Mod - 5-1
Mod - 5-1
Mod - 5-1
INTRODUCTION
An electrical transducer may be defined as a device that monitors a q .
. 1 . l f uantih,
and converts it into an electr1ca s1gna or measurement, or poss'bl 1 'Y
· · 1 t' S t d
controlling an mdustr1a opera 10n. o, rans ucers may be cl .. Y for
. d fi d. l ass1fiect
according to the quantity momtore : orce, pressure, zsp acement, tern
. l l l . M h d perature
humidity, liquid level, light eve , ve oczty, etc. et o of operation is a ,
.d . t. . nother
way in which trans d ucers may be class if1e : reszs zve, inductive, ca pacztzve
..
thermal, optical, etc. '
Yet another classification is active and passive; an active transducer b .
one that produces an output without any external electrical supplv wh erng
. ;, ereas
a passive transducer reqmres an external energy source to operate M
. 1 trans d ucers are passive;
electnca . a few, sueh as p1ezoe
. lectric devi·ce. Ost
s anct
thermocouples, are active.
Each transducer may be defined in terms of sensitivity, range, linearity, and
accuracy. A displacement transducer that can detect several micrometers of
movement is much more sensitive than one that requires a movement in
millimeters before it produces a change in output. A temperature transducer
that can monitor from -20°C to 100°C obviously has a much smaller range
than one that operates from -35°C to S00°C. A displacement from 10 mm to
15 mm should produce the same transducer output change as a movement
from 5 mm to 10 mm; the output should be linear. There should be few
sources of error in a transducer, and it should be possible to calibrate it, so
that similarly constructed transducers produce closely similar outputs for a
given input.
The size of a transducer is another consideration, dependant upon its
application. It may also be required to be very tough in relation to the
environment where it is to be used. Cost is also of concern; the least expensive
device with a satisfactorily performance should always be selected.
Movement\
Shaft
+ Co~ducting
stnp
E _ _ -1
coil
Flg""' 18-1 Potentiometer used as a position transducer. The output voltage gives an
indication of the shaft displacement.
Strain Gauges
A strain gauge uses the resistance change in a wire when it is strained to
measure the physical change that produces the strain. Strain gauges are
classified as bonded and unhanded. The bonded type is bonded (glued) on to
the physical quantity under investigation. For example, the strain or
compression in a metal beam may be investigated by bonded strain gauges.
An unbonded strain gauge is normally part of an individual transducer used
Force ti
direction+
Insulating
post
Metal
frame
Movable
Resistive
wire
--
direction
Connecting
conductors Resistive Insulating
strip Figure 18-3 Bonded strain gauge
base
consisting of conducting material
bonded to an insulating base.
Because very small resistance changes are involved with strain gauges,
resistance changes caused by temperature effects can introduce measurement
errors. One way of dealing with this is illustrated in Fig. 18-4. Two identical
strain gauges are connected into a Wheatstone bridge. The active gauge is set
up to measure strain, and the inactive gauge is located nearby but is not
measuring strain. Any changes due to temperature occur in both gauges, and
so these changes cancel each other. Resistance changes due to strain on the
active gauge will cause bridge unbalance and produce an output voltage.
erature
L
Figure 18-4 Strain gauge ternP of a
'd db the use
errors may be avoi e Y
Wheatstone bridge.
Chapter 18 Introduction to Transducers 477
~ h .
fhe equation for t e resistance of the wire (or other re sis
· ti' ve material)
. is
R = £}_
A (18-1)
becoJlles l
R- p2
- rr d 14
here d is the wire diameter in m.
w When the resistance wire is strained positively, its length is increased and
·ts diameter is decreased, and both of these effects cause the wire resistance
: be increased. The new length can be identified as (l + 111), the new diameter
is0 (d- M), and the increased resistance is (R + M). For any strain gauge, the
ratio of AR to R divided by the ratio of 111 to l is known as the gauge factor (Gf),
where
MIR (18-2)
GF = 11lll
Also, the ratio of t.d to d divided by the ratio of t.l to l is referred to as the
Poisson's ratio (µ), where
Mid (18-3)
µ = 11lll
The relationship between GF and µ can b~ shown to be (18-4)
GF = 1 + 2µ
Equation 18-1 rewritten for the increased resistance is
(18-5)
p (l,-V-110
R + M = · (rrl4)(d-M)2
Example 18-1
A strain gauge with a 40 cm wire length and a 25 µm wire diameter has a
resistance of 250 Q and a gauge factor of 2.5. Calcul_ate the change m wue
18
length and diameter when the resistance change m_easured as 0.5 Q.,
Assume that the complete length of wire is strained positively.
Solution
- -__ --4
t.l == l x 8 x 10--4 == 40 cm-X'S x 10
== 0.32 mm
l == 0.75 ,,___'..:J
03£..4 - , J
478 Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements
(18-6)
Chapter 18 Introduction to Transducers 479
--
Displacement ¾\ }L ::gure 18-5_ Ava,;able reluctance transducercons;sts
a magnetic ~ore with a coil, and a soft iron target. The
length of the air gaps dictates the inductance of the coil
an~ _so the target displacement can be indicated by th~
coil inductance.
Example 18-2
Th e coil ma
·gap variable reluctance transducer has a 1 mH . d t
total.air length is
. mm. Calculate the inductance m uc ance
change whenwhen
th the
.
1
gap JS reduced by 0.2 mm. e arr
Solution
New air gap length, l2 = 11 - ~l = 1 mm-0.2 mm
=0.8mm
From Eq. 18-7, K = L1 x 11 = 1 mH x 1 mm
= 1 X 10-6
Lz = K = lxl0-6_3
12 0.8xl0-
= 1.25 mH
~L =L2 - L1 =0.25 mH
Linear Vanable
. Differential Transducer (LVDTl
sec transducer
This d 1s
. essentla
. 11y a transformer wit. h one primary
. wm. d'mg, two
illu wm mgs, and an adjustable iron core. Figure !8-6(a) and (b)
on ary · d'
No:trates the LVDT construction, and Fig. !8-6(c) shows its circuit diagram.
wh e t the secondary output voltases (v1 and v2) are equal in magnitude
eac~nthae movable core is situated witlt--<eli'1al sections of core opposite to
th 1
prim:econdary winding. Also note that output voltage v is in phase with the
w· ct·ry mput (v), and that output v2 is in antiphase to vi. The secondary
out s are connected in series, so that the voltages cancel to produce zero
1n mg
put from the transducer when they are equal and in antiphase.
,:
r 480 Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements
Displacement ti ti Displacement
Secondary 1
Vj
Secondary 2
AA
: :
''
:Vo
VJ
- V2
'
(c) Circuit diagram and waveforms
Figure 18-6 A linear variable differential transducer (LVDT) has a primary windin
. d' d bl . g, two
secon d ary win 1ngs, an a mova e iron core. The two output waveforms are in antiphase.
t Displacement
i
I
w~:
1' ,' I" 1/\ I
I
I
- V1
-:-1,:{°1:{ V1
I I ,, I
I v i
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
I
Vo
I
}~
I
I
}v,
I
I
I
I
, I
~, ~,
I I j
I I I I I
-~V2
I I I
1
1 I I I
I\,, I\., I
I I I
Figure 18•7 When the LVDT core is moved, one output voltage increases and the other
decreases. The output voltage amplitude and phase give a measure of the core displacement
and direction of motion.
•1,
,.
~I,
,.
: : : :·: :~:
Outptit in ·-:----1 -- ----:---t---:---t---·
' h
:ufp::ar/~---1---
ti
-1--- r;-~---1---1---t---
-----;---i--
I I
f --f---~---+---·
0
I I I I
Section Review
18-2.1 Sketch the circuit diagram and waveforms for an LVDT. Show
how the output waveform amplitude is changed by movement of
the core.
Practice Problems
18-2.1 The coil in a variable reluctance transducer has a 0.5 tnf-I
inductance when the total air gap length is 1.3 mm. The inductance
increases to Q.55 mH when the target is moved closer to the core.
Calculate the movement of the target.
18-2.2 An LVDT with 0.5 V/mm sensitivity ~as its o~tput amplified by
a factor of 50 and applied to a meter which can display a rninirnum
of 1 mV. Calculate the overall sensitivity of the system, and
determine the minimum detectable core displacement.
9
Chapter 18 I t d
------ - - - -- - - ---=~ ~:.'.:.....:~ ~ n~r~o_c!!u~c~ti~on~ t~o~T~r~an~s~du~c~e~rs~ 4~8~3
A
Area (A)
_l_d
Pivoted
plate
Fixed
plate
(c) Capacitance varied by adjusting the dielectric (d) Capacitance varied by adjusting A
Figure 18-9 Capacitive displacement transducers. The capacitance depends upon the plate
displacement, and so the capacitance can be used as an indication of displacement.
Example 18-4
\ ·
A parallel-platecapacitive transducer has a plate area (l x w) = (40 mm x 40 JI,
I
mm) and plate spacing (d) = 0.5 mm. Calculate the device capacitance and
I
\I
II•
the displacement (11d) that causes the capacitance to change by 5 pF. Also, 11
,I ,,
determine the transducer sensitivity.
W,
Solution
2
' ,.,, 11
L
. d Measurements
~48~4~E~le~cE:tr~on~ic~ l~ns~t!:!,rU~m~e~nt:f!:at~1o~n_<:a~n~=:.=,:...;:- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Solution
ErEo M
From Eq. 18-8, .K = d
3
M = d ~C = 0.5x10- mx5 pF
Giving,
ErEo 8.84 X 10- lZ
= 283 mm2
2
and, ~I= M = 283mm
w 40mm
=7.1 mm
Sensitivity, ~c =
~I 7.1 mm
=0.7pF/mm
Electrical. - - ~
contacts
Movable Plate
(Diaphragm) Transducer
d+
_ wave E-=- eR{ R
Fixed plate
}nsulating
material
(a) Cross section of capacitive (b) Circuit for extracting signal
pressure transducer from pressure transducer
Section Review \
,,.
18-3.1 Explain the ·constr\iction of a capacitap.ce microphone, and
discuss its operatjon and frequency response .
.
Practice Problem
I ~jl I
18-3.1 A capacitive transducer is constructed of two half-disc plates as . I'
illustrated in Fig~18-9(d); ThE:: pla\es are 2 mm apart, and each has
an area of 1.4 x 10-3 m 2. Calculate the maximum capacitance, and
the transducer sensitivity in pF / degree.