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474 Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements

INTRODUCTION
An electrical transducer may be defined as a device that monitors a q .
. 1 . l f uantih,
and converts it into an electr1ca s1gna or measurement, or poss'bl 1 'Y
· · 1 t' S t d
controlling an mdustr1a opera 10n. o, rans ucers may be cl .. Y for
. d fi d. l ass1fiect
according to the quantity momtore : orce, pressure, zsp acement, tern
. l l l . M h d perature
humidity, liquid level, light eve , ve oczty, etc. et o of operation is a ,
.d . t. . nother
way in which trans d ucers may be class if1e : reszs zve, inductive, ca pacztzve
..
thermal, optical, etc. '
Yet another classification is active and passive; an active transducer b .
one that produces an output without any external electrical supplv wh erng
. ;, ereas
a passive transducer reqmres an external energy source to operate M
. 1 trans d ucers are passive;
electnca . a few, sueh as p1ezoe
. lectric devi·ce. Ost
s anct
thermocouples, are active.
Each transducer may be defined in terms of sensitivity, range, linearity, and
accuracy. A displacement transducer that can detect several micrometers of
movement is much more sensitive than one that requires a movement in
millimeters before it produces a change in output. A temperature transducer
that can monitor from -20°C to 100°C obviously has a much smaller range
than one that operates from -35°C to S00°C. A displacement from 10 mm to
15 mm should produce the same transducer output change as a movement
from 5 mm to 10 mm; the output should be linear. There should be few
sources of error in a transducer, and it should be possible to calibrate it, so
that similarly constructed transducers produce closely similar outputs for a
given input.
The size of a transducer is another consideration, dependant upon its
application. It may also be required to be very tough in relation to the
environment where it is to be used. Cost is also of concern; the least expensive
device with a satisfactorily performance should always be selected.

18-1 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS


Potentiometer-type Transducer
A straight potentiometer may be used as a position, or displacement,
transducer, as illustrated in Fig. 18-1. A shaft is shown in Fig. 18-1 (a) connected
to the potentiometer moving contact, or wiper. The potentiometer has a
supply voltage (E), and so the position of the wiper determines the output
voltage (V0 ). The shaft displacement can be measured electrically, and the
measurement can be displayed or perhaps transmitted for further processing.
Figure 18-l(b) shows the position transducer circuit diagram, which iS, of
course, that of a potentiometer.
An advantage of this type of transducer is that it can be as large ?r. as
small as required. Also, the potentiometer can be perfectly linear, thus giving
a linear sensitivity (ratio of output voltage to displacement). A disadvantage
is that the output voltage changes in steps as the wiper is moved between
th
potentiometer coils, so that the transducer resolution is dependent upon e
number of turns on the potentiometer winding.
________________:C:.:.:h:::i
ap~t~er:_1~8~1~nt~~~~~~~~~
0
/ ,etioo to "'"''""'' 475

Movement\
Shaft

+ Co~ducting
stnp

E _ _ -1

coil

(b) Circuit diagram


(a) Transducer construction

Flg""' 18-1 Potentiometer used as a position transducer. The output voltage gives an
indication of the shaft displacement.

Strain Gauges
A strain gauge uses the resistance change in a wire when it is strained to
measure the physical change that produces the strain. Strain gauges are
classified as bonded and unhanded. The bonded type is bonded (glued) on to
the physical quantity under investigation. For example, the strain or
compression in a metal beam may be investigated by bonded strain gauges.
An unbonded strain gauge is normally part of an individual transducer used

to investigate an applied force.

Force ti
direction+
Insulating
post

Metal
frame

Movable

Resistive
wire

~,u, . . • tretch or shrink when


~em• B- Unbonded st<'lin gauge. The tighllY SITUng resostiv• w,~ s d andnsresistance
1 2
ch ovable armature is sub1·ected to a force. The wire diameter is also a ere '
anges give
. an indication of the actual displacement.
, 476 Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements

The construction of one type of unbonded strain gauge is ill


str
Fig 18-2 In this case four nickel alloy wires, typically 25 µmin ct·u 1amet
atect in
· · . .
tightly stretched between msulatmg posts on a metal frame and er, are
armature. An external force, applied as shown, causes two of the w·movabJe
positively strained (increased in length), and the other two w· Ires to be
negatively strained (shortened). The wires remain under tension a~els ~o be
· 1
The lengthened wrres ex hib.it an increase
· · resistance,
m · and the ha tunes.
.
wires show a decreased resistance. If t h e wires
. s ortened
are appropriately co
into a Wheatstone bridge circuit, the resistance change can be mea nnectect
sured
the force that produced the change can be calculated. anct
Figure 18-3 shows a bonded strain gauge. The resistive material
either a wire or a foil bonded on to the insulating base, which is then bcan be
0
to the surface of the item to be investigated. Alternatively, the r ~~ed
, es1stive
material might be a semiconductor layer defused into a silicon base. Th
strain gauge must, obviously, be placed longitudinally on the investi e
gated
item, so that the longest parts of the conductors are stretched when the ite
is stretched, and compressed when the item is compressed. m
Strain

--
direction

Connecting
conductors Resistive Insulating
strip Figure 18-3 Bonded strain gauge
base
consisting of conducting material
bonded to an insulating base.

Because very small resistance changes are involved with strain gauges,
resistance changes caused by temperature effects can introduce measurement
errors. One way of dealing with this is illustrated in Fig. 18-4. Two identical
strain gauges are connected into a Wheatstone bridge. The active gauge is set
up to measure strain, and the inactive gauge is located nearby but is not
measuring strain. Any changes due to temperature occur in both gauges, and
so these changes cancel each other. Resistance changes due to strain on the
active gauge will cause bridge unbalance and produce an output voltage.

erature

L
Figure 18-4 Strain gauge ternP of a
'd db the use
errors may be avoi e Y
Wheatstone bridge.
Chapter 18 Introduction to Transducers 477

~ h .
fhe equation for t e resistance of the wire (or other re sis
· ti' ve material)
. is

R = £}_
A (18-1)

here Pis the specific


. resistance
. of the. wire in nm. ' l is the total length m
2
. m,
,nd "A 1• the wire cross-sectional area mm . Substituting for A, the equation
w
5
.

becoJlles l
R- p2
- rr d 14
here d is the wire diameter in m.
w When the resistance wire is strained positively, its length is increased and
·ts diameter is decreased, and both of these effects cause the wire resistance
: be increased. The new length can be identified as (l + 111), the new diameter

is0 (d- M), and the increased resistance is (R + M). For any strain gauge, the
ratio of AR to R divided by the ratio of 111 to l is known as the gauge factor (Gf),

where
MIR (18-2)
GF = 11lll
Also, the ratio of t.d to d divided by the ratio of t.l to l is referred to as the
Poisson's ratio (µ), where
Mid (18-3)
µ = 11lll
The relationship between GF and µ can b~ shown to be (18-4)
GF = 1 + 2µ
Equation 18-1 rewritten for the increased resistance is
(18-5)
p (l,-V-110
R + M = · (rrl4)(d-M)2

Example 18-1
A strain gauge with a 40 cm wire length and a 25 µm wire diameter has a
resistance of 250 Q and a gauge factor of 2.5. Calcul_ate the change m wue
18
length and diameter when the resistance change m_easured as 0.5 Q.,
Assume that the complete length of wire is strained positively.
Solution

From Eq. 18-2,


== 8 X 10--4
=
b.RI R o.s n12so Q
t.lll = GF== 2.5

- -__ --4
t.l == l x 8 x 10--4 == 40 cm-X'S x 10

== 0.32 mm

I From Eq. 18-4,


GF-1 - 2.5-1
µ== ~ = = ~

l == 0.75 ,,___'..:J
03£..4 - , J
478 Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements

From Eq. 18-3, M/d = µ x !il/l = 0.75 x 8 x 10---4


= 6 X 10---4

and tid = d x 6 x 10---4 = 25 µm x 6 x 10---4


= 1.Sx 10-2 µm
The sensitivity (S) of a strain gauge is the ratio of resistance cha
input displacement. So, for the device in Example 18-1, the sensitivityng: to
be calculated as S = tiR/ !il. However, the gauge referred to might havelllight
f
wire lengths, two strame pos1 ve y an
· d "ti 1 d tw o strained negative! our
·
illustrated in Fig. 18-2. In this case, the actual armature displacement wi·uy,, as
be the same as !ii.
not
Section Review
18-1.1 Draw a diagram to show the construction of an unbonded strain
gauge. Explain its operation.
' .
Practice Problem
18-1.1 A strain gauge with a.gauge factor of 2 is subject to a 0.28 mm
strain. The wire dimension s aie 50 cm length and 30 µm diameter,
and the unstrained wire res!stanceis 55 n. Calculate the change in
wire resistance and diameter if the entire length of the wire is
strained positively.

18-2 INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS


Variable Reluctance Transducer
A variable reluctance transducer uses the change in reluctance of an air gap in
a magnetic path to measure displacement. Figure 18-5 illustrates the operation
of this type of transducer which consists of an iron target piece and au-shaped
iron core with a coil. Two air gaps are maintained between the target and the
iron core, and the target displacement varies the length of the air gaps, and
thus changes the reluctance of the magnetic circuit. The reluctance of the iron
path is also involved in the total reluctance, but this is so much smaller than
the air gap reluctance that it can be neglected.
The equation for magnetic path reluctance is
l
Rm=-
. µoA dA
where l is the total air gap length, µ0 is the permeability of free space'. an •
· the air
is · gap cross-sectional
. area. The inductance at the coil· termma!s 15
inversely proportional to the reluctance.

(18-6)
Chapter 18 Introduction to Transducers 479

1/'lere N is the• number


• E of turns on the cm..1 Becau N
"'ostant
h quanlllles, q. 18-6 can be reduced to se , µ"' and A are all
K
L= -
l
where)( is a constant. (18-7)
.
It is seen that the coil inductance is inverse1y proportio 1
length, an so ch anges m the target d. 1 na to the air gap
. dh ·1 · tsp acement ca b
i!l nitonng t e co1 mductance. n e measured by
0

--
Displacement ¾\ }L ::gure 18-5_ Ava,;able reluctance transducercons;sts
a magnetic ~ore with a coil, and a soft iron target. The
length of the air gaps dictates the inductance of the coil
an~ _so the target displacement can be indicated by th~
coil inductance.

Example 18-2
Th e coil ma
·gap variable reluctance transducer has a 1 mH . d t
total.air length is
. mm. Calculate the inductance m uc ance
change whenwhen
th the
.
1
gap JS reduced by 0.2 mm. e arr
Solution
New air gap length, l2 = 11 - ~l = 1 mm-0.2 mm
=0.8mm
From Eq. 18-7, K = L1 x 11 = 1 mH x 1 mm

= 1 X 10-6
Lz = K = lxl0-6_3
12 0.8xl0-
= 1.25 mH
~L =L2 - L1 =0.25 mH

Linear Vanable
. Differential Transducer (LVDTl
sec transducer
This d 1s
. essentla
. 11y a transformer wit. h one primary
. wm. d'mg, two
illu wm mgs, and an adjustable iron core. Figure !8-6(a) and (b)
on ary · d'
No:trates the LVDT construction, and Fig. !8-6(c) shows its circuit diagram.
wh e t the secondary output voltases (v1 and v2) are equal in magnitude
eac~nthae movable core is situated witlt--<eli'1al sections of core opposite to
th 1
prim:econdary winding. Also note that output voltage v is in phase with the
w· ct·ry mput (v), and that output v2 is in antiphase to vi. The secondary
out s are connected in series, so that the voltages cancel to produce zero
1n mg
put from the transducer when they are equal and in antiphase.
,:
r 480 Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements

Displacement ti ti Displacement

Secondary 1

Vj

Secondary 2

(a) Cross section (b) Coil connections

AA
: :
''
:Vo
VJ

- V2

'
(c) Circuit diagram and waveforms

Figure 18-6 A linear variable differential transducer (LVDT) has a primary windin
. d' d bl . g, two
secon d ary win 1ngs, an a mova e iron core. The two output waveforms are in antiphase.

When the LVDT core is displaced upward, as illustrated by the diagram in


Fig. 18-7(a), there is an increase in the flux from the primary linking to secondary
N 1 and a decrease in that linking to N 2. This causes an increase in the amplitude
of v 1 and a decrease in v 2, as shown, thus producing a difference output voltage
(v0 ). Similarly, when the core is displaced in a downward direction, as in
Fig. 18-7(b), v 2 increases and v 1 decreases. In this case, v0 increases but with a
180° phase shift from the input. So, the output voltage amplitude and phase
give a measure of the core displacement and direction of motion.
Figure 18-8 shows a graph of the output voltage (v0 ) versus the core
displacement (d). Note that the graph is mostly linear, but becomes nonlinear
at large displacements. Consequently, the device use is limited to the linear
range. Also note that the output voltage cannot be reduced completely to
zero.
The LVDT discussed above provides an ac output, but many commercially
available LVDTs include rectification and smoothing circuits, so that a ±de
output voltage is available. For ac outputs, the maximum secondary voltage
amplitude typically equals the primary input amplitude. Alternatively, the
y · ut
output may be stepped down to give a 1 m V output for each 1 mp.
thi
(1 m V /V). The maximum ac input frequency is usually 20 kHz, a nd s
. .
should be much higher than any core displacement requenc ·
f y The coreh
displacement range may be as small as ±25 mm or as large as ±45 cm. T e
transducer sensitivity could be as high as 40 V / mm; an output voltage chang:
t t/ displacernen
of 40 V for each mm of core displacement. The ou pu d .e
relationship is typically linear to within ±0.25%. Note that th e evic
>I
' Chapter 18 Introduction to Transducers 481

there is no step change like that in a potentiometer-type


tiOJl 15 l
,esol\,l nt transducer.
. Jacerrte
d15P Displacement

t Displacement

i
I

w~:
1' ,' I" 1/\ I
I
I
- V1
-:-1,:{°1:{ V1
I I ,, I
I v i
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
I

Vo
I

}~
I
I

}v,
I
I
I
I
, I
~, ~,
I I j
I I I I I
-~V2
I I I
1
1 I I I
I\,, I\., I
I I I

(a) Core displaced up (b) Core displaced down

Figure 18•7 When the LVDT core is moved, one output voltage increases and the other
decreases. The output voltage amplitude and phase give a measure of the core displacement
and direction of motion.
•1,

,.
~I,
,.
: : : :·: :~:
Outptit in ·-:----1 -- ----:---t---:---t---·
' h
:ufp::ar/~---1---
ti
-1--- r;-~---1---1---t---
-----;---i--
I I

f --f---~---+---·
0
I I I I

Figure 18-8 LVDT output voltage (v0 )


1

: '. : : i : 1 plotted against core displacement (cf).

LVDT advantages over other types of transducers include ruggedness, high


sensitivity, good linearity, infinite resolution, and low power consumption.
The most important LVDT disadvantages are that relatively large core
movements are required to produce a measurable output and that the core
mass limits its dynamic response.
Example 18-3
A SO mV output is produced by an LVDT when the core displacement is 10
~m from its zero position. Calculate the core displacement when the output
is 35 mV.
Solution
Sensitivity S= V0 = 50 mV
d 10mm
=5mV/mm
1
DisPIacement d = Vo= 35 mV = 7 mm
S 5mV/mm
r 482 Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements

Section Review
18-2.1 Sketch the circuit diagram and waveforms for an LVDT. Show
how the output waveform amplitude is changed by movement of
the core.

Practice Problems
18-2.1 The coil in a variable reluctance transducer has a 0.5 tnf-I
inductance when the total air gap length is 1.3 mm. The inductance
increases to Q.55 mH when the target is moved closer to the core.
Calculate the movement of the target.
18-2.2 An LVDT with 0.5 V/mm sensitivity ~as its o~tput amplified by
a factor of 50 and applied to a meter which can display a rninirnum
of 1 mV. Calculate the overall sensitivity of the system, and
determine the minimum detectable core displacement.

18-3 CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS


Capacitive Displacement Transducers
The equation for the capacitance between two plates separated by air or
another dielectric is
C = £r£oA
d 08-8)
Equation 18-8 gives capacitance C in farads when i=:., is the relative permittivity
of the dielectric, £0 is the permittivity of free space (8.84 x 10-12), A is the
cross-sectional area of the plates in m 2, and d is the distance between the
plates in m.
Figure 18-9 shows several parallel-plate capacitors, and illustrates how
they might be adjusted when used in a displacement transducer. Adjustment
of the distance (d) between the plates [part (a)] gives a capacitance variation
(~C) inversely proportional to M. Adjustment of facing plate area [part (b)]
gives ~C proportional to area (M). Part (c) of the illustration shows a movable
dielectric between the plates. This gives two separate plate areas; A with an
air dielectric, and A2 with a solid dielectric. In this case, there are two 1different
capacitances in parallel, and increasing the area of one reduces the area of the
other. Here again, ~C is proportional to M. Finally, part (d) of Fig. 18-9
shows an air dielectric capacitor constructed of half-disc-shaped plates. The
movable plates may be rotated, thus adjusting the facing plate area, and
giving a capacitance variation proportion to M.
In the case of a capacitive displacement transducer which varies the distance
between the plates (M), the sensitivity is ~C/ ~d, possibly expressed
pF/µm. For a transducer which varies the capacitor area, the sensitivity _15
(~Cl M), and this can be further reduced to (~C/ M, as shown m
Fig. 18-9(b).

9
Chapter 18 I t d
------ - - - -- - - ---=~ ~:.'.:.....:~ ~ n~r~o_c!!u~c~ti~on~ t~o~T~r~an~s~du~c~e~rs~ 4~8~3

A
Area (A)

_l_d

acitance may be varied by adjusting d


(a) CaP (b) Capacitance varied by adjusting A

Pivoted
plate
Fixed
plate

(c) Capacitance varied by adjusting the dielectric (d) Capacitance varied by adjusting A

Figure 18-9 Capacitive displacement transducers. The capacitance depends upon the plate
displacement, and so the capacitance can be used as an indication of displacement.

Example 18-4
\ ·
A parallel-platecapacitive transducer has a plate area (l x w) = (40 mm x 40 JI,
I
mm) and plate spacing (d) = 0.5 mm. Calculate the device capacitance and
I
\I
II•
the displacement (11d) that causes the capacitance to change by 5 pF. Also, 11
,I ,,
determine the transducer sensitivity.
W,
Solution
2
' ,.,, 11

C = t:rt:0 A = 8.84x10-12 x(40x40x10-6) m


Eq. 18-8,
d 0.5mm
= 28.3 pF

From Eq. 18-8, C -/1C t:rt:oA


= d+M
t:rt:oA 8.84xl0-12 x1600xl0-6m
Giving,
d+M = C- !1C = 28.3 pF - 5 pF
=0.61 mm
11d = (d + !1d) - d = 0.61 mm - 0.5 mm
=0.11 mm
!1C 5 pF
Sensitivity, =-~--
M 0.11mm
=45.4pF/mm
Example 18-5
F lculate the change in length
or the capacitive transducer in Example 18-4 ca [ p· 8-9(b)] Also
(A/)
,.i
.
that produces the same (5 pF) capacitance change see 1g. · '
determine the new transducer sensitivity.

L
. d Measurements
~48~4~E~le~cE:tr~on~ic~ l~ns~t!:!,rU~m~e~nt:f!:at~1o~n_<:a~n~=:.=,:...;:- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Solution
ErEo M
From Eq. 18-8, .K = d
3
M = d ~C = 0.5x10- mx5 pF
Giving,
ErEo 8.84 X 10- lZ

= 283 mm2
2
and, ~I= M = 283mm
w 40mm
=7.1 mm

Sensitivity, ~c =
~I 7.1 mm
=0.7pF/mm

Any of th~ capacitor plate arrangements in Fig. 18-9 may be used to


construct a displacement tra~sducer. ~owever, as shown in Examples lS-4
and 18-5, a transducer that displaces d 1s much more sensitive than one th
changes I. So, the one that displaces d is most suitable for measurement :;
very small displacements, and th~ one _that displaces I is suitable for larger
displacements. Note that the relationship between C and I is linear over the
whole range of I, except for a portion near I = 0. The relationship between c
and d is approximately linear only for small variations in d.

Capacitive Pressure Transducer


Figure 18-lO(a) shows the cross section of a pressure transducer which
consists of a flat fixed plate and a plastic diaphragm with a metal film as a
movable plate. This is a capacitive microphone designed to receive sound
waves as a pressure variation on its diaphragm. The gap between the plates
changes when the diaphragm is pressured, consequently, the transducer
capacitance changes.
A circuit for extracting the microphone signal is illustrated in Fig. 18-lO(b).
The capacitance becomes charged to the level of the supply voltage (ec = E),
so that, in the absence of a pressure variation on the diaphragm, there is
normally no current flow and no resistor voltage drop (eR). The capacitor
charge equation is (Q = C E). So, as C varies with the varying pressure, th e
charge on C must also vary, and this produces a varying current (i) from th_e
supply. The current has the same waveform · as the pressure wave, andrt
causes a varying voltage drop across R which can be amplified and fur th er
processed.
The response of this type of transducer to varying frequencies · 0 f the input
. 40Hzto
pressure wave is very important. Typically, its frequency range is
15 kHz, which approximately matches the human hearing range. mall
Capacitive transducers can be used for measurement of very ds cer
d1sp1acements, and they can be much more sensitive th an ther trans utraY
.
· olved ' ss
°
types. Because small capacitance values are usually inv
. b or source .
capacitance and the capacitance of connecting cables can e err
Chapter 18 Introduction to Transducers 485

Electrical. - - ~
contacts

Movable Plate
(Diaphragm) Transducer

d+
_ wave E-=- eR{ R
Fixed plate

}nsulating
material
(a) Cross section of capacitive (b) Circuit for extracting signal
pressure transducer from pressure transducer

Figure 18-10 A capacitance microphone is a capacitive pressure transducer. The capacitance


varies as a result of the input pressure variation.

Section Review \
,,.
18-3.1 Explain the ·constr\iction of a capacitap.ce microphone, and
discuss its operatjon and frequency response .
.

Practice Problem
I ~jl I
18-3.1 A capacitive transducer is constructed of two half-disc plates as . I'
illustrated in Fig~18-9(d); ThE:: pla\es are 2 mm apart, and each has
an area of 1.4 x 10-3 m 2. Calculate the maximum capacitance, and
the transducer sensitivity in pF / degree.

18-4 ~ERMAL TRANSDUCERS


Resistance Thermometer
:he resistance of all pure metals tends to increase as their temperature
increases, and so metals are said to have a positive temperature coefficient. Some
~aterials, notably semiconductors, exhibit a decrease in resistance with
increasing temperature; they have a negative temperature coefficient. Over the
normal range of operating temperatures, most metals show a nearly linear
relationship between resistance and temperature. The resistance temperature
coefficient (a) of a metal defines how the resistance changes with temperature
~~ange, and it has to be specified for a given reference temperature, usually
C or 20°C. Table 18-1 lists the temperature coefficients for platinum, copper,
and ·
nickel at 0°C and 20°C.
h For a resistance of R1 n, the resistance change (AR) for a given temperature
c ange (AD is

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