Presentation of Literature Review (structure)

Literature review structure: In presenting literature review, one has to

introduce the topic and the context within which is found. Examine the past
research in the area highlighting methodological and/theoretical developments,
areas of agreement, contention on related studies and the findings. Keep the
focus on your area of interest and identify gaps in the existing research that
you are interest to fill. State clearly how your work builds or responds to
earlier works and summarize what has emerged from the review of literature
and reiterate the conclusions.

The presentation of literature review should include the researcher’s personal

understanding/implications of the literature reviewed with respect to their
study in terms of the methodology, variables used and methods of analysis
(qualitative/quantitative). This should include the overall trends in what has
been published on the topic by other authors.

To summarize the literature and for every article or source:-

1. Introduce the author, the source (Journal, World Bank publication) title of
the article, the sample size, methodology and the findings that are
significant to your study.
2. Include the author’s thesis statement of the overall purpose of the research,
the factors discussed throughout in the thesis according to your personal
interpretation in terms of how it is relevant to your study in terms of
methodology, variables and measurements or techniques used in data
collection and analysis, findings and conclusions drawn.
3. Present others thesis statements of other authors who researched on similar
or related research questions stating their similarity/peculiar differences in
methodology, analysis or findings in a chronological order in any case by
your researcher’s objectives.

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4. This should continue until you have reached a point of saturation ie finding
no new literature about the issue you are investigating and in addition being
certain that the literature reviewed is enough to generate a suitable
theoretical/conceptual framework that you can base on to implement your
research objective/s. This should be done by specific objective of the study
and presented by section.

5. At the end of the literature review, the researcher then can draw from the
literature either a conceptual or theoretical frame work that s/he will use in
the study. Clearly indentifying the independent and dependent variables
and the measurement procedures including the hypotheses.

Sequencing of Literature Review.

In the body of the thesis, literature should be grouped as follows:-

a. Group articles together according to: themes, specific purposes/

objective, factors/variables, conclusions of authors of the study
b. Compare and evaluate the articles or documents as you review the
literature trying to figure out its relevance to the study in question. This
should be done in terms of the study objectives, the variables the
other researchers used in their studies, the data collected (primary
or secondary, the methodology used, how the data was analysed
(qualitative /quantitative and the conclusions drawn by the other
scholars.
c. Do this for every relevant author of literature you come across. Group
the literature according to the study objective and conclude with you
personal interpretation of the literature according the personal
understanding of the type of data in terms of variables used, methods for
getting data (sources and types of data). And what is currently trending
in the area of research ie. methodology, data analysis methods and their
conclusions.

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 Do this for every piece of literature you find until you reach a point of
saturation. (When here is nothing new that you are adding to the
literature review).
This will support you to develop a conceptual framework/theoretical
frame work for your study, and also to develop a methodology and data
analysis methods to use in your study.

It should be noted that when reviewing or presenting results, this should be

done in levels, Level 1 headings introduce a new thought, idea, argument, or
topic. Level 1 headings are helpful because they allow readers to clearly
indicate a new section within the review or write up in the final thesis. Each
Level 1 Subheading should be flushed left on the page and formatted in ALL -
CAPS

A Level 2 heading is used when one of the main ideas of the paper can be
broken down further into sub-sections. Level 2 headings should be typed in
Title Case, italicized, and flushed left on the page

Throughout the paper, take note of how the writing is very sterile (clean) and
objective. Description, especially narrative description, is not used, and the
writing instead focuses on reporting “cold hard” information. ie. There should
be an absence of judgment or argumentative statements. All references to
situations of phenomena being “bad,” “good,” “positive,” or “negative” should be
omitted. It should be noted that literature reviews are objective reports of
the material and do not argue a point.

As you write your conclusion of the literature review:

1. Develop a summary of points from the article into a closing paragraph

2. Consider developing a single sentence at the end of the conclusion that

points readers to a new area for research/scholars to consider

3. Consider the discipline of which it is a part.

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4. Provide implications of the studies or documents discussed for the
profession or discipline at large.

All references used should be cited on the references page! According to ASA,
citations of peer-reviewed journal articles should be formatted as such:

Last name, First name. Year. “Title of Article in Quotation Marks.” The Title of
the Journal in italics Volume Number (Issue Number):page numbers.

Citations should be formatted in alphabetical order (A-Z) with a hanging

indent. For more information on citing sources, refer to an ASA Publication
Manual Sociology Literature Review/ASA Citation Style

According to ASA formatting, the title page should only include the following
information: Title of the Essay Name of Student Name of School Word Count
*This information should be double- spaced and centered on the page

This thesis statement clearly states the main topic that will be discussed
throughout the literature review. Typically, thesis statements are placed at the
very end of the introductory paragraph(s).

The first sentence in this paragraph is an example of a strong topic sentence.

Topic sentences introduce the reader to the content that will follow throughout
the paragraph. When forming topic sentences, it helps to look at the entire
paragraph and ask, “What is this paragraph about?” Being able to answer this
question in a single statement will help you formulate an effective topic
sentence.

A literature review can be challenging to write because it should not be a

source-by-source summary, but instead it should synthesize or bring multiple
sources together. Each paragraph within a literature review should contain at
least two sources that speak to the same sociological factor. The researcher’s
goal is to essentially highlight the relationship between sources. In other
words, the goal is to discover if researchers agree or disagree on a given factor.

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Notice the way that this and all other paragraphs include the findings from
multiple sources/ groups of authors to support one point. Also notice that the
discussion of each source is concise and limited to their relevance of the topic
stated in the topic sentence.

Take notice of the use of in-text citations throughout the literature review.
When citing several sources after one sentence/idea, separate authors’ names
with semi- colons. Keep in mind with ASA formatting, any time a paraphrase,
direct quotation, borrowed phrase, or quantitative data (financial figures,
statistics, sales numbers, etc.) is referenced, the in-text citation must also
include a page number or paragraph number. Examples: (“2014 Annual
Report” 2013:312)

The title of the essay should also be placed on the second page of the essay.
The title should be centered.

This thesis statement clearly states the main topic that will be discussed
throughout the literature review. Typically, thesis statements are placed at the
very end of the introductory paragraph(s).

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 Developing a theoretical framework

Importance of Theory
Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena and,
in many cases, to challenge and extend existing knowledge within the limits of
critical bounding assumptions. The theoretical framework is the structure that
can hold or support a theory of a research study. The theoretical framework
introduces and describes the theory that explains why the research problem
under study exists.

Importance of Theoretical framework

A theoretical framework consists of concepts and, together with their
definitions and reference to relevant scholarly literature, existing theory that is
used for a particular study. The theoretical framework demonstrates an
understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of
research and that which relate to the broader areas of knowledge being
considered.

The theoretical framework is often not readily found within the literature. The
researcher must review course readings and pertinent research studies for
theories and analytic models that are relevant to the research problem they are
investigating. The selection of a theory should depend on its appropriateness,
ease of application, and explanatory power.
The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways:
1. It is an explicit statement of theoretical assumptions that permits the
reader to evaluate the researcher critically.
2. The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge.
Guided by a relevant theory, the researcher is given a basis for his/her
hypotheses and choice of research methods.
3. Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces the
researcher to address questions of why and how. It permits his/her to

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 intellectual transit from simply describing a phenomenon they have
observed to generalizing about various aspects of that phenomenon.
4. Having a theory supports the researcher to identify the limits to those
generalizations.

A theoretical framework therefore specifies which key variables influence a

phenomenon of interest and highlights the need to examine how those key
variables might differ and under what circumstances.

Therefore by virtue of its applicative nature, a good theory in the social

sciences is of value precisely because it fulfills one primary purpose: to explain
the meaning, nature, and challenges associated with a phenomenon, often
experienced but unexplained in the world in which we live, so that one may use
that knowledge and understanding to act in more informed and effective ways.

Strategies for Developing the Theoretical Framework

Here are some strategies to develop of an effective theoretical framework:
Examine your thesis title and research problem. The research problem is the
anchor of your entire study and forms the basis from which you construct your
theoretical framework.

Brainstorm about what you consider to be the key variables in the research.
Consider what factors contribute to the presumed effect; Review related
literature to find how others scholars have addressed similar or related
research problems; Identify the assumptions from which the other author(s)
addressed the problem and list the constructs and variables that might be
relevant to your study.

Group these variables into independent and dependent categories. Review key
social science theories that have been introduced to you in your course
readings and choose the theory that can best explain the relationships between
the key variables in your study. Discuss the assumptions or propositions of
this theory and point out their relevance to your research.

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A theoretical framework is used to limit the scope of the relevant data by
focusing on specific variables and defining the specific viewpoint that the
researcher will take in analyzing and interpreting the data to be gathered. It
also facilitates the understanding of concepts and variables according to given
definitions and builds new knowledge by validating or challenging theoretical
assumptions.

The purpose is to think of theories that enable one to think of theories as a

conceptual basis for understanding, analyzing, and designing ways to
investigate relationships within social systems.

From this perspective, the following rules and aided by a theory can guide the
development of a theoretical framework.

a. It is a means by which new research data can be interpreted and coded

for future use,
b. It is a response to new problems that have no previously identified
solutions strategy,
c. It is a means for identifying and defining research problems.
d. It is a means for prescribing or evaluating solutions to research
problems.
e. It provides ways of discerning certain facts among the accumulated
knowledge that are important and which facts are not,
f. It is a means of giving old data new interpretations and new meaning,
g. It is a means by which to identify important new issues and prescribe the
most critical research questions that need to be answered to maximize
understanding of the issue,
h. It is a means of providing members of a professional discipline with a
common language and a frame of reference for defining the boundaries of
their profession, and
i. It is a means to guide and inform research so that it can, in turn, guide
research efforts and improve professional practice.

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Structure and writing style of a theoretical framework

The theoretical framework may be rooted in a specific theory, in which case,

your work is expected to test the validity of that existing theory in relation to
specific events, issues, or phenomena. Many social science research questions
fit into this rubric.

However, you may not always be required to test a specific theory in your
research, but to develop your own framework from which to analysis of the
research problem. It is best to understand the nature and function of a
theoretical framework if it is viewed as an answer to specific questions: One
should justify the application of their choice of a particular theory and explain
why alternative constructs were rejected.

The answers to these questions come from a thorough review of the literature
and your course readings and the gaps in the research that emerge from the
review process. With this in mind, a complete theoretical framework will likely
not emerge until after you have completed a thorough review of the literature.

Just as a research problem in your paper requires contextualization and

background information, a theory requires a framework for understanding its
application to the topic being investigated. When writing and revising this part
of your research paper, keep in mind the following:

a. Clearly describe the framework, concepts, models, or specific theories that

underpin your study. This includes noting who the key theorists in the field
who have researched on the problem you are investigating and, when /if
necessary, the historical context that supports the formulation of that theory.
This latter element is particularly important if the theory is relatively unknown
or it is borrowed from another discipline.

Position your theoretical framework within a broader context of related

frameworks, concepts, models, or theories. There is likelihood that several
concepts, theories, or models can be used to develop a framework for

9
understanding the research problem. Therefore, note why the theory you've
chosen is the appropriate one.

The present tense is used when writing about theory. Although the past tense
can be used to describe the history of a theory or the role of key theorists, this
is because the construction of your theoretical framework is happening now.

You should make your theoretical assumptions as explicit as possible. Note

that later, in your discussion of methodology it should be linked back to this
theoretical framework.

You may consider not to just take what the theory says as a given! Reality is
never accurately represented in such a simplistic way; if you imply that it can
be, you fundamentally distort a reader's ability to understand the findings that
emerge. Therefore always note the limitations of the theoretical framework
you've chosen (i.e., what parts of the research problem require further
investigation because the theory inadequately explains a certain phenomena).

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 Writing Tip of a theoretical framework
Borrowing Theoretical Constructs from Elsewhere:- An increasingly
important trend in the social and behavioral sciences is to think about and
attempt to understand research problems from an interdisciplinary
perspective. One way to do this is to not rely exclusively on the theories
developed within your particular discipline, but to think about how an issue
might be informed by theories developed in other disciplines. For example, if
you are a political science student studying the rhetorical strategies used by
female incumbents in state legislature campaigns, theories about the use of
language could be derived, not only from political science, but linguistics,
communication studies, philosophy, psychology, and, in this particular case,
feminist studies. Building theoretical frameworks based on the postulates and
hypotheses developed in other disciplinary contexts can be both enlightening
and an effective way to be more engaged in the research topic.

Another Writing Tip

Don't Under theorize! Do not leave the theory hanging out there in the
introduction never to be mentioned again. Undertheorizing weakens your
paper. The theoretical framework you describe should guide your study
throughout the paper. Be sure to always connect theory to the review of
pertinent literature and to explain in the discussion part of your paper how the
theoretical framework you choose supports analysis of the research problem or,
if appropriate, how the theoretical framework was found to be inadequate in
explaining the phenomenon you were investigating. In that case, don't be afraid
to propose your own theory based on your findings.

Another scenario

What's a Theory? What's a Hypothesis?

The terms theory and hypothesis are often used interchangeably in newspapers
and popular magazines and in non-academic settings. However, the difference

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between theory and hypothesis in scholarly research is important, particularly
when using an experimental design. A theory is a well-established principle
that has been developed to explain some aspect of the natural world. Theories
arise from repeated observation and testing and incorporates facts, laws,
predictions, and tested assumptions that are widely accepted [e.g., rational
choice theory; grounded theory; critical race theory].

A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to

happen in your study. For example, an experiment designed to look at the
relationship between study habits and test anxiety might have a hypothesis
that states, "Students with better study habits will suffer less test anxiety."
Therefore unless your study is exploratory in nature, your hypothesis should
always explain what you expect to happen during the course of your research.

The key distinctions between a theory and a hypothesis is:

 A theory predicts events in a broad, general context; while a hypothesis

makes a specific prediction about a specified set of circumstances.
 A theory has been extensively tested and is generally accepted among
scholars; while a hypothesis is a speculative guess that has yet to be
tested.

Another scenario

Be Prepared to Challenge the Validity of an Existing Theory: Theories are

meant to be tested and their underlying assumptions challenged; they are not
rigid or inflexible, but are meant to set forth general principles for explaining
phenomena or predicting outcomes. In light of the above, testing theoretical
assumptions is an important way that knowledge in any discipline develops
and grows. If you're asked to apply an existing theory to a research problem,
the analysis may include the expectations according to the existing theory that
you should offer modifications to based on your research findings.

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Indications that theoretical assumptions may need to be modified can include
the following:

 Your findings suggest that the theory does not explain or account for
current conditions or circumstances,
 The study reveals a finding that is significantly incongruent with what
the theory attempts to explain or predict,
 Your analysis reveals that the theory overly generalizes behaviors or
actions without taking into consideration specific factors [for example;
factors related to culture, nationality, history, gender, ethnicity, age,
geographic location, legal norms or customs, religion, social class,
socioeconomic status among others].

Structure and Writing Style

The theoretical framework may be rooted in a specific theory, in which case,

your work as a researcher is expected to test the validity of that existing theory
in relation to specific events, issues, or phenomena. Many social science
research papers fit into this rubric. However, you may required to develop your
own framework from which to analyse the research problem. Based upon this,
it is necessary to understand the nature and function of a theoretical
framework if it is viewed as an answer to two basic questions:

a. What is the research problem/question? [e.g., "How should the

individual and the state relate during periods of conflict?"]

b. Why is your approach a feasible solution?

One needs to articulated / justify the application of their choice of a particular

theory and explain why alternative constructs were rejected.

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Developing a Conceptual Framework for Research:- A conceptual framework
illustrates what relationships one expects to find throughout their research. It
defines the relevant variables for the study and maps out how they might relate
to each other. It maps out the researcher’s
understanding/hypothesis/exploration of either an existing framework/model
or how existing concepts come together to inform a particular problem. It
shows the reader how different elements come together to facilitate research
and a clear understanding of results. It informs the research
questions/methodology (problem statement drives framework drives research
questions and methodology). It is a tool linked by concepts to help facilitate
the understanding of the relationship among concepts or variables in relation
to the real-world. Each concept is linked to frame the project in question. A
conceptual framework falls inside of a larger theoretical framework. It is often
visual and can be a graphic or a narrative but should always be explained and
cited it is constituted by of theories and concepts.

A conceptual framework should be constructed before one begins collecting

data. Contrary to a theoretical frame work, a conceptual framework is often
represented in a visual format.

A conceptual framework can be designed in many different ways. The form one
takes will depend on what kinds of relationships they expect to find. For
example; To develop a conceptual framework, one has to think of theories as
the conceptual basis for understanding, analyzing, and designing ways to
investigate relationships within social systems.

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Designing a Conceptual Framework :- having identified the topic, the
researcher goes to the body of literature and starts identifying the key
concepts used by other studies. This is to figure out what’ has been done by
other researchers, and what needs to be done (gap). The researcher uses what
they find that needs to be done to either support a pre-identified problem or
craft a general problem for study. At this point one should only rely on
scholarly sources for this part of your research.

A conceptual framework explains or predicts the way key concepts/variables

will come together to inform the problem/phenomenon; it gives the study
direction/parameters; it supports the researcher to organize ideas and clarify
concepts; it introduces your research and how it will advance your field of
practice. A conceptual framework should include concepts applicable to the
field of study. These can be in the field or neighboring fields – as long as
important details are captured and the framework is relevant to the problem.

The researcher then begins to pull out variables, concepts, theories, and
existing frameworks explained in the relevant literature.

When building a framework, start thinking about how some of those variables,
concepts, theories, and facets of existing frameworks come together to shape
the problem. The problem could be a situational condition that requires a
scholar-practitioner approach or the result of a practical need, or an
opportunity to further an application of a study, project, or research.

Remember that if the answer to your specific problem exists, you don’t need to
conduct the study.

The research one is to conduct will help him/her shape what they include in
their framework. This is by synthesizing the flow of their applied doctoral

15
project from start to finish and decide which variables are truly the best fit for
your research.

Start by creating a graphic representation of your framework. This part is

optional, but often helps researchers understand the flow of the research.
Even if you need it graphical, first write out how the variables could influence
your applied doctoral project and introduce your methodology.

Note that as you move through your study, you may need to revise your
framework. To that end, the following rules supported by a theory can help guide
further the development of a conceptual framework.

 Which new research data can be interpreted and coded for future use,
 What responses to new challenges’ that have not previously identified
solutions strategy,
 What means exist for identifying and defining research challenges,
 What means exist for prescribing or evaluating solutions to research
challenges,
 What are the ways of discerning certain facts among the accumulated
knowledge that are important and which facts are not,
 What are the means of giving old data new interpretations and new
meaning,
 What are the means by which to identify important new issues and
prescribe the most critical research questions that need to be answered
to maximize understanding of the issue,
 What are the means of providing members of a professional discipline
with a common language and a frame of reference for defining the
boundaries of their profession,
 And what are the means to guide and inform research so that it can, in
turn, guide research efforts and improve professional practice.

16
Independent Vs dependent variables: - This type of conceptual framework

Independent variable can be used to test a cause-and-effect

Price relationship. One has to identify at least two key

variables: the independent variable and the
dependent variable. In our example:

 the expected cause, “quantity demanded,” is the dependent variable (the

predictor or explanatory variable).
 the expected effect, “price,” is the independent variable (the response or
outcome variable).

In other words, “quantity demanded” depends on “price.” The hypothesis is

that the lower the price of good or service, the greater the quantity demanded
other things remaining constant. However, causal relationships often involve
several independent variables that affect the dependent variable.

Example of cause-and-effect relationship, using the basic design

components of boxes and arrows. Each variable appears in a box. To indicate a
causal relationship, each arrow should start from the independent variable (the
cause) and point to the dependent variable (the effect).

Dependent variable
Quantity demanded

However there are other variables that might influence the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables. Some common variables
include are moderators, mediators, and control variables.

Moderating variables:- One can expand the framework by adding a

moderating variable (a moderator). A moderator alters the effect that an

17
independent variable has on a dependent variable. The moderator thus
changes the effect component of the cause-and-effect relationship. This
moderation is also referred to as the interaction effect. In the example above,
we expect that the quantity demanded will depend on price. The lower the
price the greater the quantity demanded. If we include another variable, ie the
quality of the good/service. The quality of the good changes the effect that the
variable “price” has on the quantity demanded: the better the quality of a good,
price remaining constant the greater will be the quantity demanded. In other
words, the “quality as a variable” moderates the effect that the variable “price”
has on the quantity demanded. A moderating variable is not affected by the
independent variable, even though it affects the dependent variable. For
example, no matter how high the price of the good (the independent variable),
the quality will not get higher.

Example of the a moderating variable relationship

Independent variable Dependent variable

Quantity demanded of
Price of the good
the good

Moderator variable
Quality of the good

Mediating variables In a cause-and-effect relationship, a mediating variable

links the independent and dependent variables, allowing the relationship
between them to be better explained. A mediating variable is affected by the
independent variable, and it affects the dependent variable. Therefore, it links
the two variables and provides a better explanation of the relationship between
independent and dependent variable.

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This takes a conceptual framework for mediating variable as shown below.

Independent
variable Dependent variable

Price Quantity demanded

Mediating
variable
Quality of the
good

The mediating variable of “quality of the good” comes between the independent
and dependent variables. The price of the good has an effect on the quantity
demanded subject to its quality.

In this case, the mediator (quality of the good) helps explain why prices may
lead to reduction or increase of quantity demanded of a commodity.

The higher the quality of a good, the higher the prices of a good and the lower,
the quantity demanded

By adding the mediating variable of “quality of the good,” one can explain the
cause-and-effect relationship between the two main variables.

However, mediating variables can be difficult to interpret, and care must be

taken when conclusions are drawn from them.

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A mediating variable is affected by the independent variable, and it affects the
dependent variable. Therefore, it links the two variables and helps explain the
relationship between them.

Control variables:- To test a cause-and-effect relationship, we also need to

consider other variables that we’re not interested in measuring the effects of,
prices on the quantity demanded of a good or service, but could potentially
impact on the demand for the good/service. These are control variables.
These are variables that are held constant so that they don’t interfere with the
results. For example, it is likely that distance to the source of the commodity
is far, consumers therefore will buy substitutes to the item in question due to
the distance factor. Example of a conceptual framework of this nature will be
represented as shown below;

Control Variable
Distance

Dependent
variable
Quantity demanded
Independent
variable
Price

That means we should keep the variable “distance” constant and only include
participants from one catchment area.

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Philipsen, Kristian. "Theory Building: Using Abductive Search

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Dean A. and Roy Suddaby. "Theory Building: A Review and Integration."

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Cherry, Kendra. Introduction to Research Methods: Theory and

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Fleetwood, Steve and Anthony Hesketh. "HRM-Performance Research:

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