Report

Theme: Canada

10e-22 group’s student Saydullayeva Ozoda

20.02.2023
Plan:
1. Etymology
2. History
3. Geography
4. Government and politics
5. Demographics
6. Culture
7. References
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three
territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into
the Arctic Ocean, covering over 9.98 million square kilometres (3.85 million
square miles), making it the world's second-largest country by total area. Its
southern and western border with the United States, stretching 8,891 kilometres
(5,525 mi), is the world's longest binational land border. Canada's capital
is Ottawa, and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal,
and Vancouver.
Indigenous peoples have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for
thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, British and French expeditions
explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various
armed conflicts, France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763.
In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies
through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four
provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of
increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This widening autonomy was
highlighted by the Statute of Westminster 1931 and culminated in the Canada Act
1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the
United Kingdom.
Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy in
the Westminster tradition. The country's head of government is the prime minister,
who holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the
elected House of Commons, and is appointed by the governor general,
representing the monarch of Canada, the head of state. The country is
a Commonwealth realm and is officially bilingual (English and French) at the
federal level. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of
government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic
freedom, education, gender equality and environmental sustainability. It is one of
the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-
scale immigration. Canada's long and complex relationship with the United
States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture.
A highly developed country, Canada has the 24th highest nominal per capita
income globally and the fifteenth-highest ranking on the Human Development
Index. Its advanced economy is the eighth-largest in the world, relying chiefly
upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade
networks. Canada is part of several major international and intergovernmental
institutions or groupings including the United Nations, NATO, G7, Group of
Ten, G20, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD), World Trade Organization (WTO), Commonwealth of
Nations, Arctic Council, Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, Asia-
Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, and Organization of American States.
Etymology
Main article: Name of Canada
While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins
of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence
Iroquoian word kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement". In 1535, Indigenous
inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French
explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona. Cartier later used the
word Canada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area
subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona); by 1545, European books and
maps had begun referring to this small region along the Saint Lawrence
River as Canada.
From the 16th to the early 18th century, "Canada" referred to the part of New
France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two
British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada. These two colonies
were collectively named the Canadas until their union as the British Province of
Canada in 1841.
Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new
country at the London Conference, and the word Dominion was conferred as the
country's title. By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by
the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "Realm of the
Commonwealth". The government of Louis St. Laurent ended the practice of
using Dominion in the statutes of Canada in 1951.
The Canada Act 1982, which brought the constitution of Canada fully under
Canadian control, referred only to Canada. Later that year, the name of the
national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day. The
term Dominion was used to distinguish the federal government from the
provinces, though after the Second World War the term federal had
replaced dominion.
History
Main article: History of Canada
Further information: Timeline of Canadian history and Historiography of Canada

Indigenous peoples
Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit,
and Métis, the last being of mixed descent who originated in the mid-17th century
when First Nations people married European settlers and subsequently developed
their own identity.
The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have
migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000
years ago. The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish
Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.
The characteristics of Indigenous societies included permanent settlements,
agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks. Some of these
cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and
early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological
investigations.
The Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is
estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million, with a figure of 500,000
accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. As a
consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by
forty to eighty percent, and several First Nations, such as the Beothuk,
disappeared. The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of
European diseases, such as influenza, measles, and smallpox to which they had
no natural immunity, conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial
authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the
subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.
Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First
Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful. First Nations and Métis
peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada,
particularly for their role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in
their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade. The Crown
and Indigenous peoples began interactions during the European colonization
period, though the Inuit, in general, had more limited interaction with European
settlers. From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous
peoples to assimilate into a western culture. These attempts reached a climax in
the late 19th and early 20th centuries with forced integration and relocations. A
period of redress is underway, which started with the appointment of the Truth and
Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada in 2008.
European colonization
It is believed that the first European to explore the east coast of Canada
was Norse explorer Leif Erikson. In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a
small short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20
years at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland. No further
European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer John
Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of King Henry
VII of England. In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of
Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the
words "Long Live the King of France" and took possession of the territory New
France in the name of King Francis I. The early 16th century saw European
mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by
the Basque and Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts
along the Atlantic coast. In general, early settlements during the Age of
Discovery appear to have been short-lived due to a combination of the harsh
climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in
Scandinavia.
In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I,
founded St. John's, Newfoundland, as the first North American English seasonal
camp. In 1600, the French established their first seasonal trading post
at Tadoussac along the Saint Lawrence. French explorer Samuel de
Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent year-round
European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608). Among
the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence
River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders
and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and
the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana. The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-
17th century over control of the North American fur trade.
The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 along
with settlements in the Thirteen Colonies to the south. A series of four
wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of
the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years'
War. Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of
Utrecht, and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763
after the Seven Years' War.
The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States
and the United Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed.
Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain
between 1815 and 1850. New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish
Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances.
Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who
immigrated to Canada before 1891. The desire for responsible
government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837. The Durham
Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation
of French Canadians into English culture. The Act of Union 1840 merged the
Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was
established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by
1855. The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846
ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along
the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island
(1849) and in British Columbia (1858). The Anglo-Russian Treaty of Saint
Petersburg (1825) established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after
the US Alaska Purchase of 1867, disputes continued about the exact demarcation
of the Alaska–Yukon and Alaska–BC border.
Confederation and expansion

Following several constitutional conferences, the British North America Act

1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with
four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Canada
assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form
the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River
Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870. British
Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the
confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to
Victoria in the province within 10 years, while Prince Edward Island joined in
1873. In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories,
Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became
provinces in 1905. Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian
population emigrated south to the US.
To open the West and encourage European immigration, Parliament approved
sponsoring the construction of three transcontinental railways (including
the Canadian Pacific Railway), opening the prairies to settlement with
the Dominion Lands Act, and establishing the North-West Mounted Police to
assert its authority over this territory. This period of westward
expansion and nation building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous
peoples of the Canadian Prairies to "Indian reserves",clearing the way for ethnic
European block settlements. This caused the collapse of the Plains Bison in
western Canada and the introduction of European cattle farms and wheat
fields dominating the land. The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and
disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands. The federal
government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples
moving to the reserves. During this time, Canada introduced the Indian
Act extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal
rights.
Early 20th century
1918 Canadian War bond posters depicting three French women pulling a plow that had been
constructed for horses.

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the
British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically
brought Canada into World War I. Volunteers sent to the Western Front later
became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle
of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war. Out of approximately
625,000 Canadians who served in World War I, some 60,000 were killed and
another 172,000 were wounded. The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when
the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of
active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-
speaking Quebecers. The Military Service Act brought in compulsory military
service, though it, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside
Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the
Liberal Party. In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of
Britain, and the Statute of Westminster, 1931 affirmed Canada's independence.
The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic
downturn, leading to hardship across the country. In response to the downturn,
the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced
many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s
and 1950s. On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, war
with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI,
seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's
independence. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939.
In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during World War
II and approximately 42,000 were killed and another 55,000 were
wounded. Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war,
including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy
landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944. Canada
provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is
credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi
Germany.
The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured
military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union. Despite
another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a
large army and strong economy.
Contemporary era
The financial crisis of the Great Depression had led the Dominion of
Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown
colony ruled by a British governor. After two referendums, Newfoundlanders voted
to join Canada in 1949 as a province. Canada's post-war economic growth,
combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the
emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the Maple Leaf
Flag in 1965, the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in
1969, and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971. Socially
democratic programs were also instituted, such as Medicare, the Canada Pension
Plan, and Canada Student Loans, though provincial governments, particularly
Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.

Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the UK's Canada

Act 1982, the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom,
concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and
Freedoms. Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent
country under its own monarchy. In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third
territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government. At the same
time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through
the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement.
The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a
series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970 and the sovereignist Parti
Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on
sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism
constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990. This led to the
formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform
Party of Canada in the West. A second referendum followed in 1995, in which
sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent. In 1997,
the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be
unconstitutional and the Clarity Act was passed by parliament, outlining the terms
of a negotiated departure from Confederation.
In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook
Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion
of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian
history; the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting
female students; and the Oka Crisis of 1990, the first of a number of violent
confrontations between the government and Indigenous groups. Canada also
joined the Gulf War in 1990 as part of a United States–led coalition force and was
active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including
the UNPROFOR mission in the former Yugoslavia. Canada sent troops to
Afghanistan in 2001 but declined to join the United States–led invasion of Iraq in
2003. In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into
the Libyan Civil War, and also became involved in battling the Islamic
State insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s. The country celebrated its
sesquicentennial in 2017, three years before the COVID-19 pandemic in
Canada began, on January 27, 2020, with wide social and economic disruption. In
2021, the possible remains of hundreds of Indigenous people were
discovered near the former sites of Canadian Indian residential
schools. Administered by the Canadian Catholic Church and funded by the
Canadian government from 1828 to 1997, these boarding schools attempted to
assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture.

Geography
Main article: Geography of Canada

By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the

world, after Russia. By land area alone, Canada ranks fourth, due to having the
world's largest area of fresh water lakes. Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the
east, along the Arctic Ocean to the north, and to the Pacific Ocean in the west, the
country encompasses 9,984,670 km2 (3,855,100 sq mi) of territory. Canada also
has vast maritime terrain, with the world's longest coastline of 243,042 kilometres
(151,019 mi). In addition to sharing the world's largest land border with the United
States—spanning 8,891 km (5,525 mi)—Canada shares a land border
with Greenland (and hence the Kingdom of Denmark) to the northeast on Hans
Islandand a maritime boundary with France's overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre
and Miquelon to the southeast. Canada is also home to the world's northernmost
settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island
—latitude 82.5°N—which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole.
Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the Canadian Shield,
the interior plains, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachian
region, the Western Cordillera, Hudson Bay Lowlands and the Arctic
Archipelago. Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent
in northern Arctic regions and through the Rocky Mountains, and the relatively
flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture. The Great
Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where the lowlands host
much of Canada's economic output. Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of
which are larger than 100 km2 (39 sq mi)—containing much of the world's fresh
water. There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies, the Coast
Mountains and the Arctic Cordillera. Canada is geologically active, having many
earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably Mount Meager
massif, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley, and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex.
Climate
Main article: Temperature in Canada

Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region

to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the
interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily
average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F)
with severe wind chills. In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for
almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-
round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy
winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in
the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high
temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some
interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).
Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost. The future of the
permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the
global average as a result of climate change in Canada. Canada's annual average
temperature over land has risen by 1.7 °C (3.1 °F), with changes ranging from 1.1
to 2.3 °C (2.0 to 4.1 °F) in various regions, since 1948. The rate of warming has
been higher across the North and in the Prairies. In the southern regions of
Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal
smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted
in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth and
agricultural productivity in Canada.

Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of Canada

Canada is divided into fifteen terrestrial and five marine ecozones. These

ecozones encompass over 80,000 classified species of Canadian wildlife, with an
equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered. Although Canada has
a low percentage of endemic species compared to other countries, due to human
activities, invasive species and environmental issues in the country, there are
currently more than 800 species at risk of being lost. About 65 percent of
Canada's resident species are considered "Secure". Over half of Canada's
landscape is intact and relatively free of human development. The boreal forest of
Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with approximately
3,000,000 km2 (1,200,000 sq mi) undisturbed by roads, cities or industry. Since
the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest
regions, with 42 percent of its land area covered by forests (approximately 8
percent of the world's forested land).
Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater
are conservation areas, including 11.4 percent designated as protected
areas. Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including
8.9 percent designated as protected areas. Canada's first National Park, Banff
National Park established in 1885, spans 6,641 square kilometres (2,564 sq mi) of
mountainous terrain, with many glaciers and ice fields, dense coniferous forest,
and alpine landscapes. Canada's oldest provincial park, Algonquin Provincial
Park, established in 1893, covers an area of 7,653.45 square kilometres
(2,955.01 sq mi). It is dominated by old-growth forest with over 2,400 lakes and
1,200 kilometres of streams and rivers. Lake Superior National Marine
Conservation Area is the world's largest freshwater protected area, spanning
roughly 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi) of lakebed, its overlaying
freshwater, and associated shoreline on 60 square kilometres (23 sq mi) of
islands and mainland. Canada's largest national wildlife region is the Scott Islands
Marine National Wildlife Area, which spans 11,570.65 square kilometres
(4,467.45 sq mi) and protects critical breeding and nesting habitat for over 40
percent of British Columbia's seabirds. Canada's 18 UNESCO Biosphere
Reserves cover a total area of 235,000 square kilometres (91,000 sq mi).

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Canada and Politics of Canada

Canada is described as a "full democracy",with a tradition of liberalism, and

an egalitarian, moderate political ideology. An emphasis on social justice has
been a distinguishing element of Canada's political culture. Peace, order, and
good government, alongside an Implied Bill of Rights, are founding principles of
the Canadian government. At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by
two relatively centrist parties practising "brokerage politics", the centre-
left leaning Liberal Party of Canada and the centre-right leaning Conservative
Party of Canada (or its predecessors). Historically, the Liberal Party position
themselves at the centre of the Canadian political spectrum, with the Conservative
Party positioned on the right and the New Democratic Party occupying
the left. Far-right and far-left politics have never been a prominent force in
Canadian society. Five parties had representatives elected to the Parliament in
the 2021 election—the Liberal Party, who currently form a minority government;
the Conservative Party, who are the Official Opposition; the New Democratic
Party; the Bloc Québécois; and the Green Party of Canada. Canada has
a parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional monarchy—
the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive, legislative,
and judicial branches. The reigning monarch is King Charles III, who is also
monarch of 14 other Commonwealth countries and each of Canada's 10
provinces. The person who is the Canadian monarch is the same as the British
monarch, although the two institutions are separate. The monarch appoints a
representative, the governor general, with the advice of the prime minister to carry
out most of their federal royal duties in Canada. While the monarchy is the source
of authority in Canada, in practice its position is symbolic. The use of the
executive powers is directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the
Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by
the prime minister (at present Justin Trudeau), the head of government. The
governor general or monarch may, though, in certain crisis situations exercise
their power without ministerial advice. To ensure the stability of government, the
governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the individual who is the
current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in
the House of Commons. The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is thus one of the
most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for
parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the
aforementioned, the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal
court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies. The
leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the leader of the
Official Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to
keep the government in check.

Each of the 338 members of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by

simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. General elections in Canada must
be called by the governor general, triggered by either the advice of the prime
minister or a lost confidence vote in the House. The Constitution Act,
1982 requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although
the Canada Elections Act limits this to four years with a fixed election date in
October. The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a
regional basis, serve until age 75. Canadian federalism divides government
responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces. Provincial
legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the
House of Commons. Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these
are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the
provinces. The territorial legislatures also differ structurally from their provincial
counterparts.
The Bank of Canada is the central bank of the country. The minister of
finance and minister of innovation, science and industry use the Statistics
Canada agency for financial planning and economic policy development. The
Bank of Canada is the sole authority authorized to issue currency in the form
of Canadian bank notes. The bank does not issue Canadian coins; they are
issued by the Royal Canadian Mint.

Law
Main article: Law of Canada

The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country and consists of

written text and unwritten conventions. The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as
the British North America Act, 1867 prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on
parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial
governments. The Statute of Westminster, 1931, granted full autonomy, and
the'Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a
constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and
Freedoms. The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot
be over-ridden by any government—though a notwithstanding clause allows
Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the
Charter for a period of five years.

Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power
to strike down Acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court
of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led since December
18, 2017, by Richard Wagner, the chief justice of Canada. The governor general
appoints its nine members on the advice of the prime minister and minister of
justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after
consultation with non-governmental legal bodies. The federal Cabinet also
appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.
Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil
law predominates. Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform
throughout Canada. Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a
provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces. In
most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the
federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.
Canadian Aboriginal law provides certain constitutionally recognized rights to
land and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada. Various treaties
and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and
many Indigenous peoples. Most notably, a series of eleven treaties known as
the Numbered Treaties were signed between the Indigenous peoples and the
reigning monarch of Canada between 1871 and 1921. These treaties are
agreements between the Canadian Crown-in-Council with the duty to consult and
accommodate. The role of Aboriginal law and the rights they support were
reaffirmed by section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982. These rights may include
provision of services, such as health care through the Indian Health Transfer
Policy, and exemption from taxation.

Provinces and territories

Main article: Provinces and territories of Canada

See also: Canadian federalism

Canada is a federation composed of ten federated states called provinces and

three federal territories. In turn, these may be grouped into four main
regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern
Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together).
Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as health
care, education, and welfare, as well as administration of justice (but not criminal
law). Together, the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, a
rarity among other federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal
government can initiate national policies in provincial areas such as health and
child care; the provinces can opt out of these cost-share programs but rarely do
so in practice. Equalization payments are made by the federal government to
ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between
the richer and poorer provinces.
The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that
provinces receive their power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867,
whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament
of Canada. The powers flowing from the Constitution Act, 1867, are divided
between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise
exclusively. As the division of powers between the federal government and the
provinces is defined in the constitution, any changes require a constitutional
amendment. The territories being creatures of the federal government, changes to
their role and division of powers may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament
of Canada.

Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Canada and List of cities in Canada

The 2021 Canadian census enumerated a total population of 36,991,981, an

increase of around 5.2 percent over the 2016 figure. The main drivers of
population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth. Canada
has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world, driven mainly
by economic policy and also family reunification. A record number of 405,000
immigrants were admitted to Canada in 2021. New immigrants settle mostly
in major urban areas in the country, such as Toronto, Montreal and
Vancouver. Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees, accounting for over
10 percent of annual global refugee resettlements; it resettled more than 28,000 in
2018.
Canada's population density, at 4.2 inhabitants per square kilometre (11/sq mi), is
among the lowest in the world. Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel
north to the 41st parallel north, and approximately 95 percent of the population is
found south of the 55th parallel north. About four-fifths of the population lives
within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the border with the contiguous United States. The
most densely populated part of the country, accounting for nearly 50 percent, is
the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario
along the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River.
The majority of Canadians (81.1 percent) live in family households, 12.1 percent
report living alone, and those living with other relatives or unrelated persons
reported at 6.8 percent. Fifty-one percent of households are couples with or
without children, 8.7 percent are single-parent
households, 2.9 percent are multigenerational households, and 29.3 percent are
single-person households.
Health
Main article: Healthcare in Canada

Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems

of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare. It is guided by the
provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984and is universal. Universal access to
publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a
fundamental value that ensures national health care insurance for everyone
wherever they live in the country." Around 30 percent of Canadians' healthcare is
paid for through the private sector. This mostly pays for services not covered or
partially covered by Medicare, such as prescription
drugs, dentistry and optometry. Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians
have some form of supplementary health insurance related to the aforementioned
reasons; many receive it through their employers or access secondary social
service programs related to extended coverage for families receiving social
assistance or vulnerable demographics, such as seniors, minors, and those with
disabilities.

In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing an

increase in healthcare expenditures due to a demographic shift toward an older
population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the
average age in Canada was 39.5 years; it rose to 42.4 years by 2018before falling
slightly to 41.9 in 2021. Life expectancy is 81.1 years. A 2016 report by the chief
public health officer found that 88 percent of Canadians, one of the highest
proportions of the population among G7 countries, indicated that they "had good
or very good health". Eighty percent of Canadian adults self-report having at least
one major risk factor for chronic disease: smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy
eating or excessive alcohol use. Canada has one of the highest rates of adult
obesity among Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) countries, contributing to approximately 2.7 million cases
of diabetes (types 1 and 2 combined). Four chronic diseases—cancer (leading
cause of death), cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases and diabetes—
account for 65 percent of deaths in Canada. In 2021, the Canadian Institute for
Health Information reported that healthcare spending reached $308 billion, or 12.7
percent of Canada's GDP for that year. Canada's per-capita spending on health
expenditures ranked 4th among health-care systems in the OECD. Canada has
performed close to, or above the average on the majority of OECD health
indicators since the early 2000s, ranking above the average on OECD indicators
for wait-times and access to care, with average scores for quality of care and use
of resources. The Commonwealth Fund's 2021 report comparing the healthcare
systems of the 11 most developed countries ranked Canada second-to-
last. Identified weaknesses were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the
prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours
care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage. An increasing problem
in Canada's health system is a lack of healthcare professionals.
Ethnicity
Main article: Ethnic origins of people in Canada

According to the 2021 Canadian census, over 450 "ethnic or cultural origins" were
self-reported by Canadians. The major panethnic groups chosen
were: European (52.5 percent), North
American (22.9 percent), Asian (19.3 percent), North American
Indigenous (6.1 percent), African (3.8 percent), Latin, Central and South
American (2.5 percent), Caribbean (2.1 percent), Oceanian (0.3 percent), and
other (6 percent). Statistics Canada reports that 35.5 percent of the population
reported multiple ethnic origins, thus the overall total is greater than 100 percent.
The country's ten largest self-reported specific ethnic or cultural origins in 2021
were Canadian (accounting for 15.6 percent of the population), followed
by English (14.7 percent), Irish (12.1 percent), Scottish (12.1 percent), French (11.
0 percent), German (8.1 percent), Chinese (4.7 percent), Italian (4.3 percent), Indi
an (3.7 percent), and Ukrainian (3.5 percent).
Of the 36.3 million people enumerated in 2021, approximately 25.4 million
reported being "White", representing 69.8 percent of the population. The
Indigenous population representing 5 percent or 1.8 million individuals, grew by
9.4 percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by
5.3 percent from 2016 to 2021. One out of every four Canadians or 26.5 percent
of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous visible minority,
the largest of which in 2021 were South Asian (2.6 million people; 7.1 percent),
Chinese (1.7 million; 4.7 percent) and Black (1.5 million; 4.3 percent).
Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent. In
1961, about 300,000 people, less than two percent of Canada's population, were
members of visible minority groups. The 2021 census indicated that 8.3 million
people, or almost one-quarter (23.0 percent) of the population, reported
themselves as being or having been a landed immigrant or permanent resident in
Canada—above the 1921 census previous record of 22.3 percent. In 2021, India,
China, and the Philippines were the top three countries of origin for immigrants
moving to Canada.
Languages
Main article: Languages of Canada

A multitude of languages are used by Canadians,

with English and French (the official languages) being the mother tongues of
approximately 54 percent and 19 percent of Canadians, respectively. As of the
2021 Census, just over 7.8 million Canadians listed a non-official language as
their mother tongue. Some of the most common non-official first languages
include Mandarin (679,255 first-language
speakers), Punjabi (666,585), Cantonese (553,380), Spanish
(538,870), Arabic (508,410), Tagalog (461,150), Italian (319,505), and German
(272,865). Canada's federal government practices official bilingualism, which is
applied by the commissioner of official languages in consonance with section 16
of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the federal Official
Languages Act. English and French have equal status in federal courts,
Parliament, and in all federal institutions. Citizens have the right, where there is
sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or
French and official-language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all
provinces and territories.
The 1977 Charter of the French Language established French as the official
language of Quebec. Although more than 82 percent of French-speaking
Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in New
Brunswick, Alberta, and Manitoba; Ontario has the largest French-speaking
population outside Quebec. New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province,
has a French-speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the
population. There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on
Cape Breton Island, and through central and western Prince Edward Island. Other
provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of
instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English.
Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in
the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario,
French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official. There are 11 Indigenous
language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct languages and
dialects. Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest
Territories. Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and is one of three official
languages in the territory. Additionally, Canada is home to many sign languages,
some of which are Indigenous. American Sign Language (ASL) is used across the
country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools. Due to its
historical relation to the francophone culture, Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) is
used primarily in Quebec, although there are sizeable Francophone communities
in New Brunswick, Ontario and Manitoba.
Religion
Main article: Religion in Canada

Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs.

Although the Constitution of Canada refers to God and the monarch carries the
title of "Defender of the Faith", Canada has no official church, and the government
is officially committed to religious pluralism. Freedom of religion in Canada is a
constitutionally protected right, allowing individuals to assemble and worship
without limitation or interference. The "Fundamental Freedoms" section of
the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms states:
2. Everyone has the following fundamental freedoms:
(a) freedom of conscience and religion;
(b) freedom of thought, belief, opinion and expression, including freedom of
the press and other media of communication;
(c) freedom of peaceful assembly; and
(d) freedom of association.
The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter throughout society
and the state. With Christianity in decline after having once been central and
integral to Canadian culture and daily life, Canada has become a post-
Christian, secular state. The majority of Canadians consider religion to be
unimportant in their daily lives, but still believe in God.
According to the 2021 census, Christianity is the largest religion in Canada,
with Roman Catholics having the most adherents. Christians, representing
53.3 percent of the population in 2021, are followed by people reporting irreligion
or having no religion at 34.6 percent. Other faiths
include Islam (4.9 percent), Hinduism (2.3 percent), Sikhism (2.1 percent), Buddhi
sm (1.0 percent), Judaism (0.9 percent), and Indigenous
spirituality (0.2 percent). Rates of religious adherence are steadily
decreasing. Canada has the second-largest national Sikh population,
behind India.

Culture
Main article: Culture of Canada

Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent

nationalities, and policies that promote a "just society" are constitutionally
protected. Canada has placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all its
people. The official state policy of multiculturalism is often cited as one of
Canada's significant accomplishments, and a key distinguishing element of
Canadian identity. In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and there is a French
Canadian culture that is distinct from English Canadian culture. As a whole,
Canada is in theory a cultural mosaic of regional ethnic subcultures.
Canada's approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism, which is based
on selective immigration, social integration, and suppression of far-right politics,
has wide public support. Government policies such as publicly funded health
care, higher taxation to redistribute wealth, the outlawing of capital punishment,
strong efforts to eliminate poverty, strict gun control, a social liberal attitude
toward women's rights (like pregnancy termination) and LGBTQ rights,
legalized euthanasia and cannabis use are indicators of Canada's political
and cultural values. Canadians also identify with the country's foreign aid policies,
peacekeeping roles, the National park system and the Canadian Charter of Rights
and Freedoms.
Historically, Canada has been influenced by British, French, and Indigenous
cultures and traditions. Through their language, art and music, Indigenous
peoples continue to influence the Canadian identity. During the 20th century,
Canadians with African, Caribbean and Asian nationalities have added to the
Canadian identity and its culture. Canadian humour is an integral part of the
Canadian identity and is reflected in its folklore, literature, music, art, and media.
The primary characteristics of Canadian humour are irony, parody, and satire.

Symbols
Main article: National symbols of Canada

Themes of nature, pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the
early development of Canadian symbolism. Modern symbols emphasize the
country's geography, cold climate, lifestyles and the Canadianization of traditional
European and Indigenous symbols. The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian
symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on
Canada's current and previous flags, and on the Arms of Canada. Canada's
official tartan, known as the "maple leaf tartan", has four colours that reflect the
colours of the maple leaf as it changes through the seasons—green in the spring,
gold in the early autumn, red at the first frost, and brown after falling. The Arms of
Canada are closely modelled after the royal coat of arms of the United
Kingdom with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to
those derived from the British version.
Other prominent symbols include the national motto "A mari usque ad mare"
("From Sea to Sea"), the sports of ice hockey and lacrosse, the beaver, Canada
goose, common loon, Canadian horse, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the
Canadian Rockies, and more recently the totem pole and Inuksuk. Material items
such as Canadian beer, maple syrup, tuques, canoes, nanaimo bars, butter
tarts and the Quebec dish of poutine are defined as uniquely Canadian. Canadian
coins feature many of these symbols: the loon on the $1 coin, the Arms of Canada
on the 50¢ piece, and the beaver on the nickel. The penny, removed from
circulation in 2013, featured the maple leaf. An image of the previous monarch,
Queen Elizabeth II, appears on $20 bank notes, and on the obverse of all current
Canadian coins.
References

1.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada
2.https://www.canada.ca/en/services/immigration-
citizenship.html
3.https://www.britannica.com/place/Canada
4.https://www.educanada.ca/index.aspx?lang=eng
5.https://www.gazette.gc.ca/accueil-home-eng.html