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Emission Estimation
Technique Manual
for

Explosives Detonation
and Firing Ranges

First Published in March 1999

 EMISSION ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES
FOR
EXPLOSIVES DETONATION
AND FIRING RANGES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................1

2.0 PROCESSES AND EMISSIONS ......................................................................2

2.1 Process Description .......................................................................................2

2.2 Emission Sources and Control Technologies ...........................................3
2.2.1 Emissions to Air ....................................................................................3
2.2.2 Emissions to Land.................................................................................3
3.0 EMISSION ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES....................................................4

3.1 Engineering Calculations .............................................................................5

3.2 Emission Factors.............................................................................................7
4.0 EMISSION ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES: ACCEPTABLE
RELIABILITY AND UNCERTAINTY .............................................................11

4.1 Engineering Calculations ...........................................................................11

4.2 Emission Factors...........................................................................................11
5.0 REFERENCES........................................................................................................12

Explosives Detonation & Firing Ranges

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 EXPLOSIVES DETONATION
AND FIRING RANGES

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Composition and Uses of Common Explosives ................................... 2

2. Uncontrolled Emission Factors for the Detonation of Explosives ... 8

3. Uncontrolled Emission Factors Derived from Thermochemical

Calculations for Ammonium Nitrate-Dodecane Fuel Oil (ANFO)
Species .......................................................................................................... 8

4. Uncontrolled Emission Factors Based on Orica Australia’s Powergel

Golds, Energen Golds, and ANFO Species for the Small and Large Hole
Markets......................................................................................................... 9

5. Particle Size Distribution for a Range of Particle Sizes Relating to

Blasting, and Estimated Uncontrolled Emission Factors for the Particle
Sizes .............................................................................................................. 9

6. Uncontrolled Dust Emission Factor for Blasting ................................. 9

Explosives Detonation & Firing Ranges

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1.0 Introduction

The purpose of all Emission Estimation Technique (EET) Manuals in this series is to assist
Australian manufacturing, industrial and service facilities to report emissions of listed
substances to the National Pollutant Inventory (NPI). This Manual describes the
procedures and recommended approaches for estimating emissions from facilities
engaged in the detonation of explosives.

The activities covered in this Manual apply to facilities primarily engaged in the
detonation of explosives through either the use of explosive ordinances, or the discharge
of firearms.

HANDBOOK : Explosives Detonation

ANZSIC CODES :

This Manual was drafted by the NPI Unit of the Queensland Department of Environment
and Heritage on behalf of the Commonwealth Government. It has been developed
through a process of national consultation involving State and Territory environmental
authorities and key industry stakeholders.

Explosives Detonation & Firing Ranges

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2.0 Processes and Emissions

The following section presents a brief description of explosives commonly used in

industry, and identifies substances likely to be emitted.

2.1 Process Description

An explosion is a physical or chemical phenomenon in which energy is released in a very

short time (Ullmann, 1987). Although explosions can be of a mechanical, chemical, nuclear,
or electrical origin, chemical explosions are the primary focus of this Manual.

There are a number of different explosives, and the main uses are in weaponry, extraction
industries such as mining and quarrying, demolition work, and as a propellant for
ammunition. Table 1 outlines the most common explosives, their composition, and general
uses.

One of the most commonly used explosives in the mining industry uses a mixture of
ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFOs). The main products of the combustion of ANFOs
are CO, CO2,, NOX, PM10, and H2O. In Australia, it is estimated that the explosives industry
uses at least 600 000 tonnes of ANFOs per annum (Dyno Nobel, 1999).

Table 1. Composition and Uses of Common Explosives

Explosive Composition Uses

Black powder 75/15/10 Potassium (sodium) Delay fuses

nitrate/charcoal/sulfur
Smokeless powder Nitrocellulose (sometimes with other Small arms,
materials) propellant
Dynamite, straight 20-60% Nitroglycerine/sodium Rarely used
nitrate/wood pulp/calcium carbonate
Dynamite, ammonia 20-60% Nitroglycerine/ammonium Quarries
nitrate/sodium nitrate/wood pulp
Dynamite, gelatin 20-100% Nitroglycerine Demolition,
construction work,
blasting in mines
ANFO Ammonium nitrate with 5.8-8% fuel Construction work,
oil blasting in mines
TNT Trinitrotoluene Main charge in
artillery projectiles,
mortar rounds, etc.
RDX (CH2)3N3(NO2)3 Booster
Cyclotrimethylenetrinitroamine
PETN C(CH2ONO2)4 Pentaerythritol Booster
tetranitrate
Source: USEPA Document AP-42 (1995)

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2.2 Emission Sources and Control Technologies

2.2.1 Emissions to Air

Air emissions may be categorised as:

Fugitive Emissions

These are emissions that are not released through a vent or stack. Emissions from the
detonation of explosives tend to be the fugitive products of combustion, (eg. carbon
monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide). Small volumes of other substances (eg.
hydrogen sulfide, ammonia and hydrogen cyanide) may also be emitted depending on the
type and composition of explosive- used. Emission factors are the usual method for
determining losses through fugitive emissions.

Point Source Emissions

These emissions are exhausted into a vent or stack and emitted through a single point
source into the atmosphere. However, there are not likely to be any point source emissions
resulting from the activities covered in this Manual.

2.2.2 Emissions to Land

Emissions of substances to land (particularly lead) on-site can occur on firing ranges from
bullets. Control technologies (eg. bullet traps) can be used to reduce lead emissions to land
on firing ranges. If you have installed these control technologies at your facility, or have
implemented work practices that reduce emissions, you should multiply the control
efficiency of the technology, or the practice adopted, by the appropriate uncontrolled
result obtained from an EET outlined in this manual.

Explosives Detonation & Firing Ranges

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3.0 Emission Estimation Techniques

Estimates of emissions of NPI-listed substances to air, water, and land should be reported
for each substance that triggers a threshold. The reporting list and detailed information on
thresholds are contained in The NPI Guide at the front of this Handbook.

In general, there are four types of emission estimation techniques (EETs) that may be used
to estimate emissions from your facility. The four types described in the NPI Guide are:

• sampling or direct measurement;

• mass balance;
• fuel analysis or other engineering calculations; and
• emission factors.

Select the EET (or mix of EETs) that is most appropriate for your purposes. For example,
you might choose to use a mass balance to best estimate fugitive losses from pumps and
vents, direct measurement for stack and pipe emissions, and emission factors when
estimating losses from storage tanks and stockpiles.

If you estimate your emission by using any of these EETs, your data will be displayed on
the NPI database as being of ‘acceptable reliability’. Similarly, if your relevant
environmental authority has approved the use of emission estimation techniques that are
not outlined in this Handbook, your data will also be displayed as being of ‘acceptable
reliability’.

This Manual seeks to provide the most effective emission estimation techniques for the
NPI substances relevant to the activities associated with the detonation of explosives, and
the use of firing ranges. However, the absence of an EET for a substance in this Manual
does not imply that an emission should not be reported to the NPI. The obligation to
report on all relevant emissions remains if reporting thresholds have been exceeded.

You are able to use emission estimation techniques that are not outlined in this
document. You must, however, seek the consent of your relevant environmental
authority. For example, if your company has developed site-specific emission factors,
you may use these if approved by your relevant environmental authority.

In general, direct measurement is the most accurate method for characterising emissions
and, where available, such data should be used in preference to the other EETs outlined in
this Manual. However, additional direct measurement is not required under the NPI
Measure. Direct monitoring may be undertaken as an element of other EETs.

You should note that the EETs presented in this Manual relate principally to average
process emissions. Emissions resulting from non-routine events are rarely discussed in the
literature, and there is a general lack of EETs for such events. However, it is important to
recognise that emissions resulting from significant operating excursions and/or accidental
situations (eg. spills) will also need to be estimated. Emissions to land, air and water from
spills must be estimated and added to process emissions when calculating total emissions
for reporting purposes. The emission resulting from a spill is the net emission, ie. the

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quantity of the NPI reportable substance spilled, less the quantity recovered or consumed
during clean up operations.

3.1 Engineering Calculations

An engineering calculation is an estimation method based on the physical/chemical

properties (eg. vapour pressure of the substance), and mathematical relationships (eg.
ideal gas law). Example 1 shows how to calculate emissions of carbon monoxide from the
detonation of TNT.

Some information is available on the chemical decomposition of explosives, so that the

amount of some NPI-listed substances produced from the combustion process (eg. carbon
monoxide) can theoretically be calculated.

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Example 1 – Estimating Carbon Monoxide Emissions from the Detonation of TNT

The result of the detonation of TNT is represented by the following general reaction series.
This reaction forms the basis of the worked example.

The final products of the detonation of TNT:

N → N2

2H + O → H2O

C+O → CO

CO + O → C 2O

For TNT, the following reaction represents the basic oxidising reaction:
C7H5N3O6 → 7C + 5H + 3N + 6O

a) 3N → 1.5 N2
b) 5H + 2.5O → 2.5H2O (3.5O remaining)
c) 7C + 3.5O → 3.5CO (all the O is used up) + 3.5C

The overall reaction is:

C7H5N3O6 → 1.5N2 + 2.5H2O + 3.5CO + 3.5C

Using the basic oxidising reaction, the total CO emissions from the detonation of TNT may
be calculated using the following steps:

Total molecular weight of C7H5N3O6 = (7 * C) + (5 * H) + (3 * N) + (6 * O)

= (7 * 12) + (5 * 1) + (3 * 14) + (6 * 16)

= 84 + 5 + 42 + 96
= 227 kg/kg-mol

Total Molecular weight of CO = 12 + 16

= 28 kg/ kg-mol

Total weight of CO from reaction = 3.5 moles * 28kg/ kg-mol = 98kg

Total CO emissions = (98/227) * 1000kg/t = 431.7 kg of CO produced per tonne of

TNT detonated

Source: Explosives Engineering, (1996).

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3.2 Emission Factors

An emission factor is a tool that is used to estimate emissions to the environment. In this
Manual, it relates the quantity of substances emitted from a source to some common
activity associated with those emissions. Emission factors are obtained from US,
European, and Australian sources, and are usually expressed as the weight of a substance
emitted, divided by the unit weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting
the substance (eg. kilograms of sulfur dioxide emitted per tonne of ANFO detonated).

Emission factors are used to estimate a facility’s emissions by the general equation:

Ekpy, = [A * OpHrs] * EFi * [1 - (CEi /100)] (1)

where :

Ekpy,i = emission rate of pollutant i, kg/yr

A = activity rate, t/hr
OpHrs = operating hours, hr/yr
EFi = uncontrolled emission factor of pollutant i kg/t
CEi = overall control efficiency for pollutant i, %

Emission factors developed from measurements for a specific process can sometimes be
used to estimate emissions at other sites. Should a company have several processes of
similar operation and size, and emissions are measured from one process source, an
emission factor can be developed and applied to similar sources. You are required to have
the emission factors reviewed and approved by your State or Territory environment
agency prior to its use for NPI estimations.

This Manual includes some USEPA data on dust emission factors for blasting in Table 6.
This data does not stipulate particle size distribution. Some data is available in Table 5 for
an emission factor for a particle size range of 2.5um-15um, stipulating an emission factor
of 46.0kg/tonne of rock from blasting. Further particle size measurements may have to be
undertaken in order to determine a more accurate emission factor for particulate matter
less than 10 micrometres (PM10).

With regards to emission controls for PM10, in the absence of measured data, or knowledge
of the collection efficiency for a particular piece of equipment, an efficiency of 90% should
be used in the emission factor equation to calculate actual mass emissions. This default
should only be used if there is no other available control efficiency.

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Table 2. Uncontrolled Emission Factors for the Detonation of Explosives
Emission Factor Rating: D (see Section 4.2)
Emission Factor (kg/tonne)a
Explosive Carbon Nitrogen Ammonia Hydrogen Hydrogen Sulfur
Monoxide Oxides (NH3) cyanide sulfide dioxide
(CO) (NOx) (HCN) (H2S) (SO2)

Black powder 85 ND NA NA 12 NA

Smokeless powderb 38 ND NA NA 10 NA

Dynamite, straight 141 ND NA NA 3 NA

Dynamite, ammonia 32 ND NA NA 16 NA

Dynamite, gelatin 52 26 NA NA 2 1

ANFO 34 8 NA NA NA 1

TNT 398 ND 14 13 NA NA

RDX 98 ND 22 NA NA NA

PETN 149 ND 1.3 NA NA NA

Source: Adapted from USEPA Document AP-42 (1995)
a
Units are kilograms (kg) of substance emitted per tonne (tonne) of explosive used.
b
Ammunition may also contain lead in the bullet casing.
ND - No data available.
NA - Not applicable.

Table 3. Uncontrolled Emission Factors Derived from Thermochemical Calculations

for Ammonium Nitrate-Dodecane Fuel Oil (ANFO) Species
Emission Factor (kg/tonne)a
Explosive Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Ammonium nitrate with Dodecane 22

fuel oil

Source: Dyno Nobel

a
Units are kilograms (kg) of substance emitted per tonne (tonne) of explosive used.

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Table 4. Uncontrolled Emission Factors Based on Orica Australia’s Powergel Golds,
Energan Golds, and ANFO Species for the Small and Large Hole Markets
Explosive Diameter Carbon Monoxide Nitrogen Oxide
Small (< 152mm) or Large (CO) (NO)
(> 152mm)
Bulk Products
Small 19.6 6
ANFO Large 16.3 3.5

ENERGAN GOLD Small 4.2 0

Large 1.3 0

POWERGEL GOLD Small 16.7 0

Large 2.3 0

Packaged Products

AMEX All diameters 16.3 3.5

POWERGEL All diameters 9.2 0.2

Source: Orica Australia
a
Units are kilograms (kg) of substance emitted per tonne (tonne) of explosive used.

Tables 5 and 6 provide particle size distribution information for typical blasting activities
and emission factors based on the total area blasted. This may vary from site to site
depending on moisture content and other properties of the material blasted.
Table 5. Particle Size Distribution for a Range of Particle Sizes Relating to Blasting,
and Estimated Uncontrolled Emission Factors for the Particle Sizes
Activity Particle Size Rangesb Emission Factor (kg/tonne)a

0-2.5µm 5.1
2.5-15µm 46.0
Blasting

15-30µm 49.9

Sources: USEPA (1981)

Axtell & Lowheard, (1981). Improved Emission Factors for Western Surface Coal Mining Sources,
Vol. 1. Sampling Methodology and Text Results. EPA Contract No. 68-03-2924.
Coffey Geosciences Pty Ltd (1999).
a
Units are kilograms (kg) of substance emitted per tonne (tonne) of explosive used.
b
PM10 emissions relate to emissions from overburden.

Table 6. Uncontrolled Dust Emission Factor for Blasting

Activity Emission Factor (kg/blast)a

Overburden Blasting 0.00022A1.5

Sources: USEPA (1988)
a 2.
Emission factor in (kg/blast) and A is the area to be blasted in m

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Example 2 illustrates the use of emission factors for estimating emissions from a firing
range.

Example 2 - Estimating Carbon Monoxide Emissions from a Firing Range.

To determine the emissions of carbon monoxide from a firing range, you should initially
estimate the number and type of bullets used in a year. For example, 20,000 .223 calibre
Remington bullets weighing 40 grains each, and 40,000 .270 calibre Winchester bullets each
weighing 90 grains, are used in a year.

To determine the total weight of smokeless powder (nitrocellulose) used at the firing
range in a year, you must firstly determine the weight of smokeless powder in each type
of bullet, multiply this by the number of bullets of each type used, and then multiply the
result by the conversion from grains to kilograms (6.48 * 10-5), as indicated below:

Total Weight = w * cf * n (2)

Where w = weight of nitrocellulose in a bullet of a particular calibre;

cf = conversion factor from grains to kilograms (6.48 * 10-5); and,
n = number of bullets of this particular type used at the range in a year.

Total Weight = 54 grains1 * 6.48 * 10-5 * 40 000

= 140 kg nitrocellulose
(.270 Winchester)

Total Weight = 22.5 grainsa * 6.48 * 10-5 * 20 000

= 29 kg nitrocellulose
(.223 Remington)

Therefore, the total amount of nitrocellulose used at the firing range in a year is 140kg + 29
kg = 169 kg.

Multiply this figure by the emission factor for carbon monoxide from Table 2.

Emission = weight of explosive * emission factor (g/kg)

= 169 (kg) * 38 (g/kg)
= 6422 grams
Ekpy,co = 6.422 kg/yr of carbon monoxide emitted

a
These weights were obtained from the “ADI Smokeless Powders Handloader’s Guide”, 2nd Edition, 1996.

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4.0 Emission Estimation Techniques: Acceptable Reliability and Uncertainty

This section is intended to give a general overview of some of the inaccuracies associated
with each of the techniques. Although the NPI does not favour one emission estimation
technique over another, this section does attempt to evaluate the available emission
estimation techniques with regards to accuracy.

Several techniques are available for calculating emissions from explosives detonation. The
technique chosen will depend on available data, available resources, and the degree of
accuracy sought by the facility in undertaking the estimate. In general, site-specific data
that is representative of normal operations is more accurate than industry-averaged data,
(eg. the emission factors presented in Section 3.2 of this Manual).

4.1 Engineering Calculations

Theoretical and complex equations, or models, can be used for estimating emissions from
the detonation of explosives.

Use of emission equations to estimate emissions from the detonation of explosives is a

more complex and time-consuming process than the use of emission factors. Emission
equations require more detailed inputs, but they do provide an emission estimate that is
based on facility-specific conditions.

4.2 Emission Factors

Every emission factor has an associated emission factor rating (EFR) code. This rating
system is common to EETs for all industries and sectors and therefore, to all Industry
Handbooks. They are based on rating systems developed by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), and by the European Environment Agency
(EEA). Consequently, the ratings may not be directly relevant to Australian industry.
Sources for all emission factors cited can be found in the Section 5.0 of this Manual. The
emission factor ratings will not form part of the public NPI database.

When using emission factors, you should be aware of the associated EFR code and what
that rating implies. An A or B rating indicates a greater degree of certainty than a D or E
rating. The less certainty, the more likely that a given emission factor for a specific source
or category is not representative of the source type. These ratings notwithstanding, the
main criterion affecting the uncertainty of an emission factor remains the degree of
similarity between the equipment/process selected in applying the factor, and the target
equipment/process from which the factor was derived.

The EFR system is as follows:

A - Excellent
B - Above Average
C - Average
D - Below Average
E - Poor
U - Unrated

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5.0 References

ADI, July 1996, ADI Smokeless Powders Handloader’s Guide, 2nd ed., NSW, Australia.

Coffey Geosciences Pty Ltd, 1999, Personal Communication with Coffey Geosciences Pty Ltd.

Cooper, Paul.W., 1996, Explosives Engineering, New York, N.Y.: VCH, USA.

Dyno Nobel, 1999, Personal Communication with Dyno Nobel.

Orica Australia, 1999, Personal Communication with Orica Australia.

Queensland Department of Mines and Energy, 1999, Personal Communication with the
Queensland Department of Mines and Energy.

Ullmann, F., 1987, Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 5th ed., VCH, Weinheim,
Germany.

USEPA, January 1995a, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Volume 1: Stationary
Point and Area Sources, fifth edition, AP-42. Section 13, Explosives Detonation, United
States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards.
Research Triangle Park, NC, USA.

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