P1 Sustainability
P1 Sustainability
P1 Sustainability
Article
Cotton Spinning Waste as a Microporous Activated Carbon:
Application to Remove Sulfur Compounds in a Tunisian
Refinery Company
Bechir Wannassi 1 , Mohammad Kanan 2, *, Ichrak Ben Hariz 3 , Ramiz Assaf 4 , Zaher Abusaq 2 ,
Mohamed Ben Hassen 1 , Salem Aljazzar 2 , Siraj Zahran 2 , Mohammed T. Khouj 2 and Ahmad S. Barham 5
1 Textile Laboratory Engineering ‘LGTex’, University of Monastir, Ksar Hellal, Monastir 5078, Tunisia
2 Jeddah College of Engineering, University of Business and Technology, Jeddah 21448, Saudi Arabia
3 Tunisian Society of Refinery Industries, Bizerte 7021, Tunisia
4 Industrial Engineering Department, An-Najah National University, Nablus 00970, Palestine
5 Department of Chemistry, The University of Jordan, Amman 11942, Jordan
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract: The petroleum industry plays a vital role in the economies of developing countries. Refinery
wastewater pollution has increased in recent years due to the increase in the industrial and urban
use of petroleum products. The present work demonstrates how textile waste can be modified into
a material that can effectively remove sulfur pollutants from refinery wastewater. An economic
activated carbon (AC) material was developed by using cotton spinning waste from a textile company.
The chemical activation was carried out using nitric acid (HNO3 ), hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ), and
potassium hydroxide (KOH). The characterization of the obtained activated carbons was performed
using the SEM, BET, and FTIR techniques. The effect of the experimental adsorption condition was
investigated using both bed and batch isotherms. The results show that effluent flow has the highest
Citation: Wannassi, B.; Kanan, M.; effect on sulfur compound adsorption. The greatest adsorption capacity of the sulfur compounds
Hariz, I.B.; Assaf, R.; Abusaq, Z.; Ben was found to be around 168.4 mg·g−1 . The equilibrium data were investigated using the Freundlich,
Hassen, M.; Aljazzar, S.; Zahran, S.; Langmuir, Dubinin–Radushkevich, Tóth, and Sips isotherm models. The Langmuir model exhibited
Khouj, M.T.; Barham, A.S. Cotton the best fit (R2 = 0.98) for the sulfur compounds’ adsorption, which implies that their adsorption
Spinning Waste as a Microporous onto the synthesized AC was homogeneous. The kinetic data were tested with pseudo-first-order,
Activated Carbon: Application to pseudo-second-order, and intraparticular diffusion equations. The pseudo-second-order equation
Remove Sulfur Compounds in a
described the kinetic data well (R2 = 0.99), indicating that this adsorption may be restricted by the
Tunisian Refinery Company.
chemisorption process. These properties under optimal conditions make the obtained ACs suitable
Sustainability 2023, 15, 654. https://
for use in refinery wastewater treatment.
doi.org/10.3390/su15010654
Academic Editors: Gassan Hodaifa, Keywords: cotton waste; activated carbon; kinetic study; bed adsorption; chemical activation;
Mounia Achak, Khaoula Khaless and removal; refinery wastewater
Edvina Lamy
order to eliminate hazardous contaminants [9]. Several methods have been investigated for
the treatment of refinery wastewater, including physical, chemical, and biological methods.
A membrane bioreactor has been successfully used to remove pollutants from
petroleum industry wastewater. Rahman et al. evaluated the use of a cross-flow membrane
bioreactor for the treatment of refinery wastewater. Their results showed that this technique
can remove more than 93% of COD from refinery effluents and that its efficiency does not
depend on the hydraulic retention time [10]. Razavi et al. studied the use of a hollow-
fiber membrane bioreactor to treat refinery wastewater. The effects of flux, temperature,
and hydraulic retention parameters were evaluated. According to the findings of this
investigation, COD elimination can reach 82% [11]. However, this method comes with
several specific precautions. Membrane fouling is a major problem that can frequently
occur. Moreover, this seriously affects the quality of the reclaimed water and the efficiency
of the membrane. However, its use was only recently tested in a pilot test [12–14].
Yan et al. [15] investigated the use of electrochemical processes in the treatment of
petroleum refinery wastewater. These processes introduce air and a few particles of iron
into classical two-dimensional reactors. In optimal experimental conditions, the salinity
and COD removal efficiency were 84 µS cm−1 and 92.8%, respectively. However, the use of
the electrochemical method is limited for organic material removal [16,17]. Its higher cost
and lower efficiency also limit its industrial application [18–20].
The microbiological treatment of industrial refinery wastewater has also been inves-
tigated using several types of microorganisms [21,22]. This method has been used to
oxidize organic matter existing in refinery effluent into simple products, such as CH4 , H2 O,
and CO2 , under aerobic, anaerobic, and semi-aerobic conditions [23,24]. Ebrahimi et al.
investigated the use of this kind of treatment in an experimental pilot plant. He demon-
strated, in suitable experimental conditions, a COD removal efficiency of around 78% and
a biomass production of 1420 g daily [25]. Hayat et al. carried out an investigation of a
microbiological approach to treat refinery wastewater. The interaction between metals and
the functional groups of microorganisms was analyzed. The quantitative results revealed
that the bacteria had developed a new level of metal resistance [22]. However, firstly, the
use of a biological approach for refinery effluent treatment can cause serious problems
due to the excessive production of sludge [26]. Secondly, these methods generate diverse
operational problems, such as the generation of residual sludge and toxic gases, the partial
elimination of refractory compounds, and the need for a large land area.
Many researchers have successfully used the adsorption approach to treat refinery
wastewater [27–31]. The selection of this method is based on its high potential to remove
toxic compounds and its cost-effective nature. El-Naas evaluated the use of activated carbon
using local material prepared from date pits as a precursor in the treatment of refinery
wastewater. Several kinetic and isotherm models were tested with batch adsorption. The
Sips isotherm was proved to be the best model to describe the equilibrium isotherm,
whereas the pseudo-second-order model gave the best fit for the kinetics data. More than
85% regeneration efficiency was found after four cycles of regeneration [32]. Qinxuan et al.
investigated the use of prepared activated carbon in the treatment of refinery wastewater.
Their results showed that the activated carbon experimental conditions (the calcination
time and temperature, chemical reagent concentration, and weight ratio of AC) have an
important effect on the COD removal efficiency. Their results also showed that the COD
efficiency increases with a decrease in the weight ratio of effluent [33]. Several researchers
have used biomass as a precursor of activated carbon in the treatment of refinery wastewater.
Lagerstroemia speciosa has been used as a precursor of activated carbon and showed potential
to recover platinum from refinery wastewater [34]. Rice husk activated carbon has been
successfully evaluated as an effective adsorbent of phenolic compound content in refinery
wastewater using a column approach [35]. Date activated carbon has also been evaluated
as an effective adsorbent that can reduce COD in refinery effluent [36–38].
The growth of the textile industry has resulted in massive amounts of solid waste.
Indeed, 106 M tons of textile solid waste is produced annually worldwide [39]. This amount
and showed potential to recover platinum from refinery wastewater [34]. Rice husk acti-
vated carbon has been successfully evaluated as an effective adsorbent of phenolic com-
pound content in refinery wastewater using a column approach [35]. Date activated car-
bon has also been evaluated as an effective adsorbent that can reduce COD in refinery
Sustainability 2023, 15, 654 effluent [36–38]. 3 of 16
The growth of the textile industry has resulted in massive amounts of solid waste.
Indeed, 106 M tons of textile solid waste is produced annually worldwide [39]. This
amount increases
increases from one from year to onetheyear
nexttodue
the to
next
thedue
boomto the boom
of the of the
fashion fashion[40].
industry industry
Around[40].
Around the world, cotton is used the most. Cotton waste can
the world, cotton is used the most. Cotton waste can be used as a low-cost lignocellulosic be used as a low-cost ligno-
cellulosic
material material [41–43].
[41–43].
Notonly
Not onlycan cancotton
cottonwastewastecancanbebeused
usedtotoproduce
produceyarnsyarnsand andnonwovens
nonwovens[44–48],[44–48],butbut
ititcan
canalso
alsobebeusedusedasasa areinforcement
reinforcementfor forcomposite
compositematerials
materials[49,50].
[49,50].
Someresearchers
Some researchershave havestudied
studiedthethepossibility
possibilityofoftransforming
transformingcotton cottonwaste
wasteinto
intoacti-
acti-
vated carbon. Zhao et al. [51] studied the production of activated
vated carbon. Zhao et al. [51] studied the production of activated carbon by using cotton carbon by using cotton
wovenwaste.
woven waste.The Thewaste
wastewas wasfirst
firstdissolved
dissolvedusing
using80%
80%HH 3PO
3 PO andpre-soaked
4 4and pre-soakedininaasolution
solution
ofof7.5%
7.5%(NH(NH 4 )42)HPO
2HPO44.. In In the
the optimum
optimum conditions
conditions of 700–800◦°C,
of700–800 C, 30
30min
minof ofcarbonization,
carbonization,
and
and3030min
minofofactivation,
activation,good goodadsorption
adsorptionresults
resultswere
wereobtained.
obtained.
Sartova
Sartova[52] [52]utilized
utilizedthe theboiling
boilinglayer
layermethod
methodtotoprepare
prepareAC ACfrom
fromcotton
cottonbiomass
biomass
(stems and balls from cotton plants boiled at 800 to 850 ◦ C for 8 min), and he demonstrated
(stems and balls from cotton plants boiled at 800 to 850 °C for 8 min), and he demonstrated
that
thatthe
theACACobtained
obtainedhad hadadsorption
adsorptionproperties
propertieshigher
higherthanthanthose
thoseofofindustrial
industrialAC ACmade
made
from
fromwood.
wood.Wanassi
Wanassi[53] [53]employed
employedcotton
cottonwastewastetotoproduce
produceactivated
activatedcarbon
carbonthrough
through
carbonization
carbonizationusing using zinc
zincchloride
chloridechemical
chemicalactivation. The The
activation. obtained product
obtained enabled
product a higha
enabled
removal of anionic
high removal dye from
of anionic dyetextile wastewater.
from textile wastewater.
XuXu[54,55]
[54,55]optimized
optimizedthe theproduction
productionofofactivated
activatedmagnetic
magneticcarbon carbonfromfromtextile
textilewaste
waste
yarn using FeCl
yarn using FeCl 3 3. The results proved that this treatment is able to change thepyrolysis
. The results proved that this treatment is able to change the pyrolysis
process
processof ofcotton textile waste,
cotton textile waste,decrease
decreasethe thepyrolytic
pyrolytic carbonization
carbonization temperature,
temperature, andandpre-
prevent the production of volatiles.
vent the production of volatiles. Fe2O23 and Fe O and Fe O resulting
3 Fe3O43 resulting
4 from FeCl
from FeCl3 could 3 could help
help porepore
for-
formation
mation ononthe theobtained
obtainedactivated
activatedcarbon.
carbon.
Most
Mostofofthese
theseprevious
previousstudies
studieswere
wereconducted
conductedatatthe thelaboratory
laboratoryscalescalewithwithnonofocus
focus
on a specific application. The main objective of our work, realized
on a specific application. The main objective of our work, realized with the collaboration with the collaboration
ofofaabig
bigrefinery
refinerycompany
companyininTunisia, Tunisia,was
wastotosynthesize
synthesizeactivated
activatedcarboncarbonfrom
fromcotton
cottonfiber
fiber
spinning
spinning waste and to use it to remove sulfur compounds from refinery wastewater.The
waste and to use it to remove sulfur compounds from refinery wastewater. The
whole
wholeprocess
processisisillustrated
illustratedininFigure
Figure1.1.
Figure1.1.Process
Figure Processofofthe
thepreparation
preparationand
anduse
useofofactivated
activatedcarbon.
carbon.
fibers). So, in reality, we used the waste of the waste of a low-quality and low-cost cotton
fiber to produce our activated carbon (AC).
H2 O2 , KOH, and HNO3 were purchased from Chimitex, Sousse 4000, Tunisia,
Ltd. (Sousse, Tunisia). All the chemical reagents were used as received without
additional treatment.
functional groups. The infrared spectra were recorded in the wave range of 600–4000 cm−1 .
2.5. Adsorption Experiment
2.5. Adsorption Experiment
2.5.1. Bed Adsorption
2.5.1. Bed Adsorption
A schematic of the device used for the bed adsorption experiment is shown in Figure
A schematic of the device used for the bed adsorption experiment is shown in Figure 2.
2. Carbonized fibers (5) were packed into a glass column (4) to study their adsorption
Carbonized fibers (5) were packed into a glass column (4) to study their adsorption capacity.
capacity. The wastewater (2) was introduced in a funnel (1) and passed through an input
The wastewater (2) was introduced in a3 funnel (1) and passed through an input valve (3) to
valve (3) to adjust the flow3at −4–5.10 m ·h−1. First, the bed adsorption device was wetted
adjust the flow at 4–5.10 m ·h 1 . First, the bed adsorption device was wetted using distilled
using distilled water flowing through the column in order to improve the wetting charac-
water flowing through the column in order to improve the wetting characteristics of the
teristics of the activated carbon fibers. Second, the refinery wastewater sample (2) content
activated carbon fibers. Second, the refinery wastewater sample (2) content in the funnel (1)
in the funnel (1) was allowed to drain through the activated carbon bed (5) to the received
was allowed to drain through the activated carbon bed (5) to the received reservoir (6) by
reservoir (6) by gravity. Treated water was reclaimed every hour.
gravity. Treated water was reclaimed every hour.
(C0 − Ct )·V
Qt = (1)
M
Sustainability 2023, 15, 654 6 of 16
where Ct is the sulfur solution concentration at time t (mg/L), Ci is the initial sulfur
concentration (mg/L) at time 0, M is the weight of the adsorbent (g), and V is the volume
of the solution (L).
n·(a − b)
COD = ·8000 (2)
V
where a (mL) is the ferrous ammonium sulfate required for the titration of the blank, b (mL)
is the ferrous ammonium sulfate required for the titration of the sample, n is the normality
of the ferrous ammonium sulphate, and V (mL) is the sample volume.
Sips = = + [65]
Sustainability 2023, 15, 654 7 of 16
Figure3.3.SEM
Figure SEM images
images of activated
of activated carbon:
carbon: (a) reference
(a) reference activated
activated carbon,carbon, (b) (c)
(b) HNAC, HNAC, (c)and
HOAC, HOAC, an
(d)KAC.
(d) KAC.
The infrared spectra of the different activated carbons are shown in Figure 4. The FTIR
spectrum of HOAC is shown in Figure 4c. It can be seen that the main spectral changes are
restricted to between 1300 and 900 cm−1 . This indicates that the oxidation of the obtained
char with the H2 O2 solutions contributes to the increase in the number of OH surface
groups. More precisely, these hydroxyl groups (OH) absorb radiation at 1195 cm−1 .
At 1300 cm−1 , there was a slight deviation in intensity. In fact, oxygen groups (C=O,
−
CO2 or C=O) formed at very low concentrations. Moreover, for that reason, the oxidation
state of the activated carbon surface did not improve because of the reaction with H2 O2 .
Therefore, H2 O2 was able to oxidize the material, and, hence, the surface chemistry of the
AC was significantly altered
The infrared spectra of the different activated carbons are shown in Figure 4. The
FTIR spectrum of HOAC is shown in Figure 4c. It can be seen that the main spectral
changes are restricted to between 1300 and 900 cm−1. This indicates that the oxidation of
Sustainability 2023, 15, 654 8 of 16
the obtained char with the H2O2 solutions contributes to the increase in the number of OH
surface groups. More precisely, these hydroxyl groups (OH) absorb radiation at 1195 cm−1.
Figure 4. Infrared spectrum of different activated carbons: red line—reference activated carbons,
Figure
blue4. Infrared spectrum
line—HNAC, of different and
black line—HOAC, activated
purplecarbons: (a) reference activated carbons, (b)
line—KAC.
HNAC, (c) HOAC, and (d) KAC.
HNO3 is a dehydrating agent that reduces the release of volatile matter and produces
At 1300
a high cmof
yield −1, there was a slight deviation in intensity. In fact, oxygen groups (C=O,
carbon content in activated carbon.
CO2 or According
− C=O) formed to at very low
Figure 4, weconcentrations.
can conclude Moreover,
that there for wasthata newreason, the oxidation
modification of the
state of the activated carbon surface did not improve because
FTIR spectrum of the HNAC sample and that new bands appeared. In fact, a new band of the reaction with H 2 O 2. at
Therefore, H−
1460 cm 2 was O
1 2 was able to oxidize the material, and, hence, the surface chemistry
detected; this may be due to the vibrations of carboxyl groups (O–H). The of the AC
wasincrease
significantly intensity of the band at 1720 cm−l can be assigned to the C=O stretching
in thealtered
HNO3 is aThe
vibration. dehydrating
band at 3400 agent −1 , due
cmthat reduces theO–H
to the release of volatile
stretching matter and
vibration, can produces
be assigned
a high yield of acid
to carboxyl carbon content
groups. Theinexistence
activatedof carbon.
nitrate and nitro surface groups was confirmed
byAccording
the appearance to Figure 4, webands
of new can conclude that there
in the region wascm
of 1538 −l . In
a new modification
conclusion,ofthe thechemical
FTIR
activation
spectrum of theusing
HNAC HNO sample
3 fixed carboxyl
and that groups
new bands and likely
appeared. fixed
In nitro
fact, a and
new nitrate
band at groups.
1460
cmHowever,
−1 the activation
was detected; this mayusingbe due H2 O andvibrations
to2 the KOH probably fixed carboxyl,
of carboxyl ketone,The
groups (O–H). andin-ether
groups.
crease in theThis was due
intensity to the
of the bandnature
at 1720 of the
cm−lactivation using HNO
can be assigned to the3 ,C=O
which can break
stretching vi-the
porous
bration. texture
The bandofatthe activated
3400 cm−1, due carbons
to thecompared with thevibration,
O–H stretching other twocan oxidizing treatments.
be assigned to
However,
carboxyl acidactivation
groups. The using H2 O2 and
existence KOHand
of nitrate doesnitro
not support the formation
surface groups of ketonebyand
was confirmed
theether groups.of new bands in the region of 1538 cm−l. In conclusion, the chemical acti-
appearance
vation usingpore
The HNO structure of the samples
3 fixed carboxyl groups was and determined usingand
likely fixed nitro nitrogen
nitrateadsorption
groups. How- at 77 K.
ever, the activation using H2O2 and KOH probably fixed carboxyl, ketone, and etherThe
The specific surface area was calculated using the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller equation.
micropore
groups. This wasvolume due andto thesurface
nature area
of were calculated
the activation usingHNO
using a t-plot. According
3, which can breakto Table
the 4,
the maximal
porous texture of values of the pore
the activated volume
carbons size and with
compared specific
thesurface
other two areaoxidizing
were identified
treat- in
the chemical
ments. However,activation
activationusing usingH H22OO22. and
ThisKOHwasdoes
because oxidation
not support thetreatment
formationfavors
of ke-the
dehydrogenation
tone and ether groups. that was observed for this type of activation.
The pore structure of the samples was determined using nitrogen adsorption at 77 K.
4. Textural properties of the studied ACs, calculated using the data of N2 adsorption isotherms.
TheTable
specific surface area was calculated using the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller equation. The
micropore volume andS surface 2 area
−1 were Vtcalculated
(cm3 ·g−1 ) usingVaDR
t-plot. According
(cm3 ·g −1 ) to Table
(cm3 ·g4,
−1 )
BET (m ·g ) VMES
the maximal values of the pore volume size and specific surface area were identified in
HOAC 1230 1.20 0.51 0.62
the chemical
HNAC
activation842
using H2O2. This1.03 was because oxidation
0.48
treatment favors
0.59
the de-
hydrogenation
KAC that was observed
915 for this type
1.08 of activation.
0.49 0.60
As can be seen in the BJH pore size distribution, there was an obvious change in the
distribution after carrying out the different chemical activation methods. The pore volume
of HOAC was much larger than that of KAC and HNAC.
After the chemical activation, the BET surface areas of HOAC, HNAC, and KAC
were 1230 m2 ·g−1 , 840 m2 ·g−1 , and 915 m2 ·g−1 , respectively. Moreover, the mesopore
Sustainability 2023, 15, 654 9 of 16
volume ratio of HOAC was higher than that of HNAC and KAC, providing more chan-
nels for ions to penetrate into the interior micropore surface area and leading to a good
rate performance.
SBET is the BET surface area calculated from the N2 adsorption, Vt is the total pore
volume of N2 , VDR is the micropore volume determined using the Dubinin–Raduskevich
equation, and VMES is the volume of mesopores [63].
The lowest nitrogen uptake occurred for HNAC, which indicates a low specific surface
Sustainability 2023,area
15, x (840
FOR PEER
m2 ·gREVIEW
−1 ). The profiles of the isotherms of HOAC, HNAC, and KAC were close
to a type I isotherm with a H4 type of loop (Figure 5). The branches of adsorption and
desorption were nearly horizontal and parallel in the relative pressure range between 0.4
and 0.8.
Figure 5. Effect of activated carbon dosage and wastewater flow on COD of reclaimed effluent.
Figure 5. Effect of activated carbon dosage and wastewater flow on COD of reclaimed efflu
The wider H4 hysteresis loop of HOAC compared to that of HNAC and KAC indicates
the domination of a mesoporous structure. However, this type of hysteresis corresponds
Table 5. Summary of experimental design parameters.
to the existence of both micro- and meso-porous structures, which correspond to a large
Flowadsorbed
amount of N2 being Rate (L/h)inDosage Rate
the entire (mg/L)
relative CODHNAC
pressure (mg/L)
range. As isCOD HOAC (mg/L)
well-known, theCODKAC
effect of chemical
1 activation is to5 open the pores of 1585activated carbon 1180
wider in order to1870
improve the chemical
1 reagent efficacy.
10 644 485 778
As can be observed,
1 nitric acid
15 treatment can modify
252 the porous structure
183 of activated304
carbon, but the1 effect of peroxide
25 oxidation is more60pronounced. In4the case of KOH68
activation, KOH diffused into the activated carbon and reacted both inside and outside
2 5 1841 1375 2202
simultaneously, leading to a developed pore structure.
2 10 756 560 907
To describe the adsorption isotherm of sulfur content by the synthesized activated
2 15 348 255 420
carbons, mathematical models were investigated. In this experiment, the Freundlich and
Langmuir models 2 were used as the25most common isotherms.89 65 parameters (k108
The Freundlich f
3 5 2105 1563 parameters2515
and n) were determined from the linear plot of log Qe vs. log Ce . The Langmuir
(Q0 and b) were 3 calculated from10the plot of Ce /Qe vs. 912Ce . All parameters
674 are listed in1084
Table 5. 3 15 420 311 524
3 25 114 82 134
4 5 2340 1735 2811
4 10 1140 844 1352
4 15 530 375 621
4 25 135 105 163
Sustainability 2023, 15, 654 10 of 16
Flow Rate (L/h) Dosage Rate (mg/L) CODHNAC (mg/L) CODHOAC (mg/L) CODKAC (mg/L)
1 5 1585 1180 1870
1 10 644 485 778
1 15 252 183 304
1 25 60 4 68
2 5 1841 1375 2202
2 10 756 560 907
2 15 348 255 420
2 25 89 65 108
3 5 2105 1563 2515
3 10 912 674 1084
3 15 420 311 524
3 25 114 82 134
4 5 2340 1735 2811
4 10 1140 844 1352
4 15 530 375 621
4 25 135 105 163
The calculated RL values were between 0 and 1, which indicates favorable sulfur
compound adsorption by the synthesized activated carbon.
As can be seen from the correlation coefficient (R2 ), the Freundlich and Langmuir
isotherms were able to describe the adsorption data obtained regarding the adsorption of
the sulfur content onto the HOAC, HNAC, and KAC activated carbons. As summarized, the
adsorption isotherms followed the Langmuir isotherm. This suggests that the homogenous
surface and the adsorption follow the physisorption of monolayer adsorption patterns.
The better fit of the Langmuir model to the adsorption of the sulfur compounds onto
both activated carbons shows that adsorption was found on the heterogeneous surface.
Furthermore, there was an interaction between the adsorbed molecules and sulfur contents.
Figure 6. Contour plots of COD, (a) OHAC, (b) HNAC, and (c) KAC.
Figure 6. Contour plots of COD, (a) OHAC, (b) HNAC, and (c) KAC.
3.3. Adsorption Kinetics
Table 6 displays the kinetic parameters. To assess the relationship between the com-
puted and experimental data, the correlation coefficient (R2 ) was utilized. The pseudo-
second-order model had the greatest R2 value, as shown in Table 6. This indicates that
the experimental data and the calculation for the pseudo-second-order kinetic model
were well-correlated. As a result, the pseudo-second-order model can be considered a
suitable kinetic model that fits the kinetic adsorption of sulfur compounds on HOAC
activated carbon.
The agreement between the experimental data and the model-predicted data was
investigated by calculating correlation coefficients (R2 values closer to 1 means a greater ap-
plicability of the model) and by observing the extent to which the experimental adsorption
capacity is close to the theoretical value.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 654 12 of 16
Model n KL qm (mg·g−1 ) R2
Langmuir 0.84 0.02 168.4 0.98
Freundlich 0.84 0.01 17 0.96
Dubinin–Radushkevich E0.16 - - 0.79
Tóth 0.14 5.95 × 10−6 115 0.89
Sips 0.79 0.01 241 0.97
4. Conclusions
In this study, solid waste from the spinning industry was investigated as a precursor
of carbon materials. An ecofriendly activated carbon was successfully synthesized as an
adsorbent of sulfur compounds in refinery wastewater. Kinetic and equilibrium data for
the adsorption of sulfur compounds were obtained and fitted to Langmuir and pseudo-
second-order models, respectively. The results show that introducing hydrogen peroxide,
nitric acid, and potassium hydroxide can successfully increase the pore size distribution,
pore volume, and surface area of carbon derived from cotton waste. In addition, HOAC
(SBET = 1230 m2 ·g−1 and Vt = 1.20 cm3 ·g−1 ) had the best capacity to remove sulfur com-
pounds compared to HNAC and KAC. It was found that, during fixed-bed adsorption, the
Sustainability 2023, 15, 654 13 of 16
flow rate of effluent was the factor most effective at decreasing the COD of the refinery
wastewater according to the responses and the ANOVA process.
The Langmuir model exhibited the best fit (R2 = 0.98) for the sulfur compounds’
adsorption, which implies that their adsorption onto the synthesized AC was homogeneous.
The kinetic data were tested with pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second, and intraparticular
diffusion equations. The pseudo-second-order equation showed the best description
for the kinetic data (R2 = 0.99), which means that this adsorption can be limited by the
chemisorption process.
Several methods have been investigated for the treatment of refinery wastewater,
including physical, chemical, and biological methods.
As a physical method, membrane bioreactors have been successfully used to remove
pollutants from petroleum industry wastewater. However, membrane fouling is a major
problem that can frequently occur. Moreover, this seriously affects the quality of the
reclaimed water and the efficiency of the membrane. Its use has only been tested in a
pilot test.
Electrochemical processes can also be utilized for the treatment of petroleum refinery
wastewater. Their higher cost and lower efficiency also limit their industrial application.
The microbiological treatment of industrial refiner wastewater has also been investi-
gated using several types of microorganisms. However, the use of a biological approach
for refinery effluent treatment can cause serious problems due to the excessive production
of sludge.
Many researchers have demonstrated that adsorption is a high-potential and cost-
effective approach for the treatment of refinery wastewater. AC has previously been
developed from biomass, such as date pits.
Most of these studies were conducted at the laboratory scale, with no focus on a
specific application.
The main purpose of our work, realized with the collaboration of a big refinery
company in Tunisia, was to synthesize activated carbon from low-quality cotton fiber
spinning waste with and to use it to remove sulfur compounds from refinery wastewater.
The results demonstrate the high efficiency of the obtained AC.
In comparison with other biomasses, cotton spinning waste can be used directly and
does not need any selection or chemical treatment. This makes the management of this
waste utilized directly as activated carbon easier.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.W., M.K., I.B.H., R.A., Z.A., M.B.H., S.A., S.Z., M.T.K.
and A.S.B.; Methodology, B.W., M.K., I.B.H. and A.S.B.; Validation, B.W., M.K., I.B.H. and A.S.B.;
Data curation, B.W., M.K. and I.B.H.; Supervision, M.K. and M.B.H.; Visualization, M.K. and M.B.H.;
Writing—original draft, M.K. and M.B.H.; Writing—review and editing, B.W., M.K., I.B.H., R.A., Z.A.,
M.B.H., S.A., S.Z., M.T.K. and A.S.B.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: This study did not report any data.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
1. Speight, J.G. Handbook of Petroleum Refining; Taylor & Francis G: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2017. Available online: https://www.
crcpress.com/Handbook-of-Petroleum-Refining/Speight/p/book/9781466591608 (accessed on 20 July 2022).
2. Panizza, M. Fine Chemical Industry, Pulp and Paper Industry, Petrochemical Industry and Pharmaceutical Industry. In Elec-
trochemical Water and Wastewater Treatment; Elsevier Inc.: Genoa, Italy, 2018; pp. 335–364. Available online: https://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128131602000134 (accessed on 15 July 2022).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 654 14 of 16
3. Noor Ul Huda, K.; Shimizu, K.; Gong, X.; Takagi, S. Numerical investigation of COD reduction in compact bioreactor with bubble
plumes. Chem. Eng. Sci. 2018, 185, 1–17. [CrossRef]
4. Abdulredha, M.M.; Aslina, H.S.; Luqman, C.A. Overview on petroleum emulsions, formation, influence and demulsification
treatment techniques. Arab. J. Chem. 2020, 13, 3403–3428. [CrossRef]
5. De Oliveira, C.P.M.; Viana, M.M.; Amaral, M.C.S. Coupling photocatalytic degradation using a green TiO2 catalyst to membrane
bioreactor for petroleum refinery wastewater reclamation. J. Water Process Eng. 2020, 34, 101093. [CrossRef]
6. Mohammadi, L.; Rahdar, A.; Bazrafshan, E.; Dahmardeh, H.; Susan, M.; Hasan, A.B.; Kyzas, G.Z. Petroleum Hydrocarbon
Removal from Wastewaters: A Review. Processes 2020, 8, 447. [CrossRef]
7. Coppock, R.W.; Christian, R.G. Chapter 50—Petroleum. In Veterinary Toxicology, 3rd ed.; Gupta, R.C., Ed.; Academic Press:
Cambridge, MA, USA, 2018; pp. 659–673. Available online: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128114100
000507 (accessed on 20 July 2022).
8. Han, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Xu, C.; Hsu, C.S. Molecular characterization of sulfur-containing compounds in petroleum. Fuel 2018, 221,
144–158. [CrossRef]
9. Pérez, R.M.; Cabrera, G.; Gómez, J.M.; Ábalos, A.; Cantero, D. Combined strategy for the precipitation of heavy metals and
biodegradation of petroleum in industrial wastewaters. J. Hazard. Mater. 2010, 182, 896–902. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
10. Rahman, M.M.; Al-Malack, M.H. Performance of a crossflow membrane bioreactor (CF–MBR) when treating refinery wastewater.
Desalination 2006, 191, 16–26. [CrossRef]
11. Razavi, S.M.R.; Miri, T. A real petroleum refinery wastewater treatment using hollow fiber membrane bioreactor (HF-MBR). J.
Water Process Eng. 2015, 8, 136–141. [CrossRef]
12. Abass, O.K.; Fang, F.; Zhuo, M.; Zhang, K. Integrated interrogation of causes of membrane fouling in a pilot-scale anoxic-oxic
membrane bioreactor treating oil refinery wastewater. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 642, 77–89. [CrossRef]
13. Munirasu, S.; Haija, M.A.; Banat, F. Use of membrane technology for oil field and refinery produced water treatment—A review.
Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 2016, 100, 183–202. [CrossRef]
14. Sari Erkan, H.; Bakaraki Turan, N.; Önkal Engin, G. Chapter Five—Membrane Bioreactors for Wastewater Treatment. In
Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry; Chormey, D.S., Bakırdere, S., Turan, N.B., Engin, G.Ö., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The
Netherlands, 2018; Volume 81, pp. 151–200. Available online: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166526X183
00035 (accessed on 20 July 2022).
15. Yan, L.; Ma, H.; Wang, B.; Wang, Y.; Chen, Y. Electrochemical treatment of petroleum refinery wastewater with three-dimensional
multi-phase electrode. Desalination 2011, 276, 397–402. [CrossRef]
16. El-Naas, M.H.; Al-Zuhair, S.; Al-Lobaney, A.; Makhlouf, S. Assessment of electrocoagulation for the treatment of petroleum
refinery wastewater. J. Environ. Manag. 2009, 91, 180–185. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. Yan, L.; Wang, Y.; Li, J.; Ma, H.; Liu, H.; Li, T.; Zhang, Y. Comparative study of different electrochemical methods for petroleum
refinery wastewater treatment. Desalination 2014, 341, 87–93. [CrossRef]
18. El-Naas, M.H.; Alhaija, M.A.; Al-Zuhair, S. Evaluation of a three-step process for the treatment of petroleum refinery wastewater.
J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2014, 2, 56–62. [CrossRef]
19. Zhu, X.; Ni, J.; Xing, X.; Li, H.; Jiang, Y. Synergies between electrochemical oxidation and activated carbon adsorption in
three-dimensional boron-doped diamond anode system. Electrochim. Acta 2011, 56, 1270–1274. [CrossRef]
20. Krstić, V.; Urošević, T.; Pešovski, B. A review on adsorbents for treatment of water and wastewaters containing copper ions. Chem.
Eng. Sci. 2018, 192, 273–287. [CrossRef]
21. Li, B.; Sun, K.; Guo, Y.; Tian, J.; Xue, Y.; Sun, D. Adsorption kinetics of phenol from water on Fe/AC. Fuel 2013, 110, 99–106.
[CrossRef]
22. Ebrahimi, M.; Kazemi, H.; Mirbagheri, S.A.; Rockaway, T.D. An optimized biological approach for treatment of petroleum refinery
wastewater. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2016, 4, 3401–3408. [CrossRef]
23. Wang, Y.; Wang, Q.; Li, M.; Yang, Y.; He, W.; Yan, G.; Guo, S. An alternative anaerobic treatment process for treatment of heavy oil
refinery wastewater containing polar organics. Biochem. Eng. J. 2016, 105, 44–51. [CrossRef]
24. Fakhru’l-Razi, A.; Pendashteh, A.; Abdullah, L.C.; Biak, D.R.A.; Madaeni, S.S.; Abidin, Z.Z. Review of technologies for oil and gas
produced water treatment. J. Hazard. Mater. 2009, 170, 530–551. [CrossRef]
25. Ma, F.; Guo, J.; Zhao, L.; Chang, C.; Cui, D. Application of bioaugmentation to improve the activated sludge system into the
contact oxidation system treating petrochemical wastewater. Bioresour. Technol. 2009, 100, 597–602. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
26. Hayat, S.; Ahmad, I.; Azam, Z.M.; Ahmad, A.; Inam, A. Effect of long-term application of oil refinery wastewater on soil health
with special reference to microbiological characteristics. Bioresour. Technol. 2002, 84, 159–163. [CrossRef]
27. Louhıchı, G.; Bousselmı, L.; Ghrabı, A.; Khounı, I. Process optimization via response surface methodology in the physico-chemical
treatment of vegetable oil refinery wastewater. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2018, 26, 18993–19011. [CrossRef]
28. El-Naas, M.H.; Alhaija, M.A.; Al-Zuhair, S. Evaluation of an activated carbon packed bed for the adsorption of phenols from
petroleum refinery wastewater. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2017, 24, 7511–7520. [CrossRef]
29. Alvarez, J.; Amutio, M.; Lopez, G.; Bilbao, J.; Olazar, M. Fast co-pyrolysis of sewage sludge and lignocellulosic biomass in a
conical spouted bed reactor. Fuel 2015, 159, 810–818. [CrossRef]
30. Dehghan, R.; Anbia, M. Zeolites for adsorptive desulfurization from fuels: A review. Fuel Process. Technol. 2017, 167, 99–116.
[CrossRef]
Sustainability 2023, 15, 654 15 of 16
31. Moradi, M.; Karimzadeh, R.; Moosavi, E.S. Modified and ion exchanged clinoptilolite for the adsorptive removal of sulfur
compounds in a model fuel: New adsorbents for desulfurization. Fuel 2018, 217, 467–477. [CrossRef]
32. El-Naas, M.H.; Al-Zuhair, S.; Alhaija, M.A. Removal of phenol from petroleum refinery wastewater through adsorption on
date-pit activated carbon. Chem. Eng. J. 2010, 162, 997–1005. [CrossRef]
33. Qingxuan, Z. COD Removal in Refinery Wastewater through Adsorption on Activated Petroleum Coke. In Proceedings of the
2011 International Conference on Computer Distributed Control and Intelligent Environmental Monitoring, Changsha, China,
19–20 February 2011; pp. 1093–1096. [CrossRef]
34. Garole, D.J.; Choudhary, B.C.; Paul, D.; Borse, A.U. Sorption and recovery of platinum from simulated spent catalyst solution and
refinery wastewater using chemically modified biomass as a novel sorbent. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 2018, 25, 10911–10925.
[CrossRef]
35. Mohammad, Y.S.; Shaibu-Imodagbe, E.M.; Igboro, S.B.; Giwa, A.; Okuofu, C.A. Adsorption of Phenol from Refinery Wastewater
Using Rice Husk Activated Carbon. Iran. J. Energy Environ. 2014, 5, 393–399.
36. Mushrif, S.H.; Vasudevan, V.; Krishnamurthy, C.B.; Venkatesh, B. Multiscale molecular modeling can be an effective tool to aid
the development of biomass conversion technology: A perspective. Chem. Eng. Sci. 2015, 121, 217–235. [CrossRef]
37. Rout, P.K.; Nannaware, A.D.; Prakash, O.; Kalra, A.; Rajasekharan, R. Synthesis of hydroxymethylfurfural from cellulose using
green processes: A promising biochemical and biofuel feedstock. Chem. Eng. Sci. 2016, 142, 318–346. [CrossRef]
38. El-Naas, M.H.; Al-Zuhair, S.; Alhaija, M.A. Reduction of COD in refinery wastewater through adsorption on date-pit activated
carbon. J. Hazard. Mater. 2010, 173, 750–757. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
39. Juanga-Labayen, J.P.; Labayen, I.V.; Yuan, Q. A Review on Textile Recycling Practices and Challenges. Textiles 2022, 2, 174–188.
[CrossRef]
40. Claudio, L. Waste couture: Environmental Impact of the Clothing Industry. Environ. Health Perspect. 2007, 115, A448–A454.
[CrossRef]
41. Hasanzadeh, E.; Mirmohamadsadeghi, S.; Karimi, K. Enhancing energy production from waste textile by hydrolysis of synthetic
parts. Fuel 2018, 218, 41–48. [CrossRef]
42. Shen, B.; Chen, J.; Yue, S.; Li, G. A comparative study of modified cotton biochar and activated carbon based catalysts in low
temperature SCR. Fuel 2015, 156, 47–53. [CrossRef]
43. Kanan, M.; Wannassi, B.; Barham, A.S.; Ben Hassen, M.; Assaf, R. The Quality of Blended Cotton and Denim Waste Fibres: The
Effect of Blend Ratio and Waste Category. Fibers 2022, 10, 76. [CrossRef]
44. Halimi, M.T.; Hassen, M.B.; Azzouz, B.; Sakli, F. Effect of Cotton Waste and Spinning Parameters on Rotor Yarn Quality. J. Text.
Inst. 2007, 98, 437–442. [CrossRef]
45. Halimi, M.T.; Hassen, M.B.; Sakli, F. Cotton Waste Recycling: Quantitative and Qualitative Assessment. Resour. Conserv. Recycl.
2008, 52, 785–791. [CrossRef]
46. Wanassi, B.; Azzouz, B.; Hassen, M.B. Value-Added Waste Cotton Yarn: Optimization of Recycling Process and Spinning of
Reclaimed Fibers. Ind. Crops Prod. 2016, 87, 27–32. [CrossRef]
47. Abidi, H.; Rana, S.; Chaouch, W.; Azouz, B.; Aissa, I.B.; Hassen, M.B.; Fangueiro, R. Accelerated Weathering of Textile Waste
Nonwovens Used as Sustainable Agricultural Mulching. J. Ind. Text. 2019, 50, 1079–1110. [CrossRef]
48. USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). Facts and Figures about Materials, Waste and Recycling 2021.
Textiles: Material-Specific Data, Summary Table and Graph. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-
materialswaste-and-recycling/textiles-material-specific-data#TextilesTableandGraph (accessed on 15 January 2022).
49. Triki, A.; Wanassi, B.; Hassen, M.; Arous, M.; Kallel, A. Dieletric Analysis of Unsaturated Polyester Composite Reinforced with
Recycled Cotton Textile Residues. Int. J. Appl. Res. Text. 2019, 44–50. Available online: http://atctex.org/ijartex/index.php?
mayor=magazine&id=50 (accessed on 22 July 2022).
50. Temmink, R.; Baghaei, B.; Skrifvars, M. Development of Biocomposites from Denim Waste and Thermoset Bio-Resins for Structural
Applications. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2018, 106, 59–69. [CrossRef]
51. Zhao, Q.; Ye, Z.; Zheng, J. Preparation and characterization of activated carbon fiber (ACF) from cotton woven waste. Appl.
Surface Sci. 2014, 299, 86–91. [CrossRef]
52. Sartova, K.; Omurzak, E.; Kambarova, G.; Dzhumaev, I.; Borkoev, B.; Abdullaeva, Z. Activated carbon obtained from the cotton
processing wastes. Diam. Relat. Mater. 2019, 91, 90–97. [CrossRef]
53. Wanassi, B.; Hariz, I.B.; Ghimbeu, C.M.; Vaulot, C.; Hassen, M.B.; Jeguirim, M. Carbonaceous adsorbents derived from textile
cotton waste for the removal of Alizarin S dye from aqueous effluent: Kinetic and equilibrium studies. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res.
2017, 24, 10041–10055. [CrossRef]
54. Xu, Z.; Zhang, T.; Yuan, Z.; Zhang, D.; Sun, Z.; Huang, Y.X.; Chen, W.; Tian, D.; Deng, H.; Zhou, Y. Fabrication of cotton textile
waste-based magnetic activated carbon using FeCl3 activation by the Box-Behnken design: Optimization and characteristics. RSC
Adv. 2018, 8, 38081–38090. [CrossRef]
55. Xu, Z.; Zhou, Y.; Sun, Z.; Zhang, D.; Huang, Y.; Gu, S.; Chen, W. Understanding reactions and pore-forming mechanisms between
waste cotton woven and FeCl3 during the synthesis of magnetic activated carbon. Chemosphere 2020, 241, 125120. [CrossRef]
56. Lu, J.; Wang, Z.; Ma, X.; Tang, Q.; Li, Y. Modeling of the electrocoagulation process: A study on the mass transfer of electrolysis
and hydrolysis products. Chem. Eng. Sci. 2017, 165, 165–176. [CrossRef]
Sustainability 2023, 15, 654 16 of 16
57. El-Naas, M.H.; Surkatti, R.; Al-Zuhair, S. Petroleum refinery wastewater treatment: A pilot scale study. J. Water Process Eng. 2016,
14, 71–76. [CrossRef]
58. Lagergren, S. About the Theory of so Called Adsorption of Soluble Substances. K. Sven. Vet. Akad. Handl. 1998, 24, 1–39.
59. Ho, Y.S.; Mckkay, G. Pseudo-second order model for sorption processes. Process Biochem. 1999, 34, 451–465. [CrossRef]
60. Kumar, D.B.; Smail, K. Étude cinétique et thermodynamique de l’adsorption d’un colorant basique sur la sciure de Bois. Revue des
Sciences de l’Eau J. Water Sci. 2011, 24, 131–144.
61. Langmuir, I. The Adsorption of Gases on Plane Surfaces. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1918, 40, 1361–1403. [CrossRef]
62. Freundlich, H. Adsorption in Solution. Z. Phys. Chem. 1906, 57, 384–470.
63. Dubinin, M.M. The Potential Theory of Adsorption of Gases and Vapors for Adsorbents with Energetically Nonuniform Surfaces.
Chem. Rev. 1960, 60, 235–241. [CrossRef]
64. Gimbert, F.; Morin-Crini, N.; Renault, F.; Badot, P.-M.; Crini, G. Adsorption isotherm models for dye removal by cationized
starch-based material in a single component system: Error analysis. J. Hazard. Mater. 2008, 157, 34–46. [CrossRef]
65. Sips, R. On the Structure of a Catalyst Surface. J. Chem. Phys. 1948, 16, 490–495. [CrossRef]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.