
information from variables to identify the kiln conditions. Within the Holcim group, specific requirements of
such a High Level Control (HLC) system was defined to compare the several suppliers. The system from
ABB LINKman is the most powerful real-time expert system with very advanced features and a high user-
friendliness. A standard implementation plan was made to reach a successful application of the system.
The preparatory work in the plant must be carried out according to the recommendations made during the
pre-project study. The identified process problems have to be solved. To achieve the “Best Operator
Performance” the detailed and rigorous monitoring of the HLC performance is obviously essential at this
stage. The optimization of the process with respect to product quality and related process factors, on a
long-term basis, is the key to the ultimate level of savings arising from the HLC application. It is this
optimization that can give the plant additional benefits over and above those arising from the average
operator to „Best Operator Performance“. The experience shows that substantial benefits like higher kiln
output, lower heat consumption, longer refractory life, lower NOx emissions and lower standard deviation
of the key variables can be expected from HLC systems, if they are properly implemented and used. The
experience shows that the payback of 1 to 2 years is realistic, when considering only the investment costs
in the HLC system.
1. INTRODUCTION
For more than 30 years, the cement industry has been exploring computer-based techniques to control
and optimize the operation of cement kilns. The major reasons behind these endavors are clinker
uniformity, savings in energy consumption, increase in production, savings in refractory consumption,
NOx reduction (Fig. 1 + 2, Annexes 1 + 2). The still high energy consumption of the cement
manufacturing process, the stringent requirements on cement quality and the environmental aspects
which are leading the governments to apply severe legislation regarding the emissions.
The classical process automation approach, consisting in defining a mathematical model of the process,
led to only a very few successful kiln control applications. The improvement in the performance of
hardware equipment, combined with the advent of artificial intelligence, is leading to a major step toward
kiln control and optimization.
2. EVOLUTION OF HLC SYSTEMS
Basically cement kilns are difficult to control because of their non-linear, multivariable, behaviour and the
poor quality of the available process signals. The control is then usually limited to a few secondary
measurement loops, whereas the control of the primary parameters and the operating conditions are the
responsibility of the kiln operators.
The first applied techniques were based on empirical or mathematical models. Although successful in
simulating the kiln operation, these techniques were generally based on too many assumptions and used
very complex theoretical models. For this reason they were not applicable and could not be extended to a
broad selection of kilns. Other approaches such as the "hill climbing" techniques (Young et al, 1971) or
statistical identification combined with optimal controller design by the state space method (Otomo et al,
1972) was also used but did not achieve any significant success.
Since the mid-seventies, a new approach based on the analysis of the human decision making in cement
kiln control has been investigated (Umbers and King, 1980). Operator control strategies were studied, and
a detailed record of the operator's behaviour was made while controlling the kiln. Basically this approach
rests upon the concept of fuzzy logic introduced by Prof. L. Zadeh in 1965. The basic operator control
rules were already prescribed by Peray and Waddell (1972). These "fuzzy" rules can imitate multivariable
control actions and can combine information from variables, they work by identifying the kiln conditions
and prescribing suitable corrective actions.
FL Smidth supplied the first commercially available kiln control system based on fuzzy logic in 1980. The
concept of High Level Control was introduced at that time and is used to refer to systems, which provide
not only supervisory control but also optimising control. Since then, many systems have been developed
and are marketed. Some are using the concept of fuzzy logic and are called rule-based systems or are
based on expert system shells. Others are more conventional and apply PID control or adaptive-
predictive controllers. The penetration of HLC in the cement industry has been very intensive over the last
decade, about 300 applications have been reported in kiln control applications.
3. SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS OF A HLC SYSTEM
The following basic requirements were specified:
1) The provision of a high degree of user-friendliness; this aspect is extremely important, since kiln
control strategy needs to be adapted when process conditions change. The maintenance of the
application control strategy must be easy for the plant engineers to carry out.
2) The concept of “autopilot” as used in the previous version of the supplier’s HLC system must be
included to make it possible for the operator to switch the system on-line or off-line at any time without
disturbing the process.
3) The use of a toolkit based on the G2 expert system shell which provides advanced features such
as real-time facility, graphical interface and object-oriented programming; the toolkit, which is a software
layer between G2 and the HLC applications, is the support for developing and implementing control
strategies without programming skills.
4) The possibility for having multiple applications on the same system, typically one kiln, one cooler,
mills and the kiln simulator.
5) The provision of a system incorporating tools and facilities allowing for consistent process
optimization.
6) Very helpful for the introduction is the inclusion of a standard interface between the HLC system
and the tailor-made kiln simulator in order to provide a training platform for the operators; this platform
would allow for the simulation of kiln upsets and disturbances. The plant engineer would thus be able to
develop and test new strategies before real implementation in the actual plant application. Figure 3
(Annex 3) shows a typical configuration.
7) The standardisation of the control strategies, in order to shorten commissioning time and make
exchange of experience easier between different users. It is important to have a standardised way of both
configuring and maintaining the control strategies.
Within the Holcim Group LINKman from ABB LINKman Systems Ltd, London, is applied. LINKman
Graphic, the new version of this HLC system, is based on G2, a very powerful real-time expert system
shell from Gensym Corp. LINKman Graphic is particularly user-friendly and offers very advanced features
[4].
4. PROCESS OPTIMIZATION WITH HLC
As mentioned above, process optimization is the major target to be achieved. There are typically three
phases associated with our concept of successful application. See also [3]. These phases are outlined
below.
Phase 1: Plant Preparation
The preparatory work in the plant must be carried out according to the recommendations made during the
pre-project study.
Phase 2: Achievement of „Best Operator Performance“
Very often bottlenecks are detected, process problems are identified and experience is gained in the
period immediately following HLC implementation. Detailed and rigorous monitoring of the HLC
performance is obviously essential at this stage. The identified problems then have to be addressed
during the secondary commissioning. Attempts must be made to achieve the highest possible run time of
the HLC system, typically 90 % or more, using an adequate and consistent control strategy. At this stage,
the HLC is expected to operate with the same performance as the best operator with respect to
production output, product quality, heat consumption, etc. The associated benefits depend on the size of
the plant and the performance previously achieved in manual operation. This phase, based on the best
operator know-how, can be considered as the foundation of the whole HLC project.
Phase 3: Process Optimization
The optimization of the process with respect to product quality and related process factors, on a long-term
basis, is the key to the ultimate level of savings arising from the HLC application. It is this optimization that
can give the plant additional benefits over and above those arising from the average operator to „Best
Operator Performance“. Process optimization mainly involves the plant technical staff. It requires an
evaluation of the process performance, an estimation of the potential savings, which can be achieved,
and an assessment of the control strategy performance. Since plant conditions change in respect to raw
material quality, availability of alternative fuels, product quality requirements, etc., process optimization
must be considered as a permanent task.

5. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
Basically, in the case of a conventional preheater kiln, HLC manages the control of the following
parameters:
¨ the kiln feed rate
¨ the kiln speed
¨ the IDF speed (or damper position)
¨ the fuel to the kiln burner
In case of a precalciner installation, the precalciner fuel and the position of the tertiary air damper (AS
system) have also to be controlled automatically.
The HLC system needs to access the process relevant data, such as preheater temperatures and
pressures, the gas composition, the kiln amperage, the burning zone temperature, etc.
The principles of kiln control operation depend on the HLC system used. The principles used in LINKman
are hereafter presented.
LINKman
LINKman works in two basic modes:
“Normal Actions” and “Interrupt Actions”.
The approach used in LINKman is sequential. In a first phase, a specific logic checks whether the kiln is
in normal operation or in upset situation.

Normal Actions
If the kiln is in normal condition, then the parameters BZT, OX and BET are calculated.
¨ BZT (Burning Zone Temperature) represents the clinker burning degree, calculated out of NOx,
Kiln Amps, and zone temperature.
¨ OX, the draught index, based on the gas composition at kiln inlet.
¨ BET (Bet End Temperature): the degree of preparation of the material when entering the kiln.
LINKman selects then one of 4 ruleblocks to determine the required setpoint changes, depending on:
¨ the deviation between the actual feed rate and the desired target,
¨ the spare draught capacity,
¨ The process conditions.

Rule Block Actions on

GeneralFeed, Fuel, Fan
Top-feed Fuel, Fan
Top-damp Feed, Fuel
Stable Fuel

The changes calculated using the ruleblocks are scaled to physical changes. However these changes are
merely based on the present kiln conditions. Specific actions are then carried out, if required, to take into
account the previous actions and the process dynamics, they are included in the "Post-Rule Block
Processing" module.

Interrupt Actions
If a kiln-upset condition is detected, a dedicated control action is applied. As these actions have a higher
priority than the normal actions, they are called interrupt actions.

Examples:

Break-Action if the kiln is in unstable conditions for a longer period

Ring-Action if a ring fall is detected
Hot-Action if the kiln gets very hot
CO-Action if a high amount of CO is detected

6. BENEFITS AND KEYS OF SUCCESS

The experience shows that substantial benefits can be expected from HLC systems if they are properly
implemented and used. The following table shows typical ranges of quantifiable benefits:

Item Typical Range

Kiln output + [0 - 5 %]
Heat Consumption - [0 - 5 %]
Refractory Life + [0 - 30 %]
Long-term clinker strength + [0 - 5 %]
Electrical energy for clinker grinding - [0 - 10 % ]
NOx emissions - [0 - 30 %]
Number of kiln stops - [0 - 30 %]
Standard deviation of key variables - [0 - 50 %]
In addition, the following qualitative benefits have to be mentioned:
¨ The working conditions of the operators are greatly enhanced. As the computer handles the
routine tasks, the operator can concentrate on more important matters.
¨ Process analysis and optimization are made more easily since opportunities for testing new
control strategies and new ideas are available, assuming that the HLC is user-friendly enough.
¨ The use of HLC imposes to keep the instrumentation in a good operating state.
The keys of success with HLC systems are:
¨ An adequate and reliable instrumentation (sensors, actuators, PID controllers, etc.)
¨ A stable and uniform raw mix chemistry
¨ An optimized combustion
¨ A highly motivated personnel
¨ A follow-up of the performance of the system
7. HOW TO JUSTIFY AN INVESTMENT IN HLC
In order to justify an investment in HLC, it is important to estimate the potential cumulative savings over
the lifetime of the system. Figure 4 (Annex 4) gives an illustration of these savings over a period of ten
years.
In this figure, curves 1, 1a and 1b indicate the cumulative savings with HLC when achieving „Best
Operator Performance“. If the HLC has a robust strategy and is permanently adapted to the evolution of
the burning process, then the cumulative savings will increase consistently according to curve 1.
However, if the system is not properly maintained or not adjusted to changing process conditions, sooner
or later it will stop functioning and the savings will obviously stop. These situations can take place very
shortly after installation (curve 1a) or later on (curve 1b).
Curve 2 illustrates the cumulative savings, which can be realized in cases where the HLC is used as a
tool for permanent process optimization. These extra savings are on top of the savings indicated on curve
1. The benefits resulting from this optimization can be achieved after reaching an HLC run time of more
than 90 %. The savings through optimization can increase even more if the original HLC application is
extended to other plant areas such as raw milling, stack gas flow control or integration of an efficient raw
mix control strategy.
To summarize, simply by achieving „Best Operator Performance“, the payback is generally less than two
years (considering only the investment in HLC). Furthermore, if the HLC is used efficiently as a
permanent optimization tool, then the cumulative savings will increase even more.
The experience shows that a payback of 1 to 2 years is realistic, when considering only the investment
costs in the HLC system.
8. CONCLUSION
Over the last decade, HLC systems have penetrated the cement industry. About 300 applications have
been reported which represents roughly 15 % of the cement manufacturing installations.
There is no doubt that the proper implementation and use of a HLC system, although requiring relatively
low investment costs, provide significant enhancements in terms of productivity.
However it is of the utmost importance to select the adequate system, that means a system which has
proven to be efficient and performant in the long term.
It must be remembered that the success of any HLC system depends upon:
¨ the quality of the instrumentation
¨ the raw meal preparation
¨ the quality of the combustion system
¨ the motivation of the works’ personnel and the acceptance of the system by the operators
9. REFERENCES
1) Bertrand I Automatic control of kilns and mills by expert systems.
World Cement, July 1991.
2) Bauer C., G. Jäger, J. Patzer and K.H. Walen
Cost-effective clinker production with the PYROEXPERT optimization system.
Zement, Kalk, Gips Nr. 4/1993.
3) Hasler R. and E.A. Dekkiche
Experience in kiln optimization with LINKman Graphic.
IEEE Cement Industry Technical Conference, Seattle 1994.
4) Haspel D. and W. Henderson
A new generation of process optimization systems.
International Cement Review, June 1993.
5) Maynard B. Hall
Kiln stabilization and control - A COMDALE/C expert system approach.
IEEE Cement Industry Technical Conference, Toronto 1993.
6) Mende N.
Erfahrungen mit dem Ofenführungssystem KCS an einer grossen Drehofenanlage in Südkorea.
Zement-Kalk-Gips, Nr. 2/1993.
7) Ostergaard J.J.
FUZZY II - The new generation of high level control
Zement-Kalk-Gips, Nr. 11/1990.
8) Otomo T., T. Nakagawa and H. Akaike
Statistical approach to computer control of cement rotary kilns.
Automatica, Vol. 8, 1972.
9) Ruiz Navarro M., J.M. Martín-Sánchez and C. Corzo Carreno
Minimizing energy consumption in kilns by the SCAP system.
World Cement, March 1993.
10) Umbers I.G., P.J. King
An analysis of human decision-making in cement kiln control and the implications for automation.
Int. J. Man-Machine Studies, Nr. 12, 1980.
11) Young S.C.K., K.L. Todd and K.H. Lau
On-line optimization of rotary cement kilns.
3rd IFAC/IFIP Intern. Conf. on Digital Computer Appl. to Process Control. Helsinki 1971.
10. ANNEX

Figure 1: Example of Improved Clinker Uniformity

Figure 2: Example of Improved Heat Consumption

Figure 3: Operator Training

Figure 4: Lifetime Benefits of Process Optimization with HLC

Field Preparation for High Level Control - Process Preview

U. Haberstich
PT 99/14495/E
1. Introduction
2. Detailed Scope of work
2.1 Definition of responsibilities and meetings
2.2 Data collection
2.3 Combustion check
2.4 Definition of the strategy
2.5 Control loops
2.6 Instrumentation check
3. Appendix 1
3.1 KILN MANUFACTURING DATA

Summary and conclusion:

The introduction of a High-Level Control System requires a proper preparation of the plant to ensure an
efficient and successful implementation and commissioning. For that purpose a so-called preproject from
HMC is proposed in order to disclose eventual difficulties or even disability of the plant to implement such
a system. A team of the Corporate Technical Services and Holcim Corporate Engineering will help the
plant to achieve the best preparation.
HES will check the possibilities to connect the LINKman system to the installed plant control system and
the sensitivity of measuring and control devices.
HMC/PT will check the quality aspects and the kiln behavior in order to disclose eventual process
problems.

The main items of the LINKman preproject are:

¨ Kick-off meeting with explanation of the LINKman system and the procedure to implement it.
¨ Collection of all available plant data (Flow-sheets, technical descriptions of the installation).
¨ Collection of all available process data (Log-sheets, quality data, flow-sheets and trends).
¨ Combustion check.
¨ Description of the used strategy and rules for manual kiln and cooler control (which parameters
were used) and a description of the most common kiln and cooler problems (dusty clinker, coating falls,
etc.).
¨ Control of the adjustments of the most important control loops.
¨ Instrumentation check (type, position, sensitivity).
¨ Definition of the preparatory work to be done before the LINKman implementation.
¨ Conclusion meeting with the definition of the implementation schedule (ordering and
commissioning). Definition of the project leader and of the responsible for the LINKman Hardware and
Software (Strategy).
1. INTRODUCTION
The introduction of a kiln High-Level Control System like LINKman requires several preparatory works by
the plant to ensure an efficient and successful implementation. The capability of the kiln to be driven by
an automatic system has to be ensured by a pre-project. As in every project, the organization has to be
determined and responsibles have to be nominated.
The LINKman pre-project has to cover mainly the following capability checks of the kiln system:
¨ Disclosing eventual process problems
¨ Defining an adequate kiln and cooler control strategy
¨ Checking the instrumentation
¨ Checking the sensitivity of the measuring and control devices (HES)
¨ Defining the connection of the LINKman system to the installed plant control system (HES).
2. DETAILED SCOPE OF WORK
2.1 Definition of responsibilities and meetings
A kick-off meeting has to be organized at the beginning of the pre-project. Experience has shown that a
more detailed explication of the LINKman system avoids confusions. The implementation schedule
(ordering and commissioning) has to be defined as well as the project leader and the responsibles for the
LINKman Hardware and Software (Strategy).
The responsible for the Hardware issues is usually an electrical engineer with knowledge of the plant
control system and the automatic control loops.
The responsible of the Software (strategy) needs detailed knowledge about the burning process and kiln
control. Therefore, a process engineer is strongly recommended. He will be the future “LINKman –
Champion” and doing all further modifications of the strategy after the commissioning.
Before the implementation also the exact position of the Hardware has to be defined (location of the
operator- and engineer-station in the control room and location of the LINKman cabinet).
After finishing the study, all requirements will be discussed during the conclusion meeting at the end of
the visit. The preparatory work has to be terminated until the first commissioning of ABB. If stronger
process problems were detected, it may be recommended to postpone the order of the system.
2.2 Data collection
To prepare the system before delivering, ABB needs sufficient data about the plant. Therefore, a
collection of all available plant data is required. This contains mainly:
Plant descriptions:
¨ Flow-sheet of the kiln system
¨ Flow-sheet of the plant control system (PLC-System)
¨ Kiln manufacturing data (see also Appendix 1)
¨ Layout of the control room (to place the Hardware and pre-configure the cabling)
¨ List of available control loops
¨ Instrumentation list.

Process data
¨ (During 1 week of representative production)
¨ Quality data of Raw meal, Hot meal and Clinker
¨ Operator log-sheets
¨ Statistical distribution of the freelime.

For 24 hours
¨ 1-day-trend of all important process values of that week (burning zone temperature, NOx, Amps,
Calciner temperature, Preheater exit temperature, etc.)

Additional information
¨ Printout of all available kiln process screens (only 1 momentary printout)
¨ Short description of the used strategy and rules for manual kiln and cooler control (which
parameters were used). Is there a correlation between the clinker quality and some kiln control
parameters (NOx, kiln amps, burning zone temperature)?
2.3 Combustion check
Process problems strongly influence the kiln behavior. Incomplete combustion leads to enhanced
Alkali/Sulfur cycles within the kiln system. If the molar Alkali/Sulfur ratio of the total input of Alkalis and
Sulfur is within the desirable range (0.8 to 1.5), minor encrustation and Sulfur ring formation take place.
To avoid a bad or wrong implemented strategy and bad availability of the LINKman system, a combustion
check is required.
A combustion check contains:
¨ Description and analysis of all fuel at the main firing
¨ Gas analysis data at kiln inlet (O2, CO, NOx)
¨ Assessment of sintering zone, coating and the burner position
¨ Alkali/Sulfur balance. For this, sufficient samples of the raw meal, hot meal and clinker have to be
taken and analyzed.
¨ Burner check (Primary air amount, fuel oil pressure, exit velocities, pressure fluctuations, etc.)
¨ Description and analysis of all fuels at the secondary firing
¨ Gas analysis data at preheater exit (O2, CO, NOx)
2.4 Definition of the strategy
LINKman offers standard strategies for almost every kiln type. One of those strategies will be pre-
configured before delivery and modified on site during the commissioning.
To ensure a proper predefinition of the kiln and cooler control strategy, a description of the current used
strategy and the rules for manual kiln and cooler control is required.
Kiln Control:
Define the most important parameters estimating the burning zone temperature, the kiln inlet temperature
and the oxygen level.
A description of the most common kiln problems (dusty clinker, coating falls, etc.) will help defining
required special actions.
Cooler Control:
Define the most important parameters to ensure proper clinker cooling and high efficiency.
A description of the most common cooler problems (kiln rushes, red rivers, hot plates, etc.) will help
defining required special actions.
2.5 Control loops
For a proper working High Level Control System, the in the PLC installed control loops have to work
properly and smoothly. Therefore, the most important loops (kiln hood pressure control, under grate
pressure control, etc.) have to be revised and adjusted, if required. A further possibility is the complete
removing of a loop from the PLC in order to add it into the LINKman strategy or to switch it off during
LINKman control.
2.6 Instrumentation check
The instrumentation is the most important point for an automatic kiln control. The signals have to be
convenient and reliable. Therefore, the type and position of the most important sensors have to be
revised and corrected if required. Especially the gas analyzers need periodic calibrations and
maintenance inspections.
For a list with required process signals and its position see Report HES 98/6347/E.
3. APPENDIX 1
3.1 KILN MANUFACTURING DATA

Plant
Kiln No. :
Supplier:
Nominal Capacity:
Max. Capacity:
Type of fuels :

Heat Consumption:
Length:
Diameter:
Slope: ……………………
……………………
…………………… (t/d)
…………………… (t/d)
……………………
……………………
……………………
……………………
……………………
……………………
…………………… (kJ/kg)
…………………… (m)
…………………… (m)
…………………… (%)
Preheater: Number of strings:
Number of stages: ……………………
……………………
Precalciner: Type:
Type of fuels:

% Fuel PC / Kiln: ……………………

……………………
……………………
……………………
……………………
……………………
……………………
Burner Type:
% Primary air: ……………………
……………………
Cooler Type:
Number of grates:
Number of fans:
Width x length: ……………………
……………………
……………………
……………………

Field Preparation for High Level Control

F. Fehr
HES 98/6347/E

1. Input Signals For High Level Control

1.1 Checklist: Assignment of Input Signals
1.2 Example of a Checklist
2. Output Signals For High Level Control
2.1 Primary Control Loops, Actuators
2.2 Example of a check list 1
2.3 Example of a check list 2
3. Interface To Process Control System
3.1 Data Exchange
3.2 Security
4. Examples Of Most Important Inputs In Respect Of The Location And Calibration Of The
Transmitter
4.1 General
4.1.1 Definition:
4.1.2 Location of the Sensor
4.1.3 Calibration of the Transmitter
4.2 Examples
4.2.1 Temperature
4.2.2 Pressure
4.2.3 Speed
4.2.4 Current
4.2.5 Power/Energy

1. INPUT SIGNALS FOR HIGH LEVEL CONTROL

The Input Signals of the High Level Control system (HLC) are the measured variables of the controlled
systems (kiln, cooler, mill). In the following a selection of the normally used input signals is indicated.

Selection of Input Signals

Wet kiln
¨ Sintering zone temperature (Pyrometer)
¨ Secondary air temperature (if available)
¨ Amps of kiln drive (Torque)
¨ O2/CO/NOx at kiln inlet
¨ Temperature at chain zone
¨ Backend temperature
¨ Backend pressure
¨ Kiln hood pressure
¨ Any other significant process variable used by the kiln operators

Preheater kiln
¨ Sintering zone temperature (Pyrometer)
¨ Secondary air temperature (if available)
¨ Amps of kiln drive (Torque)
¨ NOx at kiln inlet or at preheater exit
¨ O2/CO at kiln inlet
¨ Kiln inlet temperature
¨ Kiln inlet pressure
¨ Kiln hood pressure
¨ Preheater exit temperature or second stage from top
¨ Preheater exit pressure
¨ O2/CO at preheater exit
¨ Any other significant process variable used by the kiln operators
Precalciner kiln
¨ Basically the same signals as for preheater kilns, but additionally:
¨ NOx at kiln inlet
¨ Temperature exit lowest cyclone stage
¨ Tertiary air temperature

Lepol kiln
¨ Sintering zone temperature (Pyrometer)
¨ Secondary air temperature (if available)
¨ Amps of kiln drive (Torque)
¨ O2/CO/NOx at kiln inlet
¨ Temperature in hot chamber of Lepol grate (Pyrometer or Thermometer)
¨ CO/O2 after intermediate fan
¨ Temperature intermediate fan
¨ Pressure in hot chamber above grate
¨ Pressure in hot chamber underneath grate
¨ Kiln hood pressure
¨ Any other significant process variable used by the kiln operators

Clinker cooler
¨ Air rates of the individual fresh air fans
¨ Pressures of chambers 1, 2, 3
¨ Exhaust air temperature
¨ Temperature of cooler plates
¨ Middle air temperature (if any)

Cement mill
¨ KW of mill motor
¨ KW of bucket elevator
¨ Rate of separator returns (t/h)
¨ Noise level by electronic ear
¨ Temperature/pressure at mill inlet and outlet
¨ Production rate, e.g. belt weigher, pressure of pneumatic transport, etc.

1.1 Checklist: Assignment of Input Signals

INPUT SIGNALS Min. Max. Target

Name of Signal, Value
Sensor:
Location:
Significance:
Stability:
Comment:
Name of Signal, Value
Sensor:
Location:
Significance:
Stability:
Comment:
Name of Signal, Value
Sensor:
Location:
Significance:
Stability:
Comment:
Name of Signal, Value
Sensor:
Location:
Significance:
Stability:
Comment:
Name of Signal, Value
Sensor:
Location:
Significance:
Stability:
Comment:

1.2 Example of a Checklist

INPUT SIGNALS Min. Max. Target

1) Secondary air tempe rature 650°C 1040°F 815°C
1200°F 1900°F 1500°F

Sensor: o.k.
Location: o.k.
Significance: Indication is sensitive. Tendency is o.k.
Stability: o.k.
Comment: Measuring equipment is adequate. Useful
signal for LINKman II. Upper/lower limits are
exceeded, therefore the limits have to be
adjusted.
2) Cooler exhaust air temperature 95°C 230°C 150-175°C
200°F 450°F 300-350°F
Sensor: o.k.
Location: o.k.
Significance: not looked at
Stability not stable due to unstable cooler operation.
Comment: Measuring equipment is adequate.
3) Clinker temperature - -
Sensor: o.k.
Location: Existing location gives no representative
signal.
 Significance: not looked at
Stability: not looked at
Comment: As a better location is not available, this
temperature should not be considered for auto-
matic control.
4) Grate speeds of cooler - -
Sensor: - -
Location: -
Significance: -
Stability: -
Comment: unproblematic signal.

2. OUTPUT SIGNALS FOR HIGH LEVEL CONTROL

2.1 Primary Control Loops, Actuators
Basically all High Level Control output signals go as setpoints to primary control loops which then drive
actuators.
Example:
Figure 1:

The behaviour of the variable controlled by the primary loop is influenced by the following factors:
¨ repeatability of the sensor (specifications)
¨ absolute accuracy of sensor (calibration)
¨ type of actuator: continuous, step-wise
¨ tuning of PID controller
¨ deadband to protect actuator
¨ disturbances from outside (e.g. flushing material)
For HLC the primary loops have to fulfil the following criterias:
1) Tolerable deviation from setpoint
Figure 2:

D x: max. tolerable deviation during a time > D t

D x and D t depend upon what is controlled by the primary loop (e.g. coal, slurry to a wet kiln)
2) Sensitivity of setpoint change
What is the minimum applicable setpoint change that causes a reaction of the controlled variable?
Figure 2:

The criterias which have to be fulfilled are given in the following list for every type of primary loop. Most of
the loops are not critical so that no criterias for the tolerable deviation are given:
Table 1

Tolerable Deviation from Setpoint Sensitivity of Setpoint Change

x[% of Span] t [min] SPmin [% of Span]
Cooler
Volume rate fresh air fans
- speed
- damper position
Kiln hood pressure
- speed
- damper position
Grate speed ratio
Under grate pressure
-
-

-
-
-
-

-
-

-
-
-
-

0.5%
1.0%

0.5%
1.0%
1.0%
1.0%
Kiln
Kiln fan
- fan speed
- damper position
Kiln drive
Fuel rates
Feed: wet
preheater
Dust insufflat. rate
Tertiary air dampers
Intermed. fan (Lepol)
Lepol grate speed
Water to granulator

-
-
-
3%
3%
3%
10%
-
-
-
-

-
-
-
0.5
10.0
2.0
0.5
-
-
-
-

0.5%
1.0%
0.5%
0.5%
0.5%
0.5%
1.0%
1.0%
0.5%
1.0%
1.0%

Mill
Mill feed
Separator speed
Cooling air fan
- fan speed
- damper position
Water injection

3%
-
-
-
-
-
0.5
-
-
-
-
-
1.0%
0.5%

0.5%
1.0%
1.0%

2.2 Example of a check list 1

PID Loop: Kiln drive

HAC Code 0% to 100% Unit

Setpoint: ..... ..... to ..... [ ]
Actual Value: ..... ..... to ..... [ ]
Manipulated Variable:
(actuator) ..... ..... to ..... [ ]
Visual check of actuator:
Tuned:

Parameters: KP = ....Tl = .... [ ] TD = .... [ ]

Max. deviation:
during: Delta x =
Delta t = ....
.... [ % of span ]
[ min ]
Sensitivity: SPmin = .... [ % of span ]

Remarks:

PID Loop: Precalciner fuel rate

HAC Code 0% to 100% Unit

Setpoint: ..... ..... to ..... [ ]
Actual Value: ..... ..... to ..... [ ]
Manipulated Variable:
(actuator) ..... ..... to ..... [ ]

Visual check of actuator:

Tuned:

PID Parameters: Kp = .... Tl = .... [ ] TD = .... [ ]

Max. deviation:
during: Delta x =
Delta t = ....
.... [ % of span ]
[ min ]
Sensitivity: SPmin = .... [ % of span ]

Remarks:
2.3 Example of a check list 2
PID Loop: Main burner fuel rate

HAC Code 0% to 100% Unit

Setpoint: ..... ..... to ..... [ ]
Actual Value: ..... ..... to ..... [ ]
Manipulated Variable:
(actuator) ..... ..... to ..... [ ]

Visual check of actuator:

Tuned:

Parameters: Kp = .... Tl = .... [ ] TD = .... [ ]

Max. deviation:
during: Delta x =
Delta t = ....
.... [ % of span ]
[ min ]
Sensitivity: SPmin = .... [ % of span ]

Remarks:
PID Loop: Kiln feed

HAC Code 0% to 100% Unit

Setpoint: ..... ..... to ..... [ ]
Actual Value: ..... ..... to ..... [ ]
Manipulated Variable:
(actuator) ..... ..... to ..... [ ]

Visual check of actuator:

Tuned:

PID Parameters: Kp = .... Tl = .... [ ] TD = .... [ ]

Max. deviation:
during: Delta x =
Delta t = ....
.... [ % of span ]
[ min ]
Sensitivity: SPmin = .... [ % of span ]

Remarks:
3. INTERFACE TO PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM
For any process control application, the High Level Control System needs to read data from the process
(inputs from sensors) and to write data to the process (outputs to primary control loops). Moreover, for
kiln/mill control, the High Level Control System requires also operator inputs such as:
¨ operating targets (NOx, O2, etc.)
¨ operator setpoints (kiln feed, fuel feed, etc.)
¨ laboratory data (clinker factor, fuel heat value, % free lime etc.)
These inputs can be entered either from the LINKman II or from the Process Control System (PCS) The
data communication between the PCS and the HLC is mostly based on a RS 232/422 serial link with the
PCS brand specific communication protocol. The data set for exchange has to be pre-processed and
stored in a specific memory location to be available for the data communication software.
For a kiln application for example, process data are accessed every 10 seconds and outputs are sent
every 5 minutes, or with higher frequency if required, to update setpoints. The kiln strategy, for example
runs every minute.
To connect the LINKman II to the PCS, two possible configurations are proposed:
¨ If the PCS has a bus connecting the whole plant (plant loop), then the LINKman II is interfaced by
using a serial link to the interface box of the loop. An example is presented on the next page where the
LINKman II is interfaced through a CIU (Computer Interface Unit) to a Bailey Network 90.
¨ If the PCS is structured according to the plant departments, the LINKman II has access to the
individual departments through individual serial lines. The second picture shows a typical interface in a
application where an Allen Bradley Programmable Logic Controller is used in connection with the Holcim
ODH system as Men Machine Interface (MMI).
Figure 4:

Figure 5:

3.1 Data Exchange

The PCS does not only act as data acquisition system for the LINKman II, it serves also as operator
interface (MMI, setpoint change, manual mode control), it hosts the basic loop controller, is responsible
for automatic/manual switching including fail safe procedure if the LINKman II or communication breaks
and does the alarm handling for the whole process (also HLC alarms). Because of this, the
communication data set consists not only of analog inputs and outputs, but also of digital signals:
¨ Digital control bits from the PCS (digital inputs)
¨ Digital alarm and status bit from the HLC (digital outputs)

DIGITAL INPUTS
The PCS system has to provide different status bits from the process to indicate specific conditions which
the LINKman II needs to work for proper operation.
Example:
¨ LINKman II on/off
¨ failure of instrumentation
¨ group ready/running
¨ direct/indirect operation of raw mill
¨ select status (type of cement etc.)

DIGITAL OUTPUTS
In a similar way, the LINKman II has to send status bits to the PCS to inform the operator about its status.
Example:
¨ LINKman II available
¨ on/off line
¨ normal condition
¨ upset condition
¨ alarms
¨ etc.
3.2 Security
The communication and proper execution of the program have to be guarantied. Therefore, a watch-dog
function on the PCS has to be realised:
Example:
Communication/HLC watch-dog
To check the communication as well as the LINKman II operating status (HLC on or off), a watch-dog
toggle-bit has to be programmed.
Figure 6:

The two on-delay timers control the on- and the off-time of the toggle-bit. If the time exceeds the pre-set
delay time of the timers (typical 30 s), the toggle-bit has not been inverted and this means, that the
LINKman II or the communication is off.
The PCS is responsible to switch the HLC on- or off-line (on operator's request) and to monitor the HLC's
on/off-state feedback and to switch the setpoint signals accordingly (setpoint from operator MMI or from
HLC). If the HLC goes off-line and the watch-dog detects a problem, the setpoint will be set to the
operator control and an alarm has to be evoked.
Note: The setpoint switching has to be made bumpless. (see PID subject)
4. EXAMPLES OF MOST IMPORTANT INPUTS IN RESPECT OF THE LOCATION AND
CALIBRATION OF THE TRANSMITTER
4.1 General
4.1.1 Definition:
Range = Max. - Min. of the sensor
Example: 0°C - 1000°C
Span = Used range for the electrical signal
f or monitoring the process
Figure 7:

4.1.2 Location of the Sensor

The location of the sensor is the most important thing in the instrumentation. There are a few locations
which are really false and a lot which are good. For maintenance of the sensors it is quite frequently
necessary (especially in the kiln area), that the location of the sensor should be above all easy
accessible.
4.1.3 Calibration of the Transmitter
The calibration includes first of all the checking of the transmitter. There are different methods how to
check:
1) Reference measurement: The sensor will be tested on a well-defined media (boiling oil, known
weight, etc.)
2) Comparison measurement: Measure the process value by an other measuring device (hand-held
thermometer/multimeter, pressure U-tube, etc.)
3) Find out the actual physical measurement by measuring the electrical signal coming out of the
sensor (only if the characteristics are well-known,should not be used on thermocouple due to the cold
reference junction).
4) Simulating the process with an alternative source by entering a calibrated signal on the primary
side.
While applying method 1 or 2 as described above, the process value on the highest level (screen of the
supervisor or high level control system) - if already installed - has to be monitored. If o.k., the procedure of
course is quickly and successfully finished. If not, the output of the transmitter has to be measured by an
Amp-Meter (4...20mA) and the transmitter has to be calibrated according its manual. In very seldom
cases, the problem is in the scaling of the PLC or the supervisory system.

Note: Two hints on calibration

* Do a Plausibility Check. This means that the signal should be checked of its plausibility. Is it on its
expected value? If not, there is something wrong. Do not accept everything you measure. Repeat the
measurement if it is not plausible or try to make the calibration by an other way.
* Accuracy. If the sensor is not accurate enough or the transmitter has a too large range, try to
calibrate it within the operating range.
4.2 Examples
4.2.1 Temperature
EXAMPLE 1: KILN INLET TEMPERATURE
LOCATION:
Figure 8:

¨ Easy accessible for maintenance

¨ Cleaned by pulling out (daily)
¨ Tip of sensor should be in the air-stream but not affected too much by incrustation
¨ Sensor should not be damaged by falling material
¨ The final position has to be evaluated

CALIBRATION:
Figure 9:

¨ Inject a voltage in mV without the sensor into the transmitter, while measuring in the 4...20mA
line. Take readings at the display for 0 and 100%.

SPAN: minimum: 0% = 1000°C = 4.0mA

maximum: 100% = 1250°C = 20.0mA
unit: 1% = 2,5°C = 0.16mA
typical value: 80% = 1200°C = 16.8mA (16:100x80+4)

EXAMPLE 2: PYROMETER (at kiln hood for clinker temperature)

LOCATION:
Figure 10:
¨ Aim spot 30 cm (1 foot)
¨ Do not point into flame (radiation)
¨ Aim the pyrometer below the flame into the clinker just before the clinker flows out of the kiln
¨ Dust on the lens of the pyrometer or between lens and clinker affects the measurement,
therefore, choose a short measuring distance
CALIBRATION:
¨ Calibration according to the manufacturer. (Does not have to be calibrated under normal
circumstances)

SPAN: minimum: 0% = 1100°C = 4.0mA

maximum: 100% = 1600°C = 20.0mA
unit: 1% = 5°C = 0.16mA
typical value: depending on the kiln

Note: The absolute temperature is not so important, changes have to be monitored.

EXAMPLE 3: PRECALCINER LOWEST CYCLONES
LOCATION:
Figure 11:

1 Dead zone
2 Good position for material temperature
¨ Find the 2 right locations out of 4
¨ Parallel probes recommended

CALIBRATION:

SPAN: minimum: 0% = 600°C = 4.0mA

maximum: 100% = 1000°C = 20.0mA
unit: 1% = 4°C = 0.16mA
typical value: 72% = 890°C = 15.5mA (16:100x72+4)

EXAMPLE 4: PREHEATER EXIT TEMPERATURE

LOCATION:
Figure 12:

¨ Good for minimizing of exhaust gas temperature

¨ Equilibrium of tower streams
¨ If the temperature of the second stage is more indicative, it is advantageous to use this value

CALIBRATION:

SPAN: minimum: 0% = 0°C = 4.0mA

maximum: 100% = 500°C = 20.0mA
unit: 1% = 5°C = 0.16mA
typical value: 70% = 350°C = 5.2mA (16:100x70+4)

4.2.2 Pressure
EXAMPLE 1: KILN HOOD
LOCATION:
Figure 13:

1 Measuring points (hood pressure)

2 ambient pressure (heated up air)
3 transmitter
4 U- Tube for calibration purpose

CALIBRATION:
¨ Measure the pressure by an U-Tube (differential measurement)

grate cooler: SPAN: minimum: 0% = 0.1mbar = 4.0mA

maximum: 100% = -0.3mbar = 20.0mA
unit: 1% = 0.004mbar = 0.16mA
typical value: 37.5% = -0,05mbar = 10.0mA (16:100x37.5+4)
planetary cooler: SPAN: minimum: 0% = -2mbar = 4.0mA
maximum: 100% = -3mbar = 20.0mA

EXAMPLE 2: KILN INLET PRESSURE

LOCATION:
Figure 14:

¨ Daily cleaning required

¨ Indicates ring formation, limits max. production

CALIBRATION:

grate cooler: SPAN: minimum: 0% = 0mbar = 4.0mA

maximum: 100% = 10.0mbar = 20.0mA
unit: 1% = 0.1mbar = 0.16mA
typical value: = 2-4mbar
planetary cooler: SPAN: minimum: 0% = 0mbar = 4.0mA
maximum: 100% = 10mbar = 20.0mA
typical value: = 3-7mbar

EXAMPLE 3: PREHEATER EXIST PRESSURE

LOCATION:
Figure 15:

¨ Please note, that this pressure may be different from the ID-fan inlet pressure because of the
resistance in the tubes.

Typical value: 5mbar

i.e. 5mbar pressure difference from preheater top to
ID-fan (at bottom, difference in height : 100 m)
CALIBRATION:

grate cooler: SPAN: minimum: 0% = 0mbar = 4.0mA

maximum: 100% = 10.0mbar = 20.0mA
unit: 1% = 1mbar = 0.16mA
typical value: = 40-60mbar

4.2.3 Speed
EXAMPLE: DC-DRIVE KILN
LOCATION:
¨ DC-Drive Panel. Usually the transmitter is in the panel as well.

CALIBRATION:
¨ By a hand-tachometer (analogous or digital) on the kiln motor or motor coupling.

SPAN: minimum: 0% = 0rpm = 4.0mA

maximum: 100% = 1500rpm = 20.0mA
unit: 1% = 15rpm = 0.16mA
typical value: 85% = 1275rpm = 17.6mA (16:100x85+4)

4.2.4 Current
EXAMPLE: KILN DRIVE CURRENT
LOCATION:
¨ DC-Drive Panel. Usually the transmitter is in the panel as well.

CALIBRATION:
¨ By the Amp-meter on the DC-drive panel while measuring in the 4...20mA line.

SPAN: minimum: 0% = 0A = 4.0mA

maximum: 100% = 1000A = 20.0mA
unit: 1% = 10A = 0.16mA
typical value: 30% = 300A = 4.8mA (16:100x30+4)

IMPORTANT:
¨ The kiln amps are used to indicate the torque (and with the torque the:
· coating falling
· hot or cold clinker)
If the field current is not kept constant by a thyristor controlled unit, the kiln drive amps have to be
multiplied by the field current.
¨ The value has to be filtered in case of a planetary cooler, but in a way that ring breaks still can be
registered
¨ Span must be 100% nominal motor current
4.2.5 Power/Energy
EXAMPLE: POWER OF MILL DRIVE
LOCATION:
¨ Medium-voltage Switchgear.

CALIBRATION:
¨ Calibration is usually not necessary. For checking the value, it can be calculated: voltage (phase
to phase) x current x 1.732 (square root of 3) x power factor (cosø, see motor data, typical 0.97).
RANGE: minimum: 0% = 0kW = 4.0mA
maximum: 100% = 2000kW = 20.0mA
unit: 1% = 20kW = 0.16mA
typical value: 98% = 1960kW = 19.68mA (16:100x98+4)

C06 - Practical Work

Control Technique - Practical Work

1. The Control Loop

2. Dynamic Behavior Of The Process
2.1 Proportional Factor of the Process
2.2 Dead Time Element
2.3 Delay Element
2.4 Combinations
3. Controllers
3.1 Different Types of Controllers
3.2 PID - Controller
3.3 Analog and Digital Controller
3.4 Terminology
4. How To Turn The Knobs - Optimal Settings Of The Controller
4.1 Stabilization Point
4.2 Adjustments of the PID Settings
4.3 Optimal Settings of the Controller

SUMMARY
Lack of manpower, quality requirements and complicated processes have increased the importance of
control to industry.
This lecture gives an introduction into the basic control theory and its use. Because of the variety of
today’s control techniques, applications are purposely omitted.
1. THE CONTROL LOOP
The functioning and the components of a control loop are explained by the example of cooling tower
control loop.
Figure 1 Cooling tower control loop

1) Process: The Cooling Tower

The process consist of those machines and equipment which are controlled to produce a desired output.
2) Process Inputs and Outputs
For example:
Process inputs: flowrate hot gas
temperature hot gas
flowrate cooling water
Process outputs: flowrate cooled gas
temperature cooled gas
3) Controlled Output (c): Outlet Gas Temperature
The purpose of the cooling tower control is to achieve a constant outlet gas temperature. Variations of the
other process outputs are of no importance.
4) Disturbances: Variations in Flowrate and Temperature of the hot Gas
Variations of the process inputs cause disturbances to the process and therefore also to the process
outputs, especially to the controlled output.
5) Manipulated Variable (m): Cooling Water Flowrate
The cooling of the gas stream is achieved by spraying water into it. The degree of the cooling depends on
the amount of water sprayed. Therefore, the outlet gas temperature can be controlled by manipulating the
cooling water flowrate.
6) Set point (s): Desired Outlet Gas Temperature
The level at which the controlled output shall be kept has to be defined. This reference input or setpoint
can either come from an operator or from an other control system.
7) Feedback Elements (h): Thermocouple
The process output you want to control has to be measured because you cannot control what you don’t
know. The feedback elements are always measuring devices.
8) Actual Value (x): Temperature Signal
The signal which is delivered by the feedback elements
9) Error (e): Deviation between measured Gas Temperature and the desired Temperature
The actual value is compared with the setpoint (desired value). The controller will react according to the
deviation of these two signals.
Depending on the process it has to be selected between forward and reverse action:
Forward Action:
If the actual value is below the setpoint an increase of the controller output is required and vice versa.
Example: If the temperature in a kiln is too low the fuel has to be increased to heat up the kiln.
Reverse Action
If the actual value is below the setpoint a decrease of the controller output is required and vice versa.
Example: If the temperature after a cooling tower is too low, the flowrate of the cooling water has to be
reduced to increase the temperature.
The switching between the two actions can simply be done by calculating the error either by subtracting
the actual value (x) form the setpoint (s) (forward action) or by subtracting the setpoint (s) from the actual
value (reverse action).
10) Control Elements (g1)
According to the error, the control elements act upon the manipulated variable. Two main elements:
· Controller: The controller is a device which generates the appropriate control signal according to
the error (e) (see also the chapter “Controller”).
· Actuator: The actuator transforms the controller output (y) into a change of the manipulated
variable. In our example: A control value which acts upon the cooling water flow.
11) The commonly used expressions introduced above are summarized in the figure below:
Figure 2 Cooling tower control loop

12) Block Diagram

Every closed loop control system can be represented with the same diagram.
Figure 3 Block disgram of control loop

2. DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF THE PROCESS

Depending on the nature of the process the output response to an input change or a disturbance varies.
The most important tool to characterize the dynamic behavior of a process is the “transient responses”:
the reaction of the process to a step-change of the input.
2.1 Proportional Factor of the Process
The proportional factor describes how big the change of the output is caused by a one-unit change of the
process input:
Proportional factors of the process = B / A
Figure 4 Proportional factor of the process

2.2 Dead Time Element

Most processes require a finite response time, often with a magnitude of minutes or hours. The dead time
is defined as the difference in time between an input change and the resulting output change. The dead
time slows down controller response because the controller cannot act until an error in output is detected.
An example for a typical dead time element is a belt conveyor. The dead time is given by the length and
the speed of the belt.
Figure 5 Dead time

The cooling tower as an example contains multiple dead time elements which can be added together:
¨ reaction time of the control value
¨ time the change in the water flow rate needs to reach the spraying nozzles
¨ time the gases need to pass the height of the cooling tower
¨ reaction time of the thermo-couple
2.3 Delay Element
The reaction of a process to an input change is depending on the physical and chemical reactions
controlling this process: heat transfer, mass transfer, chemical reactions. As all these reactions do not just
happen within no time but follow certain time laws, the whole process shows certain time delays. These
time delays can be classified in different types.
Example:
First order element, second order element. The most frequent is the second order delay.
Figure 6 Delay time

The delay in the cooling tower system is the time between the first noticeable change in the outlet gas
temperature and the moment when the new stable temperature is reached.
2.4 Combinations
In most of the cases the process is a combination of a dead time and a delay element (second order).
Figure 7 Dead time plus delay time

3. CONTROLLERS
As mentioned before the controller is a device which generates according to the deviation between
desired and actual value an appropriate control signal to bring this deviation to zero.
3.1 Different Types of Controllers
1) On-Off Controller
The controller output can only have two positions;: fully open and fully closed. The controlled variable is
controlled within a band. When the variable falls below the lower limit of the band, the controller output
changes to “open”. The variable starts to rise again. When the upper limit of the band is reached, the
controller output changes back to “closed”. The variable starts to fall again.
Example: Temperature control of a refrigerator.
2) Continuous controller (PID-controller)
The output can have any position between open and closed.
3) Adaptive controller
The controller adapts automatically its parameters to changing process characteristics. It has to be
differentiated between controllers which adapt themselves continuously and controllers that adapt only
when this is desired.
4) Predictive Controller
The predictive controller uses a mathematical model to predict the behavior of the controlled process.
With this information the controller can optimize the control actions.
3.2 PID - Controller
The most frequently used controller is the PID-Controller. The total control action is a combination of three
basic control actions:
1) P- Controller (proportional controller)
The output of the proportional controller is the error (e) multiplied by a constant factor. This factor is called
the proportional constant or the proportional gain.
Figure 8 Proportional Controller

The control algorithm:

y = Kp × e
Kp: Proportional constant
Characteristic Features:
¨ Increasing Kp causes stronger control actions and thus a faster return to the setpoint. But with
increasing Kp the tendency of the system to cycle increases (see figure 9).
¨ Off-set: the P- controller is adjusted to work for one specific load of the controlled system (in the
cooling tower example: one specific flowrate of the hot inlet gas). If the load changes, a permanent error.

2) I-Controller (integral or reset Controller)

As long as a deviation between setpoint and actual value exists, the I-controller sums the deviation up
with time and produces an output proportional to this sum.
Figure 10 Integral controller

The control algorithm:

y = KI × ò edt
KI: integral constant or integral gain
KI can be expressed with the proportional constant
KI = Kp/TI
Kp: proportional constant
TI: integral action time - Time after which the output of the I-controller
is equal the output of a P-controller (for a step).
Characteristic Features:
¨ As a permanent error leads to a continuously increasing control signal, an I-controller is very
suitable to eliminate an off-set.
¨ With increasing KI increasing tendency to oscillate
3) D-Controller (differential, derivative or rate controller)
The D-controller produces an output which is proportional to the rate of change of the deviation between
setpoint and actual value. The D-controller weights the speed of a disturbance.
Figure 11: D-Controller

The control algorithm:

Y = KD × de/dt
KD: derivative constant or derivative gain.
KD can be expressed with the proportional constant KD = Kp × TD
Kp: proportional constant
TD: derivative action time. Time after which the output of the D-controller
is equal to the output of a P-controller (for a ramp).
Characteristic Features:
¨ D-controller reacts earlier because it detects slope errors which occur before real errors.
¨ A D-controller cannot be used alone. It is used in combination with P or PI controller actions.
¨ As the D-controller reacts to slopes, it can be unstable for highly oscillatory systems.
4) PID - Controller
The three basic control actions can be used alone (whit the exception of the D-controller) or as
combinations like PI-Controller, PD-controller, PID-controller. In this case the total control action is the
sum of the different basic control actions which means the controllers are arranged in parallel.
Example: PID - Controller (three mode controller)
Figure 12 PID Controller

The control algorithm when using the parameters Kp, KI, KD:
y = Kp × e + KI × ò edt + KD × de/dt
The control algorithm when using the parameters Kp, TI, TD:
y = Kp × e + ( Kp / TI ) × ò edt + Kp × TD × de/dt
Figure 13 Comparison of the different controllers

Which controller to choose depends on the plant behavior. Below you will find some guidelines on how to
choose a controller for a given plant.
In a cement plant a lot of controllers are just PI - controllers because many of the processes which have
to be controlled are relatively slow and thus a derivative control action (D - controller) is not necessary
Table 1 Guidelines how to choose a controller

3.3 Analog and Digital Controller

A PID - Controller can be realized as an analog or as a digital controller.
a) Analog Controller
The control loop is closed all the time. The control operations are executed at every point of the time
scale.
The control algorithms are realized on the hardware side with appropriate circuits. This means: the more
sophisticated the control algorithms the bigger the hardware.
Figure 14 Analog Controller

b) Digital Controller
¨ The control loop is only closed at certain sampling points. The different arithmetical operations of
the control algorithm are not executed simultaneously but one after the other.
¨ The control algorithms are realized on the software side.
Figure 15 Digital Controller

3.4 Terminology
Sometimes it can be very confusing that in the control technique a lot of different terminologies are used.
Some of the terms used are listed below. We recommend strongly to stick to the terms used in the other
chapters of this paper.

Kp KI KD
Controller Kp *e + Kp/TI *òedt + KpTD * de/dt
output =
100/PB (100/PB)*(R/M) (100/PB)*RT

Kp = 100 / PB proportional gain or

proportional constant
PB = Xp proportional band
KI = Kp / TI integral gain or
integral constant
1 / TI = R / M reset gain or
reset rate
R/M reset per minute
TI integral action time
KD = KpTD = (100/PB) *RT derivative gain or
derivative constant
TD = RT derivative action time or rate time or rate gain

4. HOW TO TURN THE KNOBS - OPTIMAL SETTINGS OF THE CONTROLLER

4.1 Stabilization Point
Two possibilities to interrupt the process:
¨ changing the setpoint
¨ disturbing the process
According to settings of the PID parameters Kp, TI, TD the reaction of the control system to such an
interaction varies:
Figure 16 Changing the setpoint

Figure 17 Disturbing

4.2 Adjustments of the PID Settings

the list and the figure below shall give you a better feeling about what happens if you change one of the
PID parameters Kp, TI, TD.

Adjustment Reaction
Increasing
P actionIncreasing Kp Speeding up control action:
- smaller amplitude,
- smaller period of oscillation
Decreasing offset
Increasing tendency to oscillate
Decreasing
P actionDecreasing Kp Slowing down control action:
- bigger amplitude
- bigger period of oscillation
Increasing offset
Decreasing tendency to oscillate
Increasing
I action Decreasing TI Bigger amplitude
Smaller period of oscillation
Faster elimination of the offset
Increasing tendency to oscillate
Decreasing
I action Increasing TI Smaller amplitude
Bigger period of oscillation
Slower elimination of the off-set
Increasing tendency to oscillate
Increasing
D action Increasing TD Smaller amplitude
Bigger Period
First degreasing but beyond a certain
point increasing tendency to oscillate
Decreasing
D action Decreasing TD Bigger amplitude
Smaller period
First increasing, beyond a certain point
decreasing tendency to oscillate

Adjustment of the PID Settings Kp

Adjustment of the PID Settings Ti

Adjustment of the PID Settings Td

4.3 Optimal Settings of the Controller

Chien-Hrones Method
The optimal controller settings are determined from the reaction curve of the opened control loop to a step
disturbance. This method is also called
¨ process reaction curve method
¨ lag reaction rate method
1) open the loop (switch controller to manual)
2) create a step on the controller output signal
Figure 18 Step in control element position

3) record the answer of the process to this step

Figure 19 Process reaction curve

4) determine the following expressions:

Td: Dead time [min]
Ts: Time constant [min]
N: Slope = reaction rate in % of feedback signal range per minute [%min]

DP: % change in control element position [%]

5) Optimal settings (rough estimation)

P-Controller Kp =
PI-Controller Kp =
TI = 3.3 * Td
PID-Controller Kp =
TI = 2 * Td
TD = 0.5 * Td

Example: Cooling tower control loop

A step is made in the position of the cooling water control value from 60 % to 50 %. The measured outlet
gas temperature signal shows the following picture (the range of the temperature signal is from 100 °C to
300 ° C):
Figure 20

Figure 21

Td = 5 min.
Ts = 4 min.

Optimal Settings for PID-Controller

Kp = = = 0.64%/%
TI = 2 * Td = 2*5 = 10 min.
TD = 0.5 * Td = 0.5 * 5 = 2.5 min.
PRACTICAL EXERCISE - Fuzzy-Control
F. Fehr
98/6346/E
1. Introduction
2. Exercise
2.1 Start / Set-up
2.2 Input/output Fuzzyfication
2.3 Implementing rules
2.4 Testing
2.5 Save
3. Miscellaneous

1. INTRODUCTION
This is an approach to teach the Fuzzy theories in a practical way, without a lot of paper and formulas. On
behalf of a Siemens Demo Software, a Fuzzy controller will be shown and worked out empirically.
The goal of this exercise is to get a basic idea about
What is Fuzzy-Control
How does it work
There is a diskette included for every participant. Please take this diskette home as an example that you
can recall anytime, whenever you are in a position to work with fuzzy-logic or explain to someone else
what fuzzy is really about.
The task of this exercise is:
To set-up a temperature controller which uses a room and an outside temperature signal thus actuating a
heater and an air-conditioner.

[B06C06D2FIG02.WMF]

Room Temperature Controller Heater

[B06C06D2FIG04.WMF]

Outside Temperature Air Conditioner

2. EXERCISE
2.1 Start / Set-up
¨ Start Fuzzy.exe
¨ Create new Project with the name "TEMPCON" ("File" "New...") with 2 Inputs and 2 Outputs.
¨ Assign names to inputs and outputs (see pictures in 1. Introduction)
¨ Define 3 temperature ranges (membership functions) for room temp (e.g. chilli, comfortable,
warm).
¨ Define 3 temperature ranges for outside temp (e.g. cold, warm, hot).
¨ Define 4 ranges for the heater (e.g. off, low, high, on) and 3 ranges for the air conditioner (e.g. off,
med, on).
¨ Adjust the temperature scale to reasonable values (e.g. room temp. from 10…30°C).
2.2 Input/output Fuzzyfication
Perform the Fuzzyfication of the 2 inputs and 2 outputs by asking the following questions and set the
curves accordingly:
… where is 0% cold…
… from where to where is 100% warm…
Out of 100 people, how many people would say that is chilli (first curve) at what temperature. Do the
same for the other 2 curves. The number of people (in %) which is actually the degree of fulfilment (or the
percentage of truth) is on the vertical axis, the temperature on the horizontal axis.
On the example in the next picture below, it is 50% chilli (50 out of 100 people would call it chilli) at 20.5°C
and after 22°C it is not chilly anymore.

2.3 Implementing rules

Now fill in the rules in "If…then".

2.4 Testing
Use the menu "View" to simulate input values as constants or curves (sub menu "Curve Parameters…")
and test the controller (sub menu "Curve Recorder").
2.5 Save
Save your project (“File” “Save” or “File” “Save As…”).
For those who could not work through the exercise, there is an example of this exercise on the diskette,
named exercise.txt. Rename it to *.fpl to be able to call it from the demo software.
3. MISCELLANEOUS

On the Cement Course CD-Rom, the directory \MISC\FUZZY contains all files and information being used
for the practical work of fuzzy control logic described in the chapters above. Below a list of all files of the
directory \MISC\FUZZY

Files Description

FUZZY.EXE program file for the Fuzzy demo

FUZZY.ICO icon for the above file
README.TXT supplementary supplier information about the fuzzy package
SHUTTERS.FPL example "shutters controller"
PENDULUM.FPL example "inverse pendulum"
EXERCISE.TXT example "temperature control"
S7FUZ1EF.PPTPower Point slides about the fuzzy package

Gas Flow Measurement - Practical Work

H. Nyfenegger
PT 97/14231/E
1. Theoretical Basis
1.1 The Law of Bernoulli
2. Local Velocity And Pressure Measurements
2.1 The Measurement of the Pressures
3. Gas Flow Measurement By The Prandtl Tube
4. Integral Gas Flow Measurement With Nozzles And Orifices
4.1 Standard Nozzles
4.2 Standard Orifices and Venturi-Nozzles
5. Calculation Of Density
5.1 Requests, Calculation of Real Conditions
5.2 Gas Compositions
5.2.1 Calculation of a Heterogeneous Gas
6. Practical Work In Gas Flow Measurement
6.1 Test Equipment
6.2 The Prandtl Tube
6.2.1 Calculation of the Gas Density
6.2.2 Numerical Calculation of Density
6.3 Calculation of the Gas Velocity
6.4 Calculation of the Gas Flow Rate
6.5 Anemometers
6.5.1 Type A (Vane Wheel Anemometers)
6.5.2 Type B Thermal Anemometers
6.5.3 Vortex Anemometers (not used in practical work)
6.6 Characteristic Curves of the Fan
6.6.1 Measurements
6.7 INLET NOZZLE
6.8 Manometers
6.8.1 Inclined Stationary Manometer
7. Symbol List Of Gas Flow Measurement

SUMMARY
This paper shows the basic equations for gas flow measurement. Furthermore, the principles of gas flow
measurement by the Prandtl tube as well as the Orifices and Nozzles are explained.
Some of the presented principles and instruments will be used for the practical work carried out on a test
equipment in the laboratory hall.
1. THEORETICAL BASIS
1.1 The Law of Bernoulli
(Daniel Bernoulli, 1700..1782 Swiss Scientist)
In aeronautics, a law or theorem state that in a flow of incompressible fluid the sum of the static pressure
and the dynamic pressure along a streamline is constant if gravity and frictional effects are disregarded.
Resultant from this law is that if there is a velocity increase in a fluid flow, there must be a corresponding
pressure decrease. Thus an airfoil, by increasing the velocity of the flow over its upper surface, drives lift
from the decreased pressure.
As originally formulated, a statement of the energy conservation (per unit mass) for a non-viscous fluid in
steady motion. The specific energy is composed of the kinetic energy v2/2, where v is the speed of the
fluid; the potential energy gz, where g is the acceleration of gravity and z is the height above an arbitrary
reference level; and the work done by the pressure forces of a compressible fluid ò v dp, where p is the
pressure, v is the specific volume, and the integration is always with respect to value of p and v on the
same parcel. Thus, the relationship
v2/2 + gz + ò v dp = constant along a streamline
is valid for a compressible fluid in steady motion, since the streamline is also in path. If the motion is
irrational, the same constant holds for the entire fluid.

If the fluid is compressible If the fluid is incompressible:

If the fluid is incompressible, that means r is constant:

Symbols and units:

A Cross section area [m2]

d Diameter of the smallest aperture [m]
D Diameter of the tube [m]
m Cross section area ratio m = d2 / D2 [-]
m× Mass flow rate [kg/s]
p Pressure N / m2]
Ñ Volume flow rate [m3 / s]
w Velocity [m / s]
r Density [kg / m3]

2. LOCAL VELOCITY AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

The above figure shows a fluid flowing around an obstacle. One of the streamlines reaches the body at
the point 2, called stagnation point. At this point the velocity of the fluid is zero.
The Bernoulli equation, for the undisturbed flow at point 1 to point 2,
or (w2 = 0)

where P2 is the total pressure

P1 is the static pressure
is the dynamic pressure
p2, p1 and are pressures called total, static and dynamic pressure.
2.1 The Measurement of the Pressures
The total pressure of a fluid can be measured at a stagnation point. For this purpose the so-called Pitot
tube is used.

At the point 2 a stagnation point is created where the total pressure can be measured.
A boring placed vertically to the flow (1) measures the pressure independent from the direction. This
pressure is called static pressure.
3. GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT BY THE PRANDTL TUBE
The dynamic pressure, defined as

can be expressed as the pressure difference between the total and the static pressure. The relation is

This difference is measured with the Prandtl Tube.

The inner part of this instrument corresponds exactly to a Pitot Tube and the total pressure is measured
there. The outer part has the function of the static pressure measurement.
The difference between the two connections is the dynamic pressure.
The direction of the flow should correspond to the axis of the Prandtl Tube. Deviations until ± 10°
however, do not essentially influence the measuring accuracy.
The error in the measurement of the pressure is below ± 1%.

With the dynamic pressure the fluid velocity can be calculated as follows:

The Prandtl Tube measures a local velocity only. In order to get an integral velocity (e.g. the average
value) the integration of several local velocities over the cross sectional area must be made.

The gas flow rate is finally calculated by multiplying the average gas velocity with the cross sectional
area.
Specific information on the gas flow measurement by the Prandtl Tube is given in chapter 6 "Practical
work in gas flow measurement“.
4. INTEGRAL GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT WITH NOZZLES AND ORIFICES
The idea of this method is to create a change of cross section of the whole fluid stream. By means of this
change also the pressure and the velocity change and from the pressure difference the velocity can be
calculated.
A precondition for this measurement method is a more or less equalized velocity profile. Disturbances like
¨ Flow separation behind bends, valves, etc.
¨ Pulsation behind a piston type compressor
¨ High dust loading
¨ etc.
falsify the measurement and make it useless in a lot of cases. As a rule of thumb it can be said that prior
to such a flow measurement a straight tube length of more than 10 tube diameters is to be provided.

Between point 1 and 2 the continuity condition can be formulated as

A1 × w1 = A2 × w2
Between the same two points the Bernoulli equation (see 1.1) gives:

From the two relations the following equation is derived:

The velocity w1 can be calculated from the pressure difference between the undisturbed flow (point 1)
and the accelerated flow in the smallest cross-sectional area.
The pressure p2 is lower than pressure p1 and compared to the pressure p1, is p2 a negative pressure.
The relation is

The pressure difference is a function of the ratio square of the cross sectional area. Great ratios produce
therefore extreme underpressures! An example of such a great ratio is the reduction of the cross-sectional
area during coating formation in preheaters.
The change of the cross-section causes, especially when it is done suddenly, a disturbance of the flow.
The fluid cannot follow the wall and a contraction of the stream is produced.

The effective cross section Ae is now smaller than the real one and the calculated velocity must be
corrected. The correction cannot be calculated, it must be measured. For this reason several types of
integral measuring instruments are standardized by DIN 1952.
In the following the 3 basic standard instruments are sketched:
4.1 Standard Nozzles
Standard nozzles are used for tubes with diameters from 50 to 500 mm and a cross-sectional ratio
(smallest area against tube area) of 0.1 to 0.64.

The velocity in the tube and the volume flow, respectively, are calculated by the following relation:

The factor e considers the change in the density of a compressible fluid. For incompressible fluids (e.g.
water or air until a maximum velocity of 100 [m/s]) this factor has the value 1, otherwise it is tabulated in
the DIN - Standards 1952.
The value a is the correction factor for the contraction of the fluid. It is a function of the Reynold’s number
and the ratio m of the cross-sectional areas. This factor is also tabulated in the DIN - Standards 1952.
The table below shows an output of these standards.
Correction factors for the contraction a = f (m2, Re) for standard nozzles in tubes with smooth surfaces,
valid for diameters D between 50 and 500 mm. Between the indicated values of m2 (not m) can be
interpolated linearly.

4.2 Standard Orifices and Venturi-Nozzles

Orifices and Venturi-nozzles are standardized in the same way as above-mentioned standard nozzles.
The following figure shows the two standard orifices distinguished only in the pressure taps.
The following figure shows the two used Venturi nozzles distinguished only in the length of the diffuser
part.

5. CALCULATION OF DENSITY
5.1 Requests, Calculation of Real Conditions
The methods based on the law of Bernoulli needs the knowledge of the density r of gas. For simple
gases like dry air this request makes normally no problem. In case of kiln gases e.g. the density must be
evaluated or approximated to the real condition.

In case of air and in function of the relative humidity j is almost invariant:

Table 1

j [%] ro  [kg/m3]

100
80
60 1.290
1.290
1.291

Thus, the actual gas density rG can be found with the following correlation:

where pG = actual static gas pressure [N/m2]

TG = actual gas temperature [K]
PG can be measured by adding the differential pressure between tube and the ambient to the barometric
pressure.
5.2 Gas Compositions
Mainly in the field of kiln, the gas compositions can be very different so that their density must be
determining. The greatest influences to the density come from the components carbondioxide (CO2) and
water content (H2O, humidity). Often both components are unknown and can’t be measured easily, so
that the user depend from approximations.
5.2.1 Calculation of a Heterogeneous Gas
Density of dry gas composition: rndr

Component Content [%] Factor Part of Unit

CO2 1.977 [kg/m3,N, dr.]
O2 1.429 [kg/m3,N, dr.]
CO 1.25 [kg/m3,N, dr.]
N2 1.257 [kg/m3,N, dr.]
S 1.000 r ndr = [kg/m3,N, dr.]

Density of wet gas composition:

Where W0 = Water content [kg/m3 n,dry]

fdr = [m3/m3 n,dry]
6. PRACTICAL WORK IN GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT
6.1 Test Equipment
The measurement of the velocity profile and the volume flow is shown on a special test equipment which
is sketched in the following figure.
The following measuring methods are demonstrated and applied:
1) Prandtl Tube: The velocity will be measured on several points of the cross sectional area by
means of which the average velocity and the volume rate will be calculated.
2) Anemometers: At the outlet of the test equipment the mean velocity will be measured with two
different anemometers.
3) Fan Characteristics: With the knowledge of the characteristic curves of the fan given by the
supplier, the volume rate is determined by the pressure difference of the fan and the revolutions of the
fan.
4) Inlet Nozzle (Piezometer): At the suction side of the fan an inlet nozzle is attached. This nozzle is
calibrated and the volume rate can be calculated by means of the pressure difference between the nozzle
inlet and ambient.
6.2 The Prandtl Tube
Prandtl tubes are mainly used for speed measurements of gaseous mediums. The application of a Prandtl
tube is suitable for following measurements:
¨ Higher Temperatures (Until 500°C, depending of construction materials)
¨ Few dust loaded gas flows (approx. 50 g/m3 max.)
¨ Only for higher gas velocities (approx. 10 m/s min.)
¨ The density of the medium must be known
The Prandtl tube itself is a very simple and cheap measuring instrument. Because the measuring is
selectively for an integral gas flow measurement several measuring points must be measured. Therefore,
the time consumption for the measurement itself and the evaluation is considerable.
Most application in cement industry for Prandtl tubes are:
¨ Air output of grate coolers
¨ Riser ducts
¨ Tertiary air ducts
¨ etc.
Generally, the application of Prandtl tubes are indicated when other instruments e.g. anemometers as a
result of high temperatures or other reasons cannot be used.
If a Prandtl tube is put into a flowing medium, the following pressures are produced:

The total pressure Ptot acts on the ball-shaped measuring head, composed of the static pressure Pstat
and the dynamic pressure. The Bernoulli-equation formulated from the point 0 (ambient point) to the point
1 (pressure point) states:
(1)
The flow speed is only influenced by the dynamic pressure:
(2)
Its value is obtained from the difference of the total pressure Ptot and the static pressure Pstat read on a
differential pressure gauge.

(3)
From equation (2) and (3)
(4)
PS: Prandtl tubes are insensitive to deviations from the flow direction up to an angle of about ± 10 ° only
(See chapter 3, Fig 2)
6.2.1 Calculation of the Gas Density
Theoretically, the real gas density rG, considering the humidity, should be calculated by determination of
the water content or the dew point. The influence of the humidity is only relevant in case of high
temperature and high water contents, e.g. exhaust gas of the kiln.
In the case at hand the density of moist air on standard conditions

and in function of the relative humidity j is almost invariant:

Table 1

j [%] ro  [kg/m3]

100
80
60 1.290
1.290
1.291

Thus, the actual gas density rG can be found with the following correlation:
(5)
where pG = actual static gas pressure [N/m2]
TG = actual gas temperature [°K]
PG can be measured by adding the differential pressure DPs between the tube and the ambient to the
barometric pressure.
6.2.2 Numerical Calculation of Density

Barometric pressure Pa = ................ [mbar]

= ................ × 105 [N/m2]
Static pressure Ps = ................ [mmW] )
= ................ × 105 [N/m2]
Gas pressure PG = pa + Ps =................ × 105 [N/m2]
Gas temperature tG = ................[°C]
TG = ...............+ 273 [°K]

6.3 Calculation of the Gas Velocity

With the knowledge of the gas density rG the gas velocity can be calculated by the following equation (6)

The velocity in the given tube is not constant over the cross section and a certain velocity profile appears:

For this reason the average velocity must be found. This is made by an integration of the local velocities
over the cross sectional area.
In order to split the integration in discrete values, the cross sectional area was shared in equal-sized
concentric sections, each including four measuring points (two on each measuring axis). The locations
where the pressure measurement are to be carried out depend on the desired total number of measuring
points to be made on each measuring axis (see Table 2 and Figure 4).
Table 2

12 measuring
points 10 measuring
points 8 measuring points 6 measuring
points
1 0.022 x D 0.025 x D 0.032 x D 0.043 x D
2 0.067 x D 0.080 x D 0.105 x D 0.146 x D
3 0.118 x D 0.145 x D 0.194 x D 0.296 x D
4 0.177 x D 0.225 x D 0.323 x D 0.704 x D
5 0.250 x D 0.340 x D 0.677 x D 0.853 x D
6 0.356 x D 0.660 x D 0.806 x D 0.957 x D
7 0.644 x D 0.775 x D 0.895 x D
8 0.750 x D 0.855 x D 0.968 x D
9 0.823 x D 0.920 x D
10 0.882 x D 0.975 x D
11 0.933 x D
12 0.979 x D

(D = Diameter)
For this measurement six points are taken

Distance from inside wall

s1 = 9.043 × D = 11 mm
s2 = 0.146 × D = 37 mm
Distance from a reference mark
x1 = S1 + a = 235 mm
x2 = S2 + a = 261 mm
Table 3

Axis Point Distance from inside wall

[cm] Distance from
reference mark
[cm] Dh*
[mm W] Dh
[m W] Velocity (see 6)
w = ....
[m/s]
A 1 1.1 23.5
A 2 3.7 26.1
A 3 7.4 29.8
A 4 17.6 40.0
A 5 21.3 43.7
A 6 23.9 46.3
B 1 1.1 23.5
B 2 3.7 26.1
B 3 7.4 29.8
B 4 17.6 40.0
B 5 21.3 43.7
B 6 23.9 46.3

6.4 Calculation of the Gas Flow Rate

a) Operating conditions

b) Standard conditions

6.5 Anemometers
6.5.1 Type A (Vane Wheel Anemometers)

The revolutions of the vane, being proportional to the gas velocity, have directly been measured by an
electronic sensor. The instrument integrates the number of revolutions by a certain time and the indication
is in meter per second:

Vane wheel anemometers are independent of gas condition.

6.5.2 Type B Thermal Anemometers
Thermal gas flow meters were based on the principle of heat transfer from an electrical heated body to
the ambient medium (gas) depending from the relative velocity between body and medium. The probe
consists of a heated temperature sensor and two additional temperature sensors. The first sensor
measures the temperature of the heated sensor and the second the temperature of the medium. The
temperature difference between heated sensor and the medium contains the information for calculating
the gas velocity with the aid of an integrated micro processor.
The indication of thermal gasflow anemometers is depending from gas conditions:
¨ specific heat
¨ conductivity
¨ density
The calibration is normally based on the medium air. For other gases (kiln gases) correction factors
should be used. Tables with such factors are available from the suppliers.
6.5.3 Vortex Anemometers (not used in practical work)
When a object is inserted in a flowing fluid then a vortex tail, known as Karman vortex street, arises.
Karman found (about 1912) out, that depending on the velocity a constant relation exists between vortex
interval and vortex sequence behind a cylindrical body in a current. He also observed that at constant flow
velocity the vortex frequency downstream remains practically constant.
Vortex anemometers are independent of gas conditions like density, pressure and temperature until
180°C. Vortex measuring probes have no moving parts. They are robust, reliable and corrosion-resistant.
Even in rough conditions as dust loaded fluids a high fatigue strength is ensured.
6.6 Characteristic Curves of the Fan
The supplier establishes the fan characteristics by measuring the difference between the static pressure
at the fan outlet and the total pressure at the fan inlet in function of the revolutions of the fan and the
volume rate. This measurement is given by the following diagram.

PS: For most fans in cement plants, it is satisfactory to assume that the fan’s static pressure is the
difference between the static pressure at the inlet (here atmospheric pressure) and outlet of the fans.
6.6.1 Measurements
n = ............. [rpm]
Dp = ............. [mbar]
From the given diagram by the supplier: Vf = ........... [m3/s]

6.7 INLET NOZZLE

Equation of Bernoulli:
(7) (8)
Continuity condition:
(9)
U - Tube manometer:
(p0 -p1) = rW . g . Dh (10)
From equations (9) and (10) :
(11)

a = 0.93 [-] (measured by the supplier)

AN = 0.1244 [m2]
rW = 1000 [kg/m3)
= ........... [kg/m3) (see 2.2)
Dh = ........... [mm W] . 0.001 [m WC]
Vf =
Vf = ........................................... [m3/s]

6.8 Manometers
6.8.1 Inclined Stationary Manometer
PS: On the instrument itself mostly not the angle a is indicated but directly the value of sin a, e.g.
1 : 5 = 0.2 = 11.5°
1 : 2 = 0.5 = 30.0°
The angle of the used manometer is fixed and the scale is calibrated in mm W
7. SYMBOL LIST OF GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT

A [m2] Cross section area

d [m] Diameter of the smallest aperture
D [m] Diameter of the tube
h [m] Height of Liquidcolumn
m [-] Cross section area ratio m = d2 / D2
[kg / s] Mass flow rate
p [N / m2] Pressure
[m3 / s] Volume flow rate
w [m / s] Velocity
a [-] Correction factor for the contraction
j [%] Humidity
e [-] Correction factor if fluid is compressible
r [kg / m3] Density
fdr [m3/m3 dry] Water content (Volume)
W0 [kg/m3 n,dry] Water content (Mass)

Engineering

B07 - Eng

C01 - Introduction to Holcim Corporate Engineering

Introduction to Holcim Corporate Engineering

This presentation is not included here.

Handouts will be provided during the presentations by Holcim Corporate Engineering.

C02 - Capital Expenditure

Guide to
Effective and Efficient Execution of
Capital Expenditure Projects
CE/HES 97/4001r/E
Revision March 2000
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CAPEX: Term and classification
2.1 Definition
2.2 Holcim Classification of CAPEX Types
2.2.1 Replacement investments
2.2.2 Rationalization investments
2.2.3 Expansion and diversification investments
2.2.4 Improvement of product quality investments
2.2.5 Social and safety investments
2.2.6 Environment investments
3. OBJECTIVES OF the GUIDE
4. IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL PROJECTS
4.1 Company Strategy and Business Plan
4.2 Plant Master Plan
4.2.1 Purpose
4.2.2 Position of Plant Master Plan in the Business Planning Cycle
4.2.3 Procedure
4.2.4 Tasks
5. PHASES OF PROJECTS
5.1 General Concept
5.2 Application of Holcim Project Management Approach
5.3 Phase 1: Studies
5.3.1 Purpose
5.3.2 Procedure
5.3.3 Tasks
5.4 Phase 2: Basic Engineering
5.4.1 Purpose
5.4.2 Procedure
5.4.3 Tasks
5.5 Phase 3: Project Execution
5.5.1 Purpose
5.5.2 Procedure
5.5.3 Tasks
5.6 Phase 4: Start-up and Commissioning
5.6.1 Purpose
5.6.2 Tasks
5.7 Phase 5: Post Investment Audit
5.7.1 Purpose
5.7.2 Tasks
6. financial evaluation of CAPEX Projects
6.1 Description of method
6.2 Example: Acquisition of a RMC plant
6.2.1 Assumptions:
6.2.2 Solution
6.3 Concluding Remarks

Annexes:
Annex I: Standard Procedures and Guides
Annex II: Business Planning Cycle: From Strategic Assessment to Yearly Actions & Budgets
Annex III: CAPEX Project Implementation: Phases and Interactions
Annex IV: Accuracy of Investment Cost Estimates
Annex V: Glossary (selected terms only)

Summary:
The document at hand is structuring the basis and the approach for preparing and executing CAPital
EXpenditure (CAPEX) projects of Holcim Group companies based on the mindset of Better Cost
Management (BCM). This guide (in short: CAPEX-Guide) offers practical support to all those involved in
CAPEX projects. It describes the nature of such projects and the means for their proper identification and
provides a generic project structure and a generic content of the project phases. Finally, it highlights the
importance of and the method for financial evaluation of CAPEX projects.
1. INTRODUCTION
It is of critical importance for the Holcim Group to establish and maintain cost leadership. Better Cost
Management (BCM) is one of the key mindsets of the Group that provides a solid pillar for corporate
strategy in today's competitive environment. Of particular relevance to the technical aspects of the
business, this mindset focuses, inter alia, on cost reduction in manufacturing but is equally important
when preparing and executing Capital Expenditure Projects.
Purchase and installation of new plant and equipment have a significant impact on the financial
performance of a cement, aggregates or ready-mix concrete company both in respect of its operating
performance and its capital costs which, in turn, depend to a great extent on investments. Keeping
investments in fixed and current assets on the strict minimum provides for the lowest possible asset base
of the companies, a key financial success factor in our industry.
Prerequisites for the achievement of this objective are a structured approach for solid preparation and
execution of Capital Expenditure Projects as well as systematic procedures to tackle all cost reduction
measures and to evaluate the financial aspects.
Continuous involvement in new projects, including the world's largest cement plants, keeps Holcim
Corporate Engineering with its divisions Holcim Engineering Switzerland (HES) and Holcim Group
Support Ltd., Canada at the forefront of new technology and has given them a wealth of know-how and
experience in project management, plant design and plant technology.
This has led, inter alia, to the perfection of systems and procedures for rational, effective and efficient
preparation and execution of Capital Expenditure Projects. Furthermore and in context with the BCM
mindset, the "stripped down" concept (SDC) for cement plant investment projects has been developed by
Corporate Engineering and applied in practice since the early 1990s.
Furthermore, it has led to the mission of Corporate Engineering (CE) to be involved in all Group company
projects exceeding an investment of USD 20 million and/or in projects using new equipment, technology
or process.
Financial project evaluations, to be established during the consecutive stages of CAPEX projects to prove
the project viability and to compare alternatives, are an integral part of the submission for project
approval. They are to follow respective evaluation rules and guidelines as established by Corporate
Controlling (CCO) and laid down in its Accounting and Reporting Manual (ARM). Hence, a comprehensive
cross-functional cooperation is required throughout the projects.
This Guide to Effective and Efficient Execution of Capital Expenditure Projects (in short: CAPEX-Guide)
contains an abstract of the most important issues to be considered in handling such projects. Addressing
not only the needs of the staff of Corporate Engineering, it is brought to the attention of all Holcim Group
companies, in particular their technical staff. It offers practical support to all those involved in CAPEX
projects and should encourage them to apply it to all projects.
2. CAPEX: TERM AND CLASSIFICATION
2.1 Definition

A Capital Expenditure (CAPEX) is defined as an expenditure that increases the fixed asset base (PPE) of
a company with the purpose of replacing part or all of the equipment of the production process, increasing
the productivity of the existing equipment, expanding the production capacity, allowing the diversification
into a new range of products or complying with internal or external safety, security or environmental
regulations.

2.2 Holcim Classification of CAPEX Types

2.2.1 Replacement investments
These are CAPEX required to sustain production capacity of a particular piece of equipment, a product
line or the whole plant, which may or may not generate a change of the resulting cash flow.
2.2.2 Rationalization investments
Such CAPEX are made to improve productivity of the existing capacity (i.e. reduction of electrical or
thermal energy consumption, reduction of personnel, etc., without increasing the capacity) and to
positively affect cash inflow.
2.2.3 Expansion and diversification investments
These CAPEX are made to increase existing capacity, create additional capacity for the existing products
or to diversify into new products. Consequently, such investments require the marketability of the
product(s) and must generate an additional cash flow.
2.2.4 Improvement of product quality investments
Such CAPEX should generate positive cash flow due to higher sales revenue.
2.2.5 Social and safety investments
These CAPEX are made to comply with internal or legal requirements with respect to social and safety
considerations or to improve the working conditions of the personnel. Such CAPEX do not normally
generate any additional cash flow.
2.2.6 Environment investments
These CAPEX are made to comply with internal or legal requirements with respect to the protection or
quality improvement of the environment. Such CAPEX do not normally generate any additional cash
inflows and may result in additional cash outflows.
3. OBJECTIVES OF THE GUIDE
This Guide is a basic paper for the Holcim Group, structuring the basis and the approach for preparing
and executing Capital Expenditure Projects. It reflects and summarizes the experience of those involved
in projects in the Holcim Group.
The Guide aims to:
¨ increase awareness of the position of actual and potential Capital Expenditure Projects in the
business planning cycle.
¨ create a common understanding of the main aspects to be dealt with in the various phases of
Capital Expenditure Projects.
¨ highlight the decision-making process, the need for a multi-disciplinary project team and the
intensive interaction in all project phases.
¨ encourage the use of common terminology and definition of important terms to facilitate
communication between the parties involved.
¨ indicate the means to achieve cost leadership through effective execution and sound evaluation
of Capital Expenditure Projects.
Particular emphasis is given to the application of the "stripped down" concept to capital investments by
highlighting the points in time during project development when SDC Audits are meaningfully conducted.
Another objective of this Guide is to indicate and describe in summary form the large volume of
organizational detail and professional skills required to achieve a low cost, performance optimized project.
Although a generic project structure and a generic content of the project phases is provided with this
Guide, the summary also highlights the need to use the services of the Group's engineering
organizations. Management and staffing of state-of-the-art projects cannot be a part-time role for plant
operating and administrative personnel.
Finally, this Guide highlights the importance of timely financial evaluations at different stages of the
project and describes the method for financial evaluation of CAPEX projects applied in the Holcim Group.
The body of this Guide in is not meant to describe specific project execution approaches and procedures
in a detailed manner. Structure and content of the project phases, however, refer to the “Detail
Contracting” Project Execution Approach (see Annex I), providing for the most comprehensive description
of tasks. The Guide leaves ample room for tailor-made approaches to match particular applications and
for the introduction of new ideas to achieve better results. Hence, responsibilities for individual tasks can
shift, also towards contractors/suppliers, and are to be fixed individually for each project at an early stage.
Modifications to approaches and procedures in this respect, obviously an ongoing concern also of CE, will
be introduced – if successfully piloted – to the Holcim Group with forthcoming revisions of this Guide.
The complete set of working tools and examples of specific procedures developed within Holcim to
embrace all aspects, procedures and tasks covered in this Guide is listed in Annex I. Specific examples
are also available from CE, including actual studies and reports prepared during the planning and
execution of past Group Company projects.
4. IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL PROJECTS
4.1 Company Strategy and Business Plan
Holcim companies take an annual look at least 5 years ahead.
Their strengths and weaknesses, opportunities and threats, key success factors, resources, etc. are
reviewed and compared with the objectives, market projections, competitors, laws, regulations and
trends.
The strategic thinking process based on the company's purpose, vision, mission, values and goals will
produce competitive strategies which will be reflected in a business plan which covers a period of 5 years
and will result in:
¨ plans for operating (non-project) activities reflecting the company's policy and competitive
strategy.
¨ definition of those capital expenditures which have to be considered in order to implement policy
and plans.
The business plan serves as a decision platform for strategic moves in the rapidly changing business
environment.
In order to allocate in an optimal way the resources necessary to increase competitiveness and
profitability, the Better Cost Management mindset must be one of the guiding principles. The main BCM
objective addressed with this Guide is the reduction of the net operating asset (NOA) base. This implies
close integration of
¨ adequate investment policy (cost effective, just in time, stripped down),
¨ risk management (change mentality from "just in case" to "just in time"),
¨ maintenance policy (reliability based, risk based, etc.),
¨ utilization of assets (utilization factor) and
¨ human resources productivity through optimal training concept (management, behavioral-team
dynamics and productivity circles- and functional training).
The Business Plan prepared by Group companies includes Capital Expenditure Projects that are
considered likely to be initiated within the 5-year period, often with a ranking of the projects according to
an initial priority judgement.
4.2 Plant Master Plan
4.2.1 Purpose
The main objective of the Plant Master Plan is:
To translate Business Plan objectives into operational and organizational measures as well as CAPEX
projects on plant level

To reach this objective the Plant Master Plan covers:

¨ the analysis of the plant’s current status with respect to the business requirements;
¨ the identification of deficiencies and the outline of remedial measures, resulting in action and
investment plans in all relevant aspects of the plant (materials, energies, production process and plant
organization);
¨ the same time period as the Company Business Plan, i.e. typically 5 years;
¨ an update frequency that allows to keep up to date with the development of business issues, i.e.
typically yearly, latest after two years;
Plant Master Plans successfully fulfilling their objectives:
¨ focus on the best exploitation of existing installations to minimize investment and operating costs;
¨ provide continuous goal orientation and guidance in planning and monitoring plant development;
¨ contribute to a common vision for long-term development of the plant;
¨ require frequent updating in response to changing business requirements;
¨ addressee all persons involved in the implementation of operational measures and investment
projects;
4.2.2 Position of Plant Master Plan in the Business Planning Cycle
The Manufacturing Plan (see Annex II) forms the linking pin between the Business Plan and the Plant
Master Plan. Whereas the Manufacturing Plan emphasis the objectives ("What do we want do accomplish
where?"), the Plant Master Plan describes in details how to achieve these objectives.
The Plant Master Plan provides the cost estimates related to the operational measures and CAPEX
projects envisaged as input into the Manufacturing Plan. The cost estimates have to be considered in the
financial projections of the Business Plan. As a consequence, simultaneous elaboration of the Business
Plan and the Plant Master Plan is recommended, as iterations may become necessary.
4.2.3 Procedure
In line with the business planning cycle the Plant Master Plan will be elaborated with a 5 years horizon. To
keep the content in line with the changes it is recommended to have a yearly update. Ideally, the update
runs in parallel with updating the Business Plan.
The nature of the Plant Master Plan causes the elaboration to be a real team effort. Only pooling the
knowledge and experience of all levels and disciplines of the company will allow for covering all aspects.
To ensure the buy-in and commitment of all parties involved in the investment decision process, it is
advised to include company management representatives. External experts from HMC and/or from other
companies might assist in challenging the status quo and bringing additional alternatives into discussion,
putting the principles of the faster learning organization into practice.
As the elaboration of the Plant Master Plan is a unique piece of work within a limited timeframe the usage
of the Holcim Project Management Approach to structure the elaboration process is recommended. The
graphic below shows the five-phase process of project management. It also provides an idea about the
main activities to be undertaken within the process and the time required for a “first time” elaboration of
the Plant Master Plan. It has to be clearly stated that the indicated duration depends strongly on the
scope of work to be executed and on how much plant personal can be integrated in the project team.

4.2.4 Tasks
Materials
¨ review of availability, reserves and suitability of raw materials considering process, product
development and quality objectives.
¨ review quarry concept and management.
¨ review of availability of alternative raw materials and correctives.
¨ review of availability of mineral components
¨ Review of product design
¨ Review of sourcing and supply contract for energies
Production Process
¨ general analysis of plant operation and performance.
¨ review general condition of the plant such as mechanical and electrical equipment as well as civil
structure.
¨ weak-point-analysis of mass flow and equipment rating in view to optimize availability, production
cost and quality.
¨ review power supply, power distribution and process control system.
¨ review quality assurance system.
¨ review of internal and external infrastructure such as air and water supply, workshops, railway,
harbor, terminals
¨ presentation of existing and possible future installations and buildings
¨ review general plant emissions and environmental aspects.
Organization
¨ review plant organization and personnel complement.
¨ review possibilities to outsource activities
¨ review procedures and processes such as maintenance, training, quality assurance, etc.
¨ review materials purchasing and stocks management.
Operational / Organizational Measures and Investment Projects
¨ outline of main features of measures, potential projects, special investigations or further studies.
¨ first estimates of investment (replacement, rationalization, extensions, quality improvement, social
and safety, environment), cost savings and implementation time. The methods and accuracy used for
such estimates should always be stated for further decision making (see Annex IV).
¨ classification according to their cost effectiveness and contribution to profitability as well as
importance to survival (see Chapters 2 and 6.2)
¨ decision on their priority ranking for follow-up.

Special Notes:

An interdisciplinary approach and a broad based experience are essential when preparing the Plant
Master Plan. Significantly more effective and efficient Plant Improvement and Capital Expenditure
Projects will be the result.
The “Guide for Establishing the Plant Master Plan” (see Annex I) provides practical assistance to all
parties involved in this undertaking.

5. PHASES OF PROJECTS
5.1 General Concept
Any CAPEX project is to be properly structured from the start to the end. The differentiation of Project
Phases and their content as presented in this Guide have proven to be most beneficial and have been
adopted by Corporate Engineering, becoming generic and serving as a "Standard" since years. A
graphical overview of the CAPEX project phases is given below (Please also refer to Annex III).
Note: The content of the project phases presented in this Guide particularly reflects the content typical for
the “Detail Contracting“ Project Execution Approach, providing for the most comprehensive description of
tasks. Obviously content and thus nature and volume of work as well as responsibilities of the parties
involved in project preparation and execution as well as project time table vary depending on the type of
project execution chosen for a particular project. More detailed information on pros and cons of alternative
project execution approaches are provided in HMC Report CE/HES97/4003/E (see Annex I).

5.2 Application of Holcim Project Management Approach

The CAPEX project execution methodology and the Holcim Project Management (PM) Approach fit in a
very logical and straightforward way. Each of the CAPEX phases can best be regarded as a project of its
own that follows the phases (steps) of the PM Approach. For example, each feasibility study - Phase 1 of
the CAPEX project - needs to be defined, planned, realized, completed and evaluated, which means it
follows all steps of the PM Approach. The following picture illustrates the fit of both methodologies.

5.3 Phase 1: Studies

¨ Preliminary Review; Opportunity Study.
¨ Pre-feasibility Study (might not be required for smaller projects).
¨ Feasibility Study.
5.3.1 Purpose
Establishing the technical, economic, legal, environmental impact and often also the political base for an
investment decision for a well-defined project.
5.3.2 Procedure
Before embarking on an in-depth and expensive feasibility (or pre-feasibility) study, it is advisable to do a
preliminary review or opportunity study on a potential project.
A brief review of existing documentation, an inspection of the site and its possibilities for access and
supply of services, a preliminary check (surface samples, outcrops, maps) of the extent and suitability of
raw materials and a preliminary evaluation of the product market and price levels is often all that's needed
to determine whether there are any major factors that obviously make the project unfeasible. The depth of
a preliminary review rarely needs to exceed 20 man-days and the project can, if need be, abandoned
cheaply (at least for the given site).
Should the preliminary review conclude positively, the company will then need to decide between doing a
pre-feasibility study (that may take up to 100 man days) or an in-depth feasibility study, which normally
requires a quarry drilling campaign and can cost upwards of USD 1 Mio for a new plant project.
The objective of a pre-feasibility study is to answer the question whether or not the venture may be
profitable under certain circumstances. Its recommendations to the management must indicate why it is
justified to proceed with an actual feasibility study.
Depending on the location of the project, the Environmental Impact Study can become a significant
undertaking that may extend over one to two years. In such cases the study itself can be considered a
sub-project. Moreover, permit application must be started early during the feasibility study phase.
Once a more detailed evaluation of a specific investment opportunity (potential project) is approved, funds
must be assigned for the studies and the company will have to establish a temporary organizational
structure, budget and time control system for this purpose. In most projects of any substance the task
exceeds the capacity and expertise of the company and Corporate Engineering (CE or Holcim Group
Support (Canada) Ltd. accordingly) should be contracted to render assistance.
This temporary organization, preferably located outside the operating units of the company, has to
perform all activities within well defined cost, time and quality limits to facilitate the necessary major
decisions by the company which might eventually lead to the final investment decision.
5.3.3 Tasks
Market
¨ review and evaluation of market, product prices, sales mix and distribution characteristics,
analysis of competition, trend identification and projections.
Environment
¨ review impact on project of socio-economic environment .
¨ review of impact on project of environmental factors, laws and trends (Environmental Impact
Study).
¨ establish initial contact with local authorities
¨ review requirements for permits and procedures.
Raw Materials
¨ estimate of probable reserves.
¨ establishment of data base for determination of raw mixes and for selection of process and
equipment.
¨ outline of exploitation and recultivation strategy for deposits.
Plant Location (for new plants only)
ã evaluation of one or several plant locations considering local conditions, market and distribution,
availability of labour and infrastructure, land acquisition, fiscal and legal regulations.
Integration into Existing Plant (for plant extensions)
¨ review of opportunities and constraints imposed on the project by existing plant environment.
¨ review of potential for interference with or interruption of ongoing operation and maintenance
during implementation of the project.
Technical Concept
¨ elaboration of alternative technical concepts with emphasis on cost-effective solutions (just-in-
time, stripped down concept) including layout and arrangement studies to form the basis for investment-
and operating cost estimates.
¨ definition of process selection, mechanical and electrical equipment, control concept, basic flow-
sheet, plant design, capacities and storages, plant utilities, infrastructure, conveying systems, civil works,
mechanical equipment erection, electrical installation, plant operation and maintenance, distribution of
cement and other products.
Cost Estimates
¨ compilation of investment, operating and distribution cost estimates, detailed and structured to
provide a basis for comprehensive financial projections.
¨ the accuracy of the estimate in this study phase is only as good as the accuracy of the
information on which it is based. As a consequence, the estimate will need to be reviewed in each of the
subsequent phases of the project (see Annex IV for accuracy of cost estimates).
Economic Analyses
¨ establish comprehensive financial projections; the net present value of cash flows from
operations and sensitivity analyses thereof are based on sales projections, socio-economic and other risk
factors, investment, production and distribution cost estimates, general time schedule, information and
assumptions regarding cost and conditions of financing, depreciation, tax and profit appropriation.
Note:

The method to be used for an economic analysis of all CAPEX projects is a 5 or 10 year financial
projection of the cash in- and outflows related to the CAPEX project. The projection reflects the financial
impact of all the assumptions made in the process of the project studies. For this purpose, Corporate
Controlling has developed an Excel based application called FINPLAN (Financial Planning Tool). For
details please refer to Chapter 6.

Project Organization and Management

¨ establish the preliminary project risk profile, documenting in a condensed form the potential
hazards and resulting risk level assumed for each major area.
¨ outline of further procedure for project implementation adapted to the method of execution
(turnkey, package, detailed contracting) chosen for the particular project.
¨ outline of general time schedule for project execution, project organization and management,
parties involved and basic division of responsibilities.
Preliminary and Final Report
¨ preparation of a draft report, to include all the above topics, with recommendations for further
action.
¨ issue of the final report after discussions of the draft report with the Company management.

5.4 Phase 2: Basic Engineering

The work under this phase starts after the decision in principle has been taken to go ahead with the
project, based on the recommendations of the feasibility report.
5.4.1 Purpose
Completion of engineering work up to the point of placing orders (letters of intent) with the main
equipment suppliers.
5.4.2 Procedure
Setting up a project organization and management procedure*). Elaboration of all aspects of engineering
design, definition of marginal criteria for process selection and equipment specification, project execution
as well as procedure for contracting, preferred contractual arrangement, broken down in accordance with
the contracting plan (turnkey, package, detailed contracting). Compilation of tender documents in the form
appropriate to and in accordance with the magnitude of the investment (refer to Guide to Alternative
Project Execution Approaches; see Annex I).
*) Note:

Preparation of an Organization Manual is often postponed until Phase 3; however, its initial set-up during
Phase 2 can be useful.

5.4.3 Tasks
Raw Materials
¨ final assessment of raw materials and final determination of raw mix and planning of quarry
operations. (latest time for completion is before the letter(s) of intent for the main process equipment are
signed).
Technical Concept
¨ continuous refinement of all aspects of the technical concept including flow-sheet, layout,
sections and typical plant and equipment arrangement drawings , firming up of main equipment and
storage capacities, elaboration of control/automation concept, always with emphasis on cost effectiveness
(BCM, stripped down concept).
¨ preparation of concise technical specifications (including specifications for civil works).
Contracting Plan
¨ identification of the contract packages and assignment of responsibilities for their execution
including liability, guarantees and warranties.
¨ preparation of tender documents including contract proposal(s), in accordance with the
contracting plan.
¨ pre-selection of suppliers and contractors.
Project Organization and Management
¨ establishment of project organization with clear definition of responsibilities, selection of methods
and procedures for cost , time and quality control.
¨ obtaining outstanding permits from national and local authorities.
¨ outline of project financing requirements and financing scheme.
¨ outline and communicate project risk profile.
Contracting Activities for Main Equipment (Based on Detail Contracting)
¨ issuing of tender documents
¨ evaluation of quotations and preparation of purchase recommendations based on cost/benefit
evaluation. (including consequential costs, e.g. civil works, operation and maintenance)
¨ preparation of draft letters of intent.
¨ contract negotiations.
¨ signing of letters of intent. To conserve capital, the actual contract signing (i.e. committing of
funds) should be postponed as long as possible, i.e. to the detail engineering phase (in accordance with
the BCM concept).
¨ obtaining of import licenses for equipment.
¨ obtaining of permit for payments in foreign currency.
Cost Estimates
¨ preparation of a detailed cost estimate leading to the project (investment) budget; based on
binding tenders for the main equipment and further completion of general arrangement drawings, which in
turn permit more accurate civil cost estimates, the quality of information has gradually increased during
this phase (see Annex IV).
Economic Analyses
¨ Development of the final financial projections of the project before decision-making, based on
additional and more precise information on costs established during this project phase and on reviewed
information from all the other areas (sales volumes, price developments etc.).
¨ These final financial projections represent the non-verbal, financial CAPEX project executive
summary and are an integral part of the submission for approval of the project to the respective approval
body.

Special Notes:

It has to be kept in mind that the investment decision taken at the end of this phase in favor of project
realization is a final decision. Thereafter, substantial amounts of funds have to be committed and a
cancellation of the project after this stage is inevitably resulting in additional cost.

Extra efforts in the phases prior to the detailed engineering phase are in most instances rewarded by
major cost savings and assured success of the project in the later phases.

5.5 Phase 3: Project Execution

This phase runs from placing of the first letter of intent or purchase order to the completion of all
engineering, construction and erection work .
5.5.1 Purpose
Completion of all detailed engineering, contracting and construction/erection activities on time and at
budgeted cost.
Implementation of an overall project monitoring and control system for quick identification of problems and
deviations from set targets and to enable fast and adequate corrective actions (schedule).
Establish at an early date adequate organization and personnel structure to operate and maintain the
plant as well as assurance of raw materials and utilities for start-up and normal operation.
5.5.2 Procedure
In order to reduce the time for construction (i.e. reduce overall investment cost), the construction is
generally "fast-tracked " parallel to the detail engineering: construction starts as soon as the first civil
drawings are available (even if these are not always based on certified equipment drawings).
5.5.3 Tasks
Contracting Activities (Based on Detail Contracting)
¨ securing approval of investment budget
¨ securing authority to place orders, purchasing of main equipment.
¨ preparation of auxiliary equipment specifications, evaluations, purchase orders.
¨ preparation of detail drawings for construction of civil works, mechanical erection and electrical
installations.
¨ preparation of all documents and schedules to coordinate above activities (including project
manual).
In case of turnkey contracting, the last two items (and sometimes more) are the responsibility of the
turnkey contractor.
Technical Concept
¨ review and approval of all supplier's and/or contractor's final documents, data, specifications and
drawings to ensure that they are as specified in the contract documents.
¨ finalize project risk profile to allow the operating management a clear analysis and perception of
operational risks/constraints resulting from cost effective solutions. Elaborate contingency plans.
Budget- and Time Control
¨ implementation of adequate control systems and continuous monitoring of budget and time
schedules.
Quality Control
¨ workshop inspections (also this aspect has increasing importance in order to prevent as early as
possible negative surprises during construction/erection due to shortcuts taken by "squeezed"
contractors).
¨ supervision of the work performed by the contractors at site.
¨ final check of all equipment, installations and civil works and preparation of final deficiency lists
and issuing pertinent certificates.
Project Organization and Management
¨ coordination of activities of all parties involved.
¨ initiation of corrective measures when deviations from set targets occur.
¨ preparation of regular project progress reports.
Plant Organization, Personnel
¨ set up of organization structures for plant operation to be ready at start-up.
¨ establish operation and maintenance policy based on "Just in Time" concept.
¨ selection and training of personnel and introduction to the project before start-up.
¨ ensuring timely availability of raw materials, correctives, additives and consumables, spare parts
prior to start-up.
¨ ensure availability of operating and maintenance manuals and instructions from suppliers; these
should be used during the training of personnel.
¨ set up marketing organization, product distribution.
¨ provisions for insurance.

5.6 Phase 4: Start-up and Commissioning

5.6.1 Purpose
Ensure that complete installations function properly and continuously under load and that contractual
obligations by contractors/suppliers are met and full rated output is achieved prior to provisional taking-
over of plant.
Under a turnkey project, this is the responsibility of the turnkey contractor, who, however, is to be
monitored.
5.6.2 Tasks
Quality Control
¨ preparation of start-up and commissioning coordination program.
¨ supervision of all tests necessary for taking-over.
¨ final check of all equipment, installations and civil works and preparation of final deficiency lists
and issuing pertinent certificates.
Project Organization and Management
¨ coordination of activities of all parties involved.
¨ initiation of corrective measures when deviations from set targets are recognized.
¨ issuance of pertinent taking-over certificate(s) and determination of penalties for unfulfilled
performance guarantees, if necessary.
¨ preparation of periodical project progress reports.
¨ project conclusion audit. (this audit must be made before the project team breaks up and is based
on continuous monitoring and feed back received throughout all the phases of project implementation).
5.7 Phase 5: Post Investment Audit
5.7.1 Purpose
Evaluation of results achieved and recording of the experience gained in the first year of operation. In
order to obtain an unbiased view, this Post Investment Audit should not be made by the original project
team. (However, knowledge of the most salient original project characteristics, assumptions, constraints
and conditions prevailing at the outset of the project as well as the directions given to the project team by
the Client has to be secured by the audit team).
5.7.2 Tasks
¨ audit technical concept and economic projections as soon as the relevant plant and equipment is
in satisfactory sustained operation.
¨ review project risk profile with the operating management; review of contingency plans; ensure
feed back of experience to management.
¨ check critical components and refine final risk profile according to operational experience.
¨ review and possibly adjust earlier decisions on postponement of certain plant and equipment in
the light of BCM.
¨ adapt operating policy according to final risk profile and communicate to management.
¨ feed back results to plant master plan.
¨ review adherence to BCM goals and concepts.
6. FINANCIAL EVALUATION OF CAPEX PROJECTS
6.1 Description of method
For all major CAPEX of a company it is mandatory that financial evaluations are established during the
consecutive stages of the CAPEX project. The financial evaluation measures the financial impacts of a
CAPEX project on the company and generally considers a time period between 5 and 10 years and is the
financial synthesis of all the aspects of the project.
As described in total context in Chapter 5 above, in the studies phase the financial evaluation is to
estimate the financial impacts of the CAPEX based on preliminary information available. At the end of the
basic engineering phase, a final financial evaluation is presented - based on the updated information on
all aspects of the project generated during this phase, carrying a higher quality - as part of the documents
submitted for final approval of a CAPEX project. After the start up and commissioning phase of a CAPEX
project (normally one year after the project was brought into commercial use), a post-investment
evaluation is performed. The post-investment evaluation bases on the financial evaluation of the basic
engineering phase and reevaluates the investment based on the current conditions and the actual project
costs. The main reason to perform such a post investment review is to learn for future projects and to
avoid, as far as possible, repetition of mistakes.
The major aspects to be considered for any financial evaluation are (recapitulation from Chapter 5
above):
¨ Political environment evaluation, in order to assess the political risk associated with a CAPEX
project;
¨ Economic outlooks, in order to estimate the future general conditions of an economy;
¨ Market studies, in order to estimate the future market situation, especially regarding prices and
volumes, including the competitive landscape and competitive dynamics;
¨ Geological studies, in order to evaluate the raw material supply and quality;
¨ Technical concept and cost estimates, in order to estimate the future impacts on production cost
and asset base of the planned CAPEX;
¨ Legal investigations, in order to assess the legal impacts of the planned CAPEX, including
environmental issues;
¨ Human resource situation, in order to evaluate the key issues associated with the management of
the CAPEX project and the operation of the CAPEX once it is completed;
For the financial evaluation of all major CAPEX projects, the method of Net Present Value of Funds
generated from Operations is to be applied. For this purpose, Corporate Controlling (CCO) has developed
a financial evaluation tool: FINPLAN (Holcim Financial Planning). The data set required for a FINPLAN
run can be adjusted according to the scope of the CAPEX project and the point in time of establishing the
projections. The calculation can also be done with a limited set of figures. (However, the quality of any
method depends fully on the accuracy of the underlying assumptions.)
The Net Present Value of Funds generated from Operations is a method, which determines the present
monetary value of a CAPEX project. The method is based on the projected cash in- and outflows of a
CAPEX project. These future cash flows are then discounted to their present value based on the targeted
return rate on capital (calculated using the weighted average cost of capital method, WACC) of the
respective Group Company. The WACC of a Company is equal to the RONOA target after tax.
6.2 Example: Acquisition of a RMC plant
6.2.1 Assumptions:

Useful life: 6 years Initial CAPEX: 90,000 CU

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6
Volume: 40 50 100 160 160 180
Selling price per unit: 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100
Cost per unit: 700 700 700 700 700 700
Selling expenses: 1,800 2,000 2,200 2,800 3,000 3,400
Administrative expenses: 3,000 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,000 4,000
Change of working capital: 1,000 1,000 1,000
Residual value: 0
WACC: RONOA target: 18.0 %
Tax rate 25.0 %
Target return rate = WACC: 13.5 %

6.2.2 Solution
6.2.2.1 Input for the FINPLAN

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Volume
Price 40
1'100 50
1'100 100
1'100 160
1'100 160
1'100 180
1'100
Sales net of taxes Distribution costs
Cost of products sold 44'000
0
(28'000) 55'000
0
(35'000) 110'000
0
(70'000) 176'000
0
112'000 176'000
0
112'000 198'000
0
126'000
Gross profit

Selling expenses Administrative expenses 16'000

(1'800)
(3'000) 20'000
(2'000)
(3'000) 40'000
2'200
3'500 64'000
2'800
4'000 64'000
3'000
4'000 72'000
3'400
4'000
EBITDA 11'200 15'000 34'300 57'200 57'000 64'600
Depreciation (15'000) (15'000) (15'000) (15'000) (15'000)
(15'000)
EBIT (3'800) 0 19'300 42'200 42'000 49'400
Initial CAPEX investment (90'000)
Change of net working capital (increase) (1,000) (1,000) (1,000)

6.2.2.2 Calculation of the net present value of funds generated from operations

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
EBIT (3'800) 0 19'300 42'200 42'000 49'400
Depreciation 15'000 15'000 15'000 15'000 15'000 15'000
Change in NWC (1'000) (1'000) (1'000)
CAPEX (90'000)
Taxes on EBIT 0 0 (4'825) (10'550) (10'500) (12'350)
Funds generated from operations (after tax) (90'000) 10'200 15'000 28'475 45'650 46'500
52'050
Discounted funds from operations at the rate of 13.5 % (90'000) 8'987 11'644 19'475 27'507
24'687 24'347
Net present value of funds generated from operations
26'647

6.3 Concluding Remarks

All financial information (Sales, Costs and Expenses) should only be related to the Project and represent
the additional cash in- and outflows. If the cash flows of the CAPEX project cannot be separated from the
cash flows of the existing operations, two FINPLANS should be prepared. One FINPLAN with the status
quo information and one FINPLAN amended for the impacts of the CAPEX project. The difference
between the two net present values of funds generated from operations is the net present value
generated by the CAPEX project.
From a financial evaluation point of view, a CAPEX project is advantageous if it generates a positive net
present value of funds generated from operations.
FINPLAN is a sophisticated tool for financial projection. Hence, it should be used in close cooperation
with the financial/controlling department of the company and/or Corporate Controlling (CCO).
Detailed information on the FINPLAN can be found in the Holcim Accounting and Reporting Manual
(ARM), Chapter 9. The description is accessible through HolSpace (Administration: General
Management: Accounting and Reporting Manual for KIWI). For access to the database, please contact
your local financial/controlling department.
A simplified projection model for the comparison of alternative technical solutions on plant department
level (e.g. comparison of economics of different grinding systems) is under development and will soon be
made available to interested parties.
Other possible financial evaluation methods are the operating Internal Rate of Return (IRR) or the static
payback. These methods should, however, only be used as complementary methods next to the Net
Present Value of funds generated from operation. Information on these methods can be found in the
ARM, Chapter 11, dealing with capital expenditures in general.

For further information please contact:

Holcim Group Support Ltd.
Corporate Engineering
CH-5113 Holderbank
Switzerland
Ph: ++41 62 887 61 61
Fx: ++41 62 887 62 75
E-Mail: [email protected]

Holcim Group Support (Canada) Ltd

2310 Lakeshore Road W.
CAN-Mississauga, Ont L5J 1K2
Canada
Ph: ++1 905 822 16 93
Fx: ++1 905 822 16 98
E-Mail: [email protected]

This Guide is also available on:

Lotus Notes: CE Info
“HolSpace” (as of October 2000)

STANDARD PROCEDURES AND GUIDES

¨ BCM - Better Cost Management (HMC Report Dir. 93/9002/E)

¨ Stripped down Concept Seminar (HMC Report CE 00/4005/E)
¨ Guide for Establishing the Plant Master Plan (HMC Report CE/HES99/4004/E)
¨ Manual for the Preparation of Industrial Feasibility Studies (United Nations publication ID/206)
¨ Alternative Project Execution Approaches (A supporting document to the "Guide to Effective and
Efficient Capital Expenditures" (CAPEX); HMC Report CE/HES97/4002/E)
¨ Investment Cost Presentation (ICP) (A supporting document to the "Guide to Effective and
Efficient Capital Expenditures" (CAPEX); HMC Report CE/HES97/4003/E)
¨ HAC - Manual Holcim Asset-Code (Cement Plant Coding and Base for Asset Management
Systems) (last Edition)
¨ Holcim Accounting and Reporting Manual, Chapter 10: Capital Expenditure (Corporate
Controlling)
¨ FINPLAN - Holcim Financial Planning Model
¨ Model examples available from Corporate Engineering:
· Typical reports on raw material investigations, various stages
· Typical flowsheets, massflow diagrams, plant layouts and general arrangement drawings
· Typical Feasibility Reports
· Typical Tender Documents including Equipment Specifications
· Typical Tender Evaluation Reports
· Typical Contracts
· Typical Project Organization Diagrams
· Typical Project Progress Report, General
· Typical Project Progress Report, Site

Business Planning Cycle: From Strategic Assessment to Yearly Actions & Budgets

GLOSSARY (selected terms only)

Letter Of Intent (LOI):

A letter signed by the Owner and the Supplier/Contractor expressing the formal intention by the Owner to
purchase equipment and/or services. This letter defines the scope of work by means of technical
specifications, general conditions and supplier proposal. It also contains a mutually agreed delivery
schedule, price, terms of payment, performance guarantees and warranties, shop inspection schedules
and special clauses for cancellation, liquidated damages, etc.
The LOI may also define the limits to which the supplier is authorized to proceed, the interim information
(drawings, load data, etc.) which the Owner requires and the interim payment for these services, pending
completion of arrangements for finalizing a formal contract.
The LOI may also stipulate to which conditions the intent of purchase is subject (e.g. subject to approval
of Board or proper authority, subject to obtaining the necessary financing, etc.).
The LOI is also the culmination of procurement activities for the main equipment.
Dry Run:
Operation of the equipment without material for a sufficient period to establish that the equipment has
been installed correctly and operates according to specifications and that it is ready for commissioning.
Commissioning Period:
A period that begins when the dry runs have been successfully completed (and operation with material
can start) and ends with successful performance tests.
Performance Test:
Test made under the supervision of the supplier for the purpose of ascertaining the fulfilment of the
performance guarantees.
Project Execution Time:
Considering the number of variables affecting the project execution time, particularly at the front end of
the project, the project execution time is defined starting at the signing of the LOI for the main equipment
and finishing at the end of the commissioning period. At this point, a product of specified quality is
produced allowing the Owner to generate cash flow from the new facility.
Fast Track:
Methodology to reduce the time between the disbursement of capital for a project and earning first income
from it. In this context, Detail Contracting can be advantageous because of overlapping engineering and
construction/erection activities. Hence, it is not “Fast Track” to eliminate or reduce to a minimum the
preliminary engineering or to jump from brief concepts to project execution.

C03 - Plant Master Plan

Guide for Establishing the

Plant Master Plan
CE/HES99/4004/E
1. INTRODUCTION
2. OBJECTIVES OF THE PLANT MASTER PLAN
3. THE POSITION OF THE PLANT MASTER PLAN IN BUSINESS PLANNING
4. PROCEDURE FOR ELABORATING THE PLANT MASTER PLAN
4.1 Starting Points
4.2 People Involved
4.3 The Approach
5. GENERIC TABLE OF CONTENTS OF PLANT MASTER PLAN
6. ESSENTIALS OF THE INDIVIDUAL PARTS OF THE GENERIC TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
6.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE PLANT MASTER PLAN
6.3 BUSINESS PLAN OBJECTIVES
6.4 METHODOLOGY TO ACHIEVE BUSINESS PLAN OBJECTIVES
6.5 MATERIALS AND ENERGIES SUPPLY
6.5.1 Materials
6.5.2 Energy
6.6 PRODUCTION PROCESS AND PLANT
6.6.1 General Remarks on Plant Development
6.6.2 Main Production Process
6.6.3 Internal Infrastructure
6.6.4 External Infrastructure
6.6.5 Environmental Management
6.6.6 Obsolete Plant Sections
6.6.7 Dumps
6.7 PLANT ORGANIZATION AND SUPPORTING FUNCTIONS
6.7.1 Organizational Structure
6.7.2 Personnel
6.7.3 Quality Assurance
6.7.4 Maintenance
6.7.5 Purchasing and Stocks Management
6.7.6 Social and Health Management
6.7.7 Plant Security Management
6.7.8 Public Relations
6.7.9 Labor Union Relations
6.8 SUMMARY OF OPERATIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL MEASURES
6.9 SUMMARY OF CAPEX PROJECTS
6.10 COST DEVELOPMENT (and optionally:) FINANCIAL PROJECTIONS
6.11 PLANT DEVELOPMENT ALTERNATIVES
6.11.1 Exhausting Capacity Reserves
6.11.2 Maximizing clinker production capacity of installed kiln systems
6.11.3 Considerations in view of plant extensions
6.12 IMPLEMENTATION PLAN AND PROCESS FOR PMP UPDATES

ANNEXES
1) DETAILED GENERIC TABLE OF CONTENT
2) Table for summary of operational and organizational measures
3) Table for summary of CAPEX projects
4) Useful tips when analyzing the plant organization
5) A summary of the process to set up a Training Master Plan
6) Elements to consider when analyzing the maintenance environment

Summary:
The document at hand defines the objectives of a Plant Master Plan (PMP), positions the Plant Master
Plan in the Business Planning process and highlights most important aspects of the elaboration of a Plant
Master Plan. In order to give practical support to all those involved in the elaboration of Plant Master
Plans a generic table of contents for Plant Master Plans is included.
1. INTRODUCTION
The newly developed Plant Master Plan approach – piloted in Merone and Hisalba – has proven to be an
excellent planning tool for the early identification of future needs, necessary capital expenditures and
operational improvements within an existing plant. This guide provides assistance in the establishment of
the Plant Master Plan. The objective of the guide is to create a common understanding of the main
aspects around Plant Master Plans amongst people working in the Holcim group.
More specifically, reading this guide will:
¨ improve the understanding of objectives and scope of the Plant Master Plan;
¨ clarify the integration of the Plant Master Plan into the business-planning cycle;
¨ provide a logical and generic structure for the Plant Master Plan;
¨ offer a series of questions to consider during elaboration of the Plant Master Plan;
¨ provide templates to facilitate 'first time' implementation;
¨ give insight into the approach for a project to establish the Plant Master Plan;
The structure of the document follows the above aspects.

The Plant Master Plan gained importance in recent years mainly due to the following four reasons:
¨ Enhancements within the planning cycles
The process to standardize the Holcim Group companies’ planning cycles put also the Plant Master Plan
in the limelight: The Plant Master Plan is the document which translates the strategy of the Business Plan
into operational and organizational measures as well as into CAPEX projects on plant level.
¨ Continuous improvement needs in plant performance and product quality
Continuing importance of low cost production and of high product quality, satisfying growing market
requirements, has to be transformed on plant level into measures aiming at high plant utilization and at
appropriate quality assurance.
¨ Increased number of small CAPEX projects
While being successfully applied in many major projects, the Stripped Down Concept proved difficult to be
applied in smaller CAPEX projects. Hence, the Plant Master Plan, having a long-term perspective and a
clear focus on the Business Plan objectives, is a good tool to co-ordinate also those projects.
¨ Acquisition of plants with extensive rehabilitation requirements
These acquisitions lead to the need of a more standardized approach towards planning of all operational
and organizational improvements. A standard Plant Master Plan structure provides a planning tool, which
also makes the co-operation easier for the various specialists involved.

2. OBJECTIVES OF THE PLANT MASTER PLAN

The main objective of the Plant Master Plan is
To translate Business Plan objectives into operational and organizational measures as well as CAPEX
projects on plant level

To reach this objective the Plant Master Plan covers:

¨ the analysis of the plant’s current status with respect to the business requirements;
¨ the identification of deficiencies and the outline of remedial measures, resulting in action and
investment plans for all relevant aspects of the plant (materials, energies, production process and plant
organization);
¨ the same time period as the Company Business Plan, i.e. typically 5 years;
¨ an update frequency that allows to keep up to date with the development of business issues, i.e.
typically yearly, latest after two years;

Plant Master Plans successfully fulfilling their objectives:

¨ focus on the best exploitation of existing installations to minimize investment and operating costs;
¨ provide continuous goal orientation and guidance in planning and monitoring plant development
to meet the objectives defined by the Company Business Plan;
¨ contribute to a common vision for long-term development of the plant;
¨ require frequent updating in response to changing business requirements;
¨ address all persons involved in the implementation of operational measures and investment
projects;
¨ provide transparency to support decisions on operational measures and help make investments
understandable to all stakeholders in the development strategy for the plant;

3. THE POSITION OF THE PLANT MASTER PLAN IN BUSINESS PLANNING

The figure below shows the Business Planning Cycle including the position of the Plant Master Plan
Figure 1: Business Planning Cycle: from Strategic Assessment to Yearly Actions & Budgets

As the figure shows, the Manufacturing Plan forms the linking pin between the Business Plan and the
Plant Master Plan. Whereas the Manufacturing Plan emphasis the objectives ("What do we want do
accomplish where?"), the Plant Master Plan describes in details “how” to achieve these objectives.
The Plant Master Plan provides the cost estimates related to the operational measures and CAPEX
projects envisaged as input for the Manufacturing Plan. The cost estimates have to be considered in the
financial projections of the Business Plan.
As a consequence, simultaneous elaboration of the Business Plan and the Plant Master Plan is
recommended, as iterations may become necessary.

NB: For Group Companies with one plant only a separation of Manufacturing Plan and Plant Master Plan
may not be sensible and the two planning steps ("What do we want to accomplish where and how?") may
be compiled jointly in one document.

4. PROCEDURE FOR ELABORATING THE PLANT MASTER PLAN

4.1 Starting Points
In line with the business planning cycle the Plant Master Plan is to be elaborated with a 5 years horizon.
To keep the content in line with the changes it is recommended to have a yearly update. To enable this
yearly update the individual chapters are shaped to make a rolling process possible. Ideally, the update
runs in parallel with updating the Business Plan. To keep track of modifications the main paragraphs could
be marked with the date of revision.
4.2 People Involved
The nature of the Plant Master Plan requires the elaboration to be a real team effort. Only pooling the
knowledge and experience of all levels and disciplines of the company will allow for covering all aspects.
To ensure the buy-in and commitment of all parties involved in the investment decision process, it is
advised to include company management representatives. External experts from HMC and/or from other
companies might assist in challenging the status quo and bringing additional alternatives into discussion,
putting the principles of the faster learning organization into practice.
The graphic below pictures an example for the organization and the split of responsibilities for the
elaboration of two Plant Master Plans within one Company.
Figure 2: Example of the project organization for elaboration of the Plant Master Plan

4.3 The Approach

As the elaboration of the Plant Master Plan is a unique piece of work within a limited timeframe the usage
of the Holcim Project Management Approach to structure the elaboration process is recommended. The
graphic below shows the five-phase process of project management. It also provides an idea about the
main activities to be undertaken within the process and the time required for a “first time” elaboration of
the Plant Master Plan. It has to be clearly stated that the indicated duration depends strongly on the
scope of work to be executed and on how much plant personnel can be integrated in the project team.
Figure 3: Phases and activities of the elaboration process and typical time-frame for a “first time”
implementation

Phase I “Definition” is about

¨ Creating a common understanding between all people involved on aspects such as objectives,
the approach and deliverables of the elaboration, the main tasks, the resources and the costs.
¨ Gathering information on other elaboration processes to incorporate learnings.

Phase II “Planning” is about

¨ creating a level of detail that the people involved feel comfortable with and that the targets will be
met on time;
¨ ensuring actions have been defined to deal with known risks of the elaboration process;
¨ all people involved agree on the process of communication within and outside the team;
Phase III “Realization” is about
¨ ensuring the actual elaboration of the Plant Master Plan gets done in time and within budget;
¨ resolving any issues that might have an impact on the outcome of the project;
¨ capturing the learning’s of this elaboration process in order to make future elaboration’s or
updates easier;
¨ ensuring that implementation plan and respective control system are established;
The picture below shows the five steps in elaborating the individual chapters of the Plant Master Plan with
an indication of the time required for their elaboration.

Phase IV “Completion” is about

¨ handing over the results (Plant Master Plan) to the organization;
¨ ensuring that mechanisms for updating are in place;

Phase V “Evaluation and Transfer” is about

¨ transferring the learning’s of this elaboration process in order to make future elaboration’s and
updates easier;
¨ providing feedback within the team to be more effective in updates;

5. GENERIC TABLE OF CONTENTS OF PLANT MASTER PLAN

The generic Table of Contents for the Plant Master Plan provides:
¨ a logical order in the content of the Plant Master Plan;
¨ a checklist to ensure that all aspects are covered;
¨ a basis for assigning the responsibilities for elaborating the various parts of the Plant Master Plan
in the project team;
¨ the opportunity to easily access different Plant Master Plans (common language within the
Group);

1) SUMMARY
2) CONCEPT OF PLANT MASTER PLAN
3) BUSINESS PLAN OBJECTIVES
4) METHODOLOGY TO ACHIEVE BUSINESS PLAN OBJECTIVES
5) MATERIALS AND ENERGIES SUPPLY
6) PRODUCTION PROCESS AND PLANT
7) PLANT ORGANIZATION AND SUPPORTING FUNCTIONS
8) SUMMARY OF OPERATIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL MEASURES
9) SUMMARY OF CAPEX PROJECTS
10) COST DEVELOPMENT (and optionally:) FINANCIAL PROJECTIONS
11) PLANT DEVELOPMENT SCENARIOS
12) IMPLEMENTATION PLAN AND PROCESS FOR PMP UPDATES

The detailed Generic Table of Contents is attached in Annex 1. In order to explain the content of the
individual chapters and subchapters detailed explanations are given in chapter 6 of this Guide. Please
note that this Generic Table of Contents in no way imposes restrictions on adding or changing
paragraphs, this just provides a recommended outline.

6. ESSENTIALS OF THE INDIVIDUAL PARTS OF THE GENERIC TABLE OF CONTENTS

6.1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Function: provide an executive summary
It summarizes the main operational and organizational measures as well as the main CAPEX projects to
achieve the Business Plan objectives on plant level including summaries of disbursement plan and
development of production cost.
6.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE PLANT MASTER PLAN
Function: clarify to all readers the objectives of the Plant Master Plan
It includes the main purpose and objectives such as “the translation of the Business Plan objectives into
operational measures and CAPEX projects”.
6.3 BUSINESS PLAN OBJECTIVES
Function: provide an overview of the relevant input data transferred from the Business Plan.
It includes in particular the Manufacturing Plan objectives but possibly also relevant input stemming from
other functional plans.
In case of absence of a Business Plan, this part contains the conditions and objectives defined by
Company Management. Ideally, a process similar to the Business Planning process (Strategic
Assessment, Strategic Direction and Outline of Manufacturing Plan) is followed in order to arrive at
sensible scenarios as basis for the Plant Master Plan.
It might be important to analyze the Company strategy with regard to long-term targets, which are
extending beyond the time horizons of the Business Plan. Such targets may require study work and in
special cases even CAPEX already within the horizon of the Plant Master Plan (e.g. plant development
scenarios).
6.4 METHODOLOGY TO ACHIEVE BUSINESS PLAN OBJECTIVES
Function: establish a link between the objectives of the Business Plan and the detailed analyses and
proposals for plant development established in the various parts of the Plant Master Plan.
It includes a brief analysis of the main objectives and the main measures and investments to achieve
these objectives. It summarizes the results of open creative thinking during initial brain storming sessions.
Existing structures and boundaries should be questioned to enable the elaboration of creative
alternatives.
Main objectives of a Business Plan are case specific. Hence the structure of this chapter in terms of
subparagraph will be case specific, i.e. tailored to the Company and its environment. The example given
in the Generic Table of Contents is therefore for guidance purposes only.
NOTE: In order to determine when which of the following chapters has been issued and when the last
revision has been updated, it is recommended to mark each main chapter with the date of issue and the
date of revision.
GENERAL COMMENTS ON CHAPTER 5 TO 10
The chapters 5, 6, and 7 contain analyses and development plans for the whole plant. All these chapters
are divided into sections and these sections follow the same structure:
1. Current and Actual Situation
2. Weak Points and Bottle Necks
3. Alternatives for Development
4. Operational and organizational measures
5. CAPEX Projects.
Measures and projects are then summarized in chapters 8 and 9 and the consequent development of
production cost is presented in chapter 10.
6.5 MATERIALS AND ENERGIES SUPPLY
6.5.1 Materials
6.5.1.1 Regional Geological Structure
Includes a brief outline of the regional geology of the area and reference to available documents such as
published topographical and geological maps as wells as mapping material in use at the plant(s).
6.5.1.2 Potential Material Resources
Includes the identification and brief description of potentially interesting materials to be exploited within a
radius of 50 km or to be procured such as limestone, special clays, pozzolana, gypsum, iron ore, bauxite,
gravel/sand, aggregates.
6.5.1.3 Raw Materials - Main Components
6.5.1.3.1 Past and Actual Situation
Includes the list of references for following documents for each raw material deposit:
* Topographical and geological map
* Geological cross-sections, structural model
* Summary of carried out exploration work, including date, number and total volume of drill-holes,
trenches, pit holes, geophysical measurements, type and number of analyses
Includes a brief outline of the raw materials evaluation:
* Chemical composition of all raw material components including all elements of interest
* Physical aspects of raw materials: humidity, density, porosity, hardness, mineralogical
composition
* Critical elements like chlorine, sulfur, magnesium, alkalis and the corresponding implications
* Emission levels of raw materials: pyrite, ammonia, organic components, TOC, heavy metals
Includes the strategic planning for each of the raw material deposits, block modeling and optimized
scheduling, determination of reserves and associated waste rock and/or overburden. In this paragraph
also the most important possibilities and limitations for the manufacturing process and/or equipment from
a raw material point of view will be included
Includes the most important environmental aspects with respect to mining like:
* surface and/or subsurface water management
* geo-technical stability and risks
* public relation measures
* data on noise, dust and vibration situation
* legal situation of environmental permits
* ultimate pit, rehabilitation plans, type of rehabilitation

Includes the important factors of mining like:

* geo-technical situation
* mining methods, blast parameters, use of explosives
* loading and transport system capacities
* contractors deployed
* mining costs
6.5.1.3.2 Weak Points and Bottle Necks
The paragraph shows actual restrictions and limits in exploitation, procurement and utilization of the raw
material main components with respect to volume, quality and price as well as anticipated problems in
meeting the Business Plan objectives.
6.5.1.3.3 Alternative for Development
Includes the description of options available to the plant, an assessment of these alternatives and the
reasoning for the selection of the solution to be implemented
6.5.1.3.4 Operational and Organizational Measures
Includes operational measures related to the selected solution for the optimization of the raw material
main component supply.
6.5.1.3.5 CAPEX Projects
Includes all investments related to the selected solution for an improvement of raw material main
component supply or required acquisition of potential raw material deposits.
6.5.1.4 Correctives
6.5.1.4.1 Past and Actual Situation
Includes data on type, source, availability, distance, storage capacity and cost of correctives. Supply
specifications will also be included where applicable. Includes data on chemical and physical (moisture,
granulometry) characteristics of the materials.
Includes information on environmental and safety aspects where appropriate (permits, special internal or
external control requirements).
6.5.1.4.2 Weak Points and Bottle Necks
The paragraph shows actual restrictions and limits in exploitation, procurement and utilization of the
correctives with respect to volume, quality and price as well as anticipated problems in meeting the
Business Plan objectives. It includes a brief analysis of the corrective market (if not contained in the
Business Plan).
6.5.1.4.3 Alternative for Development
Includes the description of options available to the plant, an assessment of these alternatives and the
reasoning for the selection of the solution to be implemented.
6.5.1.4.4 Operational and Organizational Measures
Includes operational measures related to the selected solution for the optimization of the corrective
supply.
6.5.1.4.5 CAPEX Projects
Includes all investments related to the selected solution for an improvement of corrective supply or
required acquisition of potential correctives sources.
6.5.1.5 Gypsum
Same structure and content as 5.1.4 Correctives
6.5.1.6 Mineral Components
Same structure and content as 5.1.4 Correctives
6.5.1.7 Alternative Raw Materials
Same structure and content as 5.1.4 Correctives
6.5.1.8 Product Flexibility and Limitations
6.5.1.8.1 Past and Actual Situation
Includes a description of the products manufactured in the past and actually.
6.5.1.8.2 Weak Points and Bottle Necks
The paragraph shows current restrictions and limitations for the actually manufactured products with
respect to volume, quality, cost and price as well as anticipated problems in meeting the Business Plan
objectives. It includes a brief analysis of the cement product market (if not contained in the Business
Plan).
6.5.1.8.3 Alternative for Development
Includes the description of options of what type of different products could be manufactured at the plant
(e.g. low alkali clinker, SR clinker, special cements for dam construction, oil well, etc.) An assessment of
these alternatives and the reasoning for the selection of the solution to be implemented
6.5.1.8.4 Operational and Organizational Measures
Includes operational measures related to the selected solution for the optimization of the product
flexibility.
6.5.1.8.5 CAPEX Projects
Includes all investments related to the selected solution for an improvement of product flexibility.
6.5.2 Energy
6.5.2.1 Electrical Energy
6.5.2.1.1 Past and Actual Situation
Includes the description of the past and actual electrical energy supply situation: supplier (s) profile, key
parameters of supply contract(s), tariff structure, main technical data at point of supply including
availability and reliability.
6.5.2.1.2 Weak Points and Bottle Necks
The paragraph shows actual restrictions and limitations for the internal operation of the different
production facilities as well as anticipated problems in meeting the Business Plan objectives. It includes a
brief analysis of the electrical energy market and trends like energy policies, new suppliers, energy stock
market etc. (if not contained in the Business Plan).

6.5.2.1.3 Alternatives for Development

Includes the description of options available to the plant, an assessment of these alternatives and the
reasoning for the selection of the solution to be implemented.
6.5.2.1.4 Operational Measures
Includes operational measures related to the selected solution for the optimization of the supply
contract(s). This also incorporates all internal measures related to the electrical tariff structure like
production planning, peak load control, co-generation, improvement of cos phi etc.
6.5.2.1.5 Investment Projects
Includes all investments related to the selected solution for an improvement of the electrical energy
supply or a better usage of the given tariff structure. Examples are energy management systems,
equipment for co-generation, equipment for improvement of cos phi or filters for suppression of
harmonics.
6.5.2.1.6 Thermal Energy
6.5.2.1.7 Past and Actual Situation
Includes a list of the current classical fuel situation: types of fuel used, fuel mix, sourcing, prices etc.
NB. Assets for storing and preparation will be covered in paragraph 6.2.8 Fuels Preparation and Storage.
6.5.2.1.8 Weak Points and Bottle Necks
The paragraph shows actual restrictions and limitations for the internal operation of the different
production facilities as well as anticipated problems in meeting the Business Plan objectives.
6.5.2.1.9 Alternatives for Development
Includes the description of options available to the plant, an assessment of these alternatives and the
reasoning for the selection of the solution to be implemented.
6.5.2.1.10 Operational Measures
Includes operational measures in the sourcing of the fuels with respect to the selected alternative.
NB. Measures regarding the use of the fuels in the plant will be covered in paragraph 6.2.8 Fuels
Preparation and Storage.
6.5.2.1.11 Investment Projects
Includes investments in the fuel markets, e.g. projects to develop the availability of alternative fuels with
respect to the selected alternative.
NB. CAPEX required to allow for the use of other fuels will be covered in paragraph 6.2.8 Fuels
Preparation and Storage (for installations in the plant) or in an additional paragraph under 6.4 External
Infrastructure (for installations outside of the plant).
Hence such CAPEX projects may be referenced also under this paragraph.
6.5.2.2 Alternative Fuels
6.5.2.2.1 Past and Actual Situation
Includes a list of the alternative fuel situation: types of fuel used, fuel mix, sourcing, prices etc. NB. Assets
for storing and preparation will be covered in paragraph 6.2.8 Fuels Preparation and Storage.
6.5.2.2.2 Weak Points and Bottle Necks
The paragraph shows actual restrictions and limits for the internal operation of the different production
facilities as well as anticipated problems in meeting the Business Plan objectives. Includes also a brief
analysis on the situation on (liquid and solid) alternative fuels.
6.5.2.2.3 Alternatives for Development
Includes the description of options available to the plant, an assessment of these alternatives and the
reasoning for the selection of the solution to be implemented. In case of underdeveloped waste markets,
elaboration of possibilities for proactive measures on alternative fuels to ensure a timely control and to
enable their use as soon as market conditions make it feasible.
6.5.2.2.4 Operational Measures
Includes operational measures in the sourcing of the fuels with respect to the selected alternative.
NB. Measures regarding the use of the fuels in the plant will be covered in paragraph 6.2.8 Fuels
Preparation and Storage.
6.5.2.2.5 Investment Projects
Includes investments in the fuel markets, e.g. projects to develop the availability of alternative fuels with
respect to the selected alternative.
NB. CAPEX required to allow for the use of other fuels will be covered in paragraph 6.2.8 Fuels
Preparation and Storage (for installations in the plant) or in an additional paragraph under 6.4 External
Infrastructure (for installations outside of the plant).
Hence such CAPEX projects may be referenced also under this paragraph.
6.6 PRODUCTION PROCESS AND PLANT
The structure of this part is asset focused and follows HAC (Holcim Asset Code) and ICP (Investment
Cost Presentation) structures. Asset orientation might become problematic where operational procedures
are far more important than the related assets. This is the case e.g. in quality control and maintenance.
The beginning of such "asset sub-paragraphs" (e.g. 6.2.9 Quality Assurance / Laboratory and Control
Room and 6.3.3 Workshops, Warehouses, Stores, Garages) can contain references to corresponding
"process sub-paragraphs" (7.3 Quality Assurance and 7.4 Maintenance) which focus on the respective
concepts (Quality Assurance Concept and Maintenance Concept).
6.6.1 General Remarks on Plant Development
6.6.1.1 Current Situation: Plant Concept, Operation and Staffing
Includes main features of the current plant, its operation and staffing to give the background for the more
detailed analysis covered in this chapter.
6.6.1.2 Constraints for Plant Development
Includes important constraints for the development of the plant. "Important" in this context means:
imposing certain (technical) solutions or excluding solutions which otherwise would seem reasonable
alternatives.
Examples are:
* Constraints imposed by existing facilities.
* Legal requirements (e.g. environmental regulations).
* Constraints imposed by property boundaries, neighbors etc.
* Constraints imposed by contracts, agreements etc. (e.g. restrictions on lay-offs of personnel)
6.6.2 Main Production Process
6.6.2.1 Raw Material Extraction
6.6.2.2 Raw Materials Preparation and Storage
6.6.2.3 Alternative Raw Materials Preparation and Storage
6.6.2.4 Correctives Preparation and Storage
6.6.2.5 Raw Meal Preparation and Storage
6.6.2.6 Clinker Manufacture and Storage
6.6.2.7 Cement Grinding and Storage
6.6.2.8 Packing and Shipping
6.6.2.9 Gypsum and Additives Preparation and Storage
6.6.2.10 Mineral Components Preparation and Storage
6.6.2.11Traditional Fuels Preparation and Storage
6.6.2.12 Alternative Fuels Preparation and Storage
6.6.2.13 Flue Gas Treatment
6.6.2.14 Quality Assurance / Laboratory and Control Room
6.6.2.15 Main Substation and Power Distribution
6.6.2.16 Control and Automation
6.6.2.17 Drives
6.6.2.18 Instrumentation
6.6.3 Internal Infrastructure
6.6.3.1 Air Supply
6.6.3.2 Water Supply, Water and Sewage Treatment
6.6.3.3 Steam Supply
6.6.3.4 Workshops, Warehouses, Stores, Garages
6.6.3.5 Vehicles, Mobile Production Equipment (excl. Quarry)
6.6.3.6 Administration, EDP, Amenities
6.6.3.7 Power Plant
6.6.3.8 Roads and Squares, Landscaping
6.6.3.9 Railway
6.6.4 External Infrastructure
6.6.4.1 Roads
6.6.4.2 Railway
6.6.4.3 Harbor
6.6.4.4 Terminals
6.6.4.5 Pipelines
6.6.4.6 Transmission Lines for Electrical Power
6.6.4.7 Housing Estate

The structure of the above three main paragraphs (6.2, 6.3 and 6.4) follows the grouping of production
facilities according HAC (Holcim Asset Code) where possible. To reduce efforts only departments are to
be included where operational measures and/or investment projects are envisaged. The analyses of
these departments are to follow the same standard structure.
6.x.x.1 Past and Actual Situation
Includes a short description of equipment installed/available in the plant including the relevant technical
data and the main features of the current operation. Just a factual background for the assessment of a
department's situation and the proposed measures and investment will do; as the actual overview of the
assessment of the situation follows in the next paragraph.
6.x.x.2 Weak Points and Bottle Necks
Includes information on performance indicators such as OEE, availability and production rate, energy
efficiency, operating cost, quality and quantities (situation with regard to production targets as per
Business Plan), environment (compliance with local regulations, compliance with target environmental
standard), health and labor safety (data provided for the Holcim Annual Technical Report may be taken
into consideration in this analysis).
It also includes a brief assessment of the condition of civil structures, mechanical and electrical equipment
and the remaining lifetime of structures and equipment.
6.x.x.3 Alternatives for Development
Includes the basic alternatives, which have been considered for the improvement of the department in
view of the Business Plan objectives. An evaluation of the basic alternatives will show the technical and
economical background for the selection of the alternative that is presented in more detail in the following
two paragraphs.
6.x.x.4 Operational Measures
Includes the main features of the operational measures required for the implementation of the selected
alternative(s). Main features can include priority ranking, costs and benefits and time schedule for
implementation.
For further details and background of major operational measures please refer to Annex 2.
6.x.x.5 CAPEX Projects
Includes the main features of the CAPEX projects required for the implementation of the selected
alternative. Main features include priority ranking, cost and benefits or drawbacks (e.g. in the case of
operating cost of new facilities for environmental protection), IRR/payback calculation (if applicable) and
time schedule for implementation.
For further details and background of major operational measures please refer to Appendix B.
6.6.5 Environmental Management
6.6.5.1 Stack Emissions
Addresses the issue of the concentrations of contaminants (dust, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, etc.)
emitted from the individual stacks (raw mill/kiln, kin bypass, cooler, cement mill, coal mill, dryer) and a
description of how the concentrations are measured.
6.6.5.2 Dust Control Measures
Addresses the issue of equipment such as an air pollution control system to control the dust emitted
throughout the different stages of the process, equipment related to material handling and storage (such
as conveyor systems, silos, and transfer points) equipped with dust collectors. It also covers information
on dust collection and disposal in case the kiln is equipped with a bypass.
6.6.5.3 Liquid Effluents
Addresses the issue of how the process wastewater and the domestic sewage are treated before being
discharged to surface water. If available an analysis of the discharged water (pH, BOD5, oil and grease
content, total suspended solid) can be included.
6.6.5.4 Ambient Noise
Addresses the issue of noise levels from the production process, measured at noise receptors located
outside the plant property boundary. Where possible differentiate the data for daytime as well as for
nighttime.
6.6.5.5 Solid and Liquid Waste
Addresses the issue of how solid and liquid waste are recycled or disposed especially for hazardous
materials, process residues, solvents, oils, sludges from raw water, from process wastewater and from
domestic sewage treatment systems.
6.6.6 Obsolete Plant Sections
6.6.6.1 Obsolete Plant Sections
Description and assessment of obsolete plant sections (no more needed for actual and future production
and storage purposes) and resulting proposals for actions e.g. demolition, sale, reutilization, alternative
use of assets.
6.6.6.2 Abandoned Quarries
Description and assessment of abandoned quarries (no more needed for actual and future production)
and resulting proposals for actions e.g. demolition, sale, reutilization, alternative use of assets.
6.6.6.3 Abandoned Infrastructure
Description and assessment of abandoned infrastructure (no more needed for actual and future
production and storage purposes) and resulting proposals for actions e.g. demolition, sale, reutilization,
alternative use of assets.
6.6.7 Dumps
6.6.7.1 Used Dumps
Description of dump sites in use and assessment of actual and potential operational and environmental
problems. Indication of measures to be taken to cope with such problems particularly considering local
laws and regulations and Holcim Standards.
6.6.7.2 Abandoned Dumps
Description of abandoned dumpsites and assessment of actual and potential environmental problems.
Indication of measures to be taken to cope with such problems particularly considering local laws and
regulations.
6.7 PLANT ORGANIZATION AND SUPPORTING FUNCTIONS
Function: Transforms the respective objectives of the Business Plan into measures on plant level and
assesses plant specific issues not covered in the Business Plan
6.7.1 Organizational Structure
6.7.1.1 Organizational Structure
Includes the description of the current organizational setup and of actions to be taken to align the plant
organization with the Business Plan objectives. Some suggested ideas on the process of analyzing the
organizational structure are attached in Appendix 3.
6.7.1.2 Functions
Includes any actions required to describe job specifications that are needed as a result of the business
plan directions. Job specifications will include Job title, Job Objectives, Key Responsibilities, Performance
Indicators, Organizational Relationships (upwards, downwards) and Requirements Profile.
6.7.2 Personnel
6.7.2.1 Personnel Planning
Includes the measures to be taken within the specified period regarding personnel planning to ensure that
manpower, personnel costs, labor productivity, etc. match the needs and goals of the plant as defined in
the Business Plan.
6.7.2.2 Personnel Administration
Includes any actions needed to bring the following aspects in line with the needs and goals defined in the
Business Plan:
* Recruitment and selection procedure
* Personnel compensation and benefits
* Promotion
* Reporting System
* Shift System
* Leave System
* Disciplinary action and grievances, dismissal procedures
6.7.2.3 Management Development
Includes any actions needed to bring the following aspects in line with the goals set in the Business Plan:
* Procedures to evaluate the plant personnel’s potential
* Performance management process (“Dialogue”)
* Succession plans
* Establishing Individual Development Plans
* Handling of the Holcim International Management Program
Also other actions required in order to follow the guidelines of the Management Development Concept
and “Dialogue” will be included in this paragraph.
6.7.2.4 Training
Includes an overview of the major training in initiatives that are formulated in detail in the Training Master
Plan (TMP). The Appendix 4 provides some guidelines on how to set up a TMP.
6.7.2.5 Communication
A description of actions that might be needed to ensure that communication, external communication,
industrial relations, etc. fully support the strategic goals set in the Business Plan.
6.7.3 Quality Assurance
6.7.3.1 Quality Policy and Objectives
Includes the general quality policy and objectives, such as company positioning and differentiation from
competitors.
6.7.3.2 Organization and Responsibility
Includes an organizational diagram with short job descriptions and responsibilities in the Quality
Assurance department.
6.7.3.3 Quality Management
Includes the approach to systematic quality management such as an ISO 9000 Quality System or a Total
Quality Management concept (either in existence or in intention for implementation). Relevant
organizational elements of such a system including concept of documentation shall be covered briefly.
The availability (or intention to achieve) of external certification incl. Name of the certifying company will
be part of this paragraph as well.
6.7.3.4 Quality Data Management
Includes the outline of the reporting system for quality data at various levels (QA-department,
production/works management, and corporate management). It also covers the supporting tools
(databases, QDM, LIMS, SAP, etc) and the application of statistical process control (SPC) tools or any
other evaluation and problem solving procedures.
6.7.3.5 Interface to Marketing, Technical Customer Support
Includes the organizational and communication links to Marketing and Technical Customer Services. This
might cover procedures for testing/evaluation of competitors’ products as well.
6.7.4 Maintenance
When addressing the maintenance issue, the ‘MAC Sustainability Review’ shall be taken into
consideration. Appendix 5 provides an overview of element recommended to be considered when
assessing the maintenance environment.
6.7.4.1 General Organization
Includes evaluation and actions to align the actual organizational structure (e.g. lines of responsibility and
job descriptions) with the objectives set in the Business Plan.
6.7.4.2 Workload Identification
Includes the assessment of the methodologies applied for communicating the identified maintenance
needs to the maintenance organization.
6.7.4.3 Work Planning
Includes the activities to align the planning, execution, control and documentation of maintenance work
with the MAC philosophy to ensure timely and cost effective methods.
6.7.4.4 Work Accomplishment
Includes an overview of actions in order to upgrade the support activities that enable the maintenance
management organization to perform efficiently. It addresses the availability of personnel, materials,
equipment and transportation as well as the execution of assignments and staff training and supervision.
6.7.4.5 Work Control & Reporting (Appraisal)
Includes the evaluation of the information system features required to monitor the deviation of actual from
planned results.
6.7.5 Purchasing and Stocks Management
6.7.5.1 Purchasing of Parts and Materials
Includes an assessment of the organization’s ability to cope with issues such as performance of vendors,
evaluation of suppliers, contracts, markets, data warehouse, requisition and ordering procedures,
purchase order authorization.
6.7.5.2 Spare Parts Stock Management
Includes an assessment of the organization’s ability to cope with issues such as storage, spares policy
management (Min-Max. Consignment, etc.), Bill of Material (BOM) parts list, obsolete parts elimination.
6.7.6 Social and Health Management
6.7.6.1 Workplace Air Quality
Includes any available information regarding the workplace air quality (content of coal dust, particulate,
cement dust, silica/crystalline quartz). In case employees have to work in workplaces where the exposure
levels for welding fumes, solvents and other materials exceed local or internationally accepted standards
include a list all measures to protect the employees.
6.7.6.2 Workplace Noise
Includes assessment of workplace noise levels.
6.7.6.3 Work in Confined Spaces
Addresses the issue of safety measures for protection of the employees in case they have to work in
confined spaces (tanks, sumps, vessels, and sewers).
6.7.6.4 Hazardous Material Handling and Storage
Includes a description of how hazardous (explosives, reactive, flammable, radioactive, corrosive and
toxic) materials are stored.
6.7.6.5 Health – General
Includes general information regarding health-related issues, like sanitary facilities, temperature and
humidity control in work areas, medical examinations for personnel, etc.
6.7.6.6 Safety – General
Includes general information regarding safety of the employees, like mechanical equipment, electrical
equipment, availability of helmets, safety glasses, slip footwear, gloves, etc., fire prevention and fire safety
program, safety program for construction and maintenance work.
6.7.6.7 Record keeping and Reporting
Includes information regarding the reporting and the archiving of significant environmental matters,
including monitoring data, accidents and occupational illnesses, and spills, fires and other emergencies.
6.7.7 Plant Security Management
6.7.7.1 Security Policy and Objectives
Description of the actual security policy and objectives to protect the Company's workforce and assets;
assessment of the actual situation and actions to be taken.
6.7.7.2 Organization and Responsibility
Description of the current security organization (diagram) with short job descriptions, responsibilities and
rights; assessment of the actual organizational aspects and measures to be taken.
6.7.7.3 Security Management Issues
Description and assessment of major security issues (other than policy and organization matters);
suggested measures to be taken for improvements; action plan.
6.7.8 Public Relations
6.7.8.1 Public Relations Policy and Objectives
Description of the actual Public Relations policy and objectives to project the Company's image to the
outside world (shareholders, Government, customers, suppliers, personnel, community); assessment of
the actual situation and actions to be taken.
6.7.8.2 Organization and Responsibility
Description of the current organizational set-up with short job descriptions, responsibilities and rights;
assessment of the actual organizational aspects and measures to be taken.
6.7.8.3 Public Relations Management Issues
Description and assessment of major Public Relation issues (other than policy and organization matters);
suggested measures to be taken for improvements; action plan.
6.7.9 Labor Union Relations
6.7.9.1 Labor Union Policy and Objectives
Description of the actual Labor Union policy and objectives to cooperate with organized labor;
assessment of the actual situation, judgment of potential development and actions to be taken.
6.7.9.2 Organization and Responsibility
Description of the current organizational set-up with short job descriptions, responsibilities and rights;
assessment of the actual organizational aspects and measures to be taken.
6.7.9.3 Labor Union Relations Management Issues
Description and assessment of major Labor Union issues (other than policy and organization matters);
suggested measures to be taken to meet potential challenges; action plan.
6.8 SUMMARY OF OPERATIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL MEASURES
Function: Summary of measures mentioned in chapters 5 to 7
It includes a summary of all operational and organization measures dealt with in the previous parts 5 to 7
in tabular form (see Appendix 1) to allow for an easy overview of all operational and organizational
measures. It also covers responsibilities for operational and organizational measures and summarizes the
benefits.
6.9 SUMMARY OF CAPEX PROJECTS
Function: Summary of CAPEX projects mentioned in chapters 5 to 7
It includes the same aspects as chapter 8 as well as a plant layout drawing, showing the proposed plant
development.
6.10 COST DEVELOPMENT (and optionally:) FINANCIAL PROJECTIONS
Function: Summary of the consequential development of the production cost.
Although on plant level there are typically only cost and no income, let alone profit, it sometimes still
makes sense to complement the development of investment and production costs by financial projections,
e.g. if a Business Plan is not yet available. In this case the financial consequences of the measures and
projects proposed in the Plant Master Plan should be analyzed.
6.11 PLANT DEVELOPMENT ALTERNATIVES
Function: Outline of the plant's inherent development potential and the evaluation of the requirements to
be met for future capacity increases
This chapter might not be needed:
¨ If aspects have been covered already as part of the previous chapters.
¨ If there is no expected need for development over the coming five years.
Should, in the process of up-dating Business Plan and Plant Master Plan, extension schemes become
more concrete, they are to be subject of separate Project Studies (see CAPEX Guide).
6.11.1 Exhausting Capacity Reserves
Includes a description of the possibilities to remove capacity bottlenecks with minimal investment, e.g.
maximizing addition of mineral components and running time of a cement mill to exhaust its capacity.
6.11.2 Maximizing clinker production capacity of installed kiln systems
Includes an evaluation of the possibilities to remove kiln capacity bottlenecks with minimal investment.
Firstly addresses the possibilities of maximizing both actual capacity and utilization rate of the kiln
systems and secondly looks into the potential modifications required in the preceding and following plant
departments. Minimum investment and, possibly, stepwise implementation are to be considered also for
such projects.
6.11.3 Considerations in view of plant extensions
Includes potential plant extensions with regards to raw materials and other resources as well as space
requirement for at least doubling current capacity. Answers should be readily available on actions required
to secure sufficient raw and other production materials, on provisions to be taken with regard to plant
infrastructure and on areas to be nominated and blocked for future plant constructions.
Obviously technical and financial considerations cannot (yet) be given, as size and technology of a
possible plant extension are most likely not known. However, a respective separate "tentative plant
extension layout" drawing, accompanied by the underlying assumptions, attached to the Plant Master
Plan, might serve as illustration of a likely plant expansion scheme and for future reference.
6.12 IMPLEMENTATION PLAN AND PROCESS FOR PMP UPDATES
The chapter serves to describe the intended implementation of the defined measures and projects (next
steps, use of summary sheets for the definition of the yearly actions and for the budgets) and register the
person(s) responsible for its implementation. It also provides a briefing on the intended update of the
actually elaborated Plant Master Plan (parts to be updated, when and by whom).
The Appendices allow for all necessary details that go along with the content of the Plant Master Plan.
This enables the Plant Master Plan to be an easier readable document. It is proposed to attach all
necessary details to the Plant Master Plan in form of Appendices. The separation in details for operational
and organizational measures and CAPEX projects might not be appropriate in every case. One can
consider combining both into one Appendix only.
APPENDIX A:
DETAILS ON MAJOR OPERATIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL MEASURES
ANNEX 1: DETAILED GENERIC TABLE OF CONTENT
1. SUMMARY
2. CONCEPT OF PLANT MASTER PLAN
3. BUSINESS PLAN OBJECTIVES
3.1 Strategic Assessment and Direction
3.2 Functional Plans
3.2.1 Marketing Plan
3.2.2 Manufacturing Plan
3.2.3 General Administration, Finance and IT Plan
3.2.4 Services and Procurement Plan
4. METHODOLOGY TO ACHIEVE BUSINESS PLAN OBJECTIVES
(Structure according main objectives; following example for illustration only)
4.1 Implementation of Product Strategy
4.2 Reduction of Cost of Electrical Energy
4.3 Reduction of Cost of Thermal Energy
4.4 Increase of Labor Productivity
5. MATERIALS AND ENERGIES SUPPLY
For all chapters use the following structure:
5.x.x.1 Past and Actual Situation
5.x.x.2 Weak Points and Bottle Necks
5.x.x.3 Alternatives for Development
5.x.x.4 Operational Measures
5.x.x.5 CAPEX – Projects
5.1 Materials
5.1.1 Regional Geological Structure
5.1.2 Potential Material Resources
5.1.3 Raw Materials - Main Components
5.2.1.1 Past and Actual Situation
5.2.1.2 …
5.1.4 Alternative Raw Materials
5.1.5 Correctives
5.1.6 Gypsum
5.1.7 Mineral Components (MIC)
5.1.8 Product Flexibility and Limitations
5.2 Energy
5.2.1 Electrical Energy
5.2.2 Thermal Energy (Traditional Fuels)
5.2.2 Alternative Fuels
6. PRODUCTION PROCESS AND PLANT
For all chapters use the following structure:
6.x.x.1 Past and Actual Situation
6.x.x.2 Weak Points and Bottle Necks
6.x.x.3 Alternatives for Development
6.x.x.4 Operational Measures
6.x.x.5 CAPEX – Projects
6.1 General Remarks on Plant Development
6.1.1 Current Situation: Plant Concept, Operation and Staffing
6.1.2 Constraints for Plant Development
6.2 Main Production Process
6.2.1 Raw Material Extraction
6.2.1.1 Past and Actual Situation
6.2.1.2 …
6.2.2 Raw Materials Preparation and Storage
6.2.3 Alternative Raw Materials Preparation and Storage
6.2.4 Correctives Preparation and Storage
6.2.5.Raw Meal Preparation and Storage
6.2.6 Clinker Manufacture and Storage
6.2.7 Cement Grinding and Storage
6.2.8 Packing and Shipping
6.2.9 Gypsum and Additives Preparation and Storage
6.2.10 Mineral Components Preparation and Storage
6.2.11 Traditional Fuels Preparation and Storage
6.2.12 Alternative Fuels Preparation and Storage
6.2.13 Flue Gas Treatment
6.2.14 Quality Assurance / Laboratory and Control Room
6.2.15 Main Substation and Power Distribution
6.2.16 Control and Automation
6.2.17 Drives
6.2.18 Instrumentation
6.3 Internal Infrastructure
6.3.1 Compressed Air Supply
6.3.2 Water Supply, Water and Sewage Treatment
6.3.3 Steam Supply
6.3.4 Workshops, Warehouses, Stores, Garages
6.3.5 Vehicles, Mobile Production Equipment (excl. Quarry)
6.3.6 Administration, EDP, Amenities
6.3.7 Power Plant
6.3.8 Roads and Squares, Landscaping
6.3.9 Railway
6.4 External Infrastructure
6.4.1 Roads
6.4.2 Railway
6.4.3 Harbor
6.4.4 Terminals
6.4.5 Pipelines
6.4.6 Transmission Lines for Electrical Power
6.4.7 Housing Estate
6.5 Environmental Management
6.5.1 Stack Emissions
6.5.2 Dust Control Measures
6.5.3 Liquid Effluents
6.5.4 Ambient Noise
6.5.5 Solid and Liquid Wastes
6.6 Obsolete Plant Sections
6.6.1 Obsolete Plant Sections
6.6.2 Abandoned Quarries
6.6.3 Abandoned Infrastructure
6.7 Dumps
6.7.1 Used Dumps
6.7.2 Abandoned Dumps
7. PLANT ORGANIZATION AND SUPPORTING FUNCTIONS
For all chapters use the following structure:
7.x.x.1 Past and Actual Situation
7.x.x.2 Weak Points and Bottle Necks
7.x.x.3 Alternatives for Development
7.x.x.4 Operational Measures
7.x.x.5 CAPEX – Projects
7.1 Plant Organization
7.1.1 Organizational Structure
7.1.1.1 Past and Actual Situation
7.1.1.2 …
7.1.2. Functions
7.2 Personnel
7.2.1 Personnel Planning
7.2.2. Personnel Administration
Management Development
Training
Communication
7.3 Quality Assurance
Quality Policy and Objectives
Organization and Responsibilities
7.3.3 Quality Management
7.3.4 Quality Data Management
Interfaces to Marketing, Technical Customer Support
7.4 Maintenance
7.4.1 General Organization
7.4.2 Workload Identification
7.4.3 Work Planing
7.4.4 Work Accomplishment
7.4.5 Interfaces to Marketing, Technical Customer Support
7.5 Purchasing and Stocks Management
7.5.1 Purchasing of Parts and Materials
7.5.2 Spare Parts Stock Management
7.6 Social and Health Management
7.6.1 Workplace Air Quality
7.6.2 Workplace Noise
7.6.3 Work in Confined Spaces
7.6.4 Hazardous Material Handling and Storage
7.6.5 Health – General
7.6.6 Safety – General
7.6.8 Record keeping and Reporting
7.7 Plant Security Management
7.7.1 Security Policy and Objectives
7.7.2 Organization and Responsibility
Security Management Issues
7.8 Public Relations
7.8.1 Public Relations Policy and Objectives
7.8.2 Organization and Responsibility
7.8.3 Public Relations Management Issues
7.9 Labor Union Relation
7.9.1 Labor Union Policy and Objectives
7.9.2 Organization and Responsibility
7.9.3 Labor Union Relations Management Issues
8. SUMMARY OF OPERATIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL MEASURES
9. SUMMARY OF CAPEX PROJECTS
10. COST DEVELOPMENT (and optionally:) FINANCIAL PROJECTIONS
11. PLANT DEVELOPMENT ALTERNATIVES
11.1 Exhausting Capacity Reserves
11.2 Maximizing Clinker Production Capacity for Installed Kiln Systems
Considerations in View of Plant Extensions
IMPLEMENTATION PLAN AND PROCESS FOR PLANT MASTER PLAN UPDATES
Annex 2: Example of Table for Summary of Operational and Organizational Measures

Annex 3: Example of Table for CAPEX Projects

RE = Replacement, RA = Rationalization, ED = Expansion and Diversification, IQ = Improvement of

Product Quality, SS = Social and Safety,
EN = Environment

Annex 4: Useful Tips when analyzing the Plant Organization

¨ Involve a team of specialists from the following areas when assessing the organization:
· financial
· accounting and commercial operations
· production
· maintenance and technical operations
· personnel
· management
· training

* Starts with the collection of information on the organizational structure, focusing on:
* task distribution
* span of control
* reporting relationships to best carry out assigned responsibilities

* Second the procedures are screened in areas of:

* planning
* budgeting
* production
* maintenance
* purchasing and stores
* accounting

* A possible study of the decentralized management style should focus on the framework of:
* goal setting
* performance evaluation
* autonomy

* Each department or area should be studied, to see how it is performing under these three
aspects:
* The internal distribution of functions, tasks and authority (horizontal organizational structure).
* The internal distribution and delegation of tasks and authority to subordinates (vertical
organization structure).
* The external organizational link of the plants to the head office and that to HMC.

* The information collected should be evaluated against the following criteria:

* Do the existing structures and relationships allow the achievement of high efficiency and
productivity?
* Do the existing structures ensure direct and efficient communication and coordination between
units that have to cooperate closely?
* Are the external relationships of the various units limited to an extent that can be well handled?
* Are the organizational units defined in such a way that clear targets can be set and a high degree
of autonomy can be achieved while maintaining high capacity utilization and production?
* Does the present organizational structure ensure that the main organizational units have equal
importance in achieving the plant’s goals?

Annex 5: Summary of the Process to Set up a Training Master Plan

One of the main objectives of the Training Master Plan (TMP) is to promote additional training for those
individuals who have the greatest impact on plant operation.

Description of actual situation

Objectives
Any journey must start by first knowing where you are. Therefore a description of the actual situation with
regards to training efforts must be made. First, a so-called “Assessment Team” must be formed, made up
of people whose combined skill and experience can provide the background necessary to measure the
Plant and its people regarding the current skill/knowledge base. Second, a general questionnaire must be
filled out per plant. The following is a list of the main topics, which should be covered:
¨ Training Function
· Do you have any formal training policy or training plan at the present time?
· Who is responsible for this training policy or training plan?
¨ Training Infrastructure
· Do any in-house training facilities presently exist?
· Do you have any written material available, which you believe would be relevant to training?
¨ Past Training Activities
· List all training activities held in the last two years in your plant
· Identify employees who have been trained off-site in the past two years.
¨ Future Training Activities
· Do you have any agreement with any of the suppliers for the provision of training assistance?
· What do you believe are the training needs in your plant in order of importance?
¨ Training Budget
· How many hours per year are you willing to allow the following groups of employees out of their
normal jobs for training?
¨ Other plant specific issues

Assessment of training needs

Objective
The aim of the training needs is to determine the following:
¨ Identify key positions that have the greatest impact on plant operation.
¨ Establish corporate skill/knowledge base lines for the key plant functions (process control, quality
assurance etc.)
¨ Identify gaps between the skill/knowledge level of key plant personnel at each plant and the
corporate base lines
¨ Determine a starting point from which progress and training effectiveness can be measured using
Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)
¨ Ensure for the long term, that all plant personnel receive adequate training relevant to their
position and need
¨ Identify the training needs which will result from the addition of new technology and equipment
during the plant expansion

The training needs are determined by means of a survey described below.

Targets of the Skill/knowledge Survey
Based on the plant organization, the completed general questionnaire and discussions with Plant
Management, the benchmark positions for the skill/knowledge survey targets are to be identified as those
individuals who have the greatest impact on plant operation.

Survey Process
The Survey determines the key skills and knowledge pertinent to the general and specific job knowledge
of the above listed positions and should:
1) Develop a series of questions specific to the plant and its process technology that evaluate the
key knowledge/skills necessary to successfully perform the function/job.
2) Evaluate the Relative Importance of the key knowledge/skills in performing the job being
evaluated.
3) Evaluate the Required Proficiency in the key knowledge/skills relative to the job being evaluated.
4) Evaluate the Current Proficiency of the incumbents relative to the knowledge/skills needed to
successfully perform their jobs.
5) Tabulate the individual surveys which results in an overall ranking of the key knowledge/skills as
follows:
· Critical Training Need
· Urgent Training Need
· Significant Training Need
· Low Need for Training
· Inconclusive
The skill/knowledge survey and analysis process will need to be repeated on a three to five year cycle
depending on the changes taking place on site. The skill/knowledge surveys are to be carried out
individually on a one-to-one basis to preserve confidentiality and to facilitate open dialog and accurate
results.

Establish Training Masterplan

In this section the results of the survey are to be represented as follows:
a) A Training Needs Graphic with a list of the training needs from Critical to Inconclusive for each
function.
b) A Training Target chart with a list of the functions, the name of the incumbent and the number of
scheduled courses he/she should attend:
c) A description of each training course with information on Course Title, Course code, Duration,
Target audience, Objectives and Content
d) A list of the recommended courses per target divided by function, name of the incumbent and
courses to attend.
e) Recommendation for TMP implementation including the Train the Trainer approach.
f) Evaluation of training benefits.

Annex 6: Elements to consider when analyzing the Maintenance Environment

General organization Workload identification Work planning Work accomplishment Work control &
reporting
(appraisal)
General Procedures, Rules, Policies, Services Planned Maintenance Routines (preventive) Priority
Criteria Shop scheduling & Planning Procedures Management Control & Reporting System (MCRS)
Organization Structure Facility Condition Inspection (Predictive Routines, CM) Work Classification
 Workshop Location Performance Measurement (Equipment & Maintenance KPIs )
Autonomous Maintenance Work request Procedures Alterations & Improvement Work-
Approval Craft and Material Availability Daily & Weekly Maintenance Report
Area Work Teams Equipment Inventory (Critical Equipment) Work Order Preparation Training
Program Maintenance Cost Report
Process Maintenance Teams Service Work Work Order System Shop Spaces, Tools, Equipment
Maintenance Cost Structure
Integrated Process/Maintenance Systems Routine, Recurring Work Overdue Requirements
for Maintenance and Repair Tools and Storeroom Operation Budget
Clear objectivesWork Requirements Documentation Budget Execution Plan Transportation Facility
History records
Work Control (functions)Priorities Tools, Techniques and Systems (MAC) Supervisory Practices
Equipment History Record (Failures Pareto)
Work Control Center (staffing) Action Plans Shutdown Cycle Time Compression (CTC)
Modifications Management Trend Data
Shop Organization Maintenance Master Schedule (Workload) Risk based Maintenance (RbM)
Use of Contractor (Management, Contracts, Follow-up, Quality guarantee, Participation, Skills,
etc.) Short Interval Control
Shop Supervision & Planning (functions) Computerized Maintenance System Reliability Centered
Maintenance (RCM) Variance Review
Relationship with others Breakdown Diagnosis Action Logs
Multi-functional skills Asset Number System Files (Archive)
Resource Skills Matrix Standards and Specifications FMEA
Behavior Change Daily & Weekly Plan
Training plan Maintenance Master Schedule
Environment
Jobs and working conditions

C04 - Equipment Capacity Determination

Equipment Capacity Determination

By Eric Dauphinee / Holcim Group Support (Canada) Ltd.
1. Introduction
2. Definition
3. Purpose
4. Influencing Factors
4.1 Market size and seasonal fluctuation
4.2 Composition and number of cement products
4.3 Process conversion factors
4.4 Raw materials composition and variability
4.5 Feed moisture of raw materials
4.6 Logistics for receipt of raw materials and fuel
4.7 Downtime for preventative maintenance schedules
5. Safety Factors
5.1 Typical Safety Factors
6. Calculation Method
7. Glossary of terms
8. Abbreviations

ABSTRACT

Portland cement manufacture is a multi-step process. Each step is organized within functional
departments, with the product from one department becoming the feedstock for the next. The most
economical plant design occurs when all these departments work in harmony and capacities are balanced
to achieve the highest overall equipment utilization and plant operating efficiency. Therefore, the
determination of equipment capacities, with their interdependent relationship to material storage capacity,
is one of the key elements in defining the overall plant concept.
This paper presents an overview of how these equipment and storage capacities are determined and the
safety factors that should be considered.
1. INTRODUCTION
During the conceptual and preliminary engineering phase of any material handling and process industry,
one of the basic and important tasks is the preparation of the massflow diagram. This diagram can only
be finalized once the equipment and storage capacities are determined.
The prerequisites for this determination are knowledge of:
¨ the market size, and seasonal fluctuations in the product shipments
¨ types of products to be manufactured
¨ sources and availability of raw materials
¨ the raw mix chemistry
¨ the constraints on logistics for receipt of the raw materials
It is obvious that the size of the equipment and storage capacities have a strong influence on the
investment costs. A reasonable sizing of all equipment is the basis for a successful project.
2. DEFINITION
The equipment capacity determination is a calculation procedure that uses basic mathematical logic to
define the criteria for equipment and storage capacities.
In the course of writing this paper certain terms and abbreviations were used.
A glossary of these terms and abbreviations are included in Sections 7 and 8 to assist the reader who
may not be familiar with the subject.
3. PURPOSE
The purpose of this document is to guide the user through the basic steps in preparing the calculations for
equipment capacity determination.
The goal in defining the equipment capacities is to achieve a balance between avoiding “bottlenecks to
production” and “excessive capacities”.
The target is to ensure that each step within the process can achieve its requirements assuring the
highest plant wide utilization and overall equipment efficiency (OEE).
A thorough understanding of the task and each step of the process at this early stage of the project are
vital. The equipment capacity determination lays the foundation for achieving a trouble free and efficient
operation with the lowest practical investment cost.
4. INFLUENCING FACTORS
A number of factors influence the equipment capacity determination.
These include but are not limited to the following.
1. Market size and seasonal fluctuation
2. Composition and number of cement products
3. Process conversion factors
4. Raw materials composition and variability
5. Feed moisture of raw materials
6. Logistics for the receipt of raw materials and fuel
7. Restriction on departmental hours of operation
8. Downtime for preventative maintenance schedules
9. Effective working time per shift period

The more important influencing factors will be discussed in more detail.

4.1 Market size and seasonal fluctuation

When “greenfield” or major plant extensions are contemplated, the basis for the size of the plant is
generally a market research study. The plant size is often simply stated in tonnes per annum of cement.
Seasonal fluctuations in product demand play a major role on the determination of the optimum size of
finish grinding department and storage for clinker and cement. The following graph illustrates typical
patterns of weekly shipments for two 1-Mio. t/a plants. Plant ‘A’ is located in a region where freezing
weather during the winter and first half of spring severely hampers construction activity. Plant ‘B’ is
located in a subtropical region with no severe restrictions in construction activity.
If the same quantity of cement were shipped each and every week of the year the plant would expected to
ship 1,000,000/52 = 19,231 t/w. This average weekly shipment is represented by the dashed line on the
graph.

The heavy line describes the shipping pattern of plant ‘A’. The line shows that the shipments are far
below the average for the first 16 weeks of the year. However, between week 22 and 46 (25 consecutive
weeks) plant ‘A’ ships about 635,700 t. This represents an accumulation of 155,000 t above the average
for shipments during this period.
On the other hand, the longest consecutive duration for above average shipments from Plant ‘B’ is 12
weeks. In this case the cumulative shipments above this average line amounts to only 25,385 t.
Kilns are operated most efficiently when they are producing near their peak limit, and are expected to
achieve an OEE of 85% or better. It becomes quite apparent that if plant ‘A’ must fulfil the requirements of
this shipping pattern it will need significantly larger storage downstream of the kiln than plant ‘B’. This
may take the form of very large cement storage, very large clinker storage with corresponding larger
cement grinding installation, or a balanced combination of both.
4.2 Composition and number of cement products
The percentage of clinker in the cement product plays a significant role in determining the equipment size.
For example, a 3,000-t/d kiln achieving an OEE of 85 % produces about 930,000-t/a clinker. If the cement
were composed from 93% clinker, this clinker would be sufficient for 1.0 Mio. t/a cement. If a
supplemental cement additive such as blast furnace slag or pozzolana is available, the percentage of
clinker might be reduced to 72%. Provided the cement grinding capacity is adequate, this same quantity
of clinker would support a cement production of about 1.33 Mio. t/a.
The number of products and individual product types also play a major influence on the equipment
capacity determination and storage. Examples of this influence include the production of cements with
dramatically different fineness. A cement mill may be rated at 120 t/h when grinding an Ordinary Portland
cement to a Blaine fineness of 3,300 cm2/g. However, if cement with the same composition is ground to
a fineness of 5,500 cm2/g, the production of this same mill will likely be reduced to about 58 t/h. Should
this higher fineness cement represents 20% of the total sales, the annual cement grinding capacity is now
reduced. This impact must be considered when making the capacity determination.
The number of product produced by a single cement mill also influences the determination of the
equipment size and storage. If a single mill is assigned to produce 2 to 3 different products, the
production plan should make allowances for the following.
¨ Sufficient storage to ensure a minimum product run of at least 24 hours
¨ Additional time to empty and refill additive feed bins if different additives types are required
¨ Consideration for a slightly larger overall cement storage, since it is now no longer possible to be
simultaneously full of all products while maintaining active shipments.
4.3 Process conversion factors
The following figure shows the relationship between the consumption of raw mix and the production of
clinker.

The exact balance is influenced to a small extent by the final clinker chemistry and the quantity of cement
kiln dust that must be rejected by the process. As a general rule, if the process can be operated without
wasting dust, a raw mix /clinker conversion of 1.60 is appropriate for design purposes.
4.4 Raw materials composition and variability
One of the underlying fundamentals of a cement plant is that it is indeed a chemical factory that is
expected to produce a consistent quality product while using mother nature’s often inhomogeneous raw
materials.
Before making the final capacity determination, the variation of the raw materials and the effect this has
on the percentage of a particular material being fed to the process must be defined.
A typical example would be in the determination of a weighfeeder capacity and size of mill feed bin. If a
variation in the raw materials causes the proportion of iron ore in the mix to change over a range of 0.5 to
1.3%, one must ensure that the feeder and bin capacities are large enough to support the highest feed
rate.
4.5 Feed moisture of raw materials
One often overlooked fact is that the weight of dry material increases when it absorbs water. Furthermore
by virtue of the basic definition of feed moisture, 1.0 dry tonne with 12.0% moisture weighs 1.137 tonnes
and not 1.120 tonnes.
Raw mix proportions in the basic raw mix calculation are referenced to dry material. Care must be
exercised to ensure that the weight of this moisture is calculated in the determination of the actual flow of
raw materials. The following table portrays the influence of moisture on the design of a 200 t/h (dry basis)
raw grinding system.

Raw
MaterialMoisture

% Proportion

dry % Proportion

wet % Material
flow dry
t/h Material
flow wet
t/h
Limestone 2 80.00 77.06 160.0 163.27
Clay 19 18.00 20.97 36.0 44.44
Iron Ore 4 2.00 1.97 4.0 4.16
Total 100.00 100.00 200.0 211.87

In this particular example the weight of the moisture (chemically unbound water) entering the mill is nearly
11.9 t/h. If the 11.9 t of water were liberated as water vapour at 95 Deg. C and 1,000 m ASL it would
occupy a volume of 21,950 m3.
4.6 Logistics for receipt of raw materials and fuel
Establishing the logistics for the receipt of materials is extremely important in the determination of
stockpiles and the capacities of the material handling equipment. In the early stage of a project there are
often numerous options available which need to be evaluated. An example could be determining the best
method of transporting coal and gypsum to the plant.
The options might include unit trains (5,000 t/lot) versus trucking (30 t/unit). For a 1.0-Mio. t/a plant, the
annual deliveries of coal and gypsum could reach 125,000 t and 50,000 t respectively. If we assume that
there is USD 5.00/t advantage in freight cost if a unit train delivers the coal and gypsum, the potential
annual operating savings could then reach USD 875,000.
As a guideline it is generally attractive to make a capital expenditure if the costs are less than 4 to 7 times
the annual savings. (This number varies from one corporation to the next and should be set by the
financial department at the very early stage of the project). In this example the number was set at 6. It is
then a wise investment to install the unloading facility with railway connection and larger storage at the
beginning of the project provided it can be accomplished for less than USD 5.2 Mio.
4.7 Downtime for preventative maintenance schedules
An established fact regarding cement kiln operation is that it takes generally longer than a day to reach
full production from a cold start. Therefore the kiln operation must:
¨ Be designed to run continuously for long duration
¨ Utilize robust and reliable equipment
¨ Require minimum to no maintenance between major shut-downs

However, other departments such as crushing, raw and finish grinding are more amenable to short
production stops to do preventative maintenance. The key is to provide an adequate storage to cover the
scheduled duration of the maintenance stop and a production capacity sufficient to recover the inventory
within a reasonable timeframe.
A typical example is the design of the raw material preparation department. It is generally accepted that
the raw mill should have the flexibility to shut down for one continuous 10-hour period each week.
Recoverable raw meal storage should be sufficient for at least a 24 hour period based on kiln feed.
The following sketch illustrates the concept. The kiln feed requirement is “X” t/h. The silo is designed to
hold a recoverable volume of 1 day or “24 X”.

Starting with a full silo, the raw mill is then stopped for 10 hours. The silo level will be reduced to 58%. To
recover this lost inventory over the next 96 hours, the raw mill must be capable of producing at least 1.11
times the kiln feed requirement.
5. SAFETY FACTORS
With any design, certain safety factors and reserves must also be included in the capacity calculation.
These safety factors are needed to:
¨ compensate for the remaining uncertainty in the raw material assumptions
¨ compensate for variations in heating value of fuels
¨ compensate for reduction in efficiency as the equipment wears
¨ allow time for small unscheduled interruptions within a department
¨ deal with upset conditions

The safety factors and reserves used to determine the “optimum” size for equipment and storage is based
on the operating experience developed from past projects.
5.1 Typical Safety Factors

- Crushers : 1.10
- Grindability Assumptions
(If from lab results) : 1.05
- Ball Mills - wear : 1.05
- Roller Mills - wear : 1.10
- Fuel Preparation
(Uncertainty in heating value) : 1.05 –1.10
- Feeders : 1.25
- Reclaimers : 1.25
- Conveyors : 1.25
1.4 - 2.0 (material rushes)
- General purpose fans - volume : 1.1
- Process fans:
Kiln ID fans, grate cooler exhaust air fans and mill system fans have typically to be designed with
an adequate safety margin to cope with unstable process conditions. Therefore, they have to be defined
individually for each application and are typically in the range of 1.1 to max 1.3 related to guaranteed
performance data of the respective process equipment.
6. CALCULATION METHOD
The equipment capacity calculations are commenced with marketing information, which establishes the
following criteria
¨ The annual sales forecast
¨ The different cement types to be manufactured
¨ A projection of the seasonal shipping pattern

Using the annual sales forecast and the % of clinker used to make each cement type, determine the
annual clinker requirement. Determine the daily kiln capacity respecting the targets for kiln OEE. The
generally accepted target for OEE is 85%. However this varies somewhat depending on the level of skills
of the workers and reliability of the electrical distribution network.
Once the kiln capacity is defined, utilize the raw mix assumptions to establish:
¨ the average proportions of raw materials
¨ how the chemical variability of the raw materials influence the proportions required

Define which of the raw materials will be crushed via the same crushing system. If gypsum and limestone
are also crushed for cement production, remember to consider these in the total.
Determine the demand of all raw materials on a weekly basis. Ensure that the demand clearly specifies
whether it is a dry material or if it includes the feed moisture. The total dry material reference must be
equivalent to the raw meal demand of the kiln at nominal output.
Establish a list of logistical statements governing the transport of materials and restrictions to operations.
These may include items such as, e.g.:
¨ A minimum commercial shipments by unit train is 5000 t. It must be unloaded in less than 12
hours (Sundays and Holidays excluded) to avoid paying demurrage.
¨ Quarry operation is restricted to Monday to Friday, from 7:00 AM to 11:00 PM due to noise.
¨ The effective working time of the quarry mobile equipment is 7 hours per 8-hour shift (this might
vary depending on location and distances within the quarry).

Determine the hourly demand for the raw material flow based on the weekly requirement taking into
consideration the logistics and restrictions to weekly operating hours.
Determine the equipment capacities for the raw material preparation, (crushing) and raw meal preparation
departments.
A typical formula for determining the raw mill capacity (roller mill) is:

Raw Mill Capacity (t/h)

= Kiln feed requirements (t/w) x Recovery Allowance x Safety Factor (wear)
Hours of Operation per week (h/w)
Determine the feedstock storage capacities. Determining the optimum storage capacities requires an in-
depth understanding of the logistics of supply of the various materials and the constraints imposed by the
surrounding environment.

Generally accepted practice today and guideline for:

¨ a material storage functioning as an integrated preblending stockpile is 3 to 4 days per pile,
based on the nominal kiln feed
¨ a raw meal storage functioning as a continuous blending silo is 1 to 1.5 days, based on nominal
kiln feed
¨ a material storage for additives is the greater of 1.5 times the minimum bulk delivery size or
minimum 3.5 to 5 days demand, based on nominal kiln feed. The latter is to be seen in relation to the
duration of the longest weekend during which no deliveries are received (e.g. typically the Easter
weekend in most European countries).

Determine the clinker storage requirements. It is generally accepted practice today that plants having
very small seasonal fluctuations in shipments should have a minimum of 10 days of clinker storage,
based on the nominal kiln production.
Where there is a pronounced fluctuation in shipments, the clinker storage needs to be increased
according to the requirements of the production model. In terms of a “stored tonne” cost of cement
storage is generally about 35% to 50% more, than for clinker storage. Therefore, the optimum size of
clinker storage is determined by balancing the costs between a larger cement storage versus the costs of
a larger clinker storage with correspondingly larger cement grinding department.
Determine the equipment capacities for the cement grinding and shipping departments. It is generally
accepted practice that if the clinker storage represents only 10 days of kiln production, the mill should
have the capacity to consume the daily output of clinker production. In the case where the seasonal
fluctuations dictate that shipments be substantially higher than the annual average, the cement grinding
department must be designed to consume the stored clinker during the period of peak demand.
Determine the storage capacity for cement, based on the anticipated shipping patterns, and methods of
shipment.
The minimum practical cement storage where the market is without seasonal fluctuation and has a 6-day
per week shipping schedule can be as low as about 3 days of finish mill production for situations, where
regular unit train deliveries to the company's own distribution terminals are scheduled. More common is
the situation where direct sales to the customers are the rule and thus a minimum of 6 to 7 days mill
production are recommended as cement storage. In yet another case where a 1-Mio/a plant is required to
load a 15,000-t ship within 16 hours on a 7-day cycle, the plant will likely require at least 23,000 t of
cement storage to ensure it fulfils its commitments.
Once the main process equipment and main storage capacities are finalized, you are now in a position to
define the requirements for the capacities of the auxiliary equipment and feed bin capacities.
Having completed all the steps described, the task of the equipment capacity determinations is now
complete.
The next task is to transpose this information to either a mass flow diagram, or directly to the process flow
diagram. These diagrams define the framework for the overall plant concept. They are an important
prerequisite for developing the plant layout, general arrangement drawings as well as investment and
operating cost estimates.
7. GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Annual utilization rate The ratio of actual run time of the equipment to the total hours potentially
available in a year. The number is expressed in percent.

Bottleneck A term used to describe the piece of equipment, department sub-system or storage which
limits further plant-wide capacity increase

Feed moisture The term used to describe the amount of chemically unbound water absorbed on raw
material being fed to the process. The unbound water can be released by heating a sample of material to
65 Deg. C. The number is expressed in percent.
% Moisture =100 *{(Wt. (wet) – Wt. (dry))/ Wt. (wet)}

Greenfield A term used to define a plant site which has never been previously development

Massflow diagram A pictorial diagram of blocks, circles and lines used to describe the flow of the
materials in a manufacturing process according to their type, storage requirement and flowrate between
the different departments.

Overall Equipment Efficiency Is an indicator of how efficient the installed capacity is being used. It is
the product of equipment utilization, the production rate index and quality index. In the equipment capacity
determination, the quality index is assumed to be 1.0.

Process flow diagram A pictorial diagram using specific symbols to describe the types of equipment and
storage to be used in a manufacturing process. The process flow diagram provides information about the
material flow between the departments as well as the equipment shown within a particular department.

Seasonal fluctuation A variation in demand caused be harsh climatic conditions attributed to seasonal
change.

Tonne A metric unit of weight equal to 1,000. kg

8. ABBREVIATIONS

t tonne
t/h tonne per hour
t/a tonne per annum
Mio. million
m ASL- metres above mean sea level
m3 cubic metres, a volumetric measure
USD 5.00/t (United States Currency) five dollars per tonne
OEE Overall Equipment Efficiency
C05 - Small CAPEX Projects, Tools for Project Feasibility Evaluation to Project Execution

Small CAPEX Projects

Tools for Project Feasibility Evaluation to Project Execution

By Joerg Engweiler, HES
1. Introduction
2. Phase I: Studies, or Securing a good Project Launch
2.1 Launch of Project
2.2 Project Definition
2.3 Project Feasibility Study
3. Phase II: BASIC ENGINEERING
4. Phase III & IV: PROJECT EXECUTION – Start up
5. Phase V: Post investment Audit
6. Annexes

1. INTRODUCTION
Capital Expenditure, CAPEX, projects of limited scope, mostly replacement and modification of existing
plant facilities in the range of 1 to 5 M USD, are usually evaluated, planned and directed by the plant
management with limited support by external engineering resources.
How are such Projects embedded in the companies’ business planning cycle? The Business Plan’s
strategic goals are translated to plant level measures by the Plant Master Plan, PMP, in a yearly updating
procedure.
One category of measures proposed in the PMP are investments into property, plant and equipment, and
different steps of such projects can be defined applying the Project Management Approach, PMA.
Experience has shown, that most of the mistakes in CAPEX projects of this size are NOT made during
project execution, meaning the construction and implementation phases, but in the first two phases,
generally named ‘definition’ and ‘planning’ of a project – which is translated to ‘studies’ and ‘basic
engineering’ for CAPEX projects.
This paper shall provide guidelines, checklists and tools for the Project Engineer’s daily business of
Project Feasibility Analysis, Budgeting, Tendering, Tender Evaluation, Execution and Review of CAPEX
Project works.

2. PHASE I: STUDIES, OR SECURING A GOOD PROJECT LAUNCH

Fig. 1: Link of the ‘Studies’ Phase, i.e. Project Definition and Feasibility Evaluation, with the Business
Planning Cycle of the company

2.1 Launch of Project

¨ P¨ roject launch shall be done in written form: Invitation to a ‘Project definition workshop’
¨ Any CAPEX project definition is part of elaboration or revision of the Plant Master Plan. It is
therefore embedded in the company’s Business Planning Cycle
2.2 Project Definition
¨ Make use of templates of Project Management Approach.
¨ Input information shall mainly be a set of requirements and side conditions.
¨ Technical concepts proposed for evaluation should not restrict the project from the beginning to a
single-solution approach (cf. PMP methodology).
¨ Methodology:
¨ Objective of project: fulfil requirements, assure performance.
¨ Different stakeholders have different interests in the project.
¨ Search for ‘Lessons learnt’: Others may have solved similar tasks. Use ICM (‘Information on
Cement Manufacturing’ on Holderspace), Turntable functions (regional circles, HMC), maybe also
suppliers.
¨ Define the Scope of the project properly, so everybody’s expectations are equal.
¨ Project has a defined start and end, time required depends on internal and external constraints.
Consider triggering dates for decisions influenced by external factors (e.g. outcome of feasibility study,
budget approval, other criteria to be met).
¨ Already the ‘Study’ phase of a Project must have a budget. To the total project there may be
financial frame set from the beginning.
For execution in next financial period, the project budget usually requires approval with the company
budget.
¨ Project requires special organisation, conflicts may appear with assignments in permanent
organisation. Assign project manager and team members. Describe their main tasks and responsibilities.
2.3 Project Feasibility Study
¨ Implement organisation, procedures, roles and responsibilities
¨ Review of requirements as per project definition, compared with present situation
¨ Complete data base
¨ Develop alternative solutions, at later stage time will not be available (literature, suppliers, HMC)
¨ Get budget prices for capital intensive items
¨ Complete total project budget for alternatives (cf. template, Annex 1)
¨ Evaluate time constraints, draft a project time schedule
¨ Assessment of alternatives based on:
· technical criteria
· experience / references
· economical aspects
SWOT (Strengths – Weaknesses – Opportunities – Threads) analysis for alternatives, and
financial evaluation (basis IRR, NPV or ROI, cf. Lecture on Financial Issues)
¨ ‘Project Feasibility Report’ as basis for decision to proceed with project, revise or reject (cf.
template, Annex 2)
¨ Integration in Plant Master Plan: Relevant chapter, investment and measures list.

As required for the company’s budgeting for the next financial year, the current accuracy of information
allows for decision on a suitable package of measures.

If further engineering is required to obtain more precise information regarding costs, it should clearly be
limited to the extent necessary, and only be done according to specific order in writing (avoid run-on
engineering!)
3. PHASE II: BASIC ENGINEERING
After positive investment decision for a project, usually upon budget approval for the next financial year,
the project goes into the execution phases.
The first step towards execution is more detailed project planning, called ‘Basic Engineering’ in our terms.
Fig. 2: From Definition to Execution: Detailed project planning based on positive CAPEX decision

¨ If project was inactive for more than 9 months: Check conformity of assumptions and other basic
data, as well as the results of the feasibility report.
¨ Adapt organisation and procedures to project phase
¨ Establish contracting plan
· Take into account complexity of project, own resources etc.
· Consider latest methods of contracting, e.g. partnering with Suppliers, and firm target pricing
· Choose project execution approach between
* detail engineering (multiple contracting)
* packages (2 to 3 contracts)
* turn-key (1 contract)
Detail engineering is preferred if many interfaces with an existing plant are to be managed. Co-ordination
with ongoing production is a key success factor.
¨ Establish time schedule with milestones for proper project steering
¨ Preparation of Tender Documents (cf. table of content, Annex 3)
Note: Tender Document shall only be issued once high probability of project realisation is being
established.
Purpose: Definition of technical criteria, scope of supply and commercial conditions
Safeguard interest of Client
Provide basis to Tenderers to prepare Tender
Provide basis to Client to evaluate Tenders
Form: Tender Document preferably issued in future Contract Form
¨ Pre-selection of Tenderers
· 3 to 4 Tenderers
¨ Evaluation of Tenders
Tables for comparison can already be prepared during Tendering Period, do not await Evaluation Period.
They contain:
· technical data
· scope of supply
· performance guarantee, warranties
· experience / references
· commercial conditions
The evaluation criteria are laid down in the Tender Document.
¨ Prepare administrative procedures with purchasing/contracts department, and with financial
department
Before ordering, submit the revised project budget and the project execution schedule to the steering
body for approval. Do so especially, if the results are not within the contingency frame of the original
project budget and time plan.
4. PHASE III & IV: PROJECT EXECUTION – START UP
Fig. 3: During project execution phases, integration of plant operations and maintenance with the project
is of paramount importance

¨ Adjust project organisation and procedures to requirements of project execution phase

¨ Contract negotiations
· at least 2 potential Suppliers to create competitive situation
· technical aspects and warranties to be clarified first
· price negotiations to be assured by small team and not carried out under time pressure. Apply
target price policy
· all contractual matters to be solved during negotiations and incorporated into Contract. During
execution phase the negotiating power of the Client versus the Supplier is reduced
¨ Establish tight cost and time control
¨ Check and approval of Contractor's drawings; to be done with necessary care, concerned parties
to be engaged (production, maintenance)
¨ Assure compliance with maintenance procedures of plant, and select spare parts from Supplier’s
proposal together with maintenance department
¨ Workshop inspection
· engagement of outside experts to be considered, as Suppliers also purchase globally (e.g. HMC:
QCE –services, cf. Lecture on Maintenance)
¨ Site supervision
· adequate site supervision to be assured, also required to co-ordinate site activities with plant
operations
· establish and update list of deficiencies
¨ Start-up and Commissioning
· involvement of personnel from operations and maintenance
· organise performance tests as per contract
· Taking over formalities to be organised in advance (deficiency lists, preliminary acceptance
certificate)
5. PHASE V: POST INVESTMENT AUDIT
A meeting for evaluation and transfer of the learnings from the entire project is one of the key elements, in
order to
¨ make locally gained knowledge available to other companies in the corporate world. “Do a good
job and talk about it!”, e.g on Holderspace in ICM
¨ provide for individual learning of the team members from a critical review of roles and
responsibilities
This Post Investment Audit meeting:
¨ should take place after guarantee tests or fulfilled guarantee period (typically 4 – 12 months after
commissioning)
¨ Participants: Project team and operations / maintenance
¨ Review topics:
· project execution, roles and responsibilities
· performance, recalculate savings (IRR, NPV and/or ROI) and compare with feasibility report
· outline of conclusions for present and future projects
Refer to the methodology of an After Action Review, especially for assessing the non purely technical
items!

Annex 1: Investment Cost Estimate - Budget

Annex 2: Project Feasibility Report / cf. PMP structure
Annex 3: Tender Document / Table of Contents
Annex 4: Evaluation Sheet / Template
6. ANNEXES

ANNEX 1: Investment Cost Estimate - Budget

Investment Cost Estimate

Typical Cost Structure in %

1. Mechanical Equipment 100 %

1.1 Transport and Insurance 5 % of 1.
1.2 Erection and Commissioning 30 % of 1.

2. Electrical Equipment 30 % of 1.
2.1 Transport and Insurance 5 % of 2.
2.2 Erection and Commissioning 30 - 50 % of 2.

Steelworks and Civil Construction varying from project to project,

Engineering and Construction Supervision as highly depending on:
Training - local price level
Spare Parts - scope and type of project

Accuracy of Investment Cost Estimate

Phase: Studies + 20 %
Basic Engineering + 10 %
Detailed Engineering + 5%
Investment Cost Estimate
Calculation Sheet – Budget (next page)

Annex 2: Project Feasibility Report / Table of contents

PROJECT FEASIBILITY REPORT

Project : ...........................................
1) PRESENT SITUATION
· Description of problems
· Loss of production
· Extra cost involved (production, maintenance)
2) ALTERNATIVES INVESTIGATED
· Description of alternatives
· Advantages / Disadvantages
· Selection of alternative(s)
3) SOLUTION PROPOSED
· Detailed description
· Proposed suppliers
· References
4) INVESTMENT COST ESTIMATE
· Basis of cost estimate
· Cost estimate (budget summary)
5) ECONOMICAL EVALUATION
· Cost difference (savings) between present situation and proposed solution
· IRR-Calculation (internal rate of return) - or
· ROI (Return of investment = Pay-back-calculation; usually < 2 to 3 years) – or
· NPV (Net present value of future investments and costs)
6) TIME SCHEDULE
· Duration of project execution
· Critical path

Annexes : Investment cost estimate(s)

Date: ......................

Name and Signature: ................................................................................

Annex 3: Tender Document / Table of Contents

TENDER DOCUMENT
GENERIC TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART A : Tendering Conditions as brief as possible

¨ GENERAL INFORMATION
· Purpose
· Client
· Brief description of project
· Scope of tender
· Time of delivery – milestones of project time schedule
¨ CONDITIONS OF TENDERING
· Form of Tender
* Technical specifications / comparison sheets
* Schemata and drawings
* Reference list
* Warranties
* Lumpsum price in ... currency
* Price breakdown and weights
* Time schedule for services and supply
* Spare part list, including prices
* Alternative proposals
· Validity of tender
· Date of submission of tender

PART B : Contract Proposal prepared to become the contract

¨ DRAFT CONTRACT
Commercial part covering all items as per ‘Key Conditions’ list, cf. below
¨ ANNEX 1 : GENERAL PROJECT DESCRIPTION AND REQUIREMENTS
· Information on existing equipment related to project
· Process data to be observed for proposed project
· Material data (raw materials, additives, correctives, cement compositions, etc.)
· Requirements: Mechanical
* Standards to be applied
* Standardisation (gears, clutches, etc.)
* Requirements and design criteria on individual equipment (e.g. filters, conveyors)
* Painting and colour codes
· Requirements: Electrical
* Standards to be applied
* Voltage levels
* Standardisation (instruments, safety devices etc.)
* Sub-control systems
* Drives
¨ ANNEX 2 : TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS AND SCOPE OF SUPPLY
· Description of scope of supply later to be replaced by Supplier's specifications
¨ ANNEX 3 : SCOPE OF SERVICES
· Mechanical Engineering
· Electrical Engineering
· Civil Engineering
¨ ANNEX 4 : PRICE BREAKDOWN
· Individual prices and weights
¨ ANNEX 5 : DRAWINGS
· Flowsheet later also Supplier's drawings
· Arrangement drawings later also Supplier's drawings

¨ (ANNEX 6 : TIME SCHEDULE if not specified enough detailed before)

· Detailed time schedule
¨ (ANNEX 7 : TESTS FOR PERFORMANCE GUARANTEE if applicable)
· Procedures for measurements of Guarantee and conducting of performance tests
¨ (ANNEX 8 : WORKSHOP INSPECTIONS if applicable)
· Tests to be conducted by contractor at individual manufacturing steps
· Tests to be carried out by Client / Engineer at individual manufacturing steps

SUPPLY CONTRACT
Key Conditions
1. PRICE
· Fixed lumpsum price, preferably in local currency
2. PAYMENT CONDITIONS
· 20 (30) % as down payment, against advance payment bond for amounts above USD 50'000.--
· 70 (50) % at delivery
· 10 (20) % at provisional acceptance against warranty bond
3. TIME SCHEDULE
· Overall time schedule
· Special schedule (shut down period, etc.)
4. WARRANTY PERIOD
· 12 (24) months starting from provisional acceptance
5. WARRANTIES, PERFORMANCE GUARANTEE
· Delivery time
· Overall time for project execution (from coming into force up to provisional acceptance)
· Shut-down time
· Performance (capacities, clean gas content of filters)
· Function and quantity
· Lifetime of special parts (e.g. gear boxes up to 5 years)
· Lifetime of wear parts (e.g. filter bags up to 2 years)
6. PENALTIES
· Penalties due in case of non fulfilment of above warranties and guarantee, except for clean gas
content, which has to be achieved.
* Penalties in % of lumpsum price for delays and non fulfilment of performances
* Replacement (partial) of equipment not reaching lifetime
7. INSURANCE
· Transport insurance by Contractor
· Third party liability insurance by Contractor
· Erection Insurance / All Risk Insurance by Contractor or Client
8. BONDS
· Bonds to be issued by a first class bank, occasionally Concern Guarantee is accepted.
9. MODIFICATION OF CONTRACT
· Modification to be agreed in writing
10. COMING INTO FORCE
· Conditions to be clearly defined.

Organisation Chart

C06 - Case Study on SDC and OEE Requirements

CE-Case Study on SDC and OEE Requirements

Case study is not included here.

C07 - Power Supply and distribution

Power Supply and Distribution

By Nathan Schachter, Holcim Group Support (Canada) Ltd., and Friedrich Richner, CE
1. INTRODUCTION
2. Power Generation / Power supply
2.1 Emergency power supplies:
3. GENERAL Power transmission ARRANGEMENT
4. POWER TRANSMISSION – VOLTAGE levels
5. ENERGY CONSUMPTION / TARIFF STRUCTURE
5.1 General
5.2 Tariff Structures
5.3 Typical Tariff example
5.3.1 Active energy consumption charge
5.3.2 Power demand charge
5.3.3 Reactive energy consumption charge
5.3.4 Tariff phases
6. Structure of electrical systems in a cement plant
7. Power Consumption of a cement plant
8. typical SUPPLY VOLTAGES for cement plants
9. typical concept of power distribution for cement plants
9.1 High voltage transformer station
9.2 Medium voltage power distribution
9.3 Low Voltage Distribution / Distribution transformers / Motor control centres
10. HIGH voltage switchgear
10.1 Typical symbols of electrical switchgear (HV, MV- and LV)
10.2 Power Distribution: Typical elements of a high voltage transformer station
10.3 Power Distribution: Typical elements of protective relays
10.4 Power Distribution: Typical elements of medium voltage power distribution
10.5 Types of high voltage stations
10.5.1 Outdoor transformer station with conventional switch gear
10.5.2 Indoor transformer station with conventional switch gear
10.5.3 Indoor transformer station equipped either with:
10.6 Circuit Breakers
10.7 High Voltage Transformer
11. MEDIUM VOLTAGE switchgear
11.1 Medium Voltage Circuit Breakers
11.2 Properties of Vacuum- and SF6 circuit breakers
11.3 Medium Voltage Contactors
11.4 Medium Voltage Transformers
12. LOW VOLTAGE switchgear
12.1 Motor Control Centres
12.2 Motor Control Interface
13. CABLES
14. POWER FACTOR AND ITS IMPROVEMENT
14.1 General
14.2 Power Factor Correction
14.2.1 For low voltage motors:
14.2.2 For high voltage motors with constant speed:
14.2.3 For large variable speed drives:
15. ENERGY- / POWER-METERING
15.1 Metering for energy invoice
15.2 Metering for internal use only
16. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
16.1 Introduction
16.2 ‘Touch’ Voltage
16.3 ‘Step’ Voltage
16.4 Safety Precautions in High Voltage Equipment Rooms
16.5 Preventive Maintenance
16.6 Precautions against Electric Fires
16.7 Maintenance of Temporary Installations during Construction / Erection
16.8 First Aid

1. INTRODUCTION
A cement plant is considered a large consumer of electrical energy. The energy consumption in a cement
plant is equivalent to the electrical energy consumption of a small town (e.g. 15’000 habitants of a town
require approx. 20 MW of electrical power which is the equivalent of a cement plant with a production
capacity of 2000 tons/day).

Cement production is a continuous process, which depends to a large extent on a very reliable power
supply- and distribution network. Any interruption in the power supply translates into a loss in production
and loss of profit opportunities.
The reliability of a power supply depends on the:
¨ design of the supplying network
¨ environmental conditions
¨ strength of the supply
2. POWER GENERATION / POWER SUPPLY
The geographical location, the climate and the level of technical and economical development of a
country are decisive factors for the selection on the type of power generation systems. A power
generation program incorporating several of the following power generation methods is of great
advantage in order to cope with the fluctuating power requirements of the industry and public consumers
during the changing demand periods of the day or of the year.

The following are the most commonly used power generating systems:
¨ Hydraulic power stations (River power plants; High level basin power plants)
¨ Thermal power plants (Oil, gas or coal fired)
¨ Nuclear power plants
¨ Diesel engines

It is most desirable and most economical however, to provide cement plants whenever possible from an
existing utility network. Stand-alone power plants built for a cement plant are extremely costly, are subject
to high maintenance and are not considered as reliable as a large interconnected network system.
Power generation plants powered by diesel engines or gas turbines are seldom used in new installations
for cement plants, with the exception of installations located in remotely isolated areas or regions with
underdeveloped power system networks.

2.1 Emergency power supplies:

Emergency power generating units are required in a cement plant to provide power to critical processes
and prevent damage to mechanical equipment in case of failure of the utility network. (e.g. cooling water
for bearings; improving safety and allowing orderly shutdown of equipment to facilitate maintenance). In
most cement plants diesel power units in the range of approx. 250 – 2000 kW are installed to provide the
emergency power.

Typical consumers of emergency power are:

¨ Kiln auxiliary drive
¨ Cooling fans for e.g. clinker cooler, kiln ID-fan, combustion air blowers, measuring instruments.
etc
¨ Lubrication pumps
¨ Water pumps for cooling systems and fire fighting system
¨ Elevators and lighting systems (for safety reasons)
¨ UPS (Uninterruptible power supply) for plant automation systems

The emergency power unit shall be located as near as possible to the loads it serves. This will avoid
expensive cable installation costs.

Typical arrangement of an industrial type diesel power plant:

Figure 2.1 Diesel power unit

¨ Individual unit sizes for 0.25 - 2 MW

¨ Indoor and outdoor units
¨ Fuel: Diesel, heavy fuel oil, light fuel oil
¨ Efficiency: < 40%
¨ With heat recovery system to heat up e.g. heavy fuel oil
Legend:
1 Diesel engine
2 Generator
3 Control system
4 Cooling tower
5 Exhaust silencer
3. GENERAL POWER TRANSMISSION ARRANGEMENT
Electrical power generated in power plants needs to be transported from the utility to the consumers
through a network of overhead wires strung on steel poles called the transmission line. In order to reduce
the transmission line losses, the AC-voltage generated at the generators is stepped up at the generation
station to higher voltage levels such as elevated high voltage (EHV) up to 750 kV. At the consumer side,
transformation to lower voltage levels (down to e.g. 13.8 kV, 11 kV, 6.9 kV, 6.0 kV, 4.16 kV, 3.3 kV, 460 V
or 400 V) is required in order to feed the common industrial and household networks.
Figure 3.1 Typical transmission scheme

4. POWER TRANSMISSION – VOLTAGE LEVELS

An elevated high voltage (EHV) level network for economical and technical reasons can only be
distributed by means of an overhead transmission line system. For short distances however, gas
insulated cables can be used buried underground for voltages from 230 kV to 400 kV. For lower voltages
from 69 kV to 115 kV conventional power cables can be used underground as well as in above ground
raceways.
High voltage (HV) and medium voltage (MV) networks use both cables and overhead systems. In built-up
areas cable connections are preferred whereas on open areas overhead lines are used mostly due to
economical reasons.
Voltage levels:
¨ > 150 kV to 750 kV = elevated high voltage (EHV) or maximum voltage
¨ > 50 kV to 138 kV = high voltage
¨ 1 - 50 kV = medium voltage
¨ < 1 kV = low voltage
The installation of a new overhead transmission line is a long elaborated process requiring the
involvement of many governmental agencies and it takes many years to get the approval from all concern
parties. Therefore, such requirements must be anticipated and planned ahead several years in advance
of the construction of the cement plant. Fortunately, long-term distribution planning programs are in place
with most of the large utilities.
5. ENERGY CONSUMPTION / TARIFF STRUCTURE
5.1 General
Electrical energy cannot be stored, which is in sharp contrast with the other forms of energy such as gas,
oil, coal, wood, water, etc. Therefore, the production of electrical energy and consumption must always be
balanced and the utility companies undertake every effort to cope with the continuously charging demand.
With good planning surplus generating capacity must be available to avoid energy demand bottlenecks.
The interconnection of power distribution networks from different utilities and cross borders from state to
state, or province or country to country which are also supported by mutual agreements of network
support ensure a most reliable distribution system. (Example: Europe = interconnected grid from North of
Norway to South of Italy).
Isolated grid systems have the disadvantage of being weak, with unstable frequencies during network
disturbances. Heavy load demands may require temporary disconnection from the grid during such
disturbances.
5.2 Tariff Structures
The utility companies must be able to forecast with certitude consumption requirements and plan power
distribution accordingly. For this reason, most power supply contracts are structured based on a
combination of firm power demand and energy consumption rates metered monthly. Above the firm
power demand limitation of the contract additional power may be made available based on load-shedding
agreements. The availability of electrical energy is also reflected in tariffs structured for different
consumption levels and time of day, including also some penalties for excess consumption. For obvious
reasons electrical energy consumed during the night is considerably cheaper and utility companies
encourage consumers to use ‘night-energy’.
Therefore, new contracts as well as energy contracts due for renewal must be negotiated with utility
companies, based on present and future operating practices of the cement plant.
Factors which influence the Power / Energy-contracts:
¨ Seasonal influences (Summer, Winter)
¨ Time of day (daylight hours, AM, PM and night hours)
¨ Market aspects (availability of fuel, real time energy rates)
¨ Type of contract: Firm power, interruptible power or a combination contract
Tariffs rates distinguish between the power demand (kW) and energy consumption (kWh). Energy
consumption rates in certain areas can vary from hour to hour (real time pricing).
Extra charges (penalties) may have to be paid if agreed limits on power demand are exceeded.
5.3 Typical Tariff example
The following shows a typical tariff structure showing cost-split for energy, power and reactive energy:
5.3.1 Active energy consumption charge

Winter Summer
High tariff 0-25 Mio. KWh: 6,3 cts/kWh

> 25 Mio. KWh: 6,1 cts/kWh

0-20 Mio. kWh: 4,5 cts/kWh

>20 Mio. kWh: 4,3 cts/kWh

Low tariff 0-20 Mio. KWh: 4,6 cts/kWh

> 20 Mio. KWh: 4,4 cts/kWh 0-10 Mio. kWh: 2,6 cts/kWh

> 10 Mio. kWh: 2,4 cts/kWh

5.3.2 Power demand charge

US$ 14 - US$22.- per kW, based on maximum coincidental demand of the month and seasonal rates.
The maximum demand is the mean value of the four highest peak demands averaged over 15 minutes
sliding over a 60 minute time interval.

5.3.3 Reactive energy consumption charge

The total consumed reactive energy during high tariff phases is limited to 45,5% of the active energy
consumed (corresponds to average power factor (cos phi = 0,91).
Additionally consumed reactive energy will be billed to 2.1 cts/kVArh.

5.3.4 Tariff phases

High tariff: Monday-Friday

Saturday 07.00 - 21.00 h
07.00 - 13.00h
Low tariff: Remaining time
Summer: April – September
Winter: October – March

6. STRUCTURE OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS IN A CEMENT PLANT

7. POWER CONSUMPTION OF A CEMENT PLANT

8. TYPICAL SUPPLY VOLTAGES FOR CEMENT PLANTS
In the cement industry voltage levels are dictated by the utility companies and in general are supplied in
the following ranges:
¨ 15 kV (for small plants), up to 20 MW based on available capacity of the
existing distribution.
¨ 37.5 kV to 85 kV for larger plants depending on the utility
¨ 115 kV to 350 kV for larger plants depending on the utility.

In power distribution systems we distinguish between the following voltage levels:

¨ “high voltage” > 50 kV
¨ “medium voltage” 1-50 kV
¨ “low voltage” ³ 1 kV
¨ “extra low voltage” > 50 V (AC or DC)
The design of the equipment (e.g. circuit breaker) varies according to the requirements of the different
voltage levels and power ratings.
Note: The commonly used expression of “high voltage motors” means actually a power supply to the
motor in the “medium voltage range”, i.e. between 3.3kV up to
13.8 kV. Higher voltages are for technical reasons not applied for motors.
9. TYPICAL CONCEPT OF POWER DISTRIBUTION FOR CEMENT PLANTS
In the following sections typical arrangements for cement plant internal power distribution systems are
discussed. The arrangement for the power distribution depends on the following main aspects:
¨ Plant layout (process arranged in one line from crushing to packing;
expansion to existing plant)
¨ Location of existing or new power supply line
¨ Future plant expansions
¨ Environmental aspects
¨ Financial aspects
9.1 High voltage transformer station
Depending on the layout of the cement plant and on the type of switchgear installed this station is located
on the periphery or in the centre of a cement plant. For reliability reasons a cement plant is preferably fed
via two incoming power cables or overhead lines. The transmission voltage can vary between 11 kV and
350 kV and is normally fixed by the utility as mentioned above. The high voltage will be stepped down to
3.3 to 13.8 kV for plant distribution by means of two transformers preferably. Each transformer is
designed and rated to carry the plant load should the other transformer fail.
For power distribution system-arrangement see Fig. 9.1.1
For power distribution single line diagram see Fig. 9.1.2
Figure 9.1.1 Example of a Power Distribution System (Layout)

Figure 9.1.2 Example of a Power Distribution Single Line Diagram

9.2 Medium voltage power distribution

The medium voltage power distribution is usually located in an electrical room in the centre of a cement
plant, this is order to minimise cabling and installation costs (centralised MV-distribution).
However, depending on the layout of the plant, the MV-power distribution may be arranged in a
decentralised manner, i.e. the MV-distribution might be located in load centres common with the LV-
distribution transformers and motor control centres.
Decentralised arrangements may result in the application of a higher quantity of circuit breakers, control
equipment, larger electrical rooms, a more sophisticated protection scheme and requires a somewhat
more costly maintenance. Costs for MV-cabling may however be smaller.
For comparison of ‘centralised’ and ‘decentralised’ arrangements refer to single line below.
The medium voltage level normally ranges from 3.3 kV up to 13.8 kV. There is a strong tendency to use
the higher voltage of 11 kV; 50 Hz, resp. 13.8 kV; 60 Hz, because a higher working voltage results in
smaller cable cross-sections (i.e. lower investment costs) and less voltage drops (i.e. less energy losses).
The distribution station is equipped with a main busbar, the incoming circuit breakers and the different
outgoing circuit breakers to the distribution transformers and ‘high voltage’ motors. Distribution
transformer stations are located in the different load centres, namely the crushing plant, the raw meal
grinding plant, the kiln plant, the cement grinding plant and the packing plant.
All high and medium voltage equipment (transformers, cables and motors) has to be protected against
overload, short circuit, earth fault, overvoltage, etc. to guarantee a selective fault isolation.
Figure 9.2 Centralised & de-centralised medium voltage distribution
Typical single-line-diagram

9.3 Low Voltage Distribution / Distribution transformers / Motor control centres

The power supply to the LV-power consumers is normally arranged from the departmentally located load
centres (also called “LV-Substations”, “Department Substations”, “LV-Electrical Rooms” or “Motor Control
Centres”).
The departmental transformer's secondary is connected to the LV-distribution equipment and from there
to the individual Motor Control Centres.
The departmental transformers normally have a capacity of 630 up to 2000 kVA depending on the power
requirement and a low voltage level of 400 V up to 660 V. These distribution transformers are normally
installed indoors in individual transformer bays, however also outdoor arrangements with a suitable
weather protection are applied.
The low voltage distribution equipment consists primarily of all necessary feeder outlets, starters and
protection devices for the individual motors or other consumers receiving power from the load centre.
Within the same electrical room other essential equipment necessary for the control of the motors such as
the control system (PLC) and marshalling cabinets can also be located. Depending on local rules such
equipment might have to be separated from the high power equipment by fire partitions.

Figure 9.3 Typical Single line diagram

Example of a load centre with distribution transformer and MCC’

10. HIGH VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR

The high voltage transformer station generally consists of following main electrical components:

10.1 Typical symbols of electrical switchgear (HV, MV- and LV)

Circuit breaker (disconnects a circuit under load and in case of fault, e.g. short circuit loads)

On-load isolator (disconnects a circuit at max. double-rated current)

Off-load isolator (isolates a circuit at no load e.g. for maintenance purposes)

Earthing switch (connects a circuit to earth for safety reasons)

Step-down transformer (transforms incoming voltage to the plant power distribution level e.g. 110
kV to 7 kV). Arrow indicates that transformer is equipped with tap-switch for limited adjustment of voltage
level

a) current- and b) voltage transformer: Measure the amount of current resp. voltage (for energy
measurement).
Also required as primary inputs for protection devices.

Circuit breaker, draw-out type, motor operated

 Lightning arrestor (protects the substation against over voltage such as lightning)

10.2 Power Distribution: Typical elements of a high voltage transformer station

10.3 Power Distribution: Typical elements of protective relays

10.4 Power Distribution: Typical elements of medium voltage power distribution

10.5 Types of high voltage stations

The following 3 types of main incoming transformer stations are mainly used:
10.5.1 Outdoor transformer station with conventional switch gear
Characteristics:
¨ biggest surface area required
¨ medium investment costs for high voltage switch gear
¨ time consuming for maintenance (cleaning)
10.5.2 Indoor transformer station with conventional switch gear
Characteristics:
¨ Medium surface area required
¨ lowest investment costs for high voltage switch gear
¨ medium time required for maintenance
10.5.3 Indoor transformer station equipped either with:
SF6,- gas insulated- or vacuum type switch gear conventional switchgear
Characteristics:
¨ Smallest surface area required
¨ highest investment costs for high voltage
¨ needs the least of maintenance
10.6 Circuit Breakers
In high voltage installations mostly SF6 gas circuit breakers are applied. The low oil content circuit
breakers are still used but manufacturing will run out in the next years.
Figure 10.6.1 SF6 Gas Circuit Breaker
3-pole circuit breaker with operating mechanism

Figure 10.6.2 Schematic function of arc quenching mechanism of circuit

breaker pole

1 Terminal plates 3 Fixed tubes

2 Contact support 4 Moving contact tube

a) Breaker in ON - position c) Precompression

b) Gas flow during arc-quenching d) Breaker in OFF - position
Figure 10.6.3 Metal-clad, SF6 Gas-Insulated Circuit Breaker

Figure 10.6.4 Cross section of double busbar cable feeder:

Legend:

1 Busbar with combined disconnect/grounding switch

2 Circuit breaker
3 Current transformer
4 Potential transformer
5 Cable end unit with combined
Disconnect/grounding switch
6 Fast acting grounding switch
7 Control cubicle
8 Isolation

Schematical arrangement:

10.7 High Voltage Transformer

High voltage transformers are used in the cement plants power distribution to lower the incoming voltage
from the utility to the voltage level typically 13.8kV, 6.9kV or 4.16kV used for the power distribution to the
departmental transformers. These transformers are designed to operate with low losses typically with
less than 1% loss on the name plate rating. The transformers are always filled with oil, which offers the
best overall dielectric insulating properties.
In order to maintain a steady voltage level in the plant under various load conditions and to cope with
varying voltage levels at the utility substation, the transformer must be equipped with a load tap changers
and voltage regulator. The function of the regulator is to automatically increase or decrease the secondary
voltage in tune with the requirements of the load, but typically these are small steps of about 1 to 1.5% of
the nominal voltage.
Large transformers are designed to operate with natural cooling air at the base nameplate rating.
Increased power can be delivered when the transformer is forced cooled. The forced cooling equipment
such as air or water cooling equipment are often included with the original specifications which is most
economical. For example a 20 MVA transformer with an efficiency of 98% produces a heat load 400 kW
of heat.
This type of transformer being the most critical piece of equipment in the plant must be protected
adequately from overloads and over-voltages. For this reasons the transformers are equipped with
lighting arrestors, temperature sensors, oil level sensors, tap changer position indicators, sudden
pressure/gas accumulation relay (‘Buchholz-Relay’) and current differential, which together protect the
transformer against overload and insulation failures. The Buchholz-Relay detects gas bubbles, which
accumulate at the highest point of the transformer, and gives a good indication if there are insulation or
over-temperature problems with transformer windings.
The installation of the high voltage transformers most often is outdoors far enough from buildings and
other plant structures. In certain applications however and for aesthetic reasons these transformers must
be located inside a building structure designed specifically to house the transformer.
Typical picture of a high voltage transformer see below

Figure 10.7 High voltage transformer

Legend:
1 Core- and coil assembly 6 Buchholz relay
2 Iron core 7 Tank
3 Windings 8 Tank cover
4 On-load tap changer (Motor driven) 9 Truck
5 Bushings 10 Conservator
11. MEDIUM VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR

Medium voltage power distributions consist mainly of the same components as described in paragraph
10. They are generally of the indoor type. Today draw-out type cubicles are commonly used. Different
equipment can be mounted on identical ‘trucks’. The trucks are easy to handle and allow a quick
replacement in case of a failure. The figure below shows a medium voltage distribution station.

Figure 11 Medium voltage substation

11.1 Medium Voltage Circuit Breakers

Vacuum circuit breakers or SF6 -circuit breakers are normally used in Medium Voltage power distribution
systems.
Low oil content circuit breakers are still being manufactured but are less and less used in the industry due
to higher equipment costs.

Figure 11.1.1 Truck mounted SF6 circuit breaker

Figure 11.1.2 Assembly of vacuum circuit breaker

Legend:
1 Control panel / Motor drive 4 Moving contacts
2 Actuating road 5 Ceramic insulators
3 Fixed contacts
Items 3 and 4 operate within the vacuum environment
11.2 Properties of Vacuum- and SF6 circuit breakers

Application: Protection and switching operation for

¨ Power cables
¨ Transformers
¨ Motors
¨ Capacitors and reactors

Criterias:

Vacuum – circuit breaker SF6 – circuit breaker

Interrupter service life 20’000 to 30’000
Close-Open operations 10’000 to 20’000
Close-Open operations
Service interval Lubrication of mechanism (max. 10 years) Lubrication of mechanism (max. 10
years)
Overhaul of interrupter Interrupter to be replaced Interrupter can be reconditioned
Switching of lines, cables, transformers, capacitors Well suited Well suited
Switching of motors Well suited but measures may be necessary to limit over voltages Well
suited normally no measures necessary to limit over voltages

11.3 Medium Voltage Contactors

The operating principle is similar to that of a circuit breaker, except that the interrupter is not designed to
interrupt short circuit currents. The contact system is optimised for high numbers of rated current
operations.
High rupture current limiting fuses are installed in series with the interrupter to provide co-ordinated
protection during short circuit conditions.
Overload protection is ensured by separate relays.
Fused contactors can be used to supply motor and transformer loads.

Examples: maximum rating of fuse rating = 250 A, 6 kV, can be used with
¨ Distribution transformers max. 2000 kVA
¨ Motor with starting current 1350 A maximum
and acceleration time of 10 sec. Maximum

Advantages of fused contactors:

¨ very compact design
¨ more economical than circuit breakers
Disadvantages of fused contactors:
¨ Limited short circuit interrupting capability, require fuses
¨ Tripping mechanism with auxiliary contact required for each fuse to prevent
single phasing.
¨ Limited current ratings of 400 A and 800 A per interrupter and 7.2 kV maximum
voltage. The current ratings are reduced when the interrupters are enclosed in
metal switchgear.
¨ Replacement fuses are expensive
Figure 11.3.1 Contactor panel (double tier)

Legend:
1 Fuse contactor compartment
2 Contactor
3 LV plug-in connection
4 Fuses
5 Metal safety shutters covering fixed disconnecting contacts
6 Busbar compartment
7 Busbars
8 Cable-connection compartment
9 Earthing switch
10 Current transformer
11 Potential dividers
12 HV solid-dielectric cables
13 LV auxiliaries compartment
14 LV wiring trough
15 Earthing bus
Figure 11.3.2 Contactor panel arrangement (draw-out type)

11.4 Medium Voltage Transformers

These transformers are normally also mineral oil-immersed. For special applications however, the
transformer can be supplied filled with silicone oil, which has a higher flash point temperature than the
mineral oil and therefore is better suited in indoor locations or outdoors adjacent to buildings.
Figure 11.4.1 Oil-immersed three-phase distribution transformer

Picture shows transformer with conservator, typically for 5MVA and larger transformers. Sealed
transformers (hermetically sealed tanks) without conservator are normally used up to 5000 kVA.
Oil immersed transformers need for environmental reasons to be installed above an oil-tight catch basin.
For fire protection reasons, adjacent transformers must be separated by concrete block walls. Such walls
have to reach as a minimum up to the height of the transformer tank. Sufficient airflow has to be provided
for cooling. Depending on the insurance underwriter requirements, sprinklers may or may not be required
above the transformers.
Dry type transformers, which use polymer insulation and epoxy resign encapsulation are built up to 10
MVA. These transformers are ideally suited for indoor installation where heat dissipation is not a problem.
For outdoor installations the dry type transformer and its enclosure are usually more expensive than an
equivalent oil transformer.

Figure 11.4.2 Dry-type three-phase distribution transformer

Legend:
1 3-limb core assembly 6 Terminal strip
2 LV-winding 7 Resilient spacers
3 HV-winding 8 Yoke camping frame / truck
4 LV-terminals 9 Epoxy resin insulation
5 HV-terminals
12. LOW VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR
Low voltage switchgear is located in electrical rooms in the different load centres of the plant.
12.1 Motor Control Centres
The motor control centres comprise all equipment for the remote control of the low voltage consumers
(motors, heaters, valves, etc).
.
Figure 12.1 Motor control centre with outgoing feeders of the draw-out,
fully-plugged design

12.2 Motor Control Interface

The power- and control wiring is normally standardised for each type of feeder. For maintenance purpose
START/STOP - push buttons and OFF/READY - isolator switches are located near each individual drive.
The AC- or DC-control circuits are connected via multiple-core cables to the marshalling rack of the
respective process stations or alternatively directly to remote I/O-units installed internally in the MCC-
panels.
Figure 12.2 Typical motor feeder circuit diagram

Legend:

G: Motor Local Go (Start) DI: Digital Input

S: Motor Local Stop DO: Digital Output
U: Motor Local Isolated AI: Analogue Input
T: Motor Thermal Overload D1: Interface Relay ... VDC
R: Motor Run C1: Contactor
K: Motor OK F1: Circuit Breaker
Z: Motor Power *) Option F2: Thermal Overload Device
D: Motor Start

13. CABLES

The selection of power cables for the correct application is an integral part of the power distribution for a
cement plant. There are many choices for power and control cables all of which will do the job, but with
increasing installation costs and available bulk quantity discounts it is best to limit the selection to a few
types which will cover all applications.

Power cables for:

¨ High voltage (e.g. 110 kV) for incoming feeder from power company
¨ Medium voltage (e.g. 6 kV) for medium voltage power distribution of the plant
¨ Low voltage (e.g. 400 V) for low voltage power distribution of the plant

Control cables for:

¨ Low voltage (e.g. 220 V) for control circuits
¨ Extra low voltage (e.g. 24 V DC) for process control, instrumentation,
communication.
¨ Fibre-optical cables for IT, communication bus systems.

Types of cables

The selection of the type of cable depends on the installation whether is on a tray, conduit, buried in the
ground or suspended overhead.
¨ single conductor, non metallic or interlocked aluminium armour
¨ Triplex conductors, non metallic, aluminium or steel interlocked armour
¨ Shielded conductors for medium voltage installations
¨ Unshielded conductors for low voltage installations
Single conductor cables are normally use on trays and conduit. Interlocked armour cable is used when
the cable can be exposed to mechanically damaged
Figure 13.1 Medium voltage power cable (3-core)

Figure 13.2 Medium voltage power cable (3-core, with steel armour)

Legend:

1 Lead sheath
2 Single wire armour (steel)
3 Overall sheath (jute)
4 Conductor (copper)
5 Paper-Insulation
6 Filler
7 Inner sheath (paper)
8 Fibrous sheaths (in layers)

Figure 13.3 Low voltage power cable (4-core)

Figure 13.4 Extra low voltage cable (multi-core)

Polyethylene, cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) insulated cables are the most widely installed power
cables today in a cement plant. Ethylene-propylene-rubber (EPR) insulated with PVC jacket cables are
used extensively for larger cables and will in the future replace many of the PE and XLPE-cables.
Copper conductors are preferable to aluminium conductors mainly due to the simpler installation method
but also for their higher current carrying capacities and therefore smaller cross sections.
The PVC jacket of cables is flame retardant, low acid gas evolution and when exposed to sunlight has to
be UV proofed. Also non-corrosive sheath material (EVA) can be installed.
Dimensioning of cables
Power cables have to be carefully dimensioned in respect of
¨ Current carrying capacity by taking into account
· ambient temperature
· kind of installation (ground, air grouping)
· Magnetic or non-magnetic raceway
¨ Voltage drop (power loss)
¨ Thermal and dynamic short-circuits withstand capabilities
Installation of cables
In cement plants most of the cables are installed on cable trays inside the buildings, on bridges, in walk-
through cable tunnels or they are installed in metallic and non-metallic conduit raceway. Therefore,
armoured cables are seldom required, but by exception they are applied only when local electrical safety
codes specify the use of armoured cables.
14. POWER FACTOR AND ITS IMPROVEMENT
14.1 General
The electrical energy delivered by the utility contains two components of power, the active (real) power
(kW) and reactive power (kVAr). The reactive power usually lags the active power component by 90
electrical degrees. The quadratic sum of these two components gives the kVA or the apparent power the
utility companies have to generate and distribute to consumers (see vector diagram Fig. 14.1.2).
The ratio of the active power kW divided by apparent power kVA defines the power angle of these two
power components. The cosine of this angle is called simply the power factor. It can have value from zero
to unity. Unity power factor is excellent, but most installations have power factors between 0.79 to 0.83
before compensation.
Reactive power is used by the magnetic circuits of the stator and rotor, in motor's case to set up rotating
but opposing magnetic fields, which produce the torque. In the case of the transformer the magnetic flux
is required to induce voltage in the transformer secondary circuits.
Active power or real power is drawn from the power lines by the load connected to the motor shaft or by
the load connected to the secondary of the transformer.
For a magnetic circuit such as the induction motor and transformer, the reactive power lags the real power
by 90 electrical degrees. This means that reactive power is drawn from the supply. For a synchronous
motor with over excitation or for a capacitor the reactive power leads the real power by 90 electrical
degrees. This means that the reactive power flows back into the supply.
The induction motors and transformers are the largest consumers of lagging reactive power in a cement
plant. This power has to be delivered by the utility companies. It can be seen readily that lagging reactive
power is a burden on the generator and the supplying cables. It appears as the total current or the active
current and causes losses in the cables, transformers and in the generator.
Figure 14.1.1 Typical power flow in motor circuit

Legend:

S: Apparent power kVA P1: Active Power kW

Q: Reactive power kVAr P2: Mechanical Power kW

Figure 14.1.2 Vector diagram

Legend:

OA: Active power W (kW)

OB: Inductive reactive power Q (kVAr)
OC: Apparent power S (kVA)
CD: Capacitor reactive power Q (kVAr)
Phi: Phase angle, uncompensated
Phi1 Phase angle, compensated
Cos phi = P1
S

The electrical authorities contractually demand that the plant operates with a minimum lagging power
factor (cos phi) to limit the losses in their own power distribution system. The power factor can be
specified as 0.9 to 0.95 lagging based on the monthly billing demand charges. Failure to maintain the
minimum power factor results in power demand penalties with the power demand corrected for the
stipulated power factor.
One of the most common practices used to improve the power factor is the installation of capacitor banks.
The capacitor produces static leading reactive power, which displaces some of the lagging power required
by inductive component of electrical equipment, thus relieving the supply generator of the extra burden.
Other more economical methods include the installation of synchronous motors designed with leading
power factor or synchronous condensers. With these rotating machines the power system can be
dynamically compensated as dictated by the load.
14.2 Power Factor Correction
The plant power factor is normally corrected in three different modes.
14.2.1 For low voltage motors:
They can be compensated through automatically regulated reactive current compensation plants situated
at each low voltage power distribution.
Figure 14.2.1 Module-type, automatic controlled capacitor bank
(with 11 modules, each 50 kVAr)

14.2.2 For high voltage motors with constant speed:

Capacitor banks suitably sized for each individual motor in general can be switched together with the
motor provided that the capacitor does not exceed the maximum permissible value allowed for that
particular motor. For slip ring motors however, switching of capacitors must be carefully considered in
order to prevent damage to the electrodes from switching voltage transients or flashover of the collector
ring assembly.

Figure 14.2.2 Direct compensated high voltage motor

(e.g. slip ring motor 2000kW)

14.2.3 For large variable speed drives:

Large variable speed drives shall be compensated +individually for the power factor and harmonics
generated at the point of common coupling to other loads. This is the best method to ensure an adequate
power factor is maintained over the speed range.
The installation of non-linear loads such as the variable frequency drives in existing and new plants must
be carefully examined to limit the damaging effects of harmonics and to prevent resonant amplification
from taking place in the presence of capacitor banks. A detailed network analysis must be carried out.

Figure 14.2.3 Circuit diagram of a harmonic absorber and

power factor compensation circuit (1 MVAr)

Legend:

L: Inductance 14.1 Mh
R: Resistor 50 W
C1: Capacitor 720 mF
C2: Capacitor 90 mF
PROT: Protection (MCX 912)

15. ENERGY- / POWER-METERING

The power distribution scheme of a cement plant shall comply with the process requirements.
Independent process departments receive independent power supplies and distributions. Therefore,
metering equipment shall be installed at:
¨ the HV incoming feeder (metering for energy invoice)
¨ the MV outgoing feeders to the individual process departments
¨ the MV outgoing motor feeders
¨ the LV outgoing non-process feeders
¨ the LV outgoing main motor feeders
This allows for detailed information such as:

15.1 Metering for energy invoice

¨ total active energy consumption (kWh)
¨ total reactive energy consumption (kVArh)
¨ power factor (cos phi)
¨ total power demand (kW)

15.2 Metering for internal use only

¨ energy consumption per department (kWh)
¨ specific energy consumption per department (kWh/t)
¨ power demand per department (kW)

For a typical arrangement of metering equipment see Fig. 15.1.

Figure 15.1 Energy-/power metering in a cement plant

16. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

16.1 Introduction
Electrical equipment carries large amounts of hidden energy, which by its nature is inherently dangerous
to personnel if safety practices are not implemented around the plant. Safety around electrical equipment
and enforcing safety regulations and training are responsibilities of personnel and management alike.
The design and installation of the main grounding network are paramount to ensuring safety of the power
distribution system in a cement plant. Measurements of ground electrode resistance must be included
and recorded periodically as part of an effective maintenance program.
The metal enclosures of electrical equipment and must be grounded to earth to reduce shock hazard to
personnel and to provide a low resistance path to ground for currents induced in the system through
lightning or power system faults.
16.2 ‘Touch’ Voltage
Figure 16.2 Equivalent circuit of a person exposed to ‘touch’ voltage

Touch voltage is defined as the potential difference between a grounded point and a point on the earth’s
surface equal to a person’s normal maximum horizontal reach. Fault current flowing into the earth via the
grounded casing of the motor will develop a voltage drop across RE, representing total ground system
resistance. A person touching the faulty motor will be safe as long as his body resistance RB and his
contact resistance to the earth RC are much bigger than RE. The body resistance RB varies greatly, even
on the same person, between approx. 1,300 Ohm on a hot day in a humid atmosphere and approx. 3,000
Ohm in dry weather and with dry hands.
The maximum permissible voltage the body can be exposed to without immediate danger is 65 V. This
corresponds under worst conditions to a maximum current of:
65V / 1300Ohm = 0.05 Amperes
These values of 65 V and 0.05 A are laid down in the German VDE regulations. In many countries,
however, the voltage considered to be safe is 50 V.

16.3 ‘Step’ Voltage

Figure 16.3 Equivalent circuit of a person exposed to ‘step’ voltage

‘Step’ voltage is another hazardous condition caused by distributed voltage gradients. It is defined as the
potential difference between two points on the earth’s surface separated by a distance of a person’s pace
or about 1.0 m. The figure above illustrates such a condition. Again, fault current flowing into the earth via
the grounded pylon will develop a voltage drop across RE representing the total ground system
resistance. Voltage appearing across portion DU will determine the magnitude to which the body will be
exposed. Keeping the total ground system resistance low will reduce the value of DU for safety purposes.
Limiting the step and tough potentials are the most important safety considerations when des?gning the
ground mat and fence grounding in a high voltage switchyard.

16.4 Safety Precautions in High Voltage Equipment Rooms

The electrical equipment in the plant has to be protected in such a way that no one can touch any live
parts. National as well as international safety codes have set up strict rules for all equipment, its
insulation, wiring and earthing.
In electrical rooms, strictly accessible to trained electricians only, different regulations apply which allow
for live parts to be exposed.
Special precautions therefore have to be taken in case of alterations and/or maintenance in such rooms.
Under no circumstances should artisans of other trades (e.g. masons) be allowed to work in such rooms
without the supervisions of an electrician. Temporary barricades may also be required to isolate work
areas to prevent accidental contact with energised high voltage parts.

16.5 Preventive Maintenance

Each cement plant has a variety of mobile equipment, which can be temporarily connected to the power
or lighting network by means of flexible cords. Such flexible connections are subjected to abnormal wear;
therefore the electrical staff must pay special attention to proper maintenance and repair of such
apparatus and cords.
The grounding system has to be measured at regular intervals to assure its low resistance and to detect
any faulty or corroded connections.
Most safety regulations however, also recommend that plugs and receptacles used with portable power
tools and electrical equipment is equipped with ground fault circuit breakers.
Furthermore, in areas where flammable or potentially explosive goods are stored or handled, the
electrical installations have to be flameproof or explosion-proof. Such installations are mandatory for fuel
dispensing stations, oil treatment plant or near natural gas installations.
16.6 Precautions against Electric Fires
An American factory insurance company has compiled statistics showing that wiring alone is responsible
for almost half the electric fires, and that over half the losses could have been avoided by correcting minor
wiring defects.
Sufficient attention is normally paid to the proper protection of oil filled transformers, thus limiting damage
because of fire.
Wiring, however, covers large areas of every structure; it is attached to or part of all types of machinery,
and is exposed to almost every conceivable environment; heat, cold, dust, moisture, oil, vibration,
corrosive liquids and gases. Cables are grouped in large steel enclosures, floor trenches, junction boxes,
pits, manholes, and tunnels. Fires in such places are often well advanced before being discovered. The
limited accessibility impedes the application of extinguishing agents.
The almost universal use of PVC-covered and sheathed cables can increase the damage of such fires
because of the extensive development of fumes of hydrochloric gases, which combine in the presence of
moisture to form hydrochloric acid.
As a protection against such damages and prevention of plant interruption caused by wiring fires, the
following means should be considered:
¨ installation of sprinklers
¨ installation of fire barriers
¨ installation of linear fire detectors in cable trays and tunnels
¨ installation of thermal and smoke detectors in electrical rooms
¨ cable tunnels and trenches shall be divided into partitions equipped with fire barriers
¨ proper insulation of hot steam or oil pipes using the same tunnel
¨ sufficient separation and ventilation of cables subjected to high loads
¨ proper protection against sparks during welding operations
¨ marking of escape routes in tunnels and buildings
¨ shutting down all ventilation in the event of a fire
¨ automatic fire detection and alarm to fire department or security personnel

16.7 Maintenance of Temporary Installations during Construction / Erection

Special attention has to be paid to the proper handling and maintenance of temporary installations.
Cables suspended on steel structures are dangerous; if they tear they can set alive the whole structure.
Mobile boom cranes, which can quickly change their working location, are frequently the cause of
electrical accidents when they touch overhead lines or tear down suspended cables.

16.8 First Aid

First aid instruction posters are commonly available and prescribed in electrical rooms.
Since quick and correct action in case of an electrical accident is of vital importance, first aid training
should take place at regular intervals.

C08 - Drive Systems

Drive Systems
By Nathan Schachter, HEC, and Roman Menz, HES
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
1.2 Environmental Protection and Cooling Methods
2. MOTORS
2.1 Squirrel cage motor (induction motor)
2.2 Slip ring motor
2.3 Synchronous motor
2.4 Synchronous induction motor
2.5 DC-motor (direct current motor)
2.6 Ring motor (gearless mill drive)
3. POWER ELECTRONICS
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Application for power electronics in the cement industry
4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE (VSD) SYSTEM
4.1 Introduction
4.2 AC drive with squirrel cage motor
4.3 AC drive with slip ring motor
4.4 AC drive with synchronous motor
4.5 Synchronous motor with intermediate circuit converter
4.6 Electronic smooth-start for three-phase motors (soft starters)
4.7 DC-drive
4.8 Summary of large variable speed drive systems for the cement industry (>1 MW)
5. CRITERIA FOR ASSESSMENT
5.1 Specifications
5.2 Reliability
5.3 Efficiency
6. CONCLUSIONS
7. MESSAGES

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Long gone are the early days of the industrial revolution when steam and gasoline engines where used
exclusively as primary power movers of the manufacturing process of the 1800 and early 1900s.
In a modern industrial plant of today the electric motor is the workhorse. It plays the most important role
in the manufacturing process and it is used in all applications in which motive power is required to satisfy
mechanical equipment requirements of a given process.
Simply stated a motor is the electromechanical equipment, which converts electrical energy at the input
into rotating power at the output shaft. The amount of electrical energy input must be sufficient to be
converted to an equivalent mechanical output power to satisfy the requirements of the driven load.
From the electrical operating principle point of view, the motor action is a result of the interaction between
two magnetic fields. That is, the interaction of the magnetic field produced in the stationary part of the
motor circuit (the stator) and the interaction of the magnetic field produced in the rotating part of the motor
circuit (the rotor), as a result of passage of current, or simply by electromagnetic induction.
It is important to recognise that an electric motor is a piece of equipment whose design must be carefully
selected and applied to a particular process to ensure a satisfactory performance for a long time.
1.1.1 Design and application of electric machines
From the electrical power point of view, we have two choices:
¨ Direct current (DC) machines. This includes the series field, the shunt field and the compound
field connected direct current machines. For a cement plant operation the shunt field connected motor is
the most popular for basically all applications.
¨ Alternating current (AC) machines. This includes the synchronous motor, the squirrel cage
induction motor, the slip ring induction motor and the synchronous induction motor.
In industrial applications a motor can be designed to operate at speeds of up to 3600 RPM, or at speeds
as low as few revolutions per minute.
Depending on the torque requirements and the inertia of the load the motor can be designed to produce
high starting torque (160 to 300% of rated torque), a low starting torque (40 to 80% of rated torque) or a
normal starting torque (90 to 150% of rated torque.
Depending on the strength of the power system, a motor can be designed with normal torque and current
inrush at start up (5-6 times full load current), low torque and current inrush (3.75 - 4.5 times full load
current), or high torque and high current inrush (7-10 times full load current).
Depending on the power ratings and the quality of the utility power source, the motor can be designed
and powered at high voltages 11 kV to 13.8 kV or for low voltage 120 V to 600 V.
The available power ratings for the motor ranges from a few hundred watts (0.200 kW) to several
megawatts (15,000 kW). In a cement plant a ball mill was equipped recently with a 9000 kW AC motor.
For physical protection from the operating environment, motors can be designed with the following type of
enclosures:
¨ Open-drip proof: These are mostly for indoor applications in clean environments.
¨ Totally enclosed: Indoor/outdoor, hazardous locations, dirty environment.
¨ Weather protected: Indoor/outdoor, dirty environment
Cooling and ventilation are the most important factors affecting machine performance
The machines can be designed with the following ventilation and cooling methods:
¨ Self cooled non-ventilated for smaller machines.
¨ Self-cooled, blower ventilated. The blower is mounted on the machine shaft directly.
¨ Forced ventilated. The blower is independently powered and it can be mounted on the machine
directly or it can be ducted.
¨ Air to air heat exchanger for totally enclosed machines. The blower is mounted on the shaft of the
motor.
¨ Air to water heat exchanger for applications in extreme hot environments. Water requirements
and the quality of the water makes this method of cooling an expensive proposition in a cement plant,
therefore it should be avoided at all if possible. The weather protected enclosure for the machine will work
just as satisfactorily.
From the above we can distinguish many features which impact on the design and application of electric
machines. For example, the selection of a motor designed for high or low voltage applications is equally
dependent on:
¨ Power system quality
¨ The distance between the motor and the substation impacts on cable and installation costs.
¨ The cost of the drive including costs of switching and protection components.
With increased power ratings of the equipment applied in the new cement plants there are inherent
benefits to utilise higher distribution voltages of 6.9 kV to 13.8 kV. This applies in general to grinding mills
and large fans. This translates in the following advantages:
¨ The load currents are reduced thus the copper loss is reduced.
¨ Short-circuit currents are reduced.
¨ Smaller cross-section cables can be used which in turn lowers installation cost of the cables.
¨ Full advantage can be taken of the 6.9 or 15 kV switchgear without intermediate starters.
1.1.2 Energy flow
Fig. 1: Input/output diagram
The energy conversion takes place in the direction of current flow. If the current flows from the power
source into the load we have motor action. If the current flows in the other direction the motor would
become a generator. In such case, the mechanical energy of the prime mover will be converter into
electrical energy.
1.1.3 The magnetic circuit and torque
The electric motor consists of two elements the stationary (stator) and the rotating (rotor) elements. Each
element is built of metal laminations (ferromagnetic core), which is surrounded with many turns of copper
wires (coils). The laminations contain slots in which the copper wire is embedded. The strength of the
magnetic field is a function of the number of turns per slot of the coil, (Amperes-Turns) and the size of the
core, which the coil surrounds. Depending of the current carrying capacity of the machine, several copper
coils can be embedded in parallel in the slot of the core.
The slots of the machine and coils are distributed uniformly around the circumference of the stator and
rotor. The passage of current magnetises the coils of the rotor and those of the stator and sets up north-
south magnetic field orientation, which are called the poles of the machine. An electrical machine must
have an equal number of north and south poles or pole pairs. The interaction of the north-south magnetic
fields produced around the poles gives rise to the motive power.
A large machine would require many turns of copper to be embedded in the slots of the magnetic core,
but physically it would not be possible. Therefore, larger laminations with fewer coils must be used. This is
what happens in the transition from low voltage motors to medium and high voltage motors.
1.1.4 Operating principle
The operation of the electrical machine is based in the principle of electromagnetic induction.
When electric power is applied to the stator circuit of the motor a magnetic field is induced through the air
gap into the rotor circuit. The magnetic field set up in the rotor induces a current in the windings of the
rotor. The current in the rotor circuit induces a separate magnetic field in the air gap, which tends to
oppose the magnetic field induced by the stator.
The north-south polarisation of these magnetic fields and the interaction between the electromagnetic
forces produced by these magnetic fields produces the torque and motion at the output of the motor shaft.
1.1.5 Motor speed
The speed of the motor is function of the number of pole pairs, frequency in the case of alternating current
machines and armature voltage for a DC-machine.
Synchronous Motor:

n = synchronous speed, turns or revolutions per minute

P = number of pole pairs
f = frequency of the power supply (50 Hz or 60Hz)
Induction Motor:

n = asynchronous speed
s = slip frequency of the rotor. The slip can vary between 2% to 5% of the synchronous speed
f = frequency of the power supply (50 Hz or 60Hz)
P = number of pole pairs

DC - Machine:
Va = Armature voltage

Ia = armature current
Ra =Armature resistance
F = magnetic flux
k = proportionality constant of the machine which depends on the number of armature conductors, the
type of armature winding and the number of poles.
1.1.6 Power, torque and speed
The relationship between these variables is expressed by the following equation:

P = Mechanical power output expressed in kilowatts (kW) or horsepower (hp)

T = Mechanical shaft torque expressed in Newton-meters or pound feet (lb-ft)
K = proportionality constant, which depends if SI units are used or British units are used.
n = output speed
In order to select the motor for the correct application the relationship of these quantities must be known.
These relationships are expressed in terms of torque versus speed characteristic curves.
The influence of the torque or speed on the size of a motor can also be explained by means of a
mechanical example:
¨ truck (30 t payload)
motor: 15 l > power = 200 kW
¨ formula 1 racing car
motor: 2 l > power = 400 kW
The truck motor generates a much higher torque at a much lower speed.
For the electric motor the magnetic circuit produces torque at the output shaft of the machine, and the
speed at which the shaft is turning determines the power drawn from the power source.
The torque requirements for any load can be characterised as following:
¨ breakaway torque is the torque required to move the load from rest. For the motor this would be
called locked rotor torque or starting torque.
¨ acceleration torque, which is the average torque required to accelerate the load to full speed. For
the motor this would be defined as the pull up torque or saddle torque.
¨ breakdown torque, which is the maximum torque safely sustained by the mechanical equipment.
For the electric motor, the breakdown torque is the maximum attainable torque, which can be produced by
the magnetic circuit. Beyond this value the motor torque breaks down and the motor pulls out of step,
which creates a short circuit and could severely damage the mechanical equipment, the foundation and
the rotor. Therefore, it is always prudent to ascertain the limitations of the gearboxes, pulleys and
couplings to avoid catastrophic failures.
1.1.7 Motor Efficiency
The flow of current through the conductors of an electrical circuit creates electrical losses, which are
proportional with the square power of current (i) multiplied by the resistance (r) of the circuit, or simply (i 2
r) losses.
With rotating equipment such as motors additional losses are created, which are a function of the
magnetic circuit losses (eddy current losses) and windage losses. The windage losses are the result of
friction losses in the bearings, cooling fan and resistance to air-flow. The windage losses can be relatively
low for a well-designed and ventilated machine. Bearing losses can be minimised by using oil lubricated
sleeve bearings as opposed to anti-friction ball bearings. The use of sleeve bearings is highly
recommended for machines rated above 1050 kW.
In general however, the electrical machines are very efficient when compared to equivalent mechanical or
hydraulic motors. Typical design efficiencies are in the order 92 to 98% of the base ratings, including
accessories. The least efficient of designs starting with the DC-motor, followed by the slip ring induction
motor, the squirrel cage motor and the synchronous motor which is the most efficient because there are
no slip losses.
1.2 Environmental Protection and Cooling Methods
The losses produced by electrical machines give of heat, which must be dissipated into the surrounding
area. Ventilation requirements are the most important aspects of machine performance and must be
always incorporated at the planning stages of design. The type and methods of cooling have been
described briefly in the preceding paragraphs.
The box-shaped fabricated casing of the larger motors make them easily adaptable to designs to suit a
wide range of stringent environmental requirements encountered in a cement plant, most of which are far
from favourable. For example the enclosure can also be lined with sound-absorbent material to lower the
noise emission from the cooling blowers. Cast iron frames of totally enclosed motors can also be
equipped with silencer shrouds to reduce the noise level near the machine.
The type of protection for motors is very important in the cement industry. The type of protection is
defined by the International Protection standards (IP), followed by two numbers, which indicate the
degree of protection (according to IEC).
e.g. IP 44 means
¨ protection against foreign bodies with a diameter above 1 mm
¨ protection against spray water from all directions.
The cooling of a motor is closely related to its protection. The ideal solution of a completely enclosed,
surface-cooled motor is not practical for large motors. Forced cooling with air filters or air/water heat
exchangers are normally required.
1.2.1 Description of standards
IEC PROT. DEGREE NEMA DESCRIPTION

IC 411 IP55 TEFC Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled

IC 01 IP23 WP1 Weather Protected
IC01 IPW24 WPII Weather Protected
IC611 IP54 TEAAC Totally Enclosed Air-to-Air Cooled
IC616 IP54
IC81W IP54 TEWACTotally Enclosed Water-to-Air Cooled
1.2.2 Some examples of the most applied variants
Fig. 2:

a) Machine with mounted Water-To-Air heat exchanger (TEWAC, IC81W). The circuits are
completely separate.
b) Machine with mounted Air-to-Air heat exchanger (TEAAC, IC611). The circuits are completely
separate.
c) Surface cooled machine with fan mounted on the shaft end (TEFC, IC411)
d) Weather protected machine (WPII, IC01); the cooling air goes directly through the machine.
1.2.3 Insulation Treatment
The working environment in a cement plant even the cleanest of the plants, subjects the electrical
insulation to a high degree of abrasion from the air born dust particles in the air cooling the machines. To
prevent premature insulation failure electrical machines applied to the cement industry are specified to be
built with abrasion resistant epoxy insulation applied through a vacuum pressure impregnation process
and subjected to water an immersion test. Compliance with the immersion test is the most stringent
insulation quality requirement provided in the industry today.

2. MOTORS
2.1 Squirrel cage motor (induction motor)
2.1.1 Construction
The squirrel cage motor is in its construction the simplest motor used in the cement industry. The main
feature is a rotor without external connections (no slip rings, no brushes). Its two bearings are the only
parts exposed to wear and tear. As the name implies, the rotor design resembles a rotating cage similar to
that used by pet rats or squirrels. It is the most economical in terms of initial price and requires less
maintenance than other motors.
Fig. 3: Typical construction of a squirrel cage motor

Fig. 4: Typical connection diagram of a squirrel cage motor

2.1.2 Starting Characteristics

The normal starting torque squirrel cage motor has a starting current of 5 to 6 times full load current at
zero speed. The starting torque and the current inrush are a function of the resistance of the rotor circuit.
Fig. 5: Typical starting characteristics of a squirrel cage motor

a: Starting torque b : saddle torque or pull up torque

c: Break-down torque I: current
M: Torque n : speed
cosj : Power factor h: efficiency
P: Load
2.1.3 Operating Characteristics
Fig. 6: Operating characteristics of a squirrel cage motor (abbreviations see Figure 4)

2.1.4 Application
The squirrel cage motor can be used for almost any drive application operating with a constant speed on
a sinusoidal waveform and having normal starting torque and short acceleration time. The motors are
available from a fraction of a kW to thousands of kW.
The advent of variable frequency drives (VFD) has extended their use for inverter duty application with
non-sinusoidal waveform e.g. kiln, separator, fans. When applied to non-sinusoidal waveform operations
the squirrel cage motors must be designed to be compatible with such operation. Failure to specify VFD
duty operation could destroy the motor prematurely due to insulation failure and iron core heating.
Motors designed for VFD duty only have weak rotors, which are not suitable to accelerate loads when
starting directly across the line. Therefore if the motor must be operated on VFD and also across the line
with a bypass, then the rotor should be also designed for direct across the line start or DOL.
Fig. 7: Application graph for a Tube Mill driven by a squirrel cage motor.

2.2 Slip ring motor

2.2.1 Construction
The slip ring motor, like the squirrel cage motor, is an induction motor. The major difference is that the
rotor windings are not shorted like the squirrel cage motor but are terminated at collector rings. Since the
starting torque and current are a function of the rotor resistance, the collector rings are connected to
variable resistors, which allow control of the starting torque and current within a wide range of values.
This is also the reason why the motor quite often is called “Wound rotor motor”.
Fig. 8: Typical connection diagram of a slip ring motor

2.2.2 Starting Characteristics

The introduction of an external resistance in the rotor circuit changes the torque characteristic of the
motor and reduces the starting current. It allows changes of the torque of the motor and adaptation to the
torque of the load (e.g. maximum torque at standstill).
The starting time of the motor can be extended since most of the heat is generated in the starting resistor
away from the motor.
For small motors under 1000 kW, metal starting resistors are used. The resistors are built in different
numbers of steps as required by the drive. The last step of the resistor may be permanently connected to
the rotor when the drive requires a softer torque characteristic.
Liquid starting resistors provide smooth and continuous acceleration. These are used for 1000 kW and
larger motors.
Fig. 9: Start of a slip ring motor by eight steps (resistor starter)

MN : nominal torque
MA : torque characteristics during start-up
MG : torque of the load
2.2.3 Operating Characteristics
The slip ring motor is started with full resistance in the circuit. As the motor accelerates, the amount of
resistance in the circuit is reduced until the motor reaches full speed. At this point the rotor is short-
circuited and the motor runs like the squirrel cage motor.
Without the external resistance in the rotor circuit, the slip ring motor cannot develop sufficient torque to
accelerate the load because its rotor resistance is very small. The small resistance of the rotor circuit
poses an inherent danger if a fault takes place in the motor circuit. Large transient torque is developed,
which can pull the motor out of its foundation and at the same time creates large current swings and
voltage drop in the power system. Transients of 8 to 10 times the full load torque are possible. Therefore,
care must be exercised to ensure that the foundation and bolting arrangement are adequately designed to
prevent such occurrences.
The disadvantages in applying slip ring motors are the high maintenance of the collector rings, brushes,
the rheostat. Another disadvantage is that the motor has a lower efficiency than an equivalently rated
squirrel cage motor. To alleviate these maintenance issues, and reduce operating costs, slip ring motors
are supplied with brush lifters and flashover detection circuits. The flashover circuit adds another degree
of safety and prevents catastrophic failures of the collector rings and rotor. In addition, the collector ring
assembly must be designed and housed separately from the main motor windings and be separately
cooled and ventilated to prevent carbon dust accumulation from the brushes.
2.2.4 Application
The slip ring motors are best applied where a combination of high speed, high starting torque and low
starting current are required, in weak power systems. Some applications include raw mill, cement mill,
high inertia fans.
2.3 Synchronous motor
2.3.1 Construction
The stator of the synchronous motor is no different than the stator of the induction motor. The main
difference is in the design of the rotor circuit. The rotor of the synchronous motors contains two separate
and distinct circuits. The first circuit is called the cage winding, gives the motor a starting characteristic
much like that of the squirrel cage motor. The second circuit is the DC field winding, which is built on
laminations evenly distributed in pairs on the rotor shaft. These are called the poles of the machine.
Because of the discrete arrangement and large gaps, as opposed to uniform distribution and no gaps,
these are called also, salient pole arrangement. The saliency provides stronger magnetic field in the air
gap.
Typical synchronous motors can be designed with a starting torque of approximately 60- 80% out of the
nominal torque, with relatively very low current inrush, typically 3.5 to 4.5 times the full load current. For
high torque starting is possible to built machines which allows up to two times nominal torque during
starting. These high torque machines have usually between 7 to 8 times inrush current.
Fig. 10: Typical connection diagram of a synchronous motor

When power is first applied, the synchronous motor accelerates, similar to a squirrel cage motor, near to
95%-98% of synchronous speed. At this time the DC power is applied to the field windings. The
application of DC excitation set up a magnetic field in the field winding, which produces the necessary
pull-in torque to pull the rotor into synchronism.
2.3.2 Operating Characteristics
The speed of the synchronous motor is proportional with the frequency of the supplying network and
independent of the load on the motor shaft up to the pull out torque. The pull out torque is 1.5 to 1.9 times
the nominal torque and depends on the excitation and the terminal voltage.
The great advantage of the synchronous motor is its capability of compensating reactive power and the
very high efficiency of 96 to 98%. The higher efficiency is and inherent benefit when applying
synchronous motors when compared with induction motors, which operate with lower efficiencies
because of slip loss.
2.3.3 Application
The application of synchronous motors in the cement industry is limited to loads greater than 2000 kW
with low-torque starting characteristics and low current inrush. Synchronous motors designed with low
torque and low inrush are very economical when compared with induction motors. Depending on the
application, low torque motors are coupled with air clutches or fluid couplings to accelerate larger loads.
Fluid couplings with lock up features, zero slip, are used for the higher range of speed and power ratings
whereas air clutches are limited to lower speed and lower power ratings (e.g. 4000 kW and below, 515
RPM and lower speed). The greatest advantage of the synchronous motor is that it can be overexcited to
produce leading reactive power to compensate the remainder of the plant.
Low torque synchronous machines are designed with brush-less exciters and do not require the intensive
maintenance of the collector rings and brushes. This is an added advantage.
Depending on the strength of the power supply, low speed high torque drive arrangements with
synchronous motors are also possible (e.g. cement mill drive without gearbox directly connected to the
pinion shaft of the mill). High-torque synchronous motors are almost twice the cost of normal torque
motors for the same speed and power range and have high current inrush, which limits their application to
strong power supply networks.
In contrast with the low torque synchronous motors, the high torque machines require stronger fields and
high current exciters and therefore must be equipped with collector rings and separate power supplies.
This increases the maintenance and losses in the circuit.
Synchronous motors are mainly used in the US market and are not very much applied in Europe or Asia.
2.4 Synchronous induction motor
The synchronous induction motor combines the starting advantages of the slip ring motor and the reactive
power compensation capability of the synchronous motor. It has been specifically designed for application
powering ball mills in the early 1930s. It has been popular with the cement and mining industries until mid
1960s. The high initial cost and ongoing maintenance and complex switching arrangement have wiped
out any side benefits of its application. Today this type of motor is not very popular because of initial cost
and on going maintenance and there is only one remaining manufacturer producing it.
It has the high starting torque at a low starting current of the slip ring motor and also the capability of
compensating reactive power. The operating efficiency is lower than that of either type of motor stand-
alone.
2.4.1 Construction
The synchronous induction motor is built like a slip ring motor; only the mode of operation differs. It is
equipped with collector rings and a separate field excitation, which reduces the overall efficiency.

Fig. 12: Typical connection diagram of a synchronous induction motor

a) induction motor
b) starting resistor
c) DC power supply
2.4.2 Starting Characteristics
The synchronous induction motor starts with a rheostat like a slip ring motor. After it has reached the
asynchronous speed, the collector rings are short-circuited in such a way, as to form two polarised
circuits, which can accept DC excitation. With DC excitation applied pull-in torque develops and pulls the
motor into synchronism. The transition to synchronous motor is complicated arrangement as far as the
distribution of the field windings and very often results with a rotor, which is electrically unbalanced, when
operated as a synchronous machine.
2.4.3 Operating Characteristics
In the synchronised operating mode the motor acts like a synchronous motor. It can operate with unity
power factor or leading power factor to compensate the remainder of the plant. Typically the leading
reactive power compensation is limited to 0.9 leading power factor of the rated power by design. The
conventional synchronous motor is designed to operate with a 0.8 leading power factor.
2.4.4 Application
These motors are very expensive when compared with conventionally designed motors. These motors
are applied in weak power systems, which cannot tolerate high current inrush above 2.5 times normal
load current with loads above 3500 kW. Reactive power compensation is a side benefit in such
applications. One draw back is that these motors are solidly coupled to their loads, therefore leading
reactive power compensation benefit is lost when the equipment is shut down. Conventional synchronous
motor coupled with an air clutch or fluid coupling can operate de-coupled from the load to correct the plant
power factor.
Applications for synchronous-induction motors in a cement plant operation include vertical roller mills, ball
mills and large capacity fans.
2.5 DC-motor (direct current motor)
The DC-machine until the invention of the variable frequency drives was the most popular choice for
applications of speed control in industrial plants. The DC-machine has a far more complex design and
requires more maintenance than other AC-machine.
Its name implies that the DC-motor runs on a direct current power supply. In the early days of power
generation, utilities generated and transmitted power directly to the industrial plants. Today only AC power
is being generated and transmitted to the plants and DC power in a plant today must be generated locally
in the plant. Motor generator sets were used in the early days and although inefficient and requiring
frequent maintenance majority of installations remain in use in many plants today. The advent of solid
state controlled rectifiers (AC to DC converters) connected to three-phase power distribution has replaced
the motor generator practically in all new installations of the last 30 years.
2.5.1 DC-Motor construction
Like all other electric machines, the DC-motor consists of a stationary part containing the main poles of
the machine called the field and a rotating part containing the armature or the rotor.
The excitation windings around the main stator poles are fed by a DC power supply and produce a
constant magnetic field.
The DC current flowing through the armature conductors underneath the main poles produce a tangential
force on the rotor, which is identical to the torque on the motor shaft.
Fig. 13: Magnetic flux of a DC-motor

Fig. 14: Magnetic forces turning the rotor

The rotor now moves to the neutral position between the South and the North poles.
To keep the armature rotating, a polarity change in the rotor circuit is required. This is achieved through
commutation action of the brushes. The commutator is built up of copper segments connected to the coils
of the armature. The brushes bridge the segments and change the direction of the current flow in the
coils, thus changing polarities.
To smooth out commutation in the neutral zones between adjacent poles additional windings and
laminations are installed called commutation poles, which compensate for the non-uniformity of magnetic
field in the air gap between adjacent poles to improve commutation and reduce torque pulsation.
Fig. 15: DC - machine with main and commutation poles

Fig. 16: Cut-away view of a large DC-motor

2.5.2 Characteristics of a DC-Motor

The DC-motor offers the advantage of a relatively simple torque and speed control over the full range of
speed and power required for a given application. The best advantage is that a relatively small machine
can provide very high torque output, as high as 300% on start up by virtue of control of field excitation and
armature voltage.
The torque can be constant up to the base speed such as is required by kiln drives applications. The
motor can also operate above base speed with constant kW by field weakening and decreasing torque.
There are three main characteristics of a DC- machine, which influence the torque behaviour. These
characteristics are dependent on the excitation requirements of the field. These characteristic are as
following;
¨ shunt connected field, self excited or separately excited
¨ series connected field
¨ compound connected field, which is a combination of the above two.
In cement plant applications shunt connected field is the most common machine because it exerts a linear
torque versus speed characteristic.
These properties made the DC-motor the most commonly used variable speed drive in the cement
industry in the past.
The main drawbacks of the DC-drives are that they:
¨ are 2 - 4 times more expensive than squirrel cage motors
¨ are maintenance-intensive (collector, power electronics)
¨ are space-intensive (transformer, converter)
¨ require many spare parts
¨ are not efficient as a drive system
2.5.3 Application
DC-motors are installed where variable speed is necessary and where the excellent characteristics of the
drives outweigh the above mentioned drawbacks. Crusher feeders, weigh belt feeders, separators and
kiln drives are such possible applications.
2.6 Ring motor (gearless mill drive)
2.6.1 Construction
The ring motor is a low speed synchronous motor. The stator is powered by a cycle-converter power
source, which converts the supply frequency to low frequency variable supply. The output frequency
ranges from zero and a few Hertz.
Applying a ring motor is economical for 7500 kW and larger loads.
The first ring motors were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s. There are many installations in
the mining and cement industry benefiting from this development. The main advantage is the overall
small footprint of the mill and motor and reduced foundation and building requirements.
With the ring motor, the rotor becomes part of the mill. It is connected to the mill via a tube called the
torque tube. Around the circumference of the torque tube the salient poles of the rotor are fastened.
Controlling the frequency of the cycle-converter allows control of the speed of the mill.

2.6.2 Operating Characteristics

The rotor and the cycle converter are designed to produce 150% of starting torque required by the ball
mill. The motor starts synchronised and full field applied at zero speed. As the machine accelerates to full
speed the field current is adjusted to reduce the torque to normal values. The speed range of ring motors
is somewhere between 13- 35 rpm. Whereas most applications in the past applied only to tube mills, the
concept of a ring motor can be equally applied to vertical mills as well.
The power factor of the motor itself can be unity, the cycle-converter however, requires reactive power
compensation at the input power supply.
Fig. 17: Starting characteristics of a synchronous motor with frequency and with asynchronous starting

M) torque
n) speed
I) motor current
1) torque of the load (mill)
2) torque with frequency starting
3) current with frequency starting
4) torque with asynchronous starting
5) current with asynchronous starting
3. POWER ELECTRONICS
3.1 Introduction
The electronically adjustable speed drives make use of high power semiconductor devices to rapidly
switch on/off the flow of electrical current through the circuit.
Advances and the design and packaging of the semiconductor devices and circuit boards have made
them very reliable to apply. The latest devices have mean times between failures as high as 800 years.
Increased current carrying capabilities reduces the number of devices required to power a drive. This
combined with reduced unit cost makes them economically attractive to apply in all applications requiring
speed control.
To distinguish between electronics and power electronics, it may be said that electronics handle currents
above 1 mA while power electronics handle currents above 1 A. The present maximum is about 9000 A
(rectifier diodes) for a single element.
The most familiar power electronic semiconductor devices are:
¨ diodes - static rectifiers without commutation control
¨ transistors - static current amplifiers with current bias control
¨ thyristors - silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR) with active bias current control of the gate circuit
¨ triacs - AC controlled rectifiers with active bias current controlled gate circuit. These are also
compared with back to back SCRs because they conduct power in both directions.
¨ GTO (gate turn-off thyristors) forced commutation the gate circuit
¨ IGBT (insulated gate bipolar transistors) most modern device with integrated gating package
which reduces switching frequency losses. These devices have very fast rate of rise of voltage (dv/dt),
which can damage the insulation of motors.
¨ IGCT (integrated gate commutation thyristor) these are the latest devices developed to handle
large currents with even lower switching frequencies losses than IGBT and lower rise of voltages(dv/dt).
The above mentioned electronic switches can be compared with other physical media, e.g. modulating
valves in water flow control.
3.2 Application for power electronics in the cement industry
In modern cement works power electronics are used as:

(a) rectifiers for - electrostatic filters

- magnetic separators
- DC power sources

(b) voltage regulators for - speed (torque) control of DC-drives

- voltage control of electrostatic filters
- electronic contactor

(c) frequency converters for - speed control of synchronous motors, ring motor, squirrel cage
motors
- stabilised power sources for supply of control equipment, e.g. computers

3.2.1 Advantages of electronic elements

Electronic elements do not wear out. Their modular design permits quick trouble-shooting and short repair
times. These devices are very efficient with less than 2% losses. These devices are very reliable. The
latest devices can be applied without individual fuse protection but relying on the fast commutation of the
device to block fault currents. The electronic power fuse cost just as much as a new semiconductor
device, therefore more and more of the new designs will be fuseless.
3.2.2 Disadvantages of electronic power devices
a) Cooling
Losses occur in electronic power devices as a result of switching frequency. These losses produce large
amounts of heat and since the switching components have small dimensions, cooling of the device can
be a real challenge for the design engineer. The cooling media is usually air, but water/glycol media may
also be used. The ambient temperature of electronic boards is often specified up to a maximum of 45oC,
thus in most cases air-conditioned rooms are necessary.
b) Distortion of the sinusoidal waveform
All electronic devices exert non-linear voltage current characteristics as a result of the blocking -
conduction switching cycles. The resulting waveform is a composite waveform containing sinusoidal
currents of multiple order of the fundamental frequency. These are called harmonics of the fundamental
frequency. The magnitude of the current in the harmonic waveform is in inverse proportion with harmonic
order. For example the magnitude of the 5th harmonic current is 1/5 or 20% of the fundamental current.
The magnitude of the 7th harmonic would be 1/7 or 15% of the fundamental current. In actual life these
magnitude are lower because of impedance of the circuit.
The harmonic order generated is in direct correlation with the number of switching pulses of the circuit. A
full wave three-phase rectifier contains six switching devices or it set to have 6 pulses. In this circuit
harmonics will be generated at multiple frequencies corresponding to the relationship n*(p±1). P is the
number of pulses and n is the number of multiple frequency. The 6 pulse rectifier has a first order
harmonic on the 5th and the 7th harmonics or multiple of the fundamental frequency. For a twelve pulse
rectifier the first order harmonics would be the 11th and the 13th harmonics. It can be seen that the higher
the number of switching pulses the lower the magnitude of harmonic currents.
This high frequency harmonics power causes the following interferences:
· emission of strong magnetic fields which can interfere with control signals (control cables must be
protected and separated)
· malfunction of other electrical equipment inside and outside the plant due to distortion of the
voltage wave form.
4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE (VSD) SYSTEM
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 General
Many process applications in a cement plant require the use of variable speed drive (VSD) for energy
efficiency purpose and finite control of the process variables such as air flow, additive rates, raw meal
feed and clinker. An added benefit of the use of VSD is the smooth starting of the motors, which causes
less stress to mechanical components as well as to power supply systems. Traditionally, requirements for
variable speed in the cement industry were covered with the application of direct current (DC) drives or
occasionally by hydraulic drive systems. The newly installed drive systems make use exclusively of
variable frequency drives and a squirrel cage motor.
In a cement plant the variable speed drive finds application with the following equipment:
· Process Fans
· Conveyors
· Bucket elevators
· Kiln drive
· Cement coolers
· Mill drives
· Starting duty applications
· Energy savings applications
A variable speed drive system consists of the following major components:
Fig. 18

4.1.2 Example for a VSD (Fan)

The correct air volume for process is often achieved by damper control or radial vane in conjunction with
constant speed drives. Considering the "BCM" (Better Cost Management Approach) concept, constant
speed and damper control for large fans (1-4 MW) is not economical today.
Figure 31 compares the reduced energy consumption of using variable speed equipment for fans and
pumps with radial vane damper and throttle valve. Where air or water quantities have to be adjusted
according to process parameters, a variable flow is needed. Very often, this variable flow is created with
more losses than necessary. Compared with other means of flow-adjusting devices, the variable speed
drive can save a considerable amount of energy, especially at 50 to 90% of the rated speed.
Fig. 19: Power requirement at different speed

Some advantages for applying a variable-speed drive are as following:

a) Optimal control of the process variable
b) Better use of primary energy due to higher efficiency of the process
c) Reduced stress on machines and supply system during starting
When new cement plants are ordered, it very important to assess first the various options for electrical
and mechanical variable speed drives applied to new processes. It equally important to assess these
options when carrying out partial modernisation or replacement obsolete equipment because
unavailability of spares or having high maintenance or operating with a poor efficiency. For example
conversion of hydraulic drives to VFD, or replacing an old DC-drive with a VFD, or installing a VFD for a
fan operated with damper control.
The following catchwords applies for drive specification:

Robust The drive system must be designed to cope with the typical cement plant environment and the
type and quantity of dust prevailing at the location of installation, e.g. clinker dust for cooler fan drives.

Ease of maintenance The necessary amount of man-hours required by the equipment must be
minimal. Diagnostic systems must help to identify failures and indicate steps to correct the fault/failure.
Modular design and access must allow for a fast replacement of the defective component in order to
restore normal operation.

Reliability High reliability shall be achieved with adequate sizing of a well-proven drive system. The
system shall not be over-engineered with additional redundant components and equipment, which
increases the initial installation cost. Kiln drives and critical process fans requiring by-pass are excepted.

Efficiency Total drive system efficiency is of utmost importance, since it influences the operating
cost for many years especially with an almost guaranteed assurance to sustain increase in rates for future
energy.

Investment cost Evaluation of initial investment cost is only meaningful if complete systems are compared
including auxiliary installations (e.g. differences in cooling systems, civil works etc.) as well as the
operating cost over the next ten to fifteen years.

4.2 AC drive with squirrel cage motor

The variable speed drive system, using a squirrel cage motor, consists of the following main components
(see Fig. 35):
· 3-phase full-wave rectifier (1)
· DC-intermediate link with reactors (2)
· forced commutation inverter (3)
· normal 3-phase squirrel cage motor (4)
An input rectifier creates the intermediate link DC voltage. The reactors inserted in the DC link uncouple
the AC power supply side from the inverter side driving the asynchronous motor. The forced commutation
inverter is using the principle of phase sequence turn-off. Each of these switching circuits consists of a
thyristor, a diode and a commutation capacitor. The input rectifier is current-regulated and supplies its
power into the DC intermediate link. The output inverter is voltage regulated, maintaining the correct V/Hz
relationship over the speed range. The speed of the motor is adjusted by variable frequency. No
tachometer is needed, since the frequency feedback signal is taken from inside the panel. The normal
speed range is from 5 to 50/60 Hz and up to approx. 90 Hz.
The power of the available units presently ranges from 0,5 kW to approx. 15,000 kW of several typical AC
input voltage levels like 380 V, 415 V, 500 V, 690 V, 3.3 kV, 4.16 kV, 6.6 kV, 7.2 kV and recently 13.8 kV
AC.
4.2.1 Current-source inverter-fed induction motor
Fig. 20: Frequency converter with phase-sequence turn-off

4.2.1.1 Operating Characteristics

The converter as described above does not need any additional semiconductors in order to perform a full
4-quadrant operation. The flow of energy is reversed by reversing the polarity of the DC link voltage, with
the current direction remaining unaltered. At speeds below 5 Hz, torque pulsation may be noted as a
result of low frequency motor-current harmonics. This effect is damped by the mass of the mechanical
system.
The prevailing use for this type of variable speed drive is to be found with fans and pumps in many
different configurations.
Usually a totally enclosed, fan-cooled standard motor can be chosen with no extra forced cooling system
because the torque curve of these mechanical devises follows a square function versus speed.
Fig. 21: Typical block diagram of the voltage-controlled variable frequency converter

1 voltage controller 5 trigger unit of the line-commutated converter

2 value generator and limiter 6 actual current measurement
3 actual voltage measurement 7 voltage/frequency converter
4 current controller (secondary) 8 trigger unit of the self-commutated converter
9 voltage reference potentiometer

Fig. 22: Torque/speed diagram

A: continuous duty self-ventilated
B: continuous duty with forced ventilation
C: intermittent duty
4.2.1.2 Application
Cooling equipment manufacturers and suppliers of water pumping stations have used this type of variable
speed drive since 1975. Several converter manufacturers have application references for more than 1000
units of a wide power range within the past years.
The initial equipment cost is slightly higher than for a comparable DC-drive system due to more
semiconductor elements in the power circuit. On the other hand, the squirrel cage motor is much cheaper
than the DC-motor. Harmonic content and power factor aspects are identical with those of a DC-drive
since the input rectifier represents the same type of load to the supply side network.
This type of system is advantageous for retrofitting existing equipment. The installations of a VFD to an
existing piece of equipment, which until now was connected to a constant frequency supply of 50 or 60
Hz, allows the motor to run under speed-controlled. It might be of interest to notice that a speed-increase
is also possible by applying more than line frequency (e.g. 70 - 90 Hz). In other words, a separator or a
belt conveyor could run faster. These type of applications must be evaluated on an individual basis to
ensure that the additional power required by the process are within the power rating and safety factors of
exiting motor and gear box.
4.2.2 Load commutated inverter-fed induction motor
The main components of this drive type consist also of a line-side converter, DC link circuit reactor and
load-side inverter. Additionally, a current diverter is added in order to force commutation (switch-off) the
inverter at low frequencies, while an output filter is added to smooth output waveforms and provide
sinusoidal excitations for the induction motor.
Fig. 23: Cage induction motor with load-commutated inverter (output Filter)

As with the conventional frequency converters, for normal operation the converter is commutation by line-
voltage and the inverter commutation by the load. Unlike the conventional type, the current diverter circuit
on the DC link is used for commutation of the inverter at low frequency operation. The thyristors are gated
individually phase displaced (switched on) to produce the three-phase output.
Above 60% of rated frequency, depending on the motor, the diverter circuit turns off and the inverter is
load commutated by the combined effects of the output filter and the induced motor-voltage (e.m.f.). The
filter is sized to provide motor excitation over a wide frequency range. The voltage and current
waveshapes are nearly sinusoidal, typically containing less than 5% harmonic distortion at rated output.
No motor derating is necessary.
Fig. 24: Torque/speed diagram

4.2.2.1 Application
The load-commutated inverter-fed induction motor is best suitable for very large loads with squared
torque/speed characteristic (Fig. 39) and reduced speed range, i.e. for fans. However, recent
developments and the introduction of high power IGBT/IGCT drives with pulse width modulation control
renders the use of this type of drive unnecessary in most applications in a cement plant.
4.3 AC drive with slip ring motor
In many exiting installation with slip ring motors in particular fan drive application, it is possible to install
efficient speed control systems, which make use of the slip energy of the drive to control the top 20% of
base speed. It is important to note that in most fan applications this is all that is required to provide to
ensure an efficiently run process. As a result, the converter package is rated for only 20% of the power,
which makes relatively inexpensive.
In new applications this drive combination is seldom used, primarily because of lower overall drive
efficiency, higher maintenance and initial investment cost as compared with a modern VFD.
Fig. 25: Schematic of sub-synchronous cascade
a) HV slip ring motor with tachometer (T)
b) 3-phase full-wave rectifier (diodes)
c) 3-phase full-wave inverter (thyristors)
d) matching transformer
e) electronic speed regulator
f) starting resistor
g) speed reference potentiometer
The stator of the slip ring motor is connected directly to the power system. The rotor slip power, which is
proportional to the slip frequency, is fed back into the power system via a diode rectifier, a smoothing
reactor, an inverter and a matching transformer. A starting rheostat is normally used to drive the motor up
to near 20 to 30% of full speed, then the rotor is connected to the converter and the electronic regulator
takes over the speed control. The static converter section has to be sized only for the rotor slip power.
The sub-synchronous cascade system is mostly used to drive large pumps, fans and compressors, where
the torque increases with the square of the speed. A considerable change in capacity is obtained by only
a slight adjustment in speed therefore large speed variation is normally not required. Typically with square
law torque functions only the top 30% to 20% of the speed require to be controlled.
The normal power range for sub-synchronous cascade systems is from about 500 kW to 10 MW with
motor nominal speeds of 1500 min-1 or below. For special applications, similar converter systems have
been built up to 60 MW. Motor cooling systems are identical to those of normal slip ring motors running at
a constant speed.
4.3.1 Operating Characteristics
A sub-synchronous cascade drive needs a starting rheostat . The variable speed range is very much
reduced compared to a DC-drive. No over-synchronous speed can be reached and only 1-quadrant
operation is possible, i.e. motoring in one direction only.
Every converter requires reactive power. A larger drive system has a higher demand for reactive power,
which has to be considered and compensated. With the sub-synchronous cascade drive system, the
reactive power demand increases with increasing speed range. Therefore, the variable speed range
should be kept as small as possible. The compensation system has to be designed on an individual basis
and should be optimised for the normal running speeds of the motor. Furthermore, the harmonic currents,
created by the static converter, have to be considered during the design of the power factor compensation
system. In a modern installation, the filter-circuits cover both aspects, resulting in a combination network
of reactors and capacitors instead of capacitors only.
The efficiency of the variable speed drive system is not as high as that of a slip ring motor alone due to
more power components in the circuit. The overall efficiency over the speed range is, however, much
better than for example controlling the air-flow with a radial vane damper at constant motor speed or at
variable slip ring motor speed using permanently connected resistances in the rotor circuit.
Fig. 26: Typical speed/efficiency curve of a sub-synchronous cascade drive

4.3.2 Application
Especially large plants require large fans (with high torque inertia) where DC-drives are not feasible as
the power/speed ratio exceeds the typical DC-motor frame size. Here, the sub-synchronous cascade
system offers a feasible alternative.
A 2000 t/d plant, for example, needs a kiln fan of 1700 kW at 1500 min-1. Large fans in the cement
industry can have a range of up to 5 MW. Therefore, this type of drive will be seen in our industry more
often since it meets all requirements in terms of controllability, operating behaviour and economy.
Furthermore, any existing slip ring motor can be converted into a variable speed drive by adding a sub-
synchronous cascade converter system. On the other hand, every cascade system can run at rated motor
speed without the static converter, e.g. during a fault in the electronic regulation part. Leaving the
mechanical flow control device installed will be of advantage!
The sub-synchronous cascade drive is, therefore, a technically and economically favourable system for
large fans requiring variable speed due to process parameters.
Nowadays the system is used mainly within retrofit projects. For new installations a combination of a
squirrel cage motor with a frequency converter are normally applied.
4.4 AC drive with synchronous motor
4.4.1 Synchronous motor with cycle-converter
This type of power converter is used exclusively with ring motors in mining and cement industries to drive
large tube mills, 7500kW and larger. As the capacities of the new cement mills increase with every new
application, this type of drive is becoming once again economically attractive to apply.
Fig. 27: Converter schematic used in conjunction with the ring motor (gearless mill drive)

1) converter transformer
2) two converters in anti-parallel three-phase bridge connection
3) synchronous motor
4) exciter winding
Each motor phase is connected to the feeding power system via SCR rectifiers (thyristors) arranged in
anti-parallel or full wave rectification, three-phase bridge network. Lower frequency at the output is
obtained by means of control of the gating and phasing the conduction cycle of the SCR bridges.
A power system frequency of 50/60 Hz can be converted to an output frequency as low as 3 to 6hz. The
anti-parallel arrangement of the SCR is four-quadrant operation and reversal of the direction of rotation
and regenerative braking is possible without any modification.
This system is almost identical to a four-quadrant DC-drive, except for the motor.
High starting torque (150%) and almost sinusoidal current results in smooth torque characteristics at all
speeds.
This cycle-converter system is not limited to ring motors only. It is also well-suited for other applications
where substitution of large DC-drives in conveying machinery, in rolling mills drives, propeller drives for
ice breakers and hoist drives for mining, especially where the DC-motor can no longer be employed
because of ambient conditions, maintenance costs or power limits.
The system covers a range from 1 to 20 MW.
4.4.2 Application
The cement industry uses this system only for large tube mills, eliminating the girth gears, pinion,
gearboxes, inching drive and foundation, main motor foundation, lubrication systems for the gears thus
saving space maintenance and building cost.
4.5 Synchronous motor with intermediate circuit converter
Fig. 28: Basic circuit, “6-pulse”

Fig. 29: Basic circuit “12-pulse”

Rectifier and inverter, “12-pulse” with transformer windings displaced by 30o el. Two anti-parallel bridges
are connected in parallel.
This type of circuit is called converter-fed synchronous motor and consists of a controllable rectifier, a
smoothing reactor and an inverter. In these designs the rectifier and inverter have to be sized for the full
motor power, compared to the sub-synchronous cascade, where the converter has to cope with the rotor
slip power only. Natural commutation from phase to phase is a function of the terminal voltage of the
synchronous machine. This natural commutation does not need any additional circuit like the forced
commutation with the converter type for squirrel cage motors.
This type of converter is suitable for 4-quadrant operation and can cover a full speed range like a DC-
drive variable speed system.
The 6-pulse scheme is normally used for power of 1 to 5 MW. For larger systems, the harmonic currents
lead towards 12-pulse configurations due to motor and line side problems. Modern synchronous motors
have a brush-less excitation system. A synchronous exciter is mounted on the shaft of the machine. It
supplies power to the field through a rotating diode rectifier to the DC field winding, which is turned on by
the rotor frequency. This avoids the trouble of maintaining collector rings.
Converter frequencies of up to 120 Hz can be realised driving 2-pole synchronous motor up to 6000/7200
min-1 at almost any power. Systems of 30 MW have been built and projects of 50 MW are being studied.
4.5.1 Application
The main applications of the converter-fed synchronous motor for pumps, extruders and compressors,
where a precise speed control over a wide speed range are important. These drives are not installed in
the cement industry, as the existing type of machinery does not specifically require a converter-fed
synchronous motor system.

4.6 Electronic smooth-start for three-phase motors (soft starters)

The simplest and most economical way to start a three-phase motor is full-voltage, across the line starting
and this method is used whenever the power system permits. With weak power systems there is always
a requirement to limit the locked-rotor current inrush and voltage drop on the bus, or to control the starting
torque of the motor in order to avoid damage to the equipment.
For example, it might be necessary to control acceleration and starting torque of a conveyor motor to
prevent shock damage to the loaded belts.
Fig. 30: Electronic soft-start for a three-phase motor

Figure 31 shows the torque characteristics with a smooth-start for a three-phase motor. The starting
procedure begins by 20 to 40% of the nominal voltage. During the adjusted starting time, the stator
voltage will be increased to 100% through the control of the firing-angle of the thyristor-controllers.
The motor runs up along the load characteristic M, whereby torque-shocks will be avoided. The speed
increases linear during the starting time from 0 to the nominal speed of the motor. After the starting
procedure, when the motor runs with nominal load, the thyristor will be fully conducted.
The electronic smooth-start works similar to the hydrodynamic fluid coupling but it has the decisive
advantage that the starting time and the starting torque can be easier adjusted to the individual operating
conditions.
The advantage of the fluid coupling is that it provides 100% starting torque whereas the soft started is
basically a reduced voltage starter in which the starting torque is a square function of the terminal voltage.
Therefore when applying a soft starter additional considerations must be given to the current rating of the
starter and its short time duty.
Fluid couplings for starting duty are most frequently used in a cement plant with a weak power system. A
low torque synchronous motor with low starting current is used in this application. The fluid coupling is
designed to accelerate the load and develop an output torque equivalent to 120% of rated torque to allow
starting of large loads such as ball mill, heavy inertia fans or conveyors.
Fig. 31: Torque/speed diagram

4.7 DC-drive
The DC-drive has been in use for many years in the cement industry. A large number of them remain in
use today. The main components of these drives are shown in the following figure.
Fig. 32: DC-drive system

A DC-drive system normally includes:

· 3-phase isolation transformer (1)
· 3-phase full wave rectifier (2)
· DC-motor (3) with shunt field (4) and tachometer (5)
· electronic speed regulator (6)
The speed of the DC-machine varies proportionally to the applied armature voltage. Motor field
weakening can increase the speed even more, but the result is reduced torque. DC-drives can be built
from less than 1 kW to approx. 1000 kW, for motor speeds of up to 3000 min-1 for the smaller drives and
speed of 700 min-1 and lower for the larger size motors. In steel mills, large DC-drive systems are built
up to 8 MW with approx. 100 min-1. The motor size is the limiting factor due to the centrifugal forces in
the commutator. The controllable speed range is almost infinite, since the DC-drive can start and run
close to zero speed even under severe overload conditions. Due to the wide speed range, DC-drives in
most cases require external forced-cooling systems.
4.7.1 Operating Characteristics
The scheme as shown in Figure 33 can operate only in quadrant 1, i.e. motoring in forward direction. For
full 4-quadrant operation, a double anti-parallel (back-to-back) thyristor bridge arrangement is necessary.
Once the DC-motor is equipped with a forced-cooling system, no torque limitations exist. Totally closed
DC-machines are available too, but they are oversized and cover a limited speed range only. Therefore, a
totally enclosed fan-cooled machine is usually very uneconomical. The field weakening range is not used
in the cement industry, since it serves mostly for winder applications.
Fig. 33: 4-quadrant operation

4.7.2 Application
The DC-drive system is widely installed in the cement industry for the following machines:

¨ kiln main drives ¨ 200 - 500 kW and twin drive

¨ large fans (e.g. kiln, raw mill) ¨ 800 - 2000 kW
¨ weigh feeders ¨ 5 - 15 kW
¨ apron feeders and special belt conveyors ¨ 20 - 100 kW
¨

Due to the rapid developments in power electronics, the variable speed drive technology has gone
through various stages in the last decades, but the DC-drive represents still an efficient, approved and
solution today. The commutator, the most delicate part of the whole system, and the cooling system
require special and permanent maintenance attention. These two aspects explain the desire for other
variable speed drive systems without commutator.
Fig. 34: Typical schematic diagram of a twin drive for a rotary kiln employing thyristor-controlled DC-motor

1 Rectifier transformer 7 Current controller

2 Reactor 8 Speed controller
3 Thyristor rectifier, controllable 9 Speed reference potentiometer
4 DC-motor 10 Current transformer and rectifier for the current actual value
5 Tacho generator 11 Thyristor rectifier, uncontrollable
6 Gate control unit

4.8 Summary of large variable speed drive systems for the cement industry (>1 MW)

5. CRITERIA FOR ASSESSMENT

5.1 Specifications
The specifications of the drive equipment must include operational requirements, the performance and
manufacturing standards of design and reliability. Apart from the description of the main features required
from the drive and the ambient operating conditions, a number of other factors are important for the
design and selection of the variable-speed drives:
· Starting and slow-running characteristics
· Speed/torque characteristic of the driven machine and of the selected drive system
· Range of operating speed and accuracy
· Suitable means of protecting the installation, which does not lead to unnecessary stops in the
event of short interruption of the supply
· Definition of the maximum admissible harmonic current content on the network and of the filter
equipment
· Extent to which the power electronics is proof against short circuits
· Cooling for the motor and converter
· Redundancy requirements
· Operating power factor over the speed range
5.2 Reliability
The main objective when using any drive system, be it mechanical or electrical, is to ensure high
availability and reliability for the installation as a whole, with minimum maintenance. The reliability in
critical applications is more important than in non-critical applications. Therefore the requirement of
redundant components and subsystems with bypass operations of the electronic drive must be always
considered in critical applications. The critical applications in a cement plant include the kiln drive, main
baghouse, kiln ID fan, alkali bypass, cooler exhaust, ID fans with drives for roller mills.
5.3 Efficiency
The operating efficiency at the most frequently used operating point is a key factor for consideration in
determining the effect of energy consumption and how it affects operating cost of the plant. Energy costs
will continue to increase in the future at faster rates than investment costs. Therefore, when planning
installations, it is necessary to make a comparison of the investment cost with the operating costs of the
potential drive systems. This trend should be taken into account in the appropriate manner during the
evaluation.
The efficiency figures provided by the manufacturers of drive systems have to be examined with great
care, as in most cases they only provide an efficiency curve for full load of the most significant drive
component, e.g. the motor. Information on partial load is difficult to obtain, but in most cases the values
are below those quoted.
5.3.1 Definition of total drive system efficiency
Efficiencies of individual drive components do not define the total system behaviour. For comparison, it is
therefore essential to establish meaningful and measurable limits, which define the borderline of efficiency
for the complete drive system. On the one hand, the power drawn from the network is measured and, on
the other, the mechanical power imparted at the variable speed shaft. All components located between
these two extremities are to be taken into account for any system including auxiliary power consumption
for cooling or ventilating purposes.
Fig. 35: Definition of total drive system efficiency

6. CONCLUSIONS
The existing and the newly planned installations should be evaluated to determine whether the application
of drive control systems could improve the efficiency of the operation. Making use of up-to-date
measuring techniques it is possible to achieve substantial savings in operating costs.
No matter how high the efficiency may be, it loses all its significance if the system fails only a few times! It
will therefore be necessary to weigh reliability and efficiency very thoroughly, one against the other.
Some typical applications of variable-speed drive systems were dealt with in this session. Unfortunately
there are not generally valid solutions for the various applications in all countries.
7. MESSAGES
· Be energy conscious when selecting variable speed drives
· Consider alternatives and new technologies
· Analyse new technologies very thoroughly especially with respect to reliability and efficiency
· Be aware of the Total Cost of Ownership of a system

C09 - Plant Automation and Motor Control

Plant Automation and Motor Control

By Roland Luder, CE
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BENEFITS/DRAWBACKS OF AUTOMATION AND MOTOR CONTROL
2.1 Reliability
2.2 Quality
2.3 Energy saving
2.4 Manpower saving
2.5 Maintenance
2.6 Environment
3. AREAS OF AUTOMATION IN A CEMENT PLANT
4. PROCESS AUTOMATION
5. PROCESS AUTOMATION COMPONENTS
6. PROCESS AUTOMATION SYSTEMS
7. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC)
7.1 Introduction, History
7.2 Hardware of Programmable Controllers
7.3 Structure of a PLC
7.4 Software of Programmable Controllers
7.5 Programming a PLC
7.6 Programmable controller: language presentation
8. SELECTION CRITERIA OF AN AUTOMATION AND PLC-CONTROL SYSTEM
8.1 Automation system
8.2 Criteria governing the Choice of PLC
9. OVERALL VIEW AND CONCLUSION

1. INTRODUCTION
In earlier day the topics automation and motor control was separated. Today more and more of the control
elements include intelligence that is the devices are equipped with micro chips and thus perform some
part of automation or control at the periphery. Thus the two topics have moved so close together that it is
now handled as one topic.
Automation and Motor control can be defined as a physical system which is capable of reaching a certain
target without any human action. Motor control is within the automation what we could call the output. The
automation commands and the motor control switches drives, valve, actuators etc. ON and OFF.
Applied to the cement manufacturing process, different targets can be formulated. One could for example
be: load bags to the packing machine without any human action. The most extreme target would be an
automatic bank transfer to the shareholders of the dividends of the totally automatic cement
manufacturing.
But already the small example of the bag loading shows that automation very soon reaches limits: An
automatic bag loader today is no longer a problem, but the target "loading bags to the packing machine
without human action" has by far not be reached. Who does the unloading of the bags? And who does
maintenance on the bag loader? Theoretically, these activities could also be made automatic, but it would
generally not be feasible and there are of course still limits (e.g. who does the maintenance of the
"automatic bag loading maintenance machine"?).
When we mention "automation" we nowadays immediately associate computers or electronic equipment
to it. This is only natural since almost all automation systems are today based on electronic components.
When the term automation system is used it shall therefore mean a system based on electronic
components. The term automation associates as well control of a plant, of machines, of a process.
However, the term automation includes today as well office automation, it includes the automatic task of
collecting data (process, financial, administrative) and goes as fare automatically producing reports to
present the data to the user and in a condensed form to management.
The switching operation of the motor control system includes monitoring and alarming of the various
conditions. This status is reported back to the automation system where appropriate action is taken.
Physically, a motor control system consists of
¨ an operating panel as interface to the operator (with push buttons or key board, lamps, mouse,
displays)
¨ a logic controller which performs the logical interlocking of all information (with relays, electronic
or programmable controllers)
¨ a plant/process interface with sensors and command elements (switches, contactors, valves)
cabling and bus system, which interconnects the different components of the system.
2. BENEFITS/DRAWBACKS OF AUTOMATION AND MOTOR CONTROL
The example given in chapter 1 shows that an automation project has to be clearly analysed for its
ultimate benefit within the cement manufacturing process. The achievable benefits can generally not be
expressed or calculated in exact figures, automation is always related to or has to be compared with
human factors and these factors are difficult to determine.
Nevertheless, some fields where automation can yield some benefits as well as drawback shall be further
elaborated:
2.1 Reliability
The installation of modern electronic equipment instead of elector-mechanical components guarantees a
higher reliability of the control system. Equipment downtime can be reduced due to the availability of
detailed process warnings. However, the detailed information system entails a more complex control
system.
2.2 Quality
The operator is released from all routine operations, checking and controlling. He is thus in a position to
fully concentrate on the optimum and efficient operation of the process. In this objective he is greatly
supported by the system which presents all relevant information in a logic and easily understandable way.
The market demands for less tolerances in the cement quality. An uniform operation, more precise on-line
measurements are a guarantee also for better quality.
2.3 Energy saving
A modern control system automatically starts and stops motors according to the process requirements.
Inefficient continuous running of motors and high energy losses during unproductive start-up trials are
eliminated. The control system can easily include the control of the peak load to the plant (energy
management). A better stabilised process can have a very positive influence on thermal as well as on
electrical energy consumption. Application of variable speed drives not only optimise the process but add
greatly to energy saving. The power requirements of modern electronic equipment is less but this saving
is some how compensated by the increased number of such control elements.
2.4 Manpower saving
Achievable savings depend on actual labour situations, labour costs, labour policies (unions) etc.
However, the manpower rationalisation effect has as well adverse effects not to be neglected. When
considering the replacement of staff by automation the impression on the employees as well the
community should be contemplated.
2.5 Maintenance
The maintenance on control and instrumentation can be kept to a minimum due to the installation of
electronic equipment. No time-consuming troubleshooting will be required since failures are displayed in
clear text. Mechanical maintenance can be optimised and preventive maintenance can be introduced due
to the availability of detailed failure and warning messages and statistical evaluation of all events.
Disadvantageous is the complexity of modern automation system. Maintenance requires highly skilled
personnel and might involve outside companies thus induce new problems like dependencies, knowledge
transfer, external or higher costs etc. An other drawback is the life cycle of electronic equipment. Soon out
dated spare parts are scarce or even not available after a short time.
2.6 Environment
A modern automation system not only controls the process, it is furthermore and more responsible for
continuous environmental protection.

Example: Exhaust gas analysis

Waste water treatment
Energy management

The given examples are typical closed loop control systems. Thus, the process is not dependent on
human observing abnormalities and reactions. It is a continuous process acting in very narrow limits and
process abnormalities are monitored.
Since in recent years environmental protection is widely spread and even used as a marketing tool more
and more consideration has to be given when applying automation and motor control.
3. AREAS OF AUTOMATION IN A CEMENT PLANT
Automation can be applied in many different fields of the cement manufacturing process.
Table 1 gives an overview of those fields which are mainly concerned with automation. It also shows what
type of hardware normally is applied to perform this automation.
The table clearly shows that a vast variety of equipment can be used for the different automation tasks.
When it comes to software this variety is even bigger. In order not to end up with a patchwork of different
automation systems, it is therefore very essential to carefully plan and to evaluate any automation project.
It is mainly important to always keep the entire process and the entire system in mind. Automation can
start with the modernisation of a single machine, but the automation or control of this single machine
should be designed from the beginning to fit into an overall automation concept.
Table 1

AUTOMATION AREA AUTOMATION HARDWARE POSSIBLE SUPPLIERS

1) QUARRY CONTROL
Quarry planning, Mixed bed control Workstations, PC's, GPS QSO of HMC, BMH
2) PROCESS AUTOMATION
Motor control
Process control
Monitoring
High level control Programmable controllers
PC's, (Slot PLC's), Workstations
Graphics Displays
Process computers Siemens, ABB, Rockwell, GE, Schneider, Honeywell, Omron
3) DISPATCH CONTROL
Loading
Administration Programmable controllers
Workstations, PC's Local SW company WF-supplier
4) QUALITY CONTROL
Sampling preparation
X-ray
On-line raw mix control Programmable controllers
Including micro-computers (dedicated equipment)
PC's, Workstations "Polab", Gamma-metrix, Philips, ARL, Siemens
5) MAINTENANCE and TRAINING
Materials management
Maintenance planning
Reporting, documentation
Process simulation system Workstations
Personal computers (Office automation), Handheld PC's SAP, dedicated.
6) MANAGEMENT INFORMATION, ADMINISTRATION
Production reports, statistics
Commercial data
Personnel administration, ERP Workstations
Personal computers, Hand held PC's, Network SAP, TIS/LIMS of ABB, MIS of Siemens
7) Office
Project management, CAD PC's, Network Micro Soft World

4. PROCESS AUTOMATION
Automation and motor control has undergone fast changes in the recent years. Process automation or
process control has become more and more important together with the increasing capacity and
complexity of cement plants. With the degree of automation the amount of control devices respectively
equipment has risen sharply.
Table 2 shows how the number of drives and instruments (which can be used as degree of complexity) .
The figures given represent very approximate values of a medium-size cement production line.
The technology of control system components has drastically changed during these periods, whereby
most new developments have been based on the respective underlying developments in the field of
electronic/computer technology.
To predict the future is of course always a difficult task. Some trends, however, can already be observed.
One trend is surely that there will be developments for more memory at a lower price which will allow
better and faster information handling (which is necessary due to increasing amount of data). This again
will have an influence in the further development of self-learning ("expert" or "intelligent") systems.
The trend in graphic displays goes towards bigger, flatter screens with higher resolution.
More and more the move is towards unmanned plants and control rooms. Thus a plant monitors itself,
uses its control capability to evade faulty equipment and allows trough remote diagnostic that stand stills
can be planed.
To understand the development in automation systems (table 2) we take you now in a short review of the
history. One point coming out clearly when travelling through this history, is the shorter and shorter
evolution time of the control equipment. Thus the life time cycle is shorter too, resulting in increased
importance of depreciation of the equipment, spare part management and education of personnel.
This progress is in some aspects to your advantage and in some aspects works against you. Thus when
planning to automate you should carefully consider this development and account for it in your business
plans.
Table 2 History of process automation system

- 1940 Local control of individual machine, local pneumatic/mechanical indication

50 motors, 20 instruments

- 1960 Central control rooms , sequence control of motors (relay), remote indication of
instruments
200 motors, 70 instruments

- 1975 Central control rooms, decentralised programmable controllers, monitoring or process

computers
400 motors thereof 5% variable speed drives, 200 valves and 150 instruments

- 1985 Central control rooms, centralised controllers with remote input/outputs, graphic displays,
data-highways
800 motors thereof 7% variable speed drives, 800 valves and 300 instruments

- 1990 Central control rooms, distributed control systems, automated documentation tool,
integration of management information
1000 motors thereof 8% variable speed drives, 900 valves and 500 instruments

1995 Central control rooms, distributed as well as centralised control system, local intelligence
1000 motors, thereof 10% variable speed, 1000 valves and 800 instruments

2000 Central control room, distributed as well as centralised control system, local intelligence
with function status monitoring. Instruments and control devices connected via bus system.
1000 motors, thereof 15% variable speed drives 1000 Valves and 1200 instruments

Future Integration of expert knowledge, integration of simulation, field bus to the level of all the
instruments and control devices, intelligent sensors, plug and play, remote diagnostic over WWW,
unattended control room. Quarry automation with GPS-controlled vehicles

5. PROCESS AUTOMATION COMPONENTS

The automation is organised in three levels:
The department control level (level 1): using the process stations (PS) with their process input/output
devices, assuring the safe operation of machines, of the production process and provide all required
communication interfaces to other control levels.
The operator level (level 2): using the operator stations (OS), assuring a simple and efficient
human/machine interface for the remote operation of the plant.
The supervisory level (level 3): using management stations (MS) with their peripheral devices and
software tools, optimisation and management information. This level will not be used for the Project.
The function or tasks of the three levels are further elaborated below.

The total system of these component functions in a similar way as a human being:
Sensors and the cabling perform similar tasks as the nerves - capturing and transmission of information to
the brain.
The controller performs similar jobs as the brain. It processes the information.
The result of this data processing is transmitted again by the nerves to the muscles which transform the
information into a physical movement as in a plant control system, where the controller output is
transmitted - over cables or bus system - to the actuator or the MCC where the information is transformed
into physical power, the electric motor.
Needless to say, a plant control system plays a very important part in the performance of a plant, similar
to the one of the brain and the nerves of a human being.
The individual components "analogue as well as digital sensor/transmitter" will be further explained in the
chapter SENSORS, the component "logic controller" in the chapter 7.
In order to understand the subdivision process controller / logic controller / computer / man-machine
interface within the so called "integrated controller" one has to go a little bit back in history of control
systems.
Some years ago the subdivision of an automation system into the parts
· motor control
· instrumentation and process control
· data logging
used to be clearly defined by the corresponding type of equipment:
· relays, then programmable controllers for motor control
· separate instruments and closed loop controllers for process control
· recorders and operators day-book, then computer data logging equipment (to collect process
information).
Every type of equipment used to have its own type of man/machine interface
· push-buttons and lamps for motor control
· potentiometers and instruments for process control
· keyboards and displays for data logging.
This control equipment has also been offered from more or less specialised manufacturers, as e.g.:
· Modicon for Motor Control
· Honeywell for Instrumentation
· Digital Equipment for Data logging
Today there is a market tendency for the established manufacturers to expand outside the field in which
they have hitherto specialised and to enter the other areas of automation more and more; this means that
modern programmable controllers can perform process control tasks and condition data; computer
systems are also able to perform sequence control and they are all linked by computer bus systems and
networks.
6. PROCESS AUTOMATION SYSTEMS
For the automation of a cement plant which has to combine all the three functions of motor control,
process control and data logging, it is thus possible to select the most appropriate component for each of
the three areas and to integrate them in a complete system. In practice, though, this procedure is often
obstructed by the lack of compatibility of the units (i.e. difficulty in interconnecting them) because, owing
to the rapid progress made in electronics, neither hardware nor software are sufficiently standardised.
Furthermore, the user is confronted with the problem of maintaining three inherently different systems.
And as mentioned earlier the life time of electronic equipment and accordingly the availability does not
help to improve the situation
Fortunately, we have seen that manufacturers have expanded their fields of activity and that today, a level
has been reached where all three functions can be realised with only one or perhaps two different control
system supplier.
The structures of complete systems from different suppliers, however, still shows considerable
differences.
Since in the cement industry motor control represents the most extensive part of the automation system, it
is regarded to be optimal to choose programmable controllers as basic control units.
Among the various types of programmable controllers available (in Switzerland about 50 types with less
and less manufacturers are represented on the market), it is the medium to large units that are most
suitable for the cement industry. "Large" units are regarded as being those capable of catering for the
motor and process control of a complete department (e.g. raw mill) with all the associated processing of
data for the man/machine interface. As regards configuration, documentation and ease of modification,
large systems are preferable to a number of medium or small units.
With this concept the automation system of a complete cement production line generally consists of one
programmable controller for each department (crusher, raw mill, kiln, cement mill, coal mill, cement
dispatch), each controller with its separate operator station and each performing motor control as well as
process control. For general management information and reporting, the operator stations are
interconnected and linked via gate way computer to a separate data base computer being part of the
information management system.
Accessories:
¨ Power supply:
In order to absorb brief interruptions of the plants power supply or power dip and in order to correctly
alarm any real voltage supply failure, it is recommended to connect the entire control system to an
uninterrupted power supply.
¨ Test and simulation system:
The spare parts required for the automation system are preferably assembled to form a "test system".
This system should be procured before anything else in order that the software can be set up and tested
before the actual process control system is installed. After commissioning, the test system is used as
"spare parts stock" as well as for testing possible changes to the programs and also for training new
personnel. Naturally, the "spare parts stock" has to be replenished according to the consumption.
¨ System documentation:
To establish the system documentation, every possible use should be made of the facilities offered by
computers today. A special chapter will be allocated to this topic.
¨ Communication:
A good communication system can help a lot to improve efficiency in operation and maintenance. Here,
too, a clear concept should be established. All possible methods:
· telephone/paging, walkie-talkie, intercom, loudspeaker, fax, video etc.
should be considered and possible applications evaluated.
7. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC)
7.1 Introduction, History
The logic controller is the brain of the motor control system, i.e. the decision-making part. It takes care of
the safe, convenient sequential starting, running and stopping of single motors or of whole groups of
machines.
There are basically three different techniques to build-up an electrical logic controller:
7.1.1 Relay Technology
A relay uses the electro-mechanical equipment which uses the electromagnetic force of an electrical coil
to open or close electrical contacts. The internal wiring of these coils and contacts determines the specific
function of the set-up.
Relays control has been the only technology until approx. 1960.
Today relays are still used for interfacing (power amplifying) purposes and for very small control systems.
7.1.2 Electronic Card System
This technology was developed in Europe and was applied approx. until 1975. It consists of electronic
components, pre-assembled on printed circuit boards and performing specific logic functions. The
function of the total system is determined by the wiring between the different logic cards.
Today these systems are hardly anymore installed.
7.1.3 Programmable Controllers
This technology was introduced in the market approx. 1970, and is the today’s dominating technology.
The tendency is to replace relays by programmable controllers even in very small applications. The
programmable controller uses basically the same idea as a computer does: it uses a memory to store
information and it uses this information to execute step by step a procedure which is determined by this
information (program; software). The market offers PLC's either as dedicated units micro processor and
input output cards or personal computer with slots equipped with PLC cards.
The advantages for all these types of controllers as opposed to other technologies are:
¨ No mechanical wear
¨ no rewiring when modifications are required
¨ easier planning (hardware / software can be planned in parallel)
¨ higher level of automation is possible
¨ integrated solutions with analogue and digital control and data acquisition are possible.
¨ direct or bus connection of field devices, control system, data logger and PLC's
7.2 Hardware of Programmable Controllers
A programmable controller is basically a ‘BLACK BOX’ with INPUTS and OUTPUTS and a connection to
a PROGRAMMING UNIT.
With the programming unit, the user determines how the different inputs and outputs must be logically
correlated and sequenced to perform the desired control task. The programming nowadays uses a PC to
display, to enter or to modify the program as well as an additional storage devices to safeguard it.
The ‘BLACK BOX’ is composed on one or several chassis or racks which basically contain the following
elements (see Fig. 7.2.1)
Figure 7.2.1 Programmable Controller Hardware Configuration

The power supply provides the internal stabilised control voltages of the programmable controller
The processor performs the actual logic / timing and internal control functions thus contains the program
The memory is required to store the program and raw process data.
To transform the signal coming in (INPUT) from outside (e.g. from a level switch) or going out (OUTPUT)
to the outside (e.g. to lamps, to the MCC). Today most programmable controllers handle digital as well as
analogue I/O signals. However, more and more the traditional signal from a single instrument is replaced
by a bus system. In a plant section
The PLC can be expanded with various additional units. One very important unit is the communication
port. Such a port will in our day be an expansion due to the variety of communication channels. A simple
serial port (RS 232), an Ethernet or possible in future Bluetooth.
Physically all these elements are generally grouped on one or several rack mounted cards. The cards are
internally interconnected via a system bus or already with a field bus which performs a fast exchange of
the necessary information between the different units.
This arrangement provides great flexibility in hardware planning: if additional memory space is required,
for examples, it is generally sufficient to plug in an additional memory card. The rack mounting technique,
of course, also simplifies troubleshooting of the hardware (defective card out - new card in - restart). More
and more hot plugin is common. But this feature is not very practical in our industry and would have to be
used with great care. Additionally it must be noted, that once a system is correctly set-up, hardware
failures occur rarely.
Figure 7.2.2 shows an example of an input card of the draw-out type which contains 16 inputs. Output
cards may be arranged in a similar way.
Figure 7.2.2: INPUT (OUTPUT) Card of a Programmable Controller

The size of a programmable controller can be expressed by different figures. The most important figure is
the number of I/O which a programmable controller can handle. The smallest units start at approx. 15 I/O,
the biggest go up to 16'000 I/O.
The maximum memory size is another key figure which, however, generally goes in parallel with the
number of I/Os. Normal sizes range from approx. 5 K up to 8000 K (1 K = approx. 1000 program steps or
instructions).
The cycle time (see ‘software’) generally goes in parallel with the size of the memory used and is
generally expressed in ms/1'000 instructions. It ranges from approx. 0.05 to 5 ms/1'000 instructions.
7.3 Structure of a PLC
The diagram below shows the structure of a PLC. The main functional elements of a programmable logic
controller are the control unit with one, or sometimes several micro-processors and the corresponding
memories for data (timers, counters, markers, etc.) and programs (programmable memories).
Block diagram of programmable controller

The program memory, processor, counter, data memory and the input/output units are interconnected.
Here connection via bus has become standard practice. By means of this bus the data are exchanged
between data memory, processor and program memory.
7.3.1 Differences between PLC and a Computer
What are the main differences? In a PLC so-called bit processing is used. This is special processing
method which processes only one bit. In contrast, the computer always uses word processors, i.e. single
bits can only be addressed by programming.
A PLC functions in much the same way as a computer, but with the following main differences.
¨ User’s programs are executed cyclically
¨ A PLC needs a very simple operating system this holds less and less true where industrial PC's
(e.g. Slot PLC) are used instead of dedicated machines like PLC's
¨ The information is processed a bit at a time (facilities for word processing are available)
¨ A PLC is a real-time system, i.e. the results of operations are obtained within a short, clearly
defined time
¨ The set of command is especially intended for control requirements and is therefore limited in its
scope
¨ The hardware is designed for rough industrial conditions (temperatures between -10 and +60°C)
¨ Programming is simple, can be understood by electricians and is easy to learn. More advanced is
the setting up of the units and the communication. Depending on which level within the control pyramid
data are stored (PLC, automation level or even in a separate MMI computer) programming and set up can
be more complex.
¨ Addressing of input and output cards is transparent and is part of the bus system and the
appropriate protocol (e.g. HART protocol from Siemens). This allows to group I/O's to what ever order
seam fit and does not restrict this order according physical signals. (e. g. no difference is made whether a
signal is analog or digital).
¨ To program a PLC either a special programming unit has to be connected to it or an ordinary PC
is used. Programming in a productive environment as mentioned already ought to be prepared on an
engineering station or a test system. Once tested it may be loaded online whilst the plant is producing.
7.4 Software of Programmable Controllers
In the chapter ‘Hardware of Programmable Controllers’ we have seen that a programmable controller can
be represented as a ‘BLACK BOX’ which contains inputs, outputs and a program.
The different inputs and outputs have now to be logically and sequentially interconnected to perform the
desired control task. To represent this "logical and sequential interconnection", special languages have
been elaborated. Unfortunately, these languages or graphic presentations are not standardised. Main
differences can be found between European and American presentations but even within one language,
practically every suppliers uses his own ‘slang’.
For a long time there was a certain market tendency toward the ladder diagram, influenced by the
American market where generally only this language is used.
The ladder diagram is based on the representation which was used for relay systems. It can, therefore,
easily be learned by people who worked with those systems but it does not well represent the new
thinking in inputs/outputs. Besides modern PLC offer many functions which have nothing in common any
more with relay control, thus the advantageous of using "simple" ladder diagram does no longer hold true.
Nowadays a standard is on the market named IEC1131.
Any logic can actually be represented with only 4 different instructions:
Logic AND, logic OR, logic NOT and TIME instruction. In order to make programming easier, all
programmable controllers use additional logic instructions which are composed of specific often-used
combinations of above four elements.
Thus function like timers, latching relays etc. are of course all presented as normal programming
functions within any PLC. But today's PLC offer a variety of advanced functions like counter, data storage,
watch dog (self diagnostic), logic gates tailored to suit with parameter and not to elaborate in depth all the
functions for various communication requirements.
When a programmable controller is equipped to accept analogue inputs, additional instructions for
arithmetic operations and file handling are available. Modern PLC perform complex PID routines to
handle any closed loop control.
For bigger applications (as e.g. in the cement industry) a structured programming making use of ‘macros’
or subroutines should be applied. The same applies when analogue control capabilities are included in
the programmable controller.
The actual program is now composed of a series of program steps, every step uses a combination of
instructions or ‘macros’ to define how the different inputs have to be linked with the outputs.
It is important to mention that the program is executed step by step. This means that one instruction after
the other is read, interpreted and executed.
At the end, the program automatically restarts at the beginning. The total time which a program needs to
come once from the beginning to the end is called the system cycle time. This time is generally very short
(approx. 1...300 ms). For an external observer of the system it, therefore, behaves as if everything (all
commands) would be immediately executed - all at the same time. In reality, as explained, only one
instruction is executed at one time.

7.5 Programming a PLC

In order to program a PLC a special programming unit is required. The pictures below show different
versions of programming units.

…. the hand held small unit for simple tasks

… and a state of the art Personal Computer industrialised

Programming units are very efficient, they are PC's of special industrial design, equipped with large-area
LCD or with a monitor. They can translate the functions entered by the user in a higher-level programming
language specifically intended for control tasks, e.g. as a list of instructions (Fig. a), as functional diagram
or contact diagram, direct into the machine code of the control units. They can also translate from the
machine code back into the higher-level representation.
7.6 Programmable controller: language presentation
The language used to program PLC's has only little in common with programming languages used in
business application. Although there are less dialect than in the business word different language exist.
Basically there are two man language: ladder and logic diagram.

On the next page find a diagram showing the programming language and a comparison with ladder
diagram. Both these languages are high level languages but only used for industrial purpose.
Figure (a) Programming languages (Siemens)

A control task can be expressed in different ‘languages’; the list of instructions (a) can also be translated
by simple programming units into a machine language understood by the control system. The functional
diagram (b) which is easier to understand by engineers and the ladder diagram (c) which is very popular
in USA, impose more exacting demands on the programming unit.
At all events such units can be employed on-line, i.e. connected direct with the controller. The programs
to be entered in this case are usually entered direct in the programming language of the controller, or for
display purposes are read out of a memory. In on-line operation it is also possible to perform test
functions, fault location and program correction.
A further important function of the programming unit is the program documentation. Special
documentation software converts the programs into a form readily understood by the user (auxiliary text,
I/O description, comments, etc.). A printer connected to the system is able to print out the documented
programs.
The following typical schematics would like to introduce you in understanding how a PLC works. The
pictures are simplified but give a good understanding of the internal life. The schematics compare an
electrical circuit with relays with the high level language adopted in PLC's
1. Relay European: AND NOT / OR

The first schematic shows two switches in series. Both A AND B have to be closed to allow the relay C to
close. The second schematic in turn show that only one switch A OR B has to close for the relay to
engage.
2. Relay American (Ladderdiagram): AND NOT / OR

Now what you just have learned on an ordinary schematic would look like the above ladder diagram. Thus
the first circuit A AND B to be closed for C to make. Note that B is closed under normal condition. B could
signify a rope wire switch, whereas A is the start button.
3. Logic card European: AND NOT / OR
Now in an other PLC language called logic diagram the same schematics look different but mean exactly
the same: A and NOT B = C. And in the second picture A or B = C.
4. Black box or subroutines
The next picture shows black box which executes various functions (And, Not, Or). Inputs (A and B) are
treated accordingly and the result transferred to the outputs (C and D). The content of such a black box is
called function or when large subroutine. Such a black box may be fairly simple or very complex. Instead
of programming the same function over and over a subroutine is programmed once and then called up
when required.

Example:
A: Operator command: Turn motor left
B: Plant feedback: Limit switch left reached
C: Control system command: Turn motor left
D: Operator information lamp: Device in position left

Program Short
1. Input A
2. AND NOT Input B
3. Equals Output C A AND NOT B = C
4. Input B
5. Equals Output D B=D

The next function has a time component included (the cycle time is neglected). Thus when something has
to happen only after a certain time has elapsed functions have to be programmed with timer (e. g. stop
conveyer 2 only after 30 seconds running empty time).
Motor Control - Programmable controller: Language, timer

Example Timer:
A: Operator command: Turn motor left
B: Plant feedback: Limit switch left reached
C: Control system command: Turn motor left
Program
1. Timer X = 30 seconds
2. Input A
3. Equals timer X
4. Timer X
5. AND NOT input B
6. Equals output C

The time diagram shows how the input A which only last for very short time is with the aid of a timer
prolonged to the desired time (e. g. 30 seconds).
Motor control - Programmable controller: Language, structured programming

The schematic on the previous page represents a typical motor module, one of the more complex
functions. All possible status of a motor are programmed in this module and would be available. However
only those required are used. Thus programming becomes not only fast but very reliable too. To develop
such a motor module of course the necessary care must be taken to ensure its proper and reliable
function.
8. SELECTION CRITERIA OF AN AUTOMATION AND PLC-CONTROL SYSTEM
8.1 Automation system
When selecting an automation system one of the first decision to be made is the selection of the type of
system: Individual components or a proprietary system.
When selecting a system, individual or proprietary, advantages as well as disadvantages can be found
with either system. Thus it is the customers preference what to select. (i Preference for individual, n
preference neutral, p preference proprietary (one supplier)

Criteria i n p Remarks
Visualisation X Only marginal differences between various suppliers
High level bus X Common for all system
Bus between automation and motor control X Ethernet for example is a
common bus system, maintenance simplified
PLC X Supplier preference
Bus between PLC and field X Addressing of signals does not change right
through the system
I/O racks X Best suited I/O module can be purchased
Field devices / signals X Possible shift to p when in future devices are plug and
play.
Price X Possibly cheaper
Complexity X Uniform programming, single programming place
Dependency X Almost independent
Modernisation X Follow the trend when required.
Modularity X Life time of components is different. When using i each device
can be replaced individually
Documentation X Uniform and printed from one system only
Training X Various system require extensive training.

The schematic on the next page shows the principle devices in a automation and motor control system, i.
a. visualisation, PLC, and I/O rack with field devices. The main assertion to be made from this schematic
is the difficulty to distinguish between an individual and a proprietary system. Both systems (although
supplier claim different) consist of a computer (PC) for the upper level control and a PLC for the motor
control. The proprietary system has only one programming and configuration terminal whereas in an
individual system each level has its own programming and configuration device. However this seeming
advantage is overcome by the dependency to a supplier (e.g. life cycle of equipment).

8.2 Criteria governing the Choice of PLC

Basically, any PLC can be used for control tasks in the cement industry, provided it satisfies to following
requirements.
8.2.1 General
¨ The system is well represented and generally known in the country
¨ Spare parts are guaranteed obtainable at least for 10 years
¨ The system must be capable for expansions in order to integrate future adaptations
¨ The dimensions of equipment permit the replacement of existing facilities
8.2.2 Central Unit (CPU)
¨ When the system is extended to full capacity, the cycle time should not exceed 150 ms
¨ Adapted memory capacity, so that there is no shortage of storage capacity when the system is
fully expanded.
¨ Hot plugging
¨ On-line programming of modifications while the process is in progress
¨ Reasonable set of instructions containing the following:
arithmetic with variable decimal point, PID algorithms and functions specified by the user, modules (e.g.
motor module).
¨ Floating point arithmetic's
8.2.3 Communication
¨ Between PLC's with TCP/IP protocol on Ethernet bus.
¨ Standardised interface with simple protocol to a main-frame computer (e.g. via RS 232, RS 422,
RS 485, Ethernet).
¨ Standardised interface with subcontrol systems (field bus, profibus, serial link RS 232)
¨ Expansion for additional communication port
8.2.4 Inputs/Outputs
¨ Decentralised peripherals connected with the CPU by a field bus (possibly an optical link)
¨ 24 V DC single-ended inputs/outputs with common ground
¨ 4-20 mA analogue inputs/outputs, PT 100 (resistance) or thermo couples (mV).
¨ Digital I/O for fast speed signals (kWh counts, speed measures).
¨ I/O capabilities for electrical signals
¨ Capable of extension up to 2000 inputs and outputs
8.2.5 Programming and Documentation
¨ Off-line programming and documentation with standard PC’s
¨ Remote line connection of programming units
¨ Graphic representation, preferably by functional diagram
¨ Symbolic programming of addresses with at least 15 freely chosen characters
¨ Commands and operating instructions in the local language
9. OVERALL VIEW AND CONCLUSION
After the selection of automation system and PLC's the overall concept has to be considered. The
definition of upper an lower level control with the selected components according the selection criteria
may warrant to redo some of the selection process. A typical layout of such an entire system can be found
on the next page.

Automation systems - Typical configuration

Modern process automation systems in conjunction with motor control can contribute a lot to the
enhancement of the efficiency of plant operation. Nevertheless, the degree of the most feasible level of
automation has to be carefully evaluated. And most important: even the highest automated plant needs a
good maintenance in order to run efficiently. Or in other words: The most luxurious process control system
with the most brilliant graphic displays cannot guarantee smooth operation if it does not receive reliable,
correct information from the sensors. And to achieve this reliability highly skilled and motivated personnel
has to form an integral part of your automation system.

C10 - Instrumentation / Sensors

Instrumentation / Sensors
By Wolfgang Kornberger, HES
1. INTRODUCTION
2. SENSORS (INSTRUMENTATION) BASICS
2.1 Terminology
3. SIGNAL TRANSMITTER
4. SIGNALS
5. SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
5.1 Current output
5.2 “DEAD ZERO” and “LIVE ZERO”
5.3 Power supply
5.4 4-wire and 2-wire transmitters
5.5 Non-isolating and isolating transmitters
6. CONTROL, ALARMING AND DISPLAY
7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY
7.1 Temperature
7.2 Pressure
7.3 Flow (gas and liquids)
7.4 Level
7.5 Weighing
7.6 Analytical measurements
7.7 Electrical energy and power measurements
7.8 Field devices

1. INTRODUCTION
When looking at the automation pyramid, it becomes obvious that instruments and sensors form the
foundation for any control and automation. It is here where the information is gathered which is then used
further in the automation pyramid for either:
¨ interlocking and control for automated production
¨ regulation with PID-controller and high level control to ease the workload of the operator and to
improve the plant performance (reduce energy consumption and/or increase production)
¨ display and register process values to inform the management and the operator about the plant
performance
Note: It is important to remember that it is impossible to control anything unless the parameters have
been accurately measured in advance.
2. SENSORS (INSTRUMENTATION) BASICS
The task of an instrument or a sensor is to convert a physical value into an electrical signal. A signal is
picked up with a primary element, then converted in the transmitter to an electrical signal and finally
transmitted to a control centre where the signal is further treated for either display, alarming or control.
(See drawing F44570-1)
The example in the drawing F44570-1 shows a pressure transmitter. The pressure (connected on either
side) distorts the bellows. This deformation is moving a lever which is connected to a plunger moving in a
coil. The movement of the plunger in the coil evokes an electrical signal which then is converted to a
standard electrical signal of 4-20 mA.
All transmitters work on a physical principle which depends on the process media, the desired type of
measurement and the accuracy required. Some principles are as simple as in the example in drawing
F44570-1 given. Others, like gas analysers working on light diffraction are more sophisticated and
therefore not only more expensive but as well prone to high maintenance.

2.1 Terminology
Like in all engineering fields, instrumentation has its own kind of terminology; and to be able to read a
technical specification these terms have to be known. The following list gives a short overview of the most
important terms used.
Example Ampere meter .5% accuracy
Temperature meter ± 5o C

Accuracy: A number of quantity (usually expressed in % full scale) which defines the maximum
error.
Calibration: The ascertain by the use of a standard the locations at which scale or chart graduation of
an instrument should be placed to correspond to the required value.
To adjust the output of an instrument to bring the desired value within a specified tolerance.
Deadband: The range throughout which an input can be varied without initiating response. Deadband
is usually expressed in percent of full span.
Deadtime: The interval of time between initiation of an input and the start of the resulting response.
Damping Reducing of the oscillation of a process input or the output of a controller.
Drift: Undesired change of an output over a period of time.
Deviation: Departure from a desired or expected value also difference between measured value and
true value.
Error: (see drift) Error = indication minus true value
= setpoint minus measured value
Elevated Zero: A range where the zero value is greater than the lower range value.
Feedback: Positive answer to a demand in change
Gain: Is the ratio of an output change to an input change. (Reciprocal to proportional band).
Hysteresis: The maximum difference between the upscale and downscale indications of the
measured signal during a full range traverse for the same input.

(Alarm limits for example are equipped with a hysteresis in order to prevent repeated signals around the
alarm point).

Impedance: Resistance of a network of resistors, capacitors and/or inductors.

Interference: Noise (spurious voltage or current arising from external sources or interference between
measuring circuit and ground).
Input: Device to convert the electrical signal into a digital information for further treatment in a Process
Station or Programmable Logic Controller (PLC).
Linearity: The closeness to which a curve approximates a straight line.

Limit: Alarm limit

Lag: (Time lag) time elapsed between process and measuring point as well as measuring point and
control device.
Noise: False signal picked up in the transmission line (see interference and signal-to-noise ratio).
Output: Signal from a device (instrument).
Range: Region between limits of measuring device expressed by stating the lower and upper range
values.

Response: General behaviour of the output of a device as a function of an input.

For additional information regarding PID control refer to the relevant paper in the process technology
department.

Sensitivity: (see deadband and gain).

Signal to
Noise Ratio: Ratio of signal amplitude to noise amplitude.
Span: The algebraic difference between the upper and lower range values.
Suppressed zero: The zero value of the measured variable is less than the lower range value. (Zero
does not appear the scale).
Time constant: Time required for an output of an instrument to complete 62.3 % of the total rise or decay.
Zero: Zero point of scale (to be calibrated frequently due to zero shift resulting in parallel shift of the
input output curve).

3. SIGNAL TRANSMITTER
As mentioned in the introduction, the task of the transmitter is to convert a physical signal into a suitable
electrical signal. This electrical signal is then converted into a standard analogue signal of for example 4-
20 mA or 24 V digital on/off. Other standard signals exist but the Holcim standard analogue signal is 4-20
mA, for digital on/off signal 24 VDC (Exception America: 110 VAC).
It is, in most cases, necessary to calibrate or verify (adjust zero, span and range) a transmitter. Normal
adjustments are Zero = 4 mA and Span = 20 mA. Thus the actual electrical signal representing a process
value of 0 - 100% is represented by 16 mA. Calibration is usually performed by simulating the physical
signal. Thus, a true zero and if feasible a 100% signal should be evoked in order to calibrate the
transmitter over the entire range. The smaller the range of the calibration signal is the more inaccurate the
calibration. Each type of instrument transmitters requires its particular way of calibration. It is therefore
mandatory to provide the proper instruments for calibration purpose. Additionally, it is important not only to
calibrate the transmitter but the entire instrument loop. Thus, the transmission and the signal treatment in
either a display instrument or a PLC must be included in the calibration procedure. (See drawing F44570-
1)
Some modern instruments require an initial calibration during commissioning and only an occasional
check up during their lifetime. Others, like for example power transducers cannot be calibrated nor do
they require any adjustments since they are factory precept.
The instruments described above are analogue instruments. That’s why the signal varies continuously
between 0 and 100%. Often, however only one single point is required. For such a purpose a sensor with
an on/off output is sufficient. It saves programming of an alarm limit in case a PLC is used, respective the
use of an extra alarm device to produce a thresh hold. However, using an on/off device only can be
controversial since this device cannot be checked about its proper function. A 4-20 mA signal can be
supervised if it is functioning properly (signal <20 mA and signal >4 mA). An on/off signal can be
connected fail safe (contact closed under healthy condition) and a dynamic supervision (contact changes
when the process is stopped) included but an analogue signal is easier to verify.
The trend of automation in process engineering leads to “intelligent” field devices. A new generation of
instruments called “smart sensors” is on the market. A smart sensor cannot only perform its dedicated
task (e.g. measure the temperature) but monitor its performance at the same time. These smart sensors
are microprocessor-based field instruments which are designed to communicate with a control unit. A lot
of these sensors are operated via hand-held terminals or PC’s. Usually the signal picked up by the
primary element is converted into a digital signal by an analogue to digital converter. The digital signal is
linearized, ranged (0-100% as required), dampened and if required multiplied or squared. The micro
controller also controls the digital-to-analogue signal converter for 4-20 mA output and drives the digital
communication.
Configuration- and sensor linearization data are stored in a non-volatile EPROM memory. The control unit
communicates via a superimposed digital signal over the 4-20 mA signal or via a bus with the smart
sensor.
Each manufacturer has his own communication carrier (bus or via frequency shift keying FSK) over the 4-
20 mA signal and his own protocol. Usually communication is performed without interrupting the control
loop. Some of the following tests and functions can be carried out via link, smart sensor and control unit:
¨ loop test of the 4-20 mA signal
¨ inject a specific mA signal and check the display
¨ check the configuration data and call up its values
¨ check changes of the performance of the smart sensor
¨ name (tag) a device and give an alarm or message text in the smart sensor. Store data about
spare parts for the device.
Today, neither in the operator control unit nor in the operator philosophy a compatibility or standardisation
is discernible. Due to this situation user acceptance is very low. Additionally, the tasks as mentioned can
be performed by the “normal” transmitters connected to a PLC. Thus, it remains questionable to whether
smart sensors and Profibus are required today for the cement industry.
The enclosed instrument list shows the most frequent measurements applied in the cement industry and
the approximate amount of instruments. The number of measurement, approximately 3000, applied in a
modern cement plant is quite impressive. And the tendency is certainly not diminishing in the near future.
Especially in connection with environmental control and with rising energy prices, the number of additional
measurements will increase.

4. SIGNALS
When talking about signals at first two different sides must be distinguished:
¨ the primary side is the actual physical measurement which is detected with the primary element
(e.g. thermocouple, diaphragm of a pressure transmitter)
¨ the secondary side is the signal leaving the transmitter and being transmitted back to the control
centre.
This and the next chapters deal with the signal transmitted to the control system since this is an important
factor for the installation. When looking at the secondary side of the signal transmission four different
signals have to be distinguished:

1) Analogue signal1) ® current e.g. 4-20 mA DC, or voltage e.g. 2-10V DC

2) On/off signal 1) ® on/off e.g. 24V DC
3) Pulse 1) ® frequency e.g. speed detector pulse
4) Field Bus 1) ® code e.g. 500°C as a BCD code

The cement industry is concerned with all four types of signals. In the field it is mainly the analogue 4-20
mA and digital 24V DC; to a lesser extend with pulses and, if at all, they are converted as soon as
possible to an analogue signal. The classical cement industry was not concerned with a bus except for
communication between PLC’s or computers. However, the market shows that the near future is in the
application of the Fieldbus. The respective standards are set and respective commercial advantages
result. The signals 1) - 3) will become less important.
5. SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
For safe and efficient operation of the plant it is most important to have a reliable signal transmission
between the field, - where the signal is generated, - and the control room, - where it is used for indication,
recording, limit supervision, process control etc. The distances from the filed to the control centre may
range between 100 meters and 1000 meters, or more. And it is well known that problems with electrical
disturbance, interference, noise and losses, increase with longer transmission distances.
For signals as mentioned in the previous chapter, several alternatives for the long distance transmission
are applied; some of them are becoming obsolete due to new developments in the filed of electronic
components.The simplest method would be to run any sort of signals (pressure, electrical) back to the
control room as performed in the early stage of instrumentation when the control centre was local and
closed by. On the example of a thermocouple (TC), the problems encountered are discussed.
Is it possible to run a thermocouple extension wire with a mV signal all the way from the thermocouple
junction to the indication in the control room? Why not? Mainly because the thermocouple extension wire
is expensive. And unless it is very well shielded, which adds to the expense, it will pick-up all sorts of
unwanted noise from radio transmitters (walkie-talkies), motors, high voltage cables etc. Since the signal
from the thermocouple is only a few milli-volts to begin with, any noise is a problem and it doesn’t take a
lot of noise to blanket the signal entirely. Such a millivolt signal cannot be transmitted together with other
signals in a multi-core cable and it cannot be brought to several users in parallel, such as to an indicator
and a recorder, although PLC’s with TC input exist.
Though, it is true that in some instances by using thermocouple wires over a long distance and achieving
satisfactory results, the odds are against it, making it a risky method to try in a cement plant!
Even the idea to amplify the voltage signal (to reduce the signal to noise ratio) is not good enough since
the noise picked up may be several hundred volts high.
5.1 Current output
If a thermocouple transmitter with 4-20 mA DC (or 0-20 mA DC) current output is used, instead of a
voltage output, some important advantages are gained. The controlled current line eliminates losses due
to the wire resistance (line losses), because the resistance of the wire merely drops voltage along the line
- the current remains constant (impressed current). Also, the noise pick-up is all but eliminated by the very
high noise immunity of the current line due to the very low output loop impedance.
This allows to use a twisted pair of ordinary signal wires. The wires are twisted, so that any noise that
appears on the line will be on both lines. It can be eliminated by means of specific electronic circuits at the
input of the upstream connected instrument. (=“common-mode rejection”, meaning the ability of a circuit
to reject signals of equal amplitude on both input leads.)
Current signals can be collected in the field (field junction box) and transmitted to the control room with
low-cost multi-core cables.
Summarising, it can be said that the beginning of the measuring range of any type of analogue
measurement is represented on the transmission line by a current of 4 mA (or 0 mA). The end of the
measuring range of any type of measurement is represented on the transmission line by a current of 20
mA. That means, an unscaled value in electrical units is transmitted. To produce an indication scaled in
the desired physical unit the indicator has to be provided with the respective scale.
5.2 “DEAD ZERO” and “LIVE ZERO”
In a standard 0-20 mA the zero-point of the measuring range e.g. 0°C, is represented with 0 mA (“DEAD
ZERO”), and the end-point of the measuring range, e.g. 150°C, is represented with 20 mA signal current.
However, the signal current also becomes 0 mA (no current flow), in case of a transmitter failure, broken
cable, or loss of power.
In a standard 4-20 mA the zero-point of the measuring range e.g. 0°C is represented with 4 mA (live zero)
and the end-point of the measuring range e.g. 150°C with 20 mA. Therefore, for the transmission of an
analogue measurement, only a range of 16 mA is available.
A signal current of 0 mA (no current flow, or a current <4 mA), can only be caused by a transmitter failure,
broken cable or loss of power. Thus, the 2 cases “FAILURE” and “ZERO-POINT of MEASURING
RANGE”, can easily be distinguished.
An electronic circuit can monitor the measurement-loop with “live zero” and immediately generate an
alarm if a failure occurs.

5.3 Power supply

A 2-wire transmitter can only operate with a “live zero* standard signal (4-20 mA), because the first 4 mA
are used to supply the electrical power to the 2-wire transmitter, 4-wire transmitters are available with “live
zero” (4-20 mA), or “dead zero” (0-20 mA), standard signals.
5.4 4-wire and 2-wire transmitters
4-wire transmitters need 2 wires for the transmitter operating power supply and 2 other wires to transmit
the output signal to a remote location for indication or other purposes.
2-wire transmitters need 2 wires only to bring the power to the transmitter and to transmit the output
signal. The basic idea is to use the first 4 mA of the output signal to cover the transmitter’s power
consumption and the remaining 16 mA for signal transmission.
4-wire transmitters are available for any DC or AC power supply voltage. The output signal is usually a
standard signal of 4-20 mA or 0-20 mA DC. The admissible external burden can go up to 3000W;
however, a typical burden is 500W.
“Zero” and “span” are independently adjustable, which facilitates the commissioning and calibration of a
transmitter. To prevent electrical disturbances caused by “earth-loops” only transmitters with galvanical
isolation between power supply, input and output should be applied. Where feasible interconnections
between measurement loops should be avoided. (See also the chapter “Non-isolating and isolating
transmitters”.)
Summary
Goals and drawbacks of the 4-wire concept:
¨ “Compact transmitter”, i.e. power supply is integrated in the transmitter.
¨ Large variety of power supply voltages possible (220 V, AC, or 110 V AC is already available at
most locations of the plant).
¨ 4-wire transmitters can perform all measuring functions between “very basic” and “very complex”.
¨ Independent “zero” - and “span”-adjustment.
¨ Very high external burden possible.
¨ Output signal 4-20 mA or 0-20 mA possible.
¨ Cabling and installation expensive, due to separate power supply cable.
The 2-wire transmitter converts the input signal to a standard output signal of 4-20 mA and receives its
power from the same 2 wires.
The output signal consists of two components:
¨ The 4 mA component (also called “live zero”), is a constant drain on the remote located power
supply. This current is used to provide operating power to the transmitter.
¨ The second component, 0-16 mA, is a variable drain on the power supply that is proportional to
the transmitter’s input signal, which may represent a temperature, pressure, flow etc.

The sum of these two current components results in a 4-20 mA current that flows in the measurement
loop at the transmitter’s output. It is obvious that 2-wire transmitters may operate only with the “live-zero”
standard signal 4-20 mA. The typical measurement loop in 2-wire technology shows the power supply, the
transmitter and the receiving elements, such as analogue inputs, indicators, recorders etc., connected in
series with the loop.
Usually the power supply is located in a “clean room”, e.g. in the control centre, however, the transmitter
in a dust and water-proof housing is placed “in the field”, next to the detecting point.
2-wire transmitters using the most advanced electronics technology may operate with power supply
voltages between 12 V, DC and 50 V, DC. The admissible maximum burden connected to the output loop
depends on the power supply voltage.
In the 2-wire mode it is technically impossible to provide independent adjustments for “zero” and “span”.
Therefore, calibration and maintenance is slightly more time-consuming and needs more experience
compared with 4-wire transmitters.
5.5 Non-isolating and isolating transmitters
While driving grounding rods into the ground at two points several hundred meters apart and connecting a
voltmeter between them, a voltage difference becomes noticeable.

This potential difference exists between practically any two points along the earth’s surface. From this
resulted voltage problems can cause when trying to measure a process at a remote location.
It is necessary to ground the sensor at the remote site to reduce noise and to protect the equipment from
damage caused by lightning. But if grounded thermocouples are used and if it’s tried to ground one side
of the transmitter output loop at the control room, the voltage difference between the two points will
induce an error current along the line, resulting in an erroneous measurement indication or in equipment
damage!
To eliminate this “ground loop”, an isolating transmitter can be used. This type of transmitter electrically
isolates the transmitter’s output loop from the sensor signal as well as - in case of a 4-wire transmitter -,
from the power supply, and allows to ground both, the sensor and one side of the output loop.

Everybody knows: a transformer can transform only alternating current (AC). Actually, that’s the reason
why direct currents (DC) are first converted into AC, then transformed by the transformer and finally
rectified again to obtain DC, reproducing exactly the DC at the module’s input.
Recommendation, Conclusion
¨ The induced error current, caused by the earth potential difference or by lightning, can cause
erroneous measurements and equipment damage!
· Do not use non-isolating transmitters!
¨ The galvanical isolation in transmitter and power supply opens the induced error current path!
· Use only isolating transmitters! Galvanic isolation between signals and power supply.
6. CONTROL, ALARMING AND DISPLAY
When the signal at the desired location (e.g. central control room) arrives it has to be further treated either
for display, recording, alarm or control. In a modern cement plant the 4-20 mA are fed directly into the
Process Station (PS). This is the simplest method since any measurement can be used for any purpose
without any further effort provided a good standard and user software is installed in the PS. How the
signal is treated further can be red in chapter “Motor Control”.
7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY
The cement industry uses in most cases common instruments but faces some cement specific problems.
As shown in the instrument list, the cement industry applies not too many different types of sensors,
respective measuring principles. However the tendency is increasing.
Problems are encountered mainly with high temperature, clogging and coating. Many of these problems
can be evaded by selecting the proper instrument, respectively primary element and/or picking a suitable
location. Maintenance and regular calibration avoid break downs and prolong the lifetime of the primary
element.

Note: To facilitate easy maintenance, accessibility of the primary elements and the transmitter is vital.
Cement specific sensors and measuring systems are illustrated in the next chapters.

7.1 Temperature
In the cement industry generally thermocouples, PT 100 resistance bulbs and pyrometers are used. For
kiln shell measurement, temperature scanners are often applied together with a display system. These
scanner systems range from a simple pyrometer connected to a recorder or from a scanner head
connected to a PC with an elaborated software giving information about the shell temperature,
interpretation about the inside of the kiln and even a brick management and slip detection can be
included.
7.1.1 Thermocouple
Mostly applied for temperature measurement in the cement industry are thermocouples which use the
peltier effect as measurement principle. A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metals. Between these
metals a voltage is generated. The electro-motoric force (emf) developed by a thermocouple depends on
the temperature of both, the measuring (hot) junction and the reference (cold) junction.
Important for a thermocouple is therefore:
¨ the type of thermocouple and the manufactures data (e.g. type K thermocouple)
¨ the extension cable of the appropriate type (e.g. type K for type K thermocouple)
¨ temperature range and type of thermocouple (e.g. type K for 200 - 1200°C)
¨ cold junction reference temperature 0°C, 20°C or others.
¨ the type of protection sheath. The length of the TC as well as the protection tube should be
standardised (e.g. 800 mm and 1200 mm). The material for the sheath may however be different for
various applications since a high temperature protection sheath is very expensive.
To calibrate a transmitter for a thermocouple, a mV source is required. This source is connected in the
measuring loop instead of the thermocouple. According the manufacturer's data sheet, mV for 0°C and
mV for the maximum temperature are fed into the loop. Then the output of the transmitter 0°C = 4 mA and
max. temperature = 20 mA are checked as well as the display in the control room together with any alarm
limits. The temperature range from -200°C up to +2000°C can be covered with thermocouples.
7.1.2 Resistance bulb RTD PT 100
For lower temperature (e.g. for machine protection) resistance thermometers are used. RTD’s work on
the principle of a resistance changing when the temperature varies. Mostly used in the cement industry is
the Pt 100 platinum resistance bulb. The PT 100 has a resistance of 100W at 0°C and 158.8W at 150°C.
When selecting a resistance bulb, it is important to specify a 2-, 3- or even a 4-wire type. To compensate
for the line resistance a 3-wire type normally is sufficient. If the transmitter is installed nearby, even a 2-
wire bulb is good enough.

To calibrate a transmitter for a PT 100 a resistance decade is required. This resistance box is connected
in the measuring loop instead of the PT 100. According the data sheet the base resistance (e.g. 100W for
PT 100) for 0°C and the maximum resistance for the maximum temperature (e.g. 158.8W for PT 100) are
fed into the loop. Then the output of the transmitter 0°C = 4 mA and max. temperature = 20 mA are
checked as well as the display in the control room together with any alarm limits. PT 100 transmitters
require initial calibrations of the entire loop. After that only an occasional check up is required. With PT
100 bulbs temperatures from -250°C up to +1000°C are measurable.
7.1.3 Pyrometer
The cement industry uses two types of pyrometers. The radiation pyrometer which detects radiation
through an optical lens system onto the thermopile or photo cell and the two colour ratio pyrometer which
compares the ratio of the radiation intensity of two different wave lengths.
7.1.4 Scanner
The central feature of a scanner is a motor driven optical system which scans the entire kiln with a certain
frequency (e.g. 16 Hz). The front of the scanner measures parallel along the axis of the kiln, in the back of
the scanner a reference temperature is used to calibrate the system.
7.2 Pressure
Pressure can be measured either as liquid column (e.g. U-tube) with a mechanical principle (e.g.
diaphragm, burden tube) or electrically (e.g. piezo crystal, strain gauge). The pressure measured in the
cement industry is usually very low. Therefore, the differential pressure (gage pressure that is the
difference between the absolute pressure and the atmosphere) is measured. Most pressure transmitters
applied in the cement industry are of the mechanical type where one side is connected to the process and
the other side is left open to the atmosphere.
Drawing F44570-1 is a typical example of a differential pressure measurement. The bellows are subjected
to a pressure change and move, via mechanical links, a plunger in an electrical field. The electronic
senses the movement and converts the change in the field into an electrical standard signal.
To avoid problems with pressure transmitters some installation points have to be observed:

Location: locate the transmitter near the pressure tapping easy accessible. Mostly applied as unit
by the manufacturer.
Process line: the pressure tapping can be above or below the transmitter. In any case the process line
must be installed such that no water or dirt can accumulate. Thus, always have at least 2% slope in the
process line. If the tapping is above the transmitter a water trap is required.
Tapping: install a tapping in such a way that cleaning is easily possible. Thus, a simple removable
cover should allow pocking of the process tapping.
In large ducts two or more tappings connected with each other give a better result.

To calibrate a pressure transmitter a pressure source is required. This source is connected in the
measuring loop on the primary side of the transmitter. To check the zero both sides of the transmitter are
left open to the atmosphere. To check the maximum, an equivalent pressure (or vacuum) is applied. The
output of the transmitter 0 kPa = 4 mA and max. pressure = 20 mA are checked as well as the display in
the control room together with any alarm limits.

7.3 Flow (gas and liquids)

Flow measurement is thoroughly discussed in the corresponding paper of the process technology
department.
7.4 Level
Level measurements, whether continuous or just as level alarms are often applied and often not 100%
satisfactory. A poll carried out in 1992 querying the performance of the different level measurements in
some 30 factories showed results from very satisfactory to useless. Depending on the method applied,
the installation and the maintenance the same level measurement is rated different with regards to
performance. The following level measurements are used successfully in the cement industry. Some
mechanical types like paddle, ball etc. are not explained since their function is very simple.
7.4.1 Capacity probe
The capacity probe uses the measuring principle of two plates being isolated by a dielectricum e where
the capacitance depends on the area of the plates, the distance between the plates and the medium
between the plates the dielectricum. When installing a capacity probe, the plates (the probe and the silo
wall) are fixed and the distance is fix provided, the probe is mounted properly. The variation in the
measuring loop is therefore the dielectricum e which is formed either by material between probe and wall
or air. The following problems may occur thus hampering the performance:
¨ sticky material on the probe. This can be avoided using the proper type of level probe that is
insulated or partly insulated probes.
¨ probe installed too close to silo wall thus evoking bridging.
¨ sensitivity adjusted to fine. Humidity in the air or in the material changes the property of the
dielectricum.
¨ mechanical damage may result from coarse material or from sheer force. (E.g. coal dust has very
high sheer force). Use an other measuring principle or use an insulated capacity probe.
7.4.2 Vibration
The vibration fork level probe is only used for a single point measurement. A driver induces a vibration in
the probe and a controller senses a change when material dampens the vibration. The tuning fork is
obtainable in two forms, one being the actual fork and the other in form of a tube. The following problems
may occur thus hampering the performance:
¨ material stuck between the fork. Use a tube type to avoid this problem mostly occurring with
coarse material.
¨ material coating the probe. Use the fork type probe since this problem takes place mainly with
fine material.
7.4.3 Electro mechanical
Quite successful practice is the level measurement with the so called silo pilot. A rope or measuring tape
connected to a weight is lowered into the silo. As soon as the weight touches the material surface, the
rope (tape) tension ceases, the motor reverses and pulls the weight back into its original position. During
the upward travel the tape is measured, such giving an indication of the level within the silo. The following
points have to be considered by using a silo pilot:
¨ position on top of the silo so that no material can fall onto the weight. When lowering the weight it
should be in the centre of the material cone.
¨ access to the rope respective belt and the weight must be easy. Install an inspection door to
assist maintenance.
¨ select the proper weight for the corresponding material
7.4.4 Contactless level probes
Several methods allow level measurement without being in contact with the material. Ultra sonic is the
most popular and is used with coarse material, e.g. gypsum, limestone. In connection with dust in the
sonic beam or on the material surface <40°C, e.g. cement, raw meal, this method should not be applied.
Level can be measured up to 45 m under good conditions. Rather new on the market are infrared and
radar. With infrared no experience has been gained. Good experiences have been gained with radar in
environment where ultrasonic fails. In clinker and in raw material silos the measurement with radar proved
to be successful even with high dust load. In raw meal the measurement did not work and the problem
seems to be the conductivity. Only material with a certain conductivity respective a low dielectricum can
reflect the radar beam. Up to now only measurements for 35 m depth are available. This is due to the
strength of the source which must be within the limit of the wireless regulation of the respective country.
The radar method works in a temperature range of -40°C up to +250°C.
7.4.5 Radiation level probes
Well-known and well-proven are the nuclear type of level probes. From a measurement technical point of
view no restrictions are known. In most cases where all other methods fail the nuclear level probe serves
well almost maintenance free. In many countries, however, importing or handling the source is very
difficult. Additionally the disposal of the source is in many cases almost impossible and requires a lot of
responsibility of the person in charge. And more restriction for the future are to be expected.
An alternative (even in the pre-heater cyclones) offers the micro wave level measurement. The
arrangement is similar to the nuclear level measurement a microwave source on the one side and a
detector on the other side. The microwaves beam of approx. 20o angle, some 5.8 GHz or as high as
24.125 GHz penetrates any non-conductive material. The maximum distance through air is around 8 m.
Alternative measurements around the corner are possible if the space is limited. The installation must be
such that a light beam would be properly reflected.

Microwave level measurements are sensitive to moisture. In fact, microwave is used as well for moisture
measurement. The microwave source is so weak, that no danger comes from the measurement. (No
cooking can be done with this microwave source, the energy emitted is less than 25 mW.)
7.5 Weighing
Weighing and weigh feeder play an important role in the cement industry. To produce a good cement
quality, accurate weigh feeding of the different components is important. To bill the customer agreeable
again, weighing plays the key role. Already these two important requirements show that for weighing two
different ways are possible: the static weighing (weigh bridge) and the dynamic weighing (weigh feeder).
The weigh bridge at the factory entrance is regarded as the most important and accurate unit. The weigh
bridge is in many countries subjected to stringent government regulation and must be checked and
calibrated on a regular base. For weigh bridges the measuring principle applied is usually one or several
load cells. Due to the strict government roles and due to the simple measurement principle these scales
usually are fairly accurate.
Small bins are as well placed onto load cells to weigh the contents. And, as long as the construction is
suitable, that is three load cells, free moving construction and protection against wind, the measurement
can be very accurate. The total weight (xy tons in the bin) may not be accurate but loss in weight is
accurate. Thus, for calibration of a weigh feeder or for volumetric weigh feeding a loss in weight is well-
qualified.
The next important weighing principle is the continuous measurement of material to constantly feed an
accurate amount of material, the dynamic weighing with weigh feeder. Several principles are applied with
different accuracy, different efforts for maintenance and different prices.
Thus when selecting the weigh feeder the following points must be taken into consideration:
¨ Accuracy required.
¨ Mechanical suitability for the material and the environment.
¨ Space availability (height and area). Especially building height can be reduced (cost saving) with
certain weighing arrangements and weighing principles.
¨ Signal availability and signal transmission. (4-20 mA and digital signals or communication via a
bus system).
¨ Maintenance that is time interval between calibration, access for calibration e.g. re-routing of
material onto a lorry, cleaning required, complexity of the control, spare parts etc.
¨ Measurement principle.
¨ Silo discharge system. Most problems of inaccurate weighing arise from poor flowing material.
7.5.1 Belt weigher
The most common measuring principle applied in the cement industry is the belt weigher. A section of the
belt runs over idlers supported by a frame section placed onto load cells.
The weight over this belt section multiplied with the speed represents the feed rate Q = P * v whereas:
Q = feed rate [t/h]
P = weight per width [kg/m]
v = speed [m/h]
This principle is well-known and if maintained properly very accurate (error < 1%)

Also different methods of calibration are offered, but only the following are accurate and repeatable: Run
for e.g. 5 minutes material onto a lorry, weigh the lorry and calculate the feed rate weight x 12 (if the
calibration time was 5 min.). Thus when designing the weigh feeders a means to calibrate onto a lorry
must be included or alternatively weigh bins above the feeders to calibrate with the loss in weight method
which is a very accurate method too.
7.5.2 Gravimetric feed system
A gravimetric feed system is mainly used for coal feeders. This weighing system is complex but accurate.
A bin on load cells is rapidly charge with material. The filling then stops and for n seconds the bin is
emptied. (tn = discharge time depending on bin size).
When reaching a certain low level the bin is recharged again and during this time the speed of the
discharge feeder is maintained at the previous feed rate. The feed rate Q is calculated by the formula:
Q=
m = loss of weight during tn [kg]
tn = discharge time [s]
Modern systems calculate the feed rate during a very short time period and take the whole time to
calibrate the system. The accuracy of such a system is < 1%. The maintenance however is high and the
system is complex.

7.5.3 Volumetric feeders

A simple method is a volumetric feeder. The accuracy is largely dependent on the feeder itself and on the
flow property of the material. Depending on the required accuracy, a periodic calibration onto a lorry is
needed. If a higher accuracy is required a weigh bin has to be introduced prior to the feeder and a similar
measuring method as mentioned in the gravimetric flow measurement has to be applied.
7.5.4 Impact flow meter
A controversial measurement is the weight measurement with an impact flow meter. Material flows on to a
plate which in turn is placed on a load cell. The impact on to the plate is proportional to the impact created
by a mass falling from a height h. The impact is in practice also depending on the flow properties of the
material which in turn is depending on various factors. Thus, this measurement requires a fair amount of
mechanical design around the actual measurement. Dedusting, the feed to and away from the impact flow
meter are crucial for the accuracy of the measurement.

In practice the impact flow meter is mostly applied together with a pre bin arranged with load cells. This
arrangement allows an automatically periodical calibration of the flow meter, in order to compensate
sticking material at the plate.
7.5.5 Nuclear weigh feeder
Weighing with nuclear weigher is nothing new in the cement industry but is and remains a controversial
measurement. Although, a simple and reliable measurement the import and the disposal of the nuclear
source is problem. A nuclear weigher consists of a gamma source and a gamma ray detector. Both are
connected on a mechanical frame which is located across the conveyor. The beauty is that almost any
conveyor (e.g. belt, apron feeder, screw conveyor etc.) can be fitted with an A or C frame nuclear weigher.
Even in an existing installation does the installation of an A or C frame seldom present a problem.
A nuclear weigh feeder determines the weight by measuring the absorption of the material. Every material
absorbs radiation according the exponential law. The absorption is proportional to the thickness and the
density of the material bed. The absorption is then related to the mass of the material which, when
multiplied with the speed, results in the mass flow.
The main absorption (basic absorption Ag) is in many cases given by the construction. The absorption
with a given density is then proportional with the bed thickness (Am). To receive good results the
absorption Ag should not be larger than 95%.

Due to a less thick material bed (3) the absorption measured by the detector (5) is lower. The absorption
(2) by the conveyor (4) is remaining constant and calibrated as zero.
When installing an nuclear weigher the following points should be taken into consideration:
¨ import regulation for nuclear devices
¨ disposal of nuclear sources
¨ building and conveyor construction
¨ basic absorption (Ag)
¨ electronic with source decay compensation
¨ even material flow (an irregular bed which influences the measurement negatively)
¨ the initial accuracy is around 2% remaining constant even with hardly any maintenance.
7.5.6 Head flow meter
In an air lift the air pressure measured is more or less proportional to the amount of material transported.
However, pressure influence other than the amount of material is coming from dedusting and from
pressure changes from the system following the air lift (e.g. pre-heater and kiln). The head flow meter as
an indication to the material flow is quite acceptable.
7.6 Analytical measurements
For further information, please refer to the appropriate paper “Quality assurance” in the material
technology II.
7.7 Electrical energy and power measurements
7.7.1 Introduction
In the cement industry, the topic “Energy” will become more and more important. - In the past until today
the price for electrical energy is still low enough that nobody cares to much. But the near future will show
us the opposite. The energy consumption will still increase but the energy production cannot follow this
rising demand. Thus a bottle-neck will occur. The power companies have already started to think about
increasing energy prices and how to introduce new tariff structures (Energy Exchange). Consequently, we
have at least to stabilise our energy consumption or, even better, decrease the consumption. The first
step will be to measure before other steps can be taken. - The following chapter treats this topic.
7.7.2 Definition of energy and power
What is electrical energy?
Energy, generally, is stored work or the ability to perform work. Electric energy (Wel) is potential energy or
expressed in an other way, the product of electric voltage (U) and electric charge (Q). The electric charge
can be replaced by the product of current and time (Wel = U * Q = U * I * t; whereas I = current and t =
time). The electric energy is comparable to energy of position in the mechanic that is:
¨ potential difference: height -> voltage U.
¨ quantity: weight -> electric charge Q.
The unit is volt-ampere-second [VAs] or in a more practical way kilo-watt-hour [kWh]. One kWh is equal to
3.6 MJ [860 kcal].
What is electric power?
To express performance the work to complete is related to the time required to do it. Similar, the more
powerful a machine is, the more work can be done in a shorter time.
Thus, the power is proportional to the work and inverse proportional to the time to complete the job. The
electric power (P) is the product of voltage (U) and current (I). At the first sight, there is no time any more
in the formula, but the definition of the current is the relation between the transported charge quantity and
the time. The electric power is comparable to the mechanical power. For example, the power of a hydro
power plant is dependent on the height of fall (voltage) and the flux (current). - The unit is volt-ampere
[VA] or more practical kilo-watt [kW].
Apparent, actual, reactance
The power companies bill in most cases the actual energy only. To avoid producing too much apparent
energy, they demand a power factor correction between 0.87 and up to 0.9. Few power companies ask
for a reactance energy meter and if certain values are surpassed adjust the bill accordingly. Some power
companies bill the client already according the apparent energy (measured actual and reactive energy).
And this may be the future method of accounting the client since a power company has to produce the
apparent power and not only the actual power.
Using a mechanical diagram the three electrical components: apparent (resultant), actual (linear) and
reactive (lateral) are explained.
The following picture explains the three different electrical components, apparent, actual and reactive
current. Whether current, power or energy is used is immaterial for this example.

When looking at the force diagram the energy required to pull the spring is obviously the linear force Fp
(electrical actual force). The spring is subjected to the following two forces:
¨ The lateral force FQ (electrically reactive force) which is not required.
¨ The resultant force F (electrically apparent force) has to be produced in order to gain sufficient
momentum to pull the spring apart.

When measuring an electric circuit with a transducer the actual power is measured which is required to
drive a machine. The power company in turn produces the apparent power. If the cosine j is multiplied
with the apparent power, the result is the actual power. The difference between the produced and the
consumed power is the reactive power.

Apparent power S = U * I [VA] or [kVA]

Actual power P = U * I * cos j
P = S * cos j [W] or [kW]
Reactive power Q = U * I * sin j [var] or [kvar]

Why measure?
As already mentioned, Electrical Energy centributes 20-30 % of the cement production cost. Thus electric
energy is important factor as a production component in the cement industry. It is therefore imperative to
measure the energy consumption in order to be able to determine solutions to save energy and thus
maintaining the costs at least at the present level.
The energy consumption [kWh] and the specific energy consumption [kWh/t] are even units to compare
for example departments in different plants or different types of machines (e.g. ball mill/vertical mill) to
each other.
Where to measure?
Drawing E310015 shows the process structure in a cement plant which is ideally represented with the
corresponding electrical structure and thus the ideal energy measuring points.
The measuring points are arranged in different levels:
¨ Main entrance-level; measuring point for charging by power company
At this point, the local power company measures the total consumption of the plant; it should also be a
comparable-measuring of the plant; but attention, the result has not to be the same (two measuring
circuits).
¨ Department-level;
¨ Every department should be measured separately to have an overview of the electric
consumption in the different departments. Likewise for large consumers which are directly connected to
the medium voltage distribution.
¨ Process/Non-process-level;
It is necessary to measure the non-process part to distinguish between process- and non-process-
consumers. Since less measuring points are used for non-process measurement, costs can be reduced
by measuring the
¨ Total - non-process = process. (see drawing E310015)
¨ Special consumer-level;
This level contains consumers of special interest from an energy point of view.
Energy-/power metering in a cement plant

If all these measuring points are counted together, the total will be around 50. But in practice it is very
difficult to find such an electric distribution. So in reality the amount of measuring points will increase to
500 points which will be rather costly. The conclusion is, that measuring starts with proper electrical
departments thus a proper distribution.
How to measure energy?
Today there are two measurement principles for electric energy, a direct measuring method and an
indirect one. - An important criterion is the measuring principle. The method applied depends on the kind
of load, the connected voltage (voltage - and/or current transformer necessary) and the accuracy
required. The figure F44942 shows different connection diagrams for the measuring method with kWh-
meter. The same principle is utilised for a power transducer.
kWh-meter (direct measuring method)
The kWh-meter forms with the current-path and the voltage-path a mechanical torque, which is
proportional to the electric power. This torque sets the metering disc in a corresponding number of turns
per unit of time. The multiplication with the time to receive energy, follows with the addition of the number
of rotations. The kWh-meter shall be equipped with an on/off output module. This module includes a pulse
contact system and a pulse amplifier, suitable for further handling in a control system. For example; In the
control system, the energy will be calculated with the time between two pulses. The practice shows that
this “digital” method is not such exact than the method described below. - The above described
measuring method is the principle of “Ferraris”-counter or eddy current motor.
Today more and more static kWh-meters are utilised. The same measuring method is done in an
electronic way and not any more in an electro mechanical way, but there is still a pulse contact output.
Power transducer (indirect measuring method)
The power transducer measures current and voltage separately and calculates internally the electric
power. The output signal is an analogue signal (4-20 mA) for electric power. This analogue signal is an
input in the control system where the signal is integrated with the time which results in a more accurate
measurement as opposed to a pulse-signal from a kWh-meter.
Process measurement display
The display of the energy measurement is just as important as the measurement itself. The measurement
has to be displayed in form of power or energy as well as specific energy measurement (e.g. for the raw
mill ® kWh per ton of raw meal. The display is further described in chapter “MMI, Visualisation”.

7.8 Field devices

Just as important as analogue instruments are the on/off sensors, control and field devices. Most
measuring principles as described in the previous sections are available as on/off devices. Few on/off
sensors are available as smart sensors and even less can be connected to a bus (Profibus). The
problems encountered with field devices are similar as with analogue instruments and the same provision
has to be made as with the analogue instruments. Sensors like limit switches, pressure switches, speed
switches etc. are available in different price classes. Do not feel tempted to buy cheap sensors as the
money saved will be spent tenfold on maintenance and on down time. Only the best is good enough. And
only the best installation will give acceptable performance. And where possible replace on/off sensors
with analogue sensors.

C11 - Technical Information System (TIS)

TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS)

By Urs A. Herzog & Felix Fehr, CE

1. Introduction
2. ProCess Information Management
2.1 Introduction to the Improvement Process
2.2 Importance of information for decision making
2.3 Process Information which is relevant for plant performance improvement
3. Technical Information Systems (TIS)
3.1 Types of Automation- and Information System in a plant, Definitions
3.2 Principle of a Technical Information System (TIS)
3.2.1 General
3.2.2 Tasks (requirements) of a TIS
3.2.3 Structure and Integration of a TIS
3.3 TIS Systems and Suppliers
4. TIS applications and experiences
4.1 TIS System installed and planned in Holcim plants
4.1.1 System installed and running
4.1.2 System planned to be installed (Project approved)
4.2 Some Specific Applications and Experiences, Benefits
4.2.1 Alsen Breitenburg Zement - und Kalkwerke GmbH, Lägerdorf, Germany
4.2.2 Buendner Cement AG, Untervaz, Switzerland
4.2.3 Holnam: Holly Hill, Clarksville, Dundee, Artesia; USA
5. Typical Project Schedule AND Scope of supply
5.1 Project Schedules (typical)
5.2 Scope of supply (typical)
6. Results and conclusion
6.1 Results, Benefits
6.2 Conclusion
7. References:

1. INTRODUCTION
Since a few years the cement industry is under continuous pressure to optimise their production in
general. One reason is to lower production cost, another is to minimise the use of energy and fulfil the
emission limits of new environmental protection legislation. Also cement market asks for new products
and product properties, therefore production modification and expansion must be realised in short time.
To be able to act and react to this continuous challenge, management and personnel responsable of plant
operation must have access to the relevant information about their production, and production equipment.
Beside the three classical production resources: manpower, capital, real estate, predictions are that
information will soon be the forth.
Therefore Information Management Concepts and tools which support the user to get and analyse this
information, are getting more and more important:
This paper gives an overview of modern Process Information Management, of available Information
Systems and some experience of applications of such Information Systems.
2. PROCESS INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
2.1 Introduction to the Improvement Process
Market competence and changing regulations forces company and plant management to optimise
continuously the cement manufacturing process to increase production, improve the equipment
performance, reduce the use of energy, reduce the amount of necessary man-hours, in summary lower
the overall production cost of our product the cement.
In general, optimisation and improvement is based on the following facts: (according Jim Harrington).
¨ If you want to improve it, you have to control it !
¨ If you want to control it, you have to understand it !
¨ If you want understand it, you have to measure it !
The three activities: measurement, understanding (to analyse data and to come to a conclusion) and
control form together the Improvement Loop. Improvement is only sustainable if this improvement loop is
executed continuously.
Corporate programs as BCM or MAC fully relay on this improvement loop (e.g KPI measurement,
reporting, action meetings, etc.).
Nowadays (since the invention of modern computers) some of Improvement Loop tasks can be executed
automatically. The most time consuming and boring task of process data acquisition, raw data handling
and report compiling can be done with a computer system. Plant personnel can be used for analysing
information and for decision making. – This is a more adequate challenge for a human being than coping
numbers.
2.2 Importance of information for decision making
The basis for management to make the daily operational and the medium term tactical decision, is
information. Information coming from the process and process related actions as quality control, dispatch,
emission monitoring and others.
If the plant or company management want to act - proactively or reactively - they need information. The
more they fine tune the operation (e.g: BCM) and the more they optimise the risks (e.g: MAC), the more
comprehensive, reliable, accurate and direct must the information they base there decisions on be.
A modified quotation from a Japanese Business Expert (name unknown) says it quite direct:
Information is a key success factor for business
some Managers know this
others are learning
the rest will be Victims.

2.3 Process Information which is relevant for plant performance improvement

For the daily plant operation, as well as for medium and long term plant performances monitoring and
improvement the different responsibilities in a plant need the following type of information on hourly, day,
week, month and year basis.:

Company / Plant Management · What is the plant performance this day / week / month / year?
· Where is the biggest improvement potential?
· How are we compared to the others (benchmarking)
Production · What is the production rate, consumption, actual stock of materials?
Process · Does the process / equipment runs optimal? - Why not?
Maintenance · What are the equipment runtimes, machine conditions, failures rates? - Failure
reasons?
Quality · What is the quality level of our product? Why is it in / out of specification?
Energy · What are the specific energy consumption? - Tendencies?
Environment · What are the emissions? Are we endangered to exceed limits?
In more general terms, the plant personnel needs a tool which provides:
¨ Relevant Information
· at the Right Time
· at the Right Place
· in the Right Form
· to the Right People
This simple but important statement (from: Rauli Hantikainen) describes the basic requirement of
adequate Information Management.
A computer systems which can fulfil the above mentioned requirements has to be based on a integrated
Database incorporating data sets from all technical related plant disciplines:
Figure 1:

Such system are called: “Technical Information System”.

3. TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (TIS)
In the past, most of the management's planning and optimisation was based on different data printouts,
recorder charts and manually generated reports. But nowadays tools and system concept are available to
get immediate and accurate information on there desk top in seconds.
3.1 Types of Automation- and Information System in a plant, Definitions
In this paper common industry term as CIM- and ERP- System are used. They are indispensable for
describing and defining the architectures and system concepts that are involved in plant wide Information
Management system solutions. Their definition is found just below:
¨ CIM = Computer-Integrated Manufacturing systems:
A series of computer-based systems, both business and technical, integrated into a single conceptual
solution. A CIM system is comprised of components and elements of both ERP and TIS systems (see
next), as well as the different automation systems like process control, high level control, quality control
(lab), etc.
¨ ERP = Enterprise Resource Planning system:
A integrated, networked computer system providing (primarily) business functions and some
manufacturing functions. An ERP system mostly provides also the information link between the company
headquarters (HQ) and the plant. In most Holcim Group Companies the product SAP R/3 is implemented
(or planned) as a ERP system.
¨ TIS = Technical Information System:
A integrated, networked, real-time computer systems providing (primarily) manufacturing functions. Its
real-time data base technology merge all plant automation data with data from the non-technical (or
business) systems within a Plant. By capturing “live” information about the manufacturing process as,
sensor measurement, set-points, run-times, throughput, yields, etc., a TIS can measure constraints and
identify bottlenecks to better manage and control manufacturing processes (see also decryption in
chapter 3.2).

(In some industries the term MES, Manufacturing Execution System, is uses also).
The sketch below shows the structure and interactions of the different mentioned systems.
Figure 2:

3.2 Principle of a Technical Information System (TIS)

3.2.1 General
In the CIM pyramid, a TIS is locate between the Company / Works Management Level (ERP) and
Production / Process Control Level (Plant Automation). The interaction between those levels is as follows:
¨ The tactical and strategic decision are made in the higher levels:
· The computer systems on these levels must provide to management business data and compiled
and summarised plant information (process, production, equipment and quality) (time range: days, month,
years).
¨ Operation of the plant is done from the lower level systems.
· The computer systems on these levels must provide to plant responables immediate accurate
real-time process and process related information. (time range: seconds to hours).
¨ A TIS System does the automatic data acquisition and data pre-processing. It provides tools for
data evaluation, create reports, graphs and tables, for status and performance analysis. It also serves as
a data interface between Operation and Managing Level of a plant and company.
3.2.2 Tasks (requirements) of a TIS
Data Acquisition
Data from the process and process related tasks, e.g as material handling, product shipment and quality
determination is the basis for compiling the above mentioned information. In a up-to-date cement plant
most of this data are already automatically measured by a computer based Process Control System
(PCS) and other Automation systems (High Level Control, Lab, Dispatch, Emission, etc.). In a standard
set-up of a 3000 to 5000 tones per day plant, the PCS measures and handles roughly 600 analog sensor,
600 counters and integrators and up to 15’000 alarm and event messages. Data acquisition, data
processing and visualisation is done in real time (milliseconds to seconds). Historical data is normally
presented to the operator in graphic trend charts and data historian is stored for playback for up to a
week, sometime month. The PCS capability is very limited for tasks, as long term data storage and
retrieval, history archiving, data consolidation and report generation. Furthermore data from the lab
analyser and dispatch system are normally not interfaced to the PCS. Data acquisition scan time from
data of all above mentioned automation system is between 10 to 60 seconds.
Data Pre-Processing, Storage and Archiving
All the automatic read in data, is filtered and pre-processed according data type (e.g. integration of a kW
signal to kWh, conversion of silo distance measurements to silo level, combination of a cement type
signal and a material flow signal to a amount of finish good produced, calculation of specific fuel
consumption out of heat content, flow of fuel, kiln feed and clinker factor etc.).
The different type of scanned and calculated values are then stored in integrated, real-time Database.
The data storage structure is optimised for a huge amount of data to be read and retrieved in very short
time. Archiving and retrieving to and from a tape or disk unit must be possible under on-line conditions.
Raw data lifetime on harddisk is normally 6 to 12 month, on tape between 1 to 10 years (in some special
cases as emission data for the EPA, archive data lifetime, must be guaranteed for up to 30 years).
Especially a fast and user-friendly data retrieving engine is important. Otherwise the data is buried in a
Data Graveyard with no use at all. A short estimate of the total amount of data on such a system
emphasise the importance of this statement:
¨ Scan time = 1 minute, analog measurements = 1200 tags, amount of alarm and event messages
(132 char.) per minute = 1 data lifetime (on disk) = 1 year.
¨ (4 Bytes per number, 1 Byte per character, 4 Bytes per message)
¨ per minute: ==> (1200 * 4) + (132 * 1) + 4 = 5000 Bytes
¨ per day: ==> 60 * 24 * 5000 = 7.2 Mbytes
¨ per year: ==> 365 * 7.2 MB = 2.6 GB (Data Storage Capacity)
Data Evaluation
To analyse this big amount of data it is indispensable to applies specific methods and tools to transfer the
raw data to useful information (remember the difficulties to analyse the pyro-process with data on
multiple, endless paper charts strips with no physical scale, date, and remarks on it).
A state-of-the-art TIS provides most of the following Data Analysis and Reporting tools:
¨ Plant Overview Display
· Gives plant management an immediate overview over actual plant- and equipment- operation.
¨ Daily / week / month / year Manufacturing Report
· Summary Report with information about the process, production, equipment status, material
stock, quality, shipment etc.. Medium and long-term performance monitoring.
¨ Operation Log Reports:
· Short term production and process performance monitoring
¨ Trend graphs
· Actual - and historical process status and performances
¨ Alarm List and Alarm Statistic
· Shows actual and historical equipment failures and gives maintenance personnel an overview of
equipment problems.
¨ List of running hours, production numbers and process values
· Enables plant personnel to plan production and maintenance schedules; For special situations
also Ad-Hoc analysis can be done and special Reports (Emissions for EPA, ATR for Holcim, etc.) can be
created.
¨ Statistical Analysis as Charts, Correlation, Pareto
· For Quality control, process optimisation and maintenance support.
Manual Data Entry and Data Modification Capability
For the calculation in the pre-processing (see above) the TIS needs manual entered plant constant.
Examples of such plant constants are: clinkerfactor, raw material humidity, head content of fuels, etc. A
TIS must provide user-friendly functions to enable plant personnel to adjust the constants in a easy way.
Furthermore, a TIS must provide functions to modify and adjust calculated and integrated report values.
In contrast to booking numbers in a transaction based ERP business system, every physical sensor
measurement has a measurement error (independent how often the sensor has been calibrated).
Integration of sensor values result in accumulation of the error. For example in a 2 million tonnes per year
cement plant, a 2% error in the produced cement belt weigher system, results in a divergence of 40’000
tonnes of cement. TIS applications showed that automatic generated reports must be checked for
plausibility and adjusted accordingly before they can be approved for further use (e.g. as input data for a
SAP, ERP system).
Interfaces to Automation- and ERP System
As shown in chapter 3.1, a TIS System is located in between the ERP business system of company /
works management level and the automation system of the process / production control level. This means
a TIS reads his input data from one or multiple automation system as Process Control System, Lab
System, Emission Monitoring System etc.. Compiled reports can be sent to the upper level ERP System
for further treatment. A TIS supplier must provide and support highly reliable interfaces to different brand
of automation- and ERP systems.
3.2.3 Structure and Integration of a TIS
The general structure of a TIS and the integration in the plant information management concept looks as
follows:
Figure 3:

With this approach, the process related data flows in a structured flow from bottom to top. All systems are
networked, manual data entry is minimised, data transfer speed and data quality are maximised.
What to avoid
In some plants (Holcim and Non-Holcim) the automation- and control systems as well as different
business computer systems were installed over several years not applying an overall concept.
This “natural grown” computer system agglomeration are typical patchwork solutions with individual
computer islands (not using standards).
Such systems are highly complex, difficult to document and maintain and result high operation and
support costs. The flow of data is limited, because too many systems and interfaces are necessary. Often
manual data transfer is used (data printout of one computer system, data entry typing in the other
computer). Such approaches are not user friendly, show slow data transfer, low quality of data and
redundant data sets and results in user frustration.
3.3 TIS Systems and Suppliers
The results of different Industry Market Scan (1993 - 1997), executed in co-operation with Holcim Group
Companies in various countries, are summarised below. The list shows suppliers, product names and
country of origin:

Supplier Product Origin

ABB CIMS Switzerland
Siemens CEMAT-MIS Germany
AspenTech CIM/21, InfoPlus.21 USA
FLS / Fuller Plant Guide USA / Denmark
OSI PI System USA
Honeywell Uniformance USA

4. TIS APPLICATIONS AND EXPERIENCES

4.1 TIS System installed and planned in Holcim plants
4.1.1 System installed and running

Company / Plant Country TIS Supplier / System Installed

AB GmbH / Lägerdorf Germany Siemens / CEMAT-MIS 1994
BCU / Untervaz Switzerland ABB / CIMS 1995
HOLNAM / Holly Hill, Clarksville, Dundee, Artesia USA AspenTech / CIM21 1995/96
Alpha / Dudfield, Ulco South Africa ABB / CIMS 1997/98
HOLNAM / all 15 plants (cement and slag) USA AspenTech / InfoPlus21 1997/98

4.1.2 System planned to be installed (Project approved)

Company / Plant Country TIS Supplier / System planned

HCB / Siggenthal Switzerland ABB / CIMS 1998/99
SCL / Chekka Lebanon under Evaluation 1998
QCL / Gladstone Australia under Evaluation 1998/99

4.2 Some Specific Applications and Experiences, Benefits

4.2.1 Alsen Breitenburg Zement - und Kalkwerke GmbH, Lägerdorf, Germany
(Main use of TIS: Process Analysis, Quality Monitoring, MAC report data)
Cement plant with 2 kilns, with a capacity of approximately 1.6 mio t/y cement.
The company sells more than 34 different types of products and has to keep track of all the sales and
quality of the products. Furthermore the new kiln 11 is designed to be feed with numerous alternative raw
materials and fuels.
TIS System implemented: Siemens CEMAT-MIS
¨ Technical Concept
· Siemens CEMAT-MIS Technical Information System installed in 1994
· The system uses a Server based on a PC (Intel Pentium) running Siemens proprietary DBMS
and PC Clients running MS Excel for reporting and data analysis.
· Trend display and analysing tool (extended analysis possible on integrated Excel tool)
· Use standard production, operation reports and custom defined daily production report (realised
on Excel).
· Reads process and production data directly from the Process Control System (PCS = Siemens
CEMAT Coros LSB / S5). Reads approx. 2000 analog values and process more all alarms and event
messages, scan rate = 1 minute).
· Quality data from the automatic, roboterised lab system (Polysius POLAB) are feed via interface
directly to the CEMAT-MIS (event driven).
· Data from the Emission Monitoring system are send to the CEMAT-MIS via interface.
· The CEMAT-MIS reads dispatch and sales data once per day from the company mainframe via
ASCII file transfer.
· All systems are connected via an Ethernet LAN (H1 and TCP/IP protocol).
· Integrates production, operation, quality, emission and consumption monitoring and reporting.
· More to 16 user PC’s.
· Reports on the plant files server (Novell) can be transfered via modem lines at the terminal and
grinding plant locations.
¨ Experiences / Benefits
· The CEMAT-MIS is a very reliable and adequate performing system (more than two years of
experiences).
· The excellent trending and reporting features provided a tool to analyse and optimise the process
easy (for example the ball mill charges). Advantage: TIS calculate the specific energy consumption for
each type of cement individually. With this cement type dependent energy consumption trends can be
monitored which is only possible with automatic data acquisition and pre-processing via PCS and TIS.
· The CEMAT-MIS was directly used for the commissioning of the new kiln 11. The long-term data
storage and trending function provided a excellent tool to speed up commissioning. It even prevented the
plant to pay the cost for a damaged EP Filter, because with the data from the CEMAT-MIS the engineers
were capable to find the root-cause and the exact time when the damage happened. So repair cost could
be turned over to the suppliers insurance.
· Tailor made reports for the MAC Initiative provide automatically, on daily basis the necessary
production- and equipment efficiency- numbers. This data were used to calculate the KPI (Key Process
Indicators) and are the basis for failure analysis. The biggest benefit from the system is fast and
automatic report generation every morning (sustainable). Data accuracy with this system is much better
than manual data processing and saves up to 3 man-hours per day.
· Complex process analysis realised with correlation charts provide new perceptions, which help to
increase production equipment efficiency.
· System is very well accepted and used by plant personnel.
¨ Further Proceeding and Projects
· In 1998 a SAP R/3 ERP System will replace the now used mainframe system.
· An interface for data exchange between the SAP R/3 and the Siemens CEMAT-MIS systems is
foreseen. The planed use of this interface is to transfer form the TIS failure reasons and equipment
running hours in the SAP Plant Maintenance Module (PM). A study will check the possibility to use the
SAP Production Planning Module (PP) with production numbers from the TIS.
4.2.2 Buendner Cement AG, Untervaz, Switzerland
(Main use of TIS: Emission Reporting, Overall Manufacturing Report, Energy Reporting).
Cement plant with 2 kilns with a capacity of 1 mio t/y cement.
TIS System implemented: ABB CIMS
¨ Technical Concept
· ABB CIMS Technical Information System installed in 1994/95.
· Reads process and production data directly from the Process Control System (PCS), realised
with an Allen Bradley PLC 5 and PC based HMI system (reads approx. 600 analog values and process up
to 15’000 alarms and event messages, scan rate = 1 minute).
· Integrates production-, operation, consumption and emission monitoring and reporting.
· Trend display and analysing tool (extended analysis possible on integrated EXCEL tool).
· CIMS is a Server / Client solution based on DEC Alpha server running a Oracle DBMS and PC
Clients running MS Access and Excel for reporting and data analysis.
· Use standard production and operation reports and custom defined emission report (realised on
Access).
· CIMS can consolidate (and compress) data to hour, shift, day, month and year values and stores
data for on-line access up to 1 year.
¨ Experiences / Benefits
· Improved and faster monitoring and reporting of emission data to EPA.
· Tool to analyse operating and emission data which improved the use of HWDF burning.
· Reduced drastically the man-hours (up to 2 man-hours daily) needed for manual data entry and
manual analysis to generate emission and production reports.
· A sophisticated Overall Manufacturing Report provide on daily and monthly basis a summary of
key process, production, consumption, efficiencies, stock and quality data. Saves production
management up to 0.5 man-hour daily.
¨ Further Proceeding and Projects
· Expand CIMS for enhanced production reporting and detailed electrical consumption reporting.
· An interface for data exchange between the SAP R/3 and the ABB CIMS systems is foreseen
(flow of material, equipment runhours and condition).
· Adapted reports for support for MAC Initiative.
4.2.3 Holnam: Holly Hill, Clarksville, Dundee, Artesia; USA
(Main use of TIS: Emission Reporting, Process Analysis).
Four Cement plants which burn HWDF (Hazardous Waste Derived Fuel). Legislation force them to
monitor emission (based on gas analyser and materiel input model calculation).
TIS System implemented: AspenTech CIM21 (former company: ISI)
¨ Technical Concept
· AspenTech CIM21 Technical Information System installed in 1995 and 1996
· Reads process and production data directly from the Process Control System (PCS), realised
with a Modicon PLC and Gensym G2 based HMI systems (reads approx. 200 - 330 analog values per
kiln, scan rate = 1 minute).
· Integrates emission monitoring and reporting.
· Trend display and analysing tool (extended analysis possible on EXCEL tool).
· CIM21 runs on UNIX based HP workstation server. The Database is proprietary. PC (under X-
Window) can be used as user interface.
¨ Experiences / Benefits
· Provide the mandatory (according EPA) emission monitoring, reporting and data archiving.
· HWDF burning would not be possible without this TIS systems.
· The system is also used for process data analysis (mainly graphic trend) because trending
features of the used PCS are not sufficient.
¨ Further Proceeding and Projects
· Upgrade the existing CIM21 system with the new InfoPlus21 (NT based Client /Server System).
· Install in the remaining 11 plant a InfoPlus21. Use mainly as process data historian and emission
monitoring tool.
· The company wide “Manufacturing Data Integration” (MDI) project will integrate these TIS in the
ERP Datawarehouse (Holnam proprietary Data Management System based on Oracle).
5. TYPICAL PROJECT SCHEDULE AND SCOPE OF SUPPLY
5.1 Project Schedules (typical)
The introduction of a TIS system needs some pre-project investigations resulting in a detailed
specification. With this, an evaluation (bidding process) can be executed to find the most appropriate TIS.
Normally a TIS is implemented in steps, similar to a SAP, realising the functions with the highest priorities
first. The following schedule gives some indications of the whole procedure.

Phase Actions
0: Pre-condition The plant must be equipped with a state-of-the-art computerbased Process Control
System (PCS).

1: Study Investigation study to determine plant requirements, elaboration of a concept. Investigate

integration in plant /company computer infrastructure. Check of interface solutions to all automation
systems and to the ERP system.

2: Project Planning Creation of a Specification and elaboration of a budget and an implementation

schedule.
3: Tendering and Evaluation, Offer Creation of a tender document. Execution of a system evaluation
and selection of a System / Supplier (in some case evaluation can be skipped if a company standard
exist).
Ask for offer (using specification and schedule).

4: Implementation of Step 1 Implementation and commissioning of TIS basis System. Check of

performance, adaption of functions to meet plant requirement, (if necessary).
5: Implementation of Step 2 ...............................

5.2 Scope of supply (typical)

The scope of supply of a TIS application may vary from plant to plant, as the requirements are different.
Nevertheless there are basic requirements in a typical cement plant that can be satisfied (usually in a first
implementation phase). That is why the scope of supply is roughly divided into Basic System and Options.
The experience shows, that a cost estimation cannot be given at this place, because functionality,
interfaces and numbers of users differ from project to project. But it is important to know, that project costs
are higher than system costs, because time and cost intensive tasks (study, specification, evaluation, see
schedule in 5.1) must be done prior to the system implementation.
The following sketch gives an overview of different packages of a TIS basis system (1...4) with options
(5...7).
Figure 4:

TIS Basis System (for reference see number in sketch)

1) Server Hardware (HW) an Software (SW), TIS basis SW including DataBase
2) 4 User PC SW license for basis data evaluation
3) Interface driver SW for data acquisition from a Process Control System (PCS)
4) Application applying standard reports and evaluation methods, including system installation and
user training

TIS System Options (for reference see number in sketch)

5) Extended functionality as Maintenance Support Functions, SPC, plant specific Manufacturing

Reports, etc.
6) Interface to Lab or Dispatch (weighing) system
7) Interface to SAP System, including data exchange concept

a) Hardware is part of the plant computer infrastructure

b) not included is set-up and configuration on interfaced system

Assistance from HMC/HES

HMC offers its assistance and experience for TIS Implementation in a plant or group:
¨ audit
¨ elaboration of (detailed) specifications and tender documents
¨ evaluation of offers from different suppliers
¨ general project assistance
¨ detailed engineering of reports (optional)
¨ training for plant personel (optional)
¨ performing aceptance tests
6. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
6.1 Results, Benefits
The Experience and results from different Process Information Management Projects in the cement and
other basic industries show the following benefits:
¨ Fast and accurate information
· Fast and accurate information enables the plant management to see tendencies and to react and
direct measures before limits were exceeded. Because reports were calculated automatically, response
time is hours or days, not month.
¨ Open information exchange
· All managers which use any kind of integrated Information Management System (not necessary a
TIS) confirm that such tools enables open information exchange which improves teamwork drastically and
minimises mistrust. This because every user has access to the same information. People share
information and work closer together.
In projects were an interface between the ERP System (e.g. SAP R/3) and the TIS are planned,
personnel responsible for the process and administrative personnel form an interdisciplinary team, were
both sides start to understand also the problems and the requirements of “the other side”.
¨ Indispensable for sustainable optimisation
· High sophisticated Optimising System as LINKman High Level Control need to be fine tuned and
adapted to changing process conditions. Only continuous monitoring of the performance and process
conditions with specific analysis tools, as Correlation's, prevent from decreasing system performance.
In one plant the LINKman runtime can be maintained continuously over 95% with the help of daily
performance feedback, which allows immediate reaction to arising problems.
Permanent monitoring of key parameters and adapted analysis methods like Statistical Process Control
(SPC) provides vital information about equipment status and equipment failures. Maintenance
Improvement procedures (like the one in MAC) relay on such type of feedback data.
¨ Fulfil legislation requirements
· Legislation forces us to monitor, analyse and report certain critical values. (e.g emission, use of
waste fuel). In USA (BIF) and Switzerland (TA Luft) monitoring, reporting and data archiving of emissions
and waste fuel with a TIS, were accept by the local EPA‘s.
· Continuous Quality monitoring of shipped cement (e.g.: Germany: Cement Norm VDZ, USA: Mill
Certificate) can be realised with the help of a TIS.
¨ Saves man-hour
· In all plant using a TIS, plant management claim man-hour savings. But the even bigger
advantage is, that a TIS frees the engineers from formal work (like data entry, manual data processing)
and allows him to use more time on the data analysis.
· Studies of TIS applications in different basic industries show:
* Reduced data entry time: 75%
(reports are compiled in 3 minutes, and checked in 5 minutes)
* Reduced Paperwork: up 50%
6.2 Conclusion
Considering the importance of relevant information, the actual trends in Information Technology, the
indications we have from Technology Watches of non-cement and cement industries (our competitors)
and the experiences from TIS and SAP applications result in the following conclusions:
¨ A competitive optimised plant has to be based on computerbased, integrated Information
Management System (according CIM concept).
Process Information Management with a TIS is a central pillar of such an “Integrated Plant”. Individual
users are empowered at the desktop. Process Data feedback and intelligent use of this information is
indispensable for a continuous improvement process and will help the plant to be competitive.
7. REFERENCES:
¨ U. Herzog, T. Carpenter: Manufacturing Data Integration: Holnam MDI Feasibility Study, Industrial
Scan, 1996, HES Report 96/6340/E
¨ U. Herzog: Technical Information System, “Holderbank” E-Circle NA, Mobile (AL), USA, 1996
¨ W. Sedlmeir: Total Management Information, World Cement Feb. 1996
¨ L. Krings: New Cement Information Management Solutions, IEEE Conference 1996, Los Angeles,
USA
¨ R. Säuberli: Process and Quality Control Automation, Information Management; “Holderbank”
33rd Technical Meeting 1994 Basel, Switzerland
¨ R. Säuberli, U. Herzog, H. Rosemann: Process Control and Information Management; VDZ
Kongress 1993 Düsseldorf Germany, ZKG 46 (1993), No 11

Special Thank also to:

¨ Peter Kuenne, Fritz Schneider, Ian Campbell; for discussing and providing information about
concept and experiences of the MAC Initiative.
¨ Ivo Keller, Urs Bleisch, Michel Moser, Thorsten Fuchs; for discussing and providing information
about SAP projects concept, plans and experiences.

C12 - Case Studies on Electrical and Control Subjects

CE-Case Studies on Electrical and Control Subjects

Case studies are not included here.

About the Holcim Cement Manufacturing Course 2001 CD-ROM

The Holcim Cement Manufacturing Course 2001 CD-ROM contains the full text and graphics of technical
documentation related to Cement manufacture and Concrete technology
The CD-ROM can be read like a book, page by page, or used as reference material to solve specific
technical issues. One may navigate to a specific chapter, document, or section within any document, or
use the extensive search facilities to locate the appropriate keyword(s) or topics.

This CD-ROM was produced during February - May 2001 by Holcim Group Support Ltd., Learning
Initiatives.
¨ Department head: Dr. Walter Baumgartner
¨ Project manager: Fred Aubert
¨ Contents provided by the following Divisions of Holcim Group Support:
· Corporate Technical Services (CTS)
· Corporate Product Development (CPD)
· Corporate Engineering (CE)
¨ Cement Manufacturing Course, project administration: Ted Anderson,Michèle Stark
¨ Project consulting: ETV Software Engineering S.A., Geneva, Switzerland.

¨ Acknowledgments
· Mr. Fred Aubert. As Technical Training Manager of Learning Initiatives in HGRS took care of the
relations with the authors and gave many inputs which helped substantially to define the project.
· Ian Bennett. The advice and consulting work given by Mr Bennett from SE was of immense value
throughout all phases of the project.

¨ Copyright notices
· © Holcim Group Support Ltd, 2001
All rights reserved
· Interface controls & Indexing and Retrieval Engine Copyright © 2001 NextPage, Inc. All rights
reserved.
· Contains data security software from RSA Data Security, Inc. Copyright © 2001 Data Security,
Inc. All rights reserved.
· Indexing and Retrieval Assistant for dictionaries. Copyright © 2001 Soft Art, Inc. ® All rights
reserved.
· ImageStream® Graphics & Presentation Filters Copyright © 1991-2001 Inso Corporation, All
rights