WELDING

METALLURGY
Prof. Dr./ ABDEL SALAM HEMAID
MECH. ENG. DEPT. PROD. & DESIGN
SHOUBRA FACULTY OF ENG.
BANHA UNIV.
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Prof. Dr./ ABDEL SALAM HEMAID
 REFERENCES

• “Welding Engineering -An

Introduction”, David H. Phillips,
ISBN: 9781118766446, JOHN
WILLEY, 1st Edition, 2016.

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 COURSE OVERVIEW
1) Arc Welding Processes. (CH. 02)
2) High Energy Density Welding Processes. (CH. 05)
3) Heat Flow, Residual Stress and Distortion. (CH. 08)
4) Welding Metallurgy. (CH. 09)
5) Welding Metallurgy of Carbon Steels. (CH. 10)
6) Welding Metallurgy of Stainless Steels. (CH. 11)
7) Welding Metallurgy of Nonferrous Alloys. (CH. 12)
8) Weld Quality. (CH. 13)

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 WELDING ENGINEERING

WELDING DESIGN
WELDING METALLLURGY
WELDING PROCESSES
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 CH. 02 WELDING PROCESSES
• FUSION WELDING PROCESSES.
• ARC WELDING PROCESSES.
• OXY-FUEL GAS WELDING.
• INTENSIVE ENERGY WELDING PROCESSES (CH. 05)
• Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
• Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
• Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
• THERMO-CHEMICAL WELDING.
• THERMIT WELDING (TW)

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 ARC WELDING PROCESSES
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
Electro Slag Welding (ESW)
Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW)
Stud Arc Welding (SW)
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
 GAS WELDING PROCESSES

• Air-Acetylene Welding (AAW)

• Oxy-Acetylene Welding (OAW)
• Oxy-Hydrogen Welding (OHW)
• Pressure Gas Welding (PGW)

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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• With all arc welding processes, the

initiation of an arc basically completes
(or closes) an electrical circuit.
• As shown in Figure , the most basic
arc welding arrangement consists of:
• Arc welding power supply
• Electrode
• Electrode cable (or lead),
• Ground cable (or lead), SMAW ARRANGEMENT
• Electrode holder
• Work piece or parts to be welded.
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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• Voltages provided by the power supply are commonly a max. of 60–80

V with no arc, (open circuit voltage ) of the power supply.
• Such voltages are high enough to establish and maintain an arc, but low
enough to minimize the risk of electrical shock.
• Arc voltages range between 10 and 40 V once the arc is established.
• Welding power supplies are usually designed to deliver direct current
electricity referred to as DC.
• Alternating current (AC) is sometimes used.
• One benefit is that AC machines are simple and inexpensive.
• Welding with AC is also a very effective way to weld aluminum,
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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• 2.1.1 Fundamentals of
an Electric Arc
• An electric arc is a type
of electrical discharge
that occurs between
electrodes when a
sufficient voltage is
applied across a gap
causing the gas to break
down, or ionize

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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• The utility of the electric arc to welding is the extreme heat that is
produced under stable arc conditions, which is able to melt most
metals and form what is known as a weld pool or puddle.
• Arc temperatures are known to range from 5 000 up to 30 000 K.

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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING
• For consumable electrode processes, the arc contains molten droplets
of filler metal, which melt from the electrode and travel through the arc
to the weld pool.
• The size, shape, and manner in which the molten metal drops travel
through the arc are known as the modes of metal transfer.
• This is of particular interest with the GMAW process, and is not
considered to be important to the other arc welding processes.
• Filler metal transfer through the arc inevitably results in some molten
drops being ejected from the arc or weld pool that may stick to the
part.
• This is called spatter and is often a quality concern. GTAW and PAW
processes that involve the delivery of filler metal directly to the weld
puddle (not through the arc) are not susceptible to spatter.
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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• 2.1.3 Polarity
• DCEN (DC electrode negative) or historically DCSP (DC straight polarity)
• DCEP (DC electrode positive) or historically DCRP (DC reverse polarity).
70% of heat to wp
30% to electrode

30% of heat to wp
70% to electrode

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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• 2.1.4 Heat Input

• It is expressed as energy per unit length, and is primarily a function of
voltage, current, and weld travel speed.
• Weld heat input is important because it affects the amount of distortion and
residual stress in the part, and the mechanical properties of the welded part
that are a function of the metallurgical transformations that take place
during welding.
• Figure 2.9 compares some measured efficiencies (f1) for different processes.
Less efficient processes such as GTAW might lose 50% or more of the arc
heat to the surrounding atmosphere.
• On the other extreme, efficiencies of 90% or greater can be achieved with
SAW because the flux and molten slag blanket act as an insulator around the
electrode and the arc.
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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• 2.1.5 Welding Position

• A significant factor in arc welding is the position of welding. Welding
position refers to the manner in which the weld joint is oriented in
space relative to the welder.

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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• 2.1.6 Filler Metals and Electrodes

• All arc welding processes except for GTAW and PAW use a consumable
electrode.
• It is considered consumable because it melts from arc action to form a
portion of the weld metal.
• It is called an electrode because it is part of the electrical circuit carrying the
current to the arc.
• The filler metal used for GTAW and PAW is not considered an electrode since
it does not carry the current, the non-consumable tungsten electrode does.
• There are tremendous varieties of filler metals and electrodes available for
different materials, arc welding processes, and applications.
• AWS provides specifications for filler metals, which govern their production
but they are also subject to much proprietary protection regarding exact
constituents and formulas.
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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• 2.1.7 Shielding
• When metals are heated to high temperatures approaching or exceeding
their melting point, reactions with the surrounding atmosphere are
accelerated and the metals become very susceptible to contamination.
• Elements that can be most damaging are oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen.
• Shielding is important to not only protect the molten metal, but the
heated metal surrounding the weld metal.

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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• 2.1.7.1 Gas Shielding

• Processes such as GMAW, GTAW, and PAW rely solely on externally
applied gas for shielding.
• In the case of GTAW and PAW, inert gasses are used with argon being
the most common.
• Helium and blends of helium and argon can also be used.
• Helium is more expensive than argon, but it transfers more heat from
the plasma column to the part due to the higher thermal conductivity
of its ionized gas.

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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• 2.1.7.1 Gas Shielding

• The GMAW process commonly uses argon for nonferrous metals,
particularly aluminum.
• CO2, or blends of argon and O2 or CO2 are used for ferrous materials
such as steels.
• CO2 gas produces more spatter and a rougher weld bead appearance,
but can produce fast welding speeds, is readily available, and
inexpensive (because it is common and widely used commercially in
products such as carbonated beverages).

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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• 2.1.7.2 Flux Shielding

• The processes of SMAW, SAW, and FCAW use flux for shielding.
• A welding flux is a material used to prevent or minimize the molten and
heated solid metal from forming potentially detrimental constituents such
as oxides and nitrides, and to facilitate the removal of such substances if
they form or are present prior to welding.
• Fluxes are used in arc welding processes in three different ways. They are:
(1) applied in a granular form to the surface ahead of the weld (SAW), (2)
bound with a binding agent to bare electrode wire (SMAW), (3) contained
in the core of a tubular wire (FCAW).

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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• 2.1.7.2 Flux Shielding

• Welding fluxes serve other roles as well, including the very important
function of stabilizing the arc by improving electron emission at the
negative electrode.
• Elements that are referred to as deoxidizers or scavengers are added in
order to remove undesirable materials such as oxides before they affect
the weld.
• Other elements may be added to affect surface tension and improve
the fluidity of the puddle.
• Iron powder is sometimes added to increase deposition rates.
• Alloying elements are added to improve mechanical properties and
form certain desirable metallurgical phases.
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2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

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2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• 2.1.9 Primary Operating Variables in Arc Welding

• 2.1.9.1 Voltage:
• voltage is a variable that is important mainly for establishing a stable
arc, and is directly related to arc length.
• With the manual process of SMAW, the power supply keeps the current
approximately constant, and the welder can affect the arc voltage by
changing the arc length.
• Arc Voltages with the GTAW process tend to be lower (10–20 V),
whereas consumable electrode arcs are more in the 20–40 V range.
• Arc voltages do not usually vary significantly once the conditions for a
stable arc are obtained, and for GMAW, the desired mode of metal
transfer is achieved.
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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• 2.1.9.2 Current
• Current plays a major role in arc heating and is the primary operating
variable for controlling the amount of melting.
• Higher currents result in higher heat inputs at the electrodes, melting
the consumable electrode faster and transferring a greater amount of
heat to the work piece to create a larger weld pool.
• A general current range for most arc welding processes is between 50
and 500 A, but applications of Plasma and GTAW to very small parts can
involve current levels in single digits or lower. At the other extreme,
SAW currents can approach 2000 A.

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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• 2.1.9.3 Electrode Feed Rate/Wire Feed Speed

• For SMAW, the welder feeds the electrode manually at a rate determined
by the current setting on the power supply.
• When using the semiautomatic arc welding processes, electrode feed rate
(or wire feed speed) is set by the wire feeder and determines both
electrode melting rate and current.
• Modern power supplies that are called synergic automatically adjust the
arc voltage with wire feed speed changes to keep the arc length constant.
• Typical wire feed speeds range between 100 and 500 inches/min.
• The wire feed mechanism uses an electric motor and a set of drive rolls
that pull the electrode from the spool and push it toward the weld gun.
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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• 2.1.9.4 Welding Travel Speed

• Welding travel speed refers to how fast the welding arc is moved relative to
the work piece.
• The heat input equation clearly shows that travel speed, like current, plays a
direct role in the amount of heat into the part per unit length of weld.
• Faster speeds produce less heat into the work piece per unit length and
reduced weld size.
• The choice of travel speed is typically driven by productivity; faster welding
speeds increase productivity and keep costs low.
• Travel speed is independent of current and voltage, and may be controlled
by the welder or mechanized.
• Typical travel speeds range between 3 and 100 inches/min.
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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• 2.1.10 Metal Transfer Mode:

• Spray transfer:
 Small, molten metal droplets from the electrode are transferred to the
weld area at a rate of several hundred droplets per second.
 Spray is achieved at higher welding currents and voltages with argon or
argon- rich gas mixture Helium based shielding gas (over 80% Ar).
 The average current required in GMAW process can be reduced by using a
pulsed arc, which superimposes high-amplitude pulses onto a low, steady
current.
 Pulsing the current allows for better control for out of position welding.
 This mode produces little or no spatter and is known for the high
deposition rate (higher productivity).
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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• 2.1.10 Metal Transfer Mode:

Spray transfer
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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• 2.1.10 Metal Transfer Mode:

• Globular transfer:
 Carbon-dioxide rich gases are utilized, and globules are propelled by
the forces of the electric arc transfer of the metal, resulting in
considerable spatter.
 High currents are used, making it possible for greater weld
penetration and higher welding speed than are achieved in spray
transfer. Heavier sections commonly are joined by this method.

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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• 2.1.10 Metal Transfer Mode:

• Globular transfer:

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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• 2.1.10 Metal Transfer Mode:

• Short circuiting transfer:
 The metal is transferred in individual droplets (more than 50 per second),
as electrode tip touches the molten weld metal and short circuits.
 At low current and voltages, short circuit transfer occurs.
 The weld is a shallow penetrating weld with low heat input.
 Using GMAW in this mode allows welding in all positions since the weld
puddle is so small.
 In comparison to the other modes of transfer, this method is slowest (low
productivity).
 Used primarily for sheet metal applications.
 This mode produces large amounts of spatter if welding variables are not
optimized.
 This mode is also known as short arc or dip transfer.
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 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING

• 2.1.10 Metal Transfer Mode:

• Short circuiting transfer:

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SO WHAT ??????
DO YOU HAVE
ANY QUESTIONS
??????
GOT IT ………. Prof. Dr./ ABDEL SALAM HEMAID
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