NAMA : IRFANSYAH

Nim : 8226141002

PRODI FISIKA S2 Magister Fisika

Filsafat Ilmu

1. Bagaiman hubungan antara ilmu pengetahuan dengan filsafat?

2. Apa yang dimaksud dengan berfikir kritis dan mengapa kita memerlukan filsafat dalam
berfikir kritis?
3. Mengapa dari berikan contoh seorang ilmuan memerlukan nilai nilai filsafat
4. Mengapa penelitian membutuhkan filsafat

Answer :

1. Correlation beetwen knowledge and phylosopy

Philosophy is quite unlike any other field. It is unique both in its methods and in the nature
and breadth of its subject matter. Philosophy pursues questions in every dimension of human life,
and its techniques apply to problems in any field of study or endeavor. No brief definition
expresses the richness and variety of philosophy. It may be described in many ways. It is a
reasoned pursuit of fundamental truths, a quest for understanding, a study of principles of
conduct. It seeks to establish standards of evidence, to provide rational methods of resolving
conflicts, and to create techniques for evaluating ideas and arguments. Philosophy develops the
capacity to see the world from the perspective of other individuals and other cultures; it enhances
one's ability to perceive the relationships among the various fields of study; and it deepens one's
sense of the meaning and variety of human experience.

This short description of philosophy could be greatly expanded, but let us instead illustrate
some of the points. As the systematic study of ideas and issues, philosophy may examine
concepts and views drawn from science, art, religion, politics, or any other realm. Philosophical
appraisal of ideas and issues takes many forms, but philosophical studies often focus on the
meaning of an idea and on its basis, coherence, and relations to other ideas. Consider, for
instance, democracy. What is it? What justifies it as a system of government? Can a democracy
allow the people to vote away their own rights? And how is it related to political liberty?
Consider human knowledge. What is its nature and extent? Must we always have evidence in
order to know? What can we know about the thoughts and feelings of others, or about the future?
What kind of knowledge, if any, is fundamental? Similar kinds of questions arise concerning art,
morality, religion, science, and each of the major areas of human activity. Philosophy explores
all of them. It views them both microscopically and from the wide perspective of the larger
concerns of human existence.

A. Traditional Subfields of Philosophy

The broadest subfields of philosophy are most commonly taken to be logic, ethics,
metaphysics, epistemology and the history of philosophy. Here is a brief sketch of each.

 Logic is concerned to provide sound methods for distinguishing good from bad
reasoning. It helps us assess how well our premises support our conclusions, to see what
we are committed to accepting when we take a view, and to avoid adopting beliefs for
which we lack adequate reasons. Logic also helps us to find arguments where we might
otherwise simply see a set of loosely related statements, to discover assumptions we did
not know we were making, and to formulate the minimum claims we must establish if we
are to prove (or inductively support) our point.

 Ethics takes up the meanings of our moral concepts—such as right action, obligation and
justice—and formulates principles to guide moral decisions, whether in private or public
life. What are our moral obligations to others? How can moral disagreements be
rationally settled? What rights must a just society accord its citizens? What constitutes a
valid excuse for wrong-doing?

 Metaphysics seeks basic criteria for determining what sorts of things are real. Are there
mental, physical, and abstract things (such as numbers), for instance, or is there just the
physical and the spiritual, or merely matter and energy? Are persons highly complex
physical systems, or do they have properties not reducible to anything physical?

 Epistemology concerns the nature and scope of knowledge. What does it mean to know
(the truth), and what is the nature of truth? What sorts of things can be known, and can
we be justified in our beliefs about what goes beyond the evidence of our senses, such as
 the inner lives of others or events of the distant past? Is there knowledge beyond the
reach of science? What are the limits of self-knowledge?

 The History of Philosophy studies both major philosophers and entire periods in the
development of philosophy such as the Ancient, Medieval, Modern, Nineteenth Century,
and Twentieth Century periods. It seeks to understand great figures, their influence on
others, and their importance for contemporary issues. The history of philosophy in a
single nation is often separately studied, as in the case of American Philosophy. So are
major movements within a nation, such as British Empiricism and German Idealism, as
well as international movements with a substantial history, such as existentialism and
phenomenology. The history of philosophy not only provides insight into the other
subfields of philosophy; it also reveals many of the foundations of Western Civilization.

B. Special Fields of Philosophy

Many branches of philosophy have grown from the traditional core areas. What follows is a
sketch of some of the major ones.

 Philosophy of Mind. This subfield has emerged from metaphysical concerns with the
mind and mental phenomena. The philosophy of mind addresses not only the possible
relations of the mental to the physical (for instance, to brain processes), but the many
concepts having an essential mental element: belief, desire, emotion, feeling, sensation,
passion, will, personality, and others. A number of major questions in the philosophy of
mind cluster in the area of action theory: What differentiates actions, such as raising an
arm, from mere body movements, such as the rising of an arm? Must mental elements,
for example intentions and beliefs, enter into adequate explanations of our actions, or can
actions be explained by appeal to ordinary physical events? And what is required for our
actions to be free?

 Philosophy of Religion. Another traditional concern of metaphysics is to understand the

concept of God, including special attributes such as being all-knowing, being all-
powerful, and being wholly good. Both metaphysics and epistemology have sought to
assess the various grounds people have offered to justify believing in God. The
 philosophy of religion treats these topics and many related subjects, such as the relation
between faith and reason, the nature of religious language, the relation of religion and
morality, and the question of how a God who is wholly good could allow the existence of
evil.

 Philosophy of Science. This is probably the largest subfield generated by epistemology.

Philosophy of science is usually divided into philosophy of the natural sciences and
philosophy of the social sciences. It has recently been divided further, into philosophy of
physics, biology, psychology, economics, and other sciences. Philosophy of science
clarifies both the quest for scientific knowledge and the results yielded by that quest. It
does this by exploring the logic of scientific evidence; the nature of scientific laws,
explanations, and theories; and the possible connections among the various branches of
science. How, for instance, is psychology related to brain biology, and biology to
chemistry? And how are the social sciences related to the natural sciences.

 Subfields of Ethics. From ethics, too, have come major subfields. Political Philosophy
concerns the justification—and limits—of governmental control of individuals; the
meaning of equality before the law; the basis of economic freedom; and many other
problems concerning government. It also examines the nature and possible arguments for
various competing forms of political organization, such as laissez-faire capitalism,
welfare democracy (capitalistic and socialistic), anarchism, communism, and fascism.
Social Philosophy, often taught in combination with political philosophy (which it
overlaps), treats moral problems with large-scale social dimensions. Among these are the
basis of compulsory education, the possible grounds for preferential treatment of
minorities, the justice of taxation, and the appropriate limits, if any, on free expression in
the arts. The Philosophy of Law explores such topics as what law is, what kinds of laws
there are, how law is or should be related to morality, and what sorts of principles should
govern punishment and criminal justice in general. Medical Ethics addresses many
problems arising in medical practice and medical science. Among these are standards
applying to physician-patient relationships; moral questions raised by special procedures,
such as abortion and ceasing of life-support for terminal patients; and ethical standards
for medical research, for instance genetic engineering and experimentation using human
 subjects. Business Ethics addresses such questions as how moral obligations may
conflict with the profit motive and how these conflicts may be resolved. Other topics
often pursued are the nature and scope of the social responsibilities of corporations, their
rights in a free society, and their relations to other institutions.

 Philosophy of Art (Aesthetics). This is one of the oldest subfields. It concerns the nature
of art, including both the performing arts and painting, sculpture, and literature. Major
questions in aesthetics include how artistic creations are to be interpreted and evaluated,
and how the arts are related to one another, to natural beauty, and to morality, religion,
science, and other important elements of human life.

 Philosophy of Language. This field has close ties to both epistemology and metaphysics.
It treats a broad spectrum of questions about language: the nature of meaning, the
relations between words and things, the various theories of language learning, and the
distinction between literal and figurative uses of language. Since language is crucial in
nearly all human activity, the philosophy of language can enhance our understanding
both of other academic fields and of much of what we ordinarily do.

 Other Subfields. There are many other subfields of philosophy, and it is in the nature of
philosophy as critical inquiry to develop new subfields when new directions in the quest
for knowledge, or in any other area of human activity, raise new intellectual problems.
Among the subfields not yet mentioned, but often taught at least as part of other courses,
are Inductive Logic, Philosophy of Logic, Philosophy of History, Philosophy of
Mathematics, Philosophy of Medicine, Philosophy of Education, Philosophy of
Feminism, Philosophy of Linguistics, Philosophy of Criticism, Philosophy of Culture,
and Philosophy of Film.

C. General Uses of Philosophy

Much of what is learned in philosophy can be applied in virtually any endeavor. This is both
because philosophy touches on so many subjects and, especially, because many of its methods
are usable in any field.
 General Problem Solving. The study of philosophy enhances, in a way no other activity
does, one's problem-solving capacities. It helps one to analyze concepts, definitions,
arguments and problems. It contributes to one's capacity to organize ideas and issues, to
deal with questions of value, and to extract what is essential from masses of information.
It helps one both to distinguish fine differences between views and to discover common
ground between opposing positions. And it helps one to synthesize a variety of views or
perspectives into a unified whole.

 Communication Skills. Philosophy also contributes uniquely to the development of

expressive and communicative powers. It provides some of the basic tools of self-
expression—for instance, skills in presenting ideas through well-constructed, systematic
arguments—that other fields either do not use, or use less extensively. It helps one to
express what is distinctive of one's view; enhances one's ability to explain difficult
material; and helps one to eliminate ambiguities and vagueness from one's writing and
speech.

 Persuasive Powers. Philosophy provides training in the construction of clear

formulations, good arguments, and apt examples. It thereby helps one develop the ability
to be convincing. One learns to build and defend one's own views, to appreciate
competing positions, and to indicate forcefully why one considers one's own views
preferable to alternatives. These capacities can be developed not only through reading
and writing in philosophy, but also through the philosophical dialogue, in and outside the
classroom, that is so much a part of a thoroughgoing philosophical education.

 Writing Skills. Writing is taught intensively in many philosophy courses, and many
regularly assigned philosophical texts are unexcelled as literary essays. Philosophy
teaches interpretive writing through its examination of challenging texts, comparative
writing through emphasis on fairness to alternative positions, argumentative writing
through developing students' ability to establish their own views, and descriptive writing
through detailed portrayal of concrete examples: the anchors to which generalizations
must be tied. Striker and technique, then, are emphasized in philosophical writing.
 Originality is also encouraged, and students are generally urged to use their imagination
and develop their own ideas.

D. The Uses of Philosophy in Educational Pursuits

The general uses of philosophy just described are obviously of great academic value. It
should be clear that the study of philosophy has intrinsic rewards as an unlimited quest for
understanding of important, challenging problems. But philosophy has further uses in deepening
an education, both in college and in the many activities, professional and personal, that follow
graduation.

 Understanding Other Disciplines. Philosophy is indispensable for this. Many important

questions about a discipline, such as the nature of its concepts and its relation to other
disciplines, do not belong to that discipline, are not usually pursued in it, and are
philosophical in nature. Philosophy of science, for instance, is needed to supplement the
understanding of the natural and social sciences which one derives from scientific work
itself. Philosophy of literature and philosophy of history are of similar value in
understanding the humanities, and philosophy of art is important in understanding the
arts. Philosophy is, moreover, essential in assessing the various standards of evidence
used by other disciplines. Since all fields of knowledge employ reasoning and must set
standards of evidence, logic and epistemology have a general bearing on all these fields.

 Development of Sound Methods of Research and Analysis. Still another value of

philosophy in education is its contribution to one's capacity to frame hypotheses, do
research, and put problems into manageable form. Philosophical thinking strongly
emphasizes clear formulation of ideas and problems, selection of relevant data, and
objective methods for assessing ideas and proposals. It also emphasizes development of a
sense of the new directions suggested by the hypotheses and questions one encounters in
doing research. Philosophers regularly build on both the successes and failures of their
predecessors. A person with philosophical training can readily learn to do the same in any
field.
What a philosophy course is like. Philosophy courses differ greatly from one to another,
depending on the instructor, the topics, and other factors. But some generalizations are possible.
Typically, Philosophy teachers encourage students to be critical, to develop their own ideas, and
to appreciate both differences between things that appear alike and similarities between things
that seem utterly different. Commonly, then, philosophy instructors emphasize not only what is
said in the readings, but why it is said; whether or not the reasons given for believing it are good;
and what the students themselves think about the matter. One might thus be asked not only what
Kant said about capital punishment and why, but whether his case was sound. One might also be
encouraged to formulate, and give reasons for, one's own view on the problem. Students might
compare and contrast two philosophers, noting where the two agree or disagree, and perhaps
indicating and justifying a preference for one of the views. One could be asked to study non-
philosophers, say, legal theorists, to bring out and assess their philosophical assumptions; and
one might be asked to view several philosophers in historical perspective. Characteristically,
there is much room for creativity and for choice of approach; and philosophy is unique in the
way it nurtures this creativity and freedom within broad but definite standards of clarity,
reasoning, and evaluation.

Introductory Courses. One might begin in philosophy either with a general introduction or with
an introduction to a subfield, such as ethics, logic, philosophy of religion, or philosophy of art.
For students whose main aim is to get to know the field rather than, say, advance their thinking
on ethical matters, a general introduction is often the best starting point. These introductions are
most often built around important philosophical problems. A typical one-semester introduction
might cover readings in several major areas, such as the theory of knowledge, with emphasis on
the nature and sources of knowledge; the mind-body problem, with a focus on the nature of our
mental life in relation to the brain; the nature of moral obligation, with stress on alternative ways
of determining what one ought to do; and the philosophy of religion, with emphasis on how
belief in God might be understood and justified. General introductions to philosophy may also be
built around major texts, especially writings by great philosophers. A one-semester course might
cover parts of, say, Plato, Aristotle, Aquinas, Descartes, Locke, Hume, Kant, and Mill. Through
their writings, all the problems just mentioned and many others might be discussed.
Regarding introductory courses in subfields of philosophy, such as ethics, logic, or philosophy of
religion, these typically introduce students not only to the designated subfield, but to some
general philosophical methods. Courses in subfields vary greatly in their methods and in breadth
of topic, however, and students proceeding directly from such courses to those at the next level
should first assess how much general philosophical background they have obtained. Logic
courses in particular vary greatly in how much general introduction to philosophy they provide.

Intermediate and Advances Courses in Philosophy. At these levels philosophy courses differ
considerably in scope, method, and prerequisites. Intermediate and advanced courses are
obviously needed for students to get the full benefits, described above, of philosophical
education, but what constitutes a good selection at these levels varies greatly from one person to
another. It should not be thought, however, that advances courses in philosophy are generally
designed just for majors or that they interest only them. For instance, advanced philosophy of
science courses are often meant to interest science majors (and may have, for them, few if any
prerequisites); and advanced courses in the philosophy of art (aesthetics) are designed partly for
students in art, music, and other related fields. Similar points hold for philosophy of religion,
philosophy of law, medical ethics, and many others.

Sample Majors. A normal course of study for a thirty-hour major would include some work in
each of the traditional core areas: epistemology, ethics, history of philosophy, logic, and
metaphysics. In many institutions a student might meet this requirement by taking, say, two
introductory courses the first year; in the second year, history of ancient and history of modern
philosophy, together with at least one course in a subfield, such as ethics or philosophy of
religion; and, in the last two years, intermediate and advanced courses that cover the remaining
areas, with extra depth where one's interests are strongest. Many institutions require logic of
philosophy majors, and it is a good idea to take it early in the course of the major. Such broad
areas as metaphysics , epistemology, and ethics need not be covered in courses by those names.
They might be treated in studies of major philosophers, in seminars on special problems, or in
related subfields, such as philosophy of mind, philosophy of language, and social or political
philosophy. For students intending to pursue post-graduate study, many variants of the pattern
just suggested may be desirable. Those continuing in philosophy should seek a good combination
of depth and breadth, which can be achieved in many ways. For others, particularly but not
exclusively these planning post-graduate study, here are some examples of valuable courses
beyond general introductions:

Journalism and Communication. Introductory to intermediate courses in logic and ethics are
highly relevant. Philosophy of language should enhance understanding of communication, and
philosophy of science should cast light on some of the technical subjects with which many
people in journalism and communication must deal. Beyond this, political and social philosophy
can deepen one’s understanding of society and social institutions. Other courses, such as
aesthetics, philosophy of law, and philosophy of religion, are highly desirable for those with
related special interests.

Pre-law. Intermediate to advanced courses in logic and in the general area of ethics, for instance
political or social philosophy, philosophy of law, medical ethics, and business ethics, are very
useful. Epistemology, which examines standards of evidence, philosophy of mind, which bears
on moral and legal responsibility, and philosophy of language, may also be of special benefit.
Philosophy of science is particularly valuable for those intending to practice in the technological
or scientific sectors.

Pre-medicine and Other Health Professions. Extra work in the general area of ethics should be
useful. Philosophy of mind, with its emphasis on understanding the human person, is valuable.
Philosophy of science may yield a better understanding of—and even a greater capacity for—the
integration of medical research with medical practice. Philosophy of religion can lead to a better
understanding of many patients and numerous others with whom physicians work closely.
Aesthetics and the history of philosophy may enhance the common ground practitioners can find
with patients or colleagues who are from other cultures or have unusual orientations or views.
Philosophy of medicine and medical ethics are obviously of direct relevance.

Pre-business. Courses in the general area of political or social philosophy are valuable
background for executives and managers, particularly in understanding social institutions such as
corporations, unions, and political parties. Classes in logic and decision theory may contribute
greatly to the capacity to analyze data and select plans of action. Both ethics (particularly
business ethics) and philosophy of mind may benefit business people in conducting many of their
day-to-day activities.

Pre-seminary. Philosophy of religion has the most obvious relevance for pre-seminary students,
but they should also find a number of other courses, including ethics, philosophy of mind, and
history of philosophy, of special value. Historically, philosophy has influenced religion, just as
religion has influenced philosophy. Philosophy of art, philosophy of literature, and philosophy of
history can also play a unique role in creating the breadth of perspective needed for the clergy.

The Minor in Philosophy. A minor in philosophy may supplement any major, and for most
majors it is an excellent companion. For students in the sciences there are, for instance, courses
in philosophy of science, epistemology, and logic; for those in literature, there is philosophy of
literature, philosophy of language, and history of philosophy; for students of the arts there is not
only the philosophy of art, but a number of courses using methods applicable to the interpretation
and evaluation of artistic creations. For students planning to take advance degrees, a minor in
philosophy can easily be designed to complement any of the standard requirements for beginning
post-graduate study. For those entering a teaching field, from the elementary level on,
philosophical studies are valuable both for the perspective they can give on the various academic
subjects, in the ways described above, and for their contribution to one’s abilities in critical
thinking and effective communication.

2. What does critical thingking mean?

Critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally about what to do or what
to believe. It includes the ability to engage in reflective and independent thinking. Someone with
critical thinking skills is able to do the following :

 understand the logical connections between ideas

 identify, construct and evaluate arguments
 detect inconsistencies and common mistakes in reasoning
 solve problems systematically
 identify the relevance and importance of ideas
 reflect on the justification of one's own beliefs and values
 Critical thinking is not a matter of accumulating information. A person with a good memory
and who knows a lot of facts is not necessarily good at critical thinking. A critical thinker is able
to deduce consequences from what he knows, and he knows how to make use of information to
solve problems, and to seek relevant sources of information to inform himself.

Critical thinking should not be confused with being argumentative or being critical of
other people. Although critical thinking skills can be used in exposing fallacies and bad
reasoning, critical thinking can also play an important role in cooperative reasoning and
constructive tasks. Critical thinking can help us acquire knowledge, improve our theories, and
strengthen arguments. We can use critical thinking to enhance work processes and improve
social institutions.

Some people believe that critical thinking hinders creativity because it requires following the
rules of logic and rationality, but creativity might require breaking rules. This is a misconception.
Critical thinking is quite compatible with thinking "out-of-the-box", challenging consensus and
pursuing less popular approaches. If anything, critical thinking is an essential part of creativity
because we need critical thinking to evaluate and improve our creative ideas. The importance of
critical thinking

a. Critical thinking is a domain-general thinking skill. The ability to think clearly

and rationally is important whatever we choose to do. If you work in education,
research, finance, management or the legal profession, then critical thinking is
obviously important. But critical thinking skills are not restricted to a particular
subject area. Being able to think well and solve problems systematically is an
asset for any career.
b. Critical thinking is very important in the new knowledge economy. The
global knowledge economy is driven by information and technology. One has to
be able to deal with changes quickly and effectively. The new economy places
increasing demands on flexible intellectual skills, and the ability to analyse
information and integrate diverse sources of knowledge in solving problems.
Good critical thinking promotes such thinking skills, and is very important in the
fast-changing workplace.
 c. Critical thinking enhances language and presentation skills. Thinking clearly
and systematically can improve the way we express our ideas. In learning how to
analyse the logical structure of texts, critical thinking also improves
comprehension abilities.
d. Critical thinking promotes creativity. To come up with a creative solution to a
problem involves not just having new ideas. It must also be the case that the new
ideas being generated are useful and relevant to the task at hand. Critical thinking
plays a crucial role in evaluating new ideas, selecting the best ones and modifying
them if necessary
e. Critical thinking is crucial for self-reflection. In order to live a meaningful life
and to structure our lives accordingly, we need to justify and reflect on our values
and decisions. Critical thinking provides the tools for this process of self-
evaluation.
f. Good critical thinking is the foundation of science and democracy. Science
requires the critical use of reason in experimentation and theory confirmation. The
proper functioning of a liberal democracy requires citizens who can think
critically about social issues to inform their judgments about proper governance
and to overcome biases and prejudice.
3. why scientists need philosophical values?

At the turn of the century, philosophy was for the most part conceived as one science among
others. It was a field of academic study, and was approached by young people as an educational
possibility. Sparkling lectures offered vast surveys of its history, its doctrines, problems and
systems. Vague feelings of a freedom devoid of content (because rarely effective in actual life)
combined with a faith in the progress of philosophical knowledge. The thinker "advanced
further" and was convinced that with each step he stood at the summit of knowledge attained up
to that time.

This philosophy, however, seemed to lack self-confidence. The boundless respect of the age
for the exact empirical sciences made them the great exemplar. Philosophy wanted to regain its
lost reputation before the judgment seat of the sciences by means of equal exactness. To be sure,
all objects of inquiry had been parcelled out to the special sciences. But philosophy wanted to
legitimize itself alongside of them by making the whole into a scientific object; the whole of
knowledge, for example, by means of epistemology (since the fact of science in general was after
all not the object of any particular science); the whole of the universe by means of a metaphysics
constructed by analogy with scientific theories, and with their aid; the totality of human ideals by
means of a doctrine of universally valid values. These seemed to be objects that did not belong to
any special science and yet ought to be open to investigation by scientific methods. Nevertheless,
the basic tenor of all this thinking was ambiguous. For it was at once scientific-objective moral-
normative. Men could think they were establishing a harmonious union between the "needs of
the mind" and the "results of the sciences". Finally, they could say that they merely wanted
objectively to understand the possible world-views and values, and yet again could claim at the
same time to be giving the one true world-view: the scientific.

Young people in those days were bound to experience a deep disillusionment. This was not what
they had thought philosophy was all about. The passion for a life grounding philosophy made
them reject this scientific philosophy which was impressive in its methodological rigor and its
demands for arduous thought, and thus at least of educational value, but was basically too
innocuous, too easily satisfied, too blind to reality. Demanding reality, they rejected empty
abstractions that, for all their systematic orderliness yet seemed like children's games; they
rejected proofs that proved nothing despite great ostentation. There were some who took the hint
implicit in the hidden self-condemnation of this philosophy which took its own measure from the
empirical sciences; they pursued the empirical sciences themselves; they abandoned this
philosophy, perhaps believing in another philosophy that they did not yet know.

What enthusiasm gripped those students at that time who left philosophy after a few
semesters and went into the natural sciences, history and the other research sciences! Here were
realities. Here the will to know could find satisfaction: what startling, alarming and yet again
hope-inspiring facts of nature, of human existence, of society, and of historical events! What
Liebig had written in 1840 about the study of philosophy was still true: "I too have lived through
this period, so rich in words and ideas and so poor in true knowledge and genuine research, and it
has cost me two precious years of my life.”
 But when the sciences were taken up as though they themselves already contained true
philosophy, that is, when they were supposed to give what had been sought to no avail in
philosophy, typical errors became possible. Men wanted a science that would tell them what
goals to pursue in life – an evaluating science. They deduced from science the right ways of
conduct, and pretended to know by means of science what in fact were articles of faith – albeit
about things immanent in this world. Or, conversely, they despaired of science because it did not
yield what is important in life and, worse, because scientific reflection seemed to paralyze life.
Thus attitudes wavered between a superstitious faith in science that makes an absolute starting
point out of presumed results, and an antagonism to science that rejects it as meaningless and
attacks it as destructive. But these aberrations were only incidental. In fact, powers arose in the
sciences themselves that defeated both aberrations, in that knowledge, as knowledge purified
itself.

For, when in the sciences too much was asserted for which there was no proof, when
comprehensive theories were all too confidently put forward as absolute knowledge of reality,
when too much was accepted as self-evident without examination (for example, the basic idea of
nature as a mechanism, or many question-begging theories such as the doctrine that the necessity
of historical events can be known, and so on), bad philosophy reappeared in the sciences in even
worse form. But – and this was magnificent and exalting – criticism still existed and was still at
work in science itself: not the endless round of philosophical polemic that never leads to any
agreement, but the effective, step-by-step criticism that determines the truth for everyone. This
criticism destroyed illusions in order to grasp the really knowable in greater purity.

Also, there were great scientific events that broke through all dogmatism. At the turn of
the century, with the discovery of radioactivity and the beginnings of quantum theory, began the
intellectual relativising of the rigid shell of the mechanistic view of nature. There began the
development which has continued to this day, of ideas of discovery that no longer led into the
cul-de-sac of a nature existing and known in itself. The earlier alternative, of either assuming that
we know the reality of nature in itself, or else believing that we operate with mere fictions in
order to be able to describe natural phenomena in the simplest way, collapsed. Precisely by
breaking through every absolute, one was in touch with every reality open to investigation
 4. Why research requires philosophy

Research philosophy deals with the source, nature and development of knowledge[1]. In simple
terms, research philosophy is belief about the ways in which data about a phenomenon should be
collected, analysed and used.

Although the idea of knowledge creation may appear to be profound, you are engaged in
knowledge creation as part of completing your dissertation. You will collect secondary and
primary data and engage in data analysis to answer the research question and this answer marks
the creation of new knowledge.

In respect to business and economics philosophy has the following important three functions[2]:

1. Demystifying: Exposing, criticising and explaining the unsustainable assumptions,

inconsistencies and confusions these may contain.
2. Informing: Helping researchers to understand where they stand in the wider field of
knowledge-producing activities, and helping to make them aware of potentialities they
might explore.
3. Method-facilitating: Dissecting and better understanding the methods which economists
or, more generally, scientists do, or could, use, and thereby to refine the methods on offer
and/or to clarify their conditions of usage.

In essence, addressing research philosophy in your dissertation involves being aware and
formulating your beliefs and assumptions.  As illustrated in figure below, the identification of
research philosophy is positioned at the outer layer of the ‘research onion’. Accordingly it is the
first topic to be clarified in research methodology chapter of your dissertation.