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Chapter 2: Operating-System

Services

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Outline

▪ Operating System Services


▪ User and Operating System-Interface
▪ System Calls
▪ System Services
▪ Why Applications are Operating System Specific
▪ Operating System Design and Implementation
▪ Operating System Structure
▪ Building and Booting an Operating System

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Operating System Services
▪ Operating systems provide an environment for execution of programs
and services to programs and users
▪ One set of operating-system services provides functions that are
helpful to the user:
• User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user
interface (UI).
 Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User
Interface (GUI), touch-screen, Batch
• Program execution - The system must be able to load a program
into memory and to run that program, end execution, either
normally or abnormally (indicating error)
• I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may
involve a file or an I/O device
• File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular
interest. Programs need to read and write files and directories,
create and delete them, search them, list file Information,
permission management.
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Operating System Services (Cont.)
▪ One set of operating-system services provides functions that are
helpful to the user (Cont.):
• Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the
same computer or between computers over a network
 Communications may be via shared memory or through
message passing (packets moved by the OS)
• Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible
errors
 May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in
user program
 For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action
to ensure correct and consistent computing
 Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and
programmer’s abilities to efficiently use the system

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Operating System Services (Cont.)
▪ Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation
of the system itself via resource sharing
• Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs
running concurrently, resources must be allocated to each of them
 Many types of resources - CPU cycles, main memory, file
storage, I/O devices.
• Logging - To keep track of which users use how much and what
kinds of computer resources
• Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a
multiuser or networked computer system may want to control use
of that information, concurrent processes should not interfere with
each other
 Protection involves ensuring that all access to system
resources is controlled
 Security of the system from outsiders requires user
authentication, extends to defending external I/O devices from
invalid access attempts

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
A View of Operating System Services

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Command Line interpreter

▪ CLI allows direct command entry


▪ Sometimes implemented in kernel, sometimes by
systems program
▪ Sometimes multiple flavors implemented – shells
▪ Primarily fetches a command from user and executes it
▪ Sometimes commands built-in, sometimes just names
of programs
• If the latter, adding new features doesn’t require
shell modification

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Bourne Shell Command Interpreter

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User Operating System Interface - GUI

▪ User-friendly desktop metaphor interface


• Usually mouse, keyboard, and monitor
• Icons represent files, programs, actions, etc
• Various mouse buttons over objects in the interface cause various
actions (provide information, options, execute function, open
directory (known as a folder)
• Invented at Xerox PARC
▪ Many systems now include both CLI and GUI interfaces
• Microsoft Windows is GUI with CLI “command” shell
• Apple Mac OS X is “Aqua” GUI interface with UNIX kernel
underneath and shells available
• Unix and Linux have CLI with optional GUI interfaces (CDE, KDE,
GNOME)

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Touchscreen Interfaces

▪ Touchscreen devices require new


interfaces
• Mouse not possible or not desired
• Actions and selection based on
gestures
• Virtual keyboard for text entry
▪ Voice commands

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
The Mac OS X GUI

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
System Calls

▪ Programming interface to the services provided by the OS


▪ Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)
▪ Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application
Programming Interface (API) rather than direct system call use
▪ Three most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows, POSIX API for
POSIX-based systems (including virtually all versions of UNIX, Linux,
and Mac OS X), and Java API for the Java virtual machine (JVM)

Note that the system-call names used throughout this text are
generic

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Example of System Calls

▪ System call sequence to copy the contents of one file to another file

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Example of Standard API

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System Call Implementation

▪ Typically, a number is associated with each system call


• System-call interface maintains a table indexed according to
these numbers
▪ The system call interface invokes the intended system call in OS
kernel and returns status of the system call and any return values
▪ The caller need know nothing about how the system call is
implemented
• Just needs to obey API and understand what OS will do as a
result call
• Most details of OS interface hidden from programmer by API
 Managed by run-time support library (set of functions built into
libraries included with compiler)

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
API – System Call – OS Relationship

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System Call Parameter Passing

▪ Often, more information is required than simply identity of desired


system call
• Exact type and amount of information vary according to OS and
call
▪ Three general methods used to pass parameters to the OS
• Simplest: pass the parameters in registers
In some cases, may be more parameters than registers

• Parameters stored in a block, or table, in memory, and address of
block passed as a parameter in a register
This approach taken by Linux and Solaris

• Parameters placed, or pushed, onto the stack by the program and
popped off the stack by the operating system
• Block and stack methods do not limit the number or length of
parameters being passed

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Parameter Passing via Table

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Types of System Calls

▪ Process control
• create process, terminate process
• end, abort
• load, execute
• get process attributes, set process attributes
• wait for time
• wait event, signal event
• allocate and free memory
• Dump memory if error
• Debugger for determining bugs, single step execution
• Locks for managing access to shared data between processes

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Types of System Calls (Cont.)

▪ File management
• create file, delete file
• open, close file
• read, write, reposition
• get and set file attributes
▪ Device management
• request device, release device
• read, write, reposition
• get device attributes, set device attributes
• logically attach or detach devices

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Types of System Calls (Cont.)

▪ Information maintenance
• get time or date, set time or date
• get system data, set system data
• get and set process, file, or device attributes
▪ Communications
• create, delete communication connection
• send, receive messages if message passing model to host
name or process name
 From client to server
• Shared-memory model create and gain access to memory
regions
• transfer status information
• attach and detach remote devices

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Types of System Calls (Cont.)

▪ Protection
• Control access to resources
• Get and set permissions
• Allow and deny user access

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Examples of Windows and Unix System Calls

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Standard C Library Example
▪ C program invoking printf() library call, which calls write() system call

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Example: Arduino

▪ Single-tasking
▪ No operating system
▪ Programs (sketch) loaded via
USB into flash memory
▪ Single memory space
▪ Boot loader loads program
▪ Program exit -> shell
reloaded

At system startup running a program

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Example: FreeBSD
▪ Unix variant
▪ Multitasking
▪ User login -> invoke user’s choice of
shell
▪ Shell executes fork() system call to create
process
• Executes exec() to load program into
process
• Shell waits for process to terminate or
continues with user commands
▪ Process exits with:
• code = 0 – no error
• code > 0 – error code

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
System Services
▪ System programs provide a convenient environment for program
development and execution. They can be divided into:
• File manipulation
• Status information sometimes stored in a file
• Programming language support
• Program loading and execution
• Communications
• Background services
• Application programs
▪ Most users’ view of the operation system is defined by system
programs, not the actual system calls

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
System Services (Cont.)
▪ Provide a convenient environment for program development and
execution
• Some of them are simply user interfaces to system calls; others
are considerably more complex

▪ File management - Create, delete, copy, rename, print, dump, list,


and generally manipulate files and directories

▪ Status information
• Some ask the system for info - date, time, amount of available
memory, disk space, number of users
• Others provide detailed performance, logging, and debugging
information
• Typically, these programs format and print the output to the
terminal or other output devices
• Some systems implement a registry - used to store and
retrieve configuration information

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
System Services (Cont.)
▪ File modification
• Text editors to create and modify files
• Special commands to search contents of files or perform
transformations of the text
▪ Programming-language support - Compilers, assemblers,
debuggers and interpreters sometimes provided
▪ Program loading and execution- Absolute loaders, relocatable
loaders, linkage editors, and overlay-loaders, debugging systems for
higher-level and machine language
▪ Communications - Provide the mechanism for creating virtual
connections among processes, users, and computer systems
• Allow users to send messages to one another’s screens, browse
web pages, send electronic-mail messages, log in remotely,
transfer files from one machine to another

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
System Services (Cont.)
▪ Background Services
• Launch at boot time
Some for system startup, then terminate

 Some from system boot to shutdown
• Provide facilities like disk checking, process scheduling, error
logging, printing
• Run in user context not kernel context
• Known as services, subsystems, daemons
▪ Application programs
• Don’t pertain to system
• Run by users
• Not typically considered part of OS
• Launched by command line, mouse click, finger poke

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Why Applications are Operating System Specific

▪ Apps compiled on one system usually not executable on other


operating systems
▪ Each operating system provides its own unique system calls
• Own file formats, etc.
▪ Apps can be multi-operating system
• Written in interpreted language like Python, Ruby, and interpreter
available on multiple operating systems
• App written in language that includes a VM containing the running
app (like Java)
• Use standard language (like C), compile separately on each
operating system to run on each
▪ Application Binary Interface (ABI) is architecture equivalent of API,
defines how different components of binary code can interface for a
given operating system on a given architecture, CPU, etc.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Design and Implementation

▪ Design and Implementation of OS is not “solvable”, but some


approaches have proven successful
▪ Internal structure of different Operating Systems can vary widely
▪ Start the design by defining goals and specifications
▪ Affected by choice of hardware, type of system
▪ User goals and System goals
• User goals – operating system should be convenient to use,
easy to learn, reliable, safe, and fast
• System goals – operating system should be easy to design,
implement, and maintain, as well as flexible, reliable, error-free,
and efficient
▪ Specifying and designing an OS is highly creative task of software
engineering

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Policy and Mechanism

▪ Policy: What needs to be done?


• Example: Interrupt after every 100 seconds
▪ Mechanism: How to do something?
• Example: timer
▪ Important principle: separate policy from mechanism
▪ The separation of policy from mechanism is a very
important principle, it allows maximum flexibility if policy
decisions are to be changed later.
• Example: change 100 to 200

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Implementation
▪ Much variation
• Early OSes in assembly language
• Then system programming languages like Algol, PL/1
• Now C, C++
▪ Actually usually a mix of languages
• Lowest levels in assembly
• Main body in C
• Systems programs in C, C++, scripting languages like PERL,
Python, shell scripts
▪ More high-level language easier to port to other hardware
• But slower
▪ Emulation can allow an OS to run on non-native hardware

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Operating System Structure

▪ General-purpose OS is very large program


▪ Various ways to structure ones
• Simple structure – MS-DOS
• More complex – UNIX
• Layered – an abstraction
• Microkernel – Mach

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Monolithic Structure – Original UNIX

▪ UNIX – limited by hardware functionality, the original UNIX operating


system had limited structuring.
▪ The UNIX OS consists of two separable parts
• Systems programs
• The kernel
 Consists of everything below the system-call interface and
above the physical hardware
 Provides the file system, CPU scheduling, memory
management, and other operating-system functions; a large
number of functions for one level

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Traditional UNIX System Structure
Beyond simple but not fully layered

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Linux System Structure
Monolithic plus modular design

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Layered Approach

▪ The operating system is


divided into a number of layers
(levels), each built on top of
lower layers. The bottom layer
(layer 0), is the hardware; the
highest (layer N) is the user
interface.
▪ With modularity, layers are
selected such that each uses
functions (operations) and
services of only lower-level
layers

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Microkernels
▪ Moves as much from the kernel into user space
▪ Mach is an example of microkernel
• Mac OS X kernel (Darwin) partly based on Mach
▪ Communication takes place between user modules using
message passing
▪ Benefits:
• Easier to extend a microkernel
• Easier to port the operating system to new architectures
• More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)
• More secure
▪ Detriments:
• Performance overhead of user space to kernel space
communication

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Microkernel System Structure

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Modules
▪ Many modern operating systems implement loadable kernel
modules (LKMs)
• Uses object-oriented approach
• Each core component is separate
• Each talks to the others over known interfaces
• Each is loadable as needed within the kernel
▪ Overall, similar to layers but with more flexible
• Linux, Solaris, etc.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Hybrid Systems

▪ Most modern operating systems are not one pure model


• Hybrid combines multiple approaches to address performance,
security, usability needs
• Linux and Solaris kernels in kernel address space, so monolithic,
plus modular for dynamic loading of functionality
• Windows mostly monolithic, plus microkernel for different
subsystem personalities
▪ Apple Mac OS X hybrid, layered, Aqua UI plus Cocoa programming
environment
• Below is kernel consisting of Mach microkernel and BSD Unix
parts, plus I/O kit and dynamically loadable modules (called
kernel extensions)

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
macOS and iOS Structure

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Darwin

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Android
▪ Developed by Open Handset Alliance (mostly Google)
• Open Source
▪ Similar stack to IOS
▪ Based on Linux kernel but modified
• Provides process, memory, device-driver management
• Adds power management
▪ Runtime environment includes core set of libraries and Dalvik
virtual machine
• Apps developed in Java plus Android API
 Java class files compiled to Java bytecode then translated
to executable than runs in Dalvik VM
▪ Libraries include frameworks for web browser (webkit), database
(SQLite), multimedia, smaller libc

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Android Architecture

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Building and Booting an Operating System

▪ Operating systems generally designed to run on a class of systems


with variety of perpherals
▪ Commonly, operating system already installed on purchased
computer
• But can build and install some other operating systems
• If generating an operating system from scratch
 Write the operating system source code
 Configure the operating system for the system on which it will
run
 Compile the operating system
 Install the operating system
 Boot the computer and its new operating system

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.49 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
System Boot
▪ When power initialized on system, execution starts at a fixed memory
location
▪ Operating system must be made available to hardware so hardware
can start it
• Small piece of code – bootstrap loader, BIOS, stored in ROM or
EEPROM locates the kernel, loads it into memory, and starts it
• Sometimes two-step process where boot block at fixed location
loaded by ROM code, which loads bootstrap loader from disk
• Modern systems replace BIOS with Unified Extensible
Firmware Interface (UEFI)
▪ Common bootstrap loader, GRUB, allows selection of kernel from
multiple disks, versions, kernel options
▪ Kernel loads and system is then running
▪ Boot loaders frequently allow various boot states, such as single user
mode

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.50 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
End of Chapter 2

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

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