Al-Balqa’ Applied University

Al-Huson University College

Chemical Engineering Department

Laboratory Of
Fluid Mechanics Engineering

Eng. Ahmad M. R. Al-Bodour

 Contents

• Exp. number 1: Density

• Exp. number 2: Viscosity

• Exp. number 3: Determination of Pressure using different

pressure measuring devices

• Exp. number 4: Reynolds Number

• Exp. number 5: Bernoulli's Theorem

• Exp. number 6: Orifice and Jet Apparatus

• Exp. number 7: Pipe friction

• Exp. number 8: Pumps

• Exp. number 9: Weirs

• Exp. number 10: Center of pressure

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 Experiment (1)
Density
Objective:
To measure the density of different liquids.

Theory:
Mass Density () is defined as mass per unit volume.
m
=
V

Weight density () is defined as weight per unit volume.

m g
= = × g
V
Where:
,m = liquid mass (kg).
g = the gravitational acceleration (m/s2).
V = liquid volume (m3).

The specific gravity (S) or relative density of a fluid is defined as the mass of a
given volume of a fluid divided by the mass of the same volume of water.

 liquid
S=
 water

Specific volume (Vs) is the reciprocal of mass density.

1
Vs =

Units of the Density in SI and cgs systems
Density types Symbol SI units cgs units
Mass density 𝜌 kg/m³ g/cm³
Weight Density ϒ N/m³ Dyne/cm³
Specific gravity 𝑆 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠
Specific volume Vs m³/kg cm³/g

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Apparatus:
1. Hydrometer: is an instrument used to measure the specific gravity (or
relative density) of liquids; that is, the ratio of the density of the liquid to the
density of water. A hydrometer is usually made of glass and consists of a
cylindrical stem and a bulb weighted with mercury or lead shot to make it
float upright. The liquid to be tested is poured into a tall jar, and the
hydrometer is gently lowered into the liquid until it floats freely. The point
at which the surface of the liquid touches the stem of the hydrometer is
noted. Hydrometers usually contain a paper scale inside the stem, so that the
specific gravity can be read directly.

2. Pycnometer: is a device used to determine the density of a liquid. Also

called Pyknometer or specific gravity bottle is a flask usually made of glass,
with a close-fitting ground glass stopper with a capillary tube through it, so
that air bubbles may escape from the apparatus. The following photos show
a Pycnometer both empty and full.

Hydrometer Pycnometer
Procedure:
1. Hydrometer:
• Fill three graduated cylinder with liquid (water, diesel, aftor) to be tested with
sufficient amount of the liquid to float the Hydrometer.
• Gently lower into the fluid until it floats freely. The point at which the
surface of the liquid touches the stem of the hydrometer is noted. Record.

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 𝜌𝑙
S =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

2. Pycnometer:
• Clean and dry Pycnometer.
• Using the balance measure and record the Pycnometer mass m₁.
• Fill the Pycnometer with the liquid and close it with the stopper.
• Weigh the filled Pycnometer m₂.
• Calculate the liquid mass density

𝑚₂ − 𝑚₁
𝜌=
𝑉

Results & calculations:

1. Fill following the table with your data and calculations.

Liquid type 𝝆 ϒ 𝑺 Vs
Units g/cm³ kg/m³ Dyne/cm³ N/m³ **** cm³/g m³/kg
Diesel
Water
Aftor

2. Explain why the density of water is not 1g/cm 3?

Note that:

Volume of the Pycnometer = 50 cm3.

g = 9.81 m/s2 = 981 cm/s2.

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 Experiment (2)
Viscosity
Objective:
To determine the viscosity of various light liquid by Ostwald viscometer and
heavy liquid by falling sphere at atmospheric pressure and temperature.

Theory:
The viscosity of a fluid is its resistance to flow. It is a quantitative property
of any fluid. There two kinds of viscosity: Dynamic and kinematic viscosities. The
usual symbol for dynamic viscosity used by engineers and fluid dynamicity is the
Greek letter mu (μ). In many situations, we are concerned with the ratio of the
viscous force to the inertial force, this ratio is characterized by the kinematic
viscosity (Greek letter nu, ν), defined as follows:

Where μ is the dynamic viscosity (Pa·s) and ρ is the density (kg/m3), and ν is the
kinematic viscosity (m2/s).

• Falling sphere : If the particles are falling in the viscous fluid by their own
weight, then a terminal velocity, also known as the settling velocity, is
reached when this frictional force combined with the buoyant force exactly
balance the gravitational force. The resulting settling velocity (or terminal
velocity) is given by:

This equation, known as Stock’s Law, where:

• Vs is the particles' settling velocity (m/s).

• r is the radius of the particle (m).
• g is the gravitational acceleration (m/s2).
• ρp is the density of the particles (kg/m3).
• Ρl is the density of the fluid (kg/m3).
• μ is the dynamic viscosity (Pa.s).

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 • Ostwald viscometer : Viscosity of light liquids can be measured using this
viscometer according to the relation :
1 1.t1
=
 2  2 .t 2
Where:
• μ1,2 the dynamic viscosities of both liquids (Pa.s).
• ρ1,2 the densities of the liquids (kg/m3).
• t 1,2 the time needed to empty the bulb for the two liquids (s).

Units of the Viscosity in SI and cgs systems

Viscosity Symbol Units
types SI cgs
𝑁. 𝑠 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑒. 𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚2
Dynamic 𝜇 𝑚² 𝑔/𝑐𝑚. 𝑠
viscosity 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠 (poise, P)
𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚. 𝑠
Kinematic 𝑐𝑚²/𝑠
viscosity 𝑣 𝑚²/𝑠 (𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒)

(1 cP = 10−3 Pa·s)
Apparatus:
Viscometer (also called viscosimeter) is an instrument used to measure
the viscosity of a fluid.

Modified Ostwald
Ostwald viscometer viscometer Falling sphere viscometer

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 Procedure:
• Ostwald viscometer:
1. Clean the instrument and fill with water up to point (1).
2. Suck the fluid using a plastic tube until you reach point (2), and then close the
opening with your finger. Start stop watch as soon as you remove your finger out
of plastic tube tell point (3), then stop the watch record the time.
3. Repeat steps (1-3) for other light liquids like ethanol and record the time.

• Falling sphere:
1. Fill the cylinder with liquid and mark two points (initial and final point).
2. Drop metal ball (mass and diameter known) inside the liquid when it reaches
the initial point start the stop watch and stop it when the ball reaches the final
point.
3. Record the time and the distance between the two point.
4. Repeat steps (1-3) for other liquids.

Results & calculations:

Fill the following table:

Liquid types 𝒌𝒈 𝑵. 𝒔 𝒎𝟐
𝝆 ( 𝟑) 𝝁 ( 𝟐) 𝒗( )
𝒎 𝒕(𝒔) 𝒎 𝒔
Water 998
Ethanol 799
Glycerin 1260
Motor oil 891

𝜌𝑏 = 7800 𝑘𝑔/𝑚³ , 𝐷𝑏𝑖𝑔 = 2.39 𝑚𝑚, 𝐷𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 1.59 𝑚𝑚

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 Experiment (3)
Determination of Pressure using different pressure measuring devices

Objective:
Determination of pressure using different pressure measuring devices such
as, U-tube manometer and Bourdon's pressure gauge and Barometer.

Apparatus:
Bourdon Gauge, Dead weight tester (piston and cylinder), Mercury
manometer, barometer, and connected tubes.

Theory:
Pressure is defines as force per unit area (Pa)

𝐹 𝑚𝑔
𝑃= =
𝐴 𝐴
Different units of pressure include bar, Pa, N/m 2, kg/cm2, m H2O, psi, mm Hg, and
torr.

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1.Bourdon gauge:

A Bourdon Gauge is a mechanical

pressure gauge. It consists of an elastic
metal tube, having elliptical cross-
section. The tube is bent in C- shape
one end is sealed and connected by a
link to a geared sector. When the tube
tries to straighten it pulls on a
connecting arm which turns a needle
that is against a card that indicates
pressure in Bar or kN/m².

2. U- tube Manometer.

Manometers measure a pressure

difference by balancing the weight of a
fluid column between the two
pressures of interest. Large pressure
differences are measured with heavy
fluids, such as mercury. Small pressure
differences, such as those experienced
in experimental wind tunnels
or Venturi flowmeters, are measured
by lighter fluids such as water.
Manometers are consisted of
transparent tube – shape (∪) contains a
liquid denser than the liquid to be
measure pressure difference between
two points.

∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = Mass density of liquid 𝑚3
𝑚
𝑔 = Acceleration gravity 𝑠2
ℎ = Difference between two limbs of
manometer(𝑚)

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3. Barometer:

A barometer is a scientific instrument

used to measure atmospheric pressure,
the weight of the air in the atmosphere.
A mercury barometer has a glass tube
with a height of at least 84 cm, closed
at one end, with an open mercury-filled
reservoir at the base. The weight of the
mercury creates a vacuum in the top of
the tube. Mercury in the tube adjusts
until the weight of the mercury column
balances the atmospheric force exerted
on the reservoir.

4. Static pressure:

Static pressure is uniform in all

directions, so pressure measurements
are independent of direction in an
immovable (static) fluid.

Dead weight tester:

A dead weight tester (DWT) is a

calibration standard method that uses
a piston cylinder on which a load is
placed to make an equilibrium with an
applied pressure underneath the piston.

Units of pressure
1 atm = 1 bar = 105 Pa (N/m²) =14.7 psi (lbf/in²) =10.33 m H2O

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 Procedures:
1. Bourdon gauge:
1. Close the right valve.
2. Fill the cylinder of the Dead weight tester with water and insert the piston
without extra weights, pull the piston quickly to calibrate the gauge.
3. Refill the cylinder with water and add known weights, rotate the piston slowly
and record the reading in both units.
2. Manometer:
1. Fill the cylinder of dead weight tester with water.
2. If air present in the system disconnect the tube and fill with water.
3. Open the vent to exhaust air from the system then close it.
4. Open the right valve that connects the manometer and Bourdon gauge.
5. Load the piston with (0.5 kg) and (1 kg) mass and record the levels of each
manometer limb.

Results and Calculations:

𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑟𝑟 = |𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝|

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑟𝑟 = × 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟

Manometer calculations:
Applied Pressure
mass height 𝒉 Pressure (theoretical) Error
(kg) (m) (Exp.) Pa Bar mH2O Abs Relative
0.5
1.0
1.5

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Bourdon gauge calculations:
Applied Gauge reading Calculations (theoretical) Error
mass (kg) Bar mH2O N/m² Bar mH2O Abs Relative
0.5
1.0
1.5

Barometer readings:
Convert the value of the local pressure at Al-Huson College University into the
equivalent values in inHg, Pa, Bar, torr.

Nominal Area of piston = 2.45 × 10−4 𝑚²

Nominal mass of piston = 0.5 𝑘𝑔

Density of mercury = 13.54 × 103 kg/m3

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 Experiment (4)
Reynolds Number
Objective:
Determine the Reynolds Number and hence the Type of Flow

Theory:
The flow of real fluids can basically occur under two very different regimes
namely laminar and turbulent flow. The laminar flow is characterized by fluid
particles moving in the form of lamina sliding over each other, such that at any
instant the velocity at all the points in particular lamina is the same.
The turbulent flow is characterized by constant agitation and intermixing of fluid
particles such that their velocity changes from point to point and even at the same
point from time to time.

Where:
𝑄
𝑉. 𝐷. 𝜌 Velocity of water flow 𝑉 = 𝐴
𝑅𝑒 = Inner diameter of glass tube, D =1cm
𝜇 Mass density of water 𝜌.
Dynamic viscosity of water 𝜇.
Cross - sectional area of glass tube, A = (π/ 4) x D2

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 Reynolds number is used to
determine different regimes of flow.
For incompressible flow in a pipe
Reynolds number is based on the
pipe diameter.
Generally, laminar flows correspond
to ReD < 2100, transitional flows
occur in the range 2100 < ReD <
4000, and turbulent flows exist for
ReD > 4000.

Apparatus:
1. Hydraulics bench.
2. Osborne Reynolds apparatus.
3. Stop watch.
4. Graduated cylinder.
Procedure:
1. The apparatus should be installed on the top of the bench.
2. Close discharge valve and operate the pump, open the flow valve and slowly fill
the head tank.
3. Open the discharge valve. Measure the flow rate using a measuring cylinder and
stop watch.
4. Open the dye control valve and observe the stream lines of the dye in the
visualization pipe.
5. Repeat for different flow rates and record the readings.

Results & Calculations:

1. Fill the following table:

Run Volume Time Discharge Q Velocity Reynolds Type of flow

(cm³) (sec) (cm³/sec) (cm/sec) Number
1.
2.
3.
4.

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5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

2. Plot the graph between Re vs. v, then assign the critical velocity from the graph.

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 Experiment (5)
Bernoulli's Theorem

Objective:
1- To validate Bernoulli’s assumptions and theorem by experimentally proving
that the sum of the terms in the Bernoulli’s equation along a streamline
always remains a constant.
2- Investigate Bernoulli's theorem as applied to the flow of water in a Venturi
meter.

Theory:
The Bernoulli’s theorem is an approximate relation between pressure,
velocity, and elevation, and is valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow
where net frictional forces are negligible.
Bernoulli’s equation states that the “sum of the kinetic energy (velocity head), the
pressure energy (static head) and Potential energy (elevation head) per unit weight
of the fluid at any point remains constant.”

Between two points:

𝑣1 2 𝑣2 2
+ 𝑃1 + 𝛾 𝑧1 = + 𝑃2 + 𝛾 𝑧2 = 𝐻 (N/m2, J/m3)
2 2

𝑣1 2 𝑃1 𝑣2 2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 = 𝐻 (m)
2𝑔 𝑔 2𝑔 𝑔

P = pressure, (N/m2).
ρ = density of the fluid, (kg/m3).
𝒗 = velocity of the flow, (m/s).
g = acceleration due to gravity, (m/s2).
Z = elevation from datum line, (m).

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Venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid through a
pipe. The basic principle on which a venturimeter works is that by reducing the
cross sectional area of the flow of passage, a pressure difference is created and the
measurement of the pressure difference enables the determination of the discharge
through a pipe.

Pitot tube is a device used to measure the flow velocity using stagnation pressure.
𝒗 = √𝟐𝒈𝒉𝟕

Apparatus:

Pitot tube Venturi tube

Bernoulli Apparatus

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Procedure:
1. Connect the apparatus to the bench, keep the bypass valve open and start the
pump and slowly start closing valve.
2. The water shall start flowing through the flow channel. The level in the
Piezometer tubes shall start rising.
3. Open the valve on the delivery tank side and adjust the head in the Piezometer
tubes to steady position.
4. Measure the heads at all the points and also the discharge.
5. Change the discharge and repeat the procedure.

Results and Calculations:

1. Fill the following table:

Tube D of Area Discharge Velocity Velocity Pressure Total

3
No. tube of the (cm /sec) (cm/sec) head head(cm) head(cm)
section flow (cm)
2
(mm) (cm )
1 25
2 14.6
3 12.4
4 11.3
5 10.6
6 10.0
Pitot - - - -

2· Plot the graph between P/γ and x.

3· Plot the graph between V2/2g and x.

4. Verify Bernoulli theorem between two points.

5. Verify that for Pitot tube the velocity is given by: 𝒗 = √𝟐𝒈𝒉𝟕

Distance between taping positions, x (Distance between diameters of tube

sections):
(1-2): 5cm, (2-3):1cm, (3-4):1cm, (4-5): 1cm, (5-6): 1cm.

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 Experiment (6)
Orifice and Jet Apparatus
Objective:
· To calculate the Cd, Cv, & Cc at a number of head pressures.
· To draw a relationship between these properties and the size of orifice.

Theory:
The coefficient of discharge, Cd, is a ratio of the actual discharge divided by
the ideal discharge. The actual discharge is the discharge that occurs and which is
affected by friction as the jet passes through the orifice. The ideal discharge would
be the discharge achieved without friction.

𝑄 𝑉 ⁄𝑡
Cd = 𝑄 𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐴√2𝑔ℎ
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜

Where:
Q = Volumetric Flow Rate, m3/s.
A = Cross sectional area of the orifice, m2.
g = the gravitational constant m/s2.
h = the head, m.
V = collected volume of water, m3.
t = time, s.

The coefficient of velocity, Cv, is the ratio of the actual velocity divided by the
ideal velocity. The actual velocity is the velocity that is achieved and which is
affected by friction as the jet passes through the orifice. The ideal velocity would
be the velocity achieved without friction.

𝑥
𝐶𝑣 =
2√ℎ. 𝑦
Where:
.x and y are the horizontal and vertical components of the water jet velocity.

The coefficient of contraction, Cc, is a ratio of the actual diameter of the jet divided
by the ideal diameter of the jet. The actual diameter is the diameter that occurs and
which is affected by friction as the jet passes through the orifice.

Cc = Aact. / Atheo.

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 Area of the Vena of Contracta
Cc =
Area of the orifice

And it can also be defined as:

𝐶𝑑
𝐶𝑐 =
𝐶𝑣
The vena contracta is the place where the water jet narrows from the diameter of
the orifice to the diameter of the rest of the jet.

Apparatus:

1.Orifice and jet apparatus

2. Hydraulics bench.

3. Measuring cylinder.

4. Stop watch.

Procedure:
1. Connect the apparatus to the hydraulics bench.
2. Let the lower end of needle at the same level of higher end of the orifice.
3. Operate the pump starter then raise the overflow pipe to a certain height.
4. As water flow out the orifice let the needles touch the water jet, x-
component is the horizontal distance from the end of the tank up to the
needle y-component is the deference between the needle that touches the
water and needle near the tank.
5. Using a graduated cylinder and a stop watch collect specific volume in a
certain time.
6. Repeat step (3-6) to get another reading.

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Results and Calculations:

1. Fill the following table for each head, h:

Point1 Point2 Point3 Point4 Point5 Point6 Point7 Ah(cm) V(ml) At(s)
X
Y
X2
Cv
Cd
Cc

Diameter of the orifice = 6mm

2. Draw the relationship between squared discharge Q2 vs. head of water h, and
obtain Cd from the slope.
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
𝐶𝑑 = √
𝐴2 × 2𝑔

3. Draw the relationship between (X2/h vs. Y), and compute Cv from the slope.

Slope = 4Cv2

4. Discuss your results.

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 Experiment (7)

Pipe friction
Objective:
To calculate the Fanning friction factor, and compute the variation of
friction head (hf) along a smooth circular pipe.

Theory:
When a gas or a liquid flows through a pipe, there is a loss of pressure in the
fluid, because energy is required to overcome the viscous or frictional forces
exerted by the walls of the pipe on the moving fluid. In addition to the energy lost
due to frictional forces, the flow also loses energy (or pressure) as it goes through
fittings, such as valves, elbows, contractions and expansions. This loss in pressure
is mainly due to the fact that flow separates locally as it moves through such
fittings.
The major head loss in pipe flows is given by Darcy’s equation:
L V2
hf = f
D 2g
Where L and D are the length and diameter of the pipe, respectively, V is the
average fluid velocity through the pipe and f is the friction factor for the section of
the pipe. In general, the friction factor is a function of the Reynolds number and
the non-dimensional surface roughness, /D.

For laminar flow

64
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒
For turbulent flow
𝑓 = 0.316 𝑅𝑒 −0.25

The Moody chart or Moody diagram is a graph in non-dimensional form that

relates the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, Reynolds number and relative
roughness for fully developed flow in a circular pipe. It can be used for working
out pressure drop or flow rate down such a pipe.

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 Apparatus:
1. Pipe friction Apparatus:

(1).Air control valve.

(2).Water manometer.
(3).Test pipe.
(4). Discharge valve.
(5). Water inlet.
(6).Mercury manometer.

2. Hydraulics bench.
3. Measuring cylinder.
4. Stop watch.

Procedure:
1. Connect the apparatus to the bench, open the discharge valve and the air control
valve.
2. Operate the pump starter, then open the discharge and air valves together. Wait
for a while until water fills the manometer, this should discharge all pockets of air
from the system. Ensure that manometer is free from the air.
3. Turn of the pump and close the discharge and air valves, then wait a period of
time until the water in limbs of the manometer become at the same level.
4. Turn on the pump and open the discharge valve at the same time. Record the
difference between the water levels in the manometer limbs.
5. Measure the flow rate (discharge) using a graduated cylinder and stop watch.
6. Change the opening of the discharge valve and, and redo step 5.

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Results and Calculations:
1. Fill the following table with

Run hf,exp Vol. Time Q V Re Type f hf,theo Relative

(cm) cm³ s m³/s cm/s of flow (cm) error
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

2. Plot hf vs. v on log-log scale.

3. Plot f vs. Re on log-log scale.

Inside diameter of test pipe = 3mm

Length of test pipe = 50cm

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26 Eng. Ahmad Al-
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 Experiment (8)
Pumps
Objective:
Identify different types of pumps and their principle.

Theory:
Pumps move liquid from one point to the other by adding energy to the
liquid it pumps. This energy converts into a higher pressure generating a low.

Types:
Pumps can be classified into positive displacement pumps, impulse pumps,
velocity pumps, gravity pumps, steam pumps and valveless pumps.

Gear pump:
This is the simplest of rotary positive
displacement pumps. It consists of two meshed
gears that rotate in a closely fitted casing. The
tooth spaces trap fluid and force it around the
outer periphery. The fluid does not travel back on
the meshed part, because the teeth mesh closely
in the centre. Gear pumps see wide use in car
engine oil.
Gear pump

Centrifugal pump:
A centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic pump that
uses a rotating impeller to increase the pressure
and flow rate of a fluid. Centrifugal pumps are
the most common type of pump used to move
liquids through a piping system. The fluid
enters the pump impeller along or near to the
rotating axis and is accelerated by the impeller,
flowing radially outward or axially into a
diffuser or volute chamber, from where it exits
into the downstream piping system. Centrifugal Centrifugal pump
pumps are typically used for large discharge
through smaller heads.

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Reciprocating positive displacement pumps:
Reciprocating pumps move the fluid using one or more oscillating pistons,
plungers, or membranes (diaphragms), while valves restrict fluid motion to the
desired direction.
The pumps can be powered manually, by air or steam, or by a belt driven by an
engine. This type of pump is used as boiler feed water pumps, pump highly viscous
fluids like concrete and heavy oils, and serve in special applications that demand
low flow rates against high resistance.

The working principle of reciprocating pump

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 Experiment (9)
Weirs
Objective:
1. To demonstrate the flow over different weir types.
2. To calculate the coefficient of discharge for different weir types.
3. To study the variation and dependence of the relevant parameters.

Theory:
Weirs are structures consisting of an obstruction such as a dam or bulkhead
placed across the open channel with a specially shaped opening or notch. The weir
results an increase in the water level, or head, which is measured upstream of the
structure. The flow rate over a weir is a function of the head on the weir.
Rectangular weirs and triangular or v-notch weirs are often used in water supply,
wastewater and sewage systems. They consist of a sharp edged plate with a
rectangular, triangular or v-notch profile for the water flow.

The flow rate measurement in weirs is based on Bernoulli equation principles and
can be expressed as:

For the rectangular weir: For the triangular weir:

Where:
Cd = Coefficient of discharge.
B = width of the rectangular weir (3 cm).
H = head above the weir crest or apex (mm).
 = angle of the triangular weir (45°).

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g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2).

Apparatus:
1.Hydraulics bench

2. Stilling baffle.

3. Point gauge.

4. Rectangular weir plate.

5. Triangular weir plate.

Procedures:
1. Install the weir plate on the front side of the bed of the open channel.
2. Set the vernier on the point gauge to a datum reading by placing the tip of the
gauge on the crest of the weir.
3. Put the point gauge half way between the stilling baffle plate and the weir plate.
4. Allow water to flow into the experimental setup and adjust the minimum flow
rate. Increase the flow rate incrementally such that the head above the weir crest
increases around 1 cm for each flow rate increment.
5. For each flow rate, wait until steady condition is attained then measure and
record the head (H) above the weir.
6. For each flow rate, measure and record the initial and final volumes in the
collecting tank and the time required to collect that volume. For each flow rate,
take 3 different readings of the volumes and time and record the averages.
7. Change the rectangular weir and install the V-Notch instead.
8. Repeat the steps 4-6.

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Results and Calculations:

1. Fill the following tables:

Table1: Rectangular Notch.

Run Volume (ml) H(mm) Time(s) Q(cm3/s) Cd
1
2
3
4
5
Average discharge coefficient

Table2: Vee-Notch.
Run Volume (ml) H(mm) Time(s) Q(cm3/s) Cd
1
2
3
4
5
Average discharge coefficient

2. Estimate the average value of Cd for the range of test.

3. for each weir:

a) Plot Q vs. H on log-log paper, can the Q-H relationship be described by an

empirical formula Q = k.Hn? If so, find the values of k and n.

b) Compare the values of n with the power of H in the discharge equations, and
find Cd from the slope of the graph, k from the following equations:
For rectangular Notch:
2
𝑘 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐵√2𝑔
3
For Vee-Notch:
8 
𝑘 = 𝐶𝑑 tan ( ) √2𝑔
15 2

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4. Estimate the error of Cd values and discuss your results.
Experiment (10)
Center of pressure
Objective:
To verify the location of the centre of pressure on a plane submerged
surface.

Theory:
Because no shear stresses can exist in a static fluid, all hydrostatic forces on
any element of a submerged surface must act in a direction normal to the surface.
The hydrostatic forces acting on the two sides of the toroid counter-balance
themselves, and the forces exerted on the curved surfaces (the circular arc top and
bottom faces) act through the pivot point of the moment arm of the toroid. The
only hydrostatic forces that act on the toroid are those acting on the plane end face
of the toroid.
The centroid of the area is the point at which the area would be balanced if
suspended from that point; it is equivalent to the center of gravity of a solid body.
The location of the line of action of the resultant hydrostatic force lies at a point
called the center of pressure. The center of pressure is always below the centroid,
but comes closer to the centroid as the depth increases.

The location of the force action can be calculated from the following formula:
𝐼𝐺
𝑌𝑐𝑝 − 𝑌𝑐𝐺 =
𝐴 ℎ𝑐𝐺

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Ycp - distance from the free surface to the centre of pressure of the submerged
surface.
YcG = hcG - distance from the free surface to the centre of gravity of the submerged
plane surface.
IG - the area moment of inertia of the plane surface area about it’s centroidal X
axis, which is horizontal (or parallel with the free surface).
A - The area of the submerged plane surface.

The above equation can be used to derive expressions for the moment of the
hydrodynamic forces on the end face of the toroid about the pivot in tow cases:
1. Partial Immersion (Y < d)

h𝑐𝐺 = 𝑌/2 𝐴=
𝑏. 𝑑
𝑏𝑌 3 /12
𝑌𝑐𝑝 − 𝑌𝑐𝐺 = = 𝑌/6
𝑏𝑌²/2

This hydrostatic moment is balanced in this experiment by the moment of the

gravitational force due to the mass placed in the balance pan. That is,
M=mgL
Where:
m - Mass placed on the balance pan.
L - Distance from the pivot point to the balance pan suspension rod axis.
𝑌
𝑚 𝜌 𝑏 (𝑎 + 𝑑 − 3 )
=
𝑌² 2𝐿
2. Complete immersion (Y > d)
𝑑
hcG = 𝑌 − 2

𝑑 𝑑2
𝑚 𝐿 = 𝜌 𝑏 𝑑 ℎ𝑐𝐺 (𝑎 + + )
2 12ℎ𝑐𝐺

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Apparatus:
Hydrostatic pressure apparatus

Procedure:
1. Adjust the counter-balance weight until the balance arm is horizontal, this is
indicated on a gate adjacent to the balance arm.
2. Place a mass on the balance pan.
3. Fill the translucent tank with water from the faucet, until balance is reached
again.
4. Read the level of water on the scale which is engraved on the front face of the
toroid.
5. Repeat.

Results and Calculations:

• Partial immersion:

1. Plot m/Y2 against Y, and determine the slope and the intercept.
2. Compare the values of the slope and intercept from the following relations with
the values from the graph:
− 𝜌𝑏
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
6𝐿

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 𝜌𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑑)
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 =
2𝐿

• Complete immersion:

1. Plot m/hcG against L/hcG, and determine the slope and the intercept.
2. Compare the values of the slope and intercept from the following relations with
the values from the graph:

𝜌𝑏𝑎
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
12𝐿
𝑑
𝜌𝑏𝑎 (𝑎 + 2 )
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 =
𝐿

Toroid dimensions:

a = 10 cm, b = 7.581 cm, d = 10.0 cm and L = 27.5 cm.

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