ED539251

Journal of College Access
Volume 6 Issue 1 Article 1
2021
Complete Issue
Christopher W. Tremblay
Western Michigan University, [email protected]
Laura Owen
San Diego State University, [email protected]
Patrick J. O'Connor PhD

Oakland Community College, [email protected]
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Tremblay, Christopher W.; Owen, Laura; and O'Connor, Patrick J. PhD (2021) "Complete Issue," Journal of
College Access: Vol. 6 : Iss. 1 , Article 1.
Available at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/jca/vol6/iss1/1
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contact [email protected].

Volume 6 | August 2021 | Issue 1 1

Table of Contents
About the Journal………….…………………………………………………………………………………...3
Affiliations……………………………………………………………………………………………………...4
JCA Editorial Board……………………………………………………………………………………………5
Coming Soon: Special Issues……………………………………………………………………………….…6
From the Editors……………………………………………………………………………………………….7
Guest Perspective: Angel B. Pérez………………………………………………………...……………...8-11

Chief Execu ve Officer, Na onal Associa on for College Admission Counseling
Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color: The Importance of Academic,

Transitional Adjustment, and Mental Health Supports……………………………….……………...12-25
Sophie W. Schuyler (University of Massachuse s Boston), Jonique R. Childs (University of Massachuse s Amherst),
Timothy A. Poynton (University of Massachuse s Boston)
Student Readiness of Colleges: A Qualitative Study ……..……………………………………..……26-42

Karen Widger Caldwell (University of Michigan‐Dearborn), Cala Millis (University of Michigan‐Dearborn), Timothy N. Constant (University
of Michigan‐Dearborn), Patrick Borg (University of Michigan‐Dearborn), Katherine Threa ‐Morgan (University of Michigan‐Dearborn),
Christopher J. F. Burke (University of Michigan‐Dearborn)
College Access for Prospective First-generation High School Students: Parent Perceptions..……43-60
Christopher Brown (Southern Illinois University Edwardsville), Alison Reeves (Southern Illinois University Edwardsville),
Laurel Puchner (Southern Illinois University Edwardsville)


About the Journal

An Overview
The Journal of College Access (JCA) focuses on the

current trends, research, practices, and
development of all types of programs, policies,
and activities related to the access of and success
in postsecondary education. Issues of college
aspiration, qualification, application, enrollment,
and persistence are the primary emphases.
The Journal was co-founded by Dr. Patrick

O’Connor and Dr. Christopher Tremblay.
O’Connor is Chief Strategist and CEO of College
is Yours, an organization dedicated to expanding
college opportunity. He is a board member and
past chair of the Michigan College Access
Network (MCAN). Tremblay is Director of
Admissions and Recruiting for the Taubman
College of Architecture and Urban Planning at the
University of Michigan.
Launched in March 2014, JCA is a part of Western

Michigan University’s ScholarWorks, a digital
showcase of research, scholarly and creative
output.
CALL FOR SUBMISSIONS

We accept submissions year round.
scholarworks.wmich.edu/jca

Affiliations
The Journal of College Access is affiliated with the

Michigan College Access Network, the Center for
Postsecondary Readiness and Success (CPRS) and
the Center for Equity and Postsecondary
Attainment (CEPA).
MCAN is a statewide non-profit organization

with a mission to increase college readiness,
participation, and completion in Michigan,
particularly among low-income students, first-
generation college going students, and students of
color. The Center for Equity and Postsecondary
micollegeaccess.org Attainment (CEPA) focuses on promoting
equitable access to viable postsecondary pathways
and opportunities. Guided by diverse student and
parent perspectives, CEPA aims to create college
and career counseling and advising practices that
reconnect with and elevate the voices of those
who have been historically marginalized and
excluded. All students deserve access to
high quality guidance that supports both
The goal of the Center for Postsecondary individual and collective needs, challenges
Readiness and Success is to increase equitable and inequitable and racist school-based systems and
accessible pathways to postsecondary success for policies, and promotes postsecondary
all people. Located at American University in opportunities.
Washington, D.C., the Center creates aligned
systems, driven by student outcomes to education.sdsu.edu/cepa
disseminate new knowledge and discovery of
college and career readiness and persistence
models, while simultaneously connecting this new
knowledge to K-12 and higher education policy
formation.
american.edu/centers/cprs

JCA Editorial Board
Editors in Chief
Patrick O’Connor, Ph.D. Kim Cook
Chief Strategist and CEO of College is Yours Executive Director
National College Attainment Network
Laura Owen, Ph.D.
Executive Director Beth Gilfillan, Ph.D.
Center for Equity and Postsecondary Attainment Assistant Professor
Department of Counseling and School Psychology School of Counseling and Special Education
College of Education Bowling Green State University
San Diego State University
Keren Zuniga McDowell, Ph.D.
Christopher Tremblay, Ed.D. Director
Director of Admissions & Recruiting District Performance Office
Taubman College of Architecture & School District of Philadelphia
Urban Planning
University of Michigan Timothy Poynton, Ed.D.
Associate Professor of Counseling Psychology
Associate Editors Department of Counseling & School Psychology
Mary L. Anderson, Ph.D. College of Education and Human Development
Associate Professor Emerita University of Massachusetts Boston
Department of Counselor Education and
Counseling Psychology Mandy Savitz-Romer, Ph.D.
College of Education and Human Development Nancy Pforzheimer Aronson Senior Lecturer in
Western Michigan University Human Development and
Education Faculty Director
Meredith B.L. Anderson, Ph.D. Prevention Science and Practice
Senior Research Associate Graduate School of Education
United Negro College Fund, Inc. Harvard University
David D. Christian, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor
Counselor Education Program
College of Education and Health Professions
University of Arkansas

Coming Soon: Special Issues
We have three special issues in progress focused

on these important topics:
College Access and Success for Equity-Based Career Development and

Undocumented Students Postsecondary Readiness
This issue will reveal the challenges and The special issue will focus on manuscripts using
opportunities for undocumented students in their an equity-based career development lens to
pursuit of and completion of higher education. prepare at-risk, minoritized, special needs, and
vulnerable populations for postsecondary
Guest Editors: opportunities. The former first lady of the United
Diana Camilo, University of Mississippi States, Michelle Obama, created two initiatives
Belinda Zamacona, University of California-San Diego (Reach Higher Initiative and Better Make Room)
____________________________________________ aimed at exposing young people to college and
career planning as well as emphasizing the need
Access and Blackness: for everyone to obtain additional education and
Antiracist College Counseling and Advising training beyond a high school diploma. This
This issue will offer innovative perspectives or special edition will build on these two initiatives
interventions in the context of college and career and focus on preparing students from vulnerable
readiness, as it pertains to antiracist counseling populations for optimal career and postsecondary
and advising and postsecondary access of Black outcomes.
students. To combat the racist structures which
pervade the career counseling and college Guest Editors:
counseling/advising fields, and Erik Hines, Associate Professor, Florida State
disproportionately marginalize Black students, University
practitioners working with Black youth must be Renae Mayes, Associate Professor, University of
equipped with Antiracist frameworks. Arizona
Guest Editors:
Ian P. Levy, Manhattan College
Caroline Lopez-Perry, California State University
Long Beach
____________________________________________

From the Editors

Authored by
Dr. Patrick O’Connor
Dr. Christopher W. Tremblay
Dr. Laura Owen
This edition of the Journal takes a look at This edition closes with a look at a key
three important areas of research that often support group for students who will be the
get overlooked in considering a student’s first in their family to go to college. Many
successful transition to college. high schools recognize the vital role served by
the parents of these students—but are the
While college access is often seen as the high schools getting through? Brown et al.
process of applying to college, Schuyler et al. take an in- depth look at this question
take a look at three key elements of college through research that is highlighted by asking
access that play pivotal roles in a successful the parents of first gen students if their college
transition to college once the application readiness needs are being met.
process is over—academic supports,
transitional adjustment supports, and mental We are grateful to publish a perspective piece
health supports. Their conclusions offer about higher education advocacy from
tangible directions colleges can take in NACAC President Angel B. Pérez.
assessing these supports, and determining
their success with the students they serve. This is the first of several volumes JCA is
publishing this year. Come back for our
Ample literature exists when considering the special editions, the first of which is due out
topic of student readiness, but most of these in less than two months!
studies focus on the student, not the
college. Caldwell et al. look at these same
construct from the eyes of one college—
specifically, what does one college do to
support student efforts to be college ready,
and how do the members of the college
community feel about those efforts?

Guest Perspective:
Advocating for Higher Education
as a Public Good
Authored by
Angel B. Pérez
Na onal Associa on for College Admission Counseling
(NACAC)
The National Association for College the interests of students first will require a
Admission Counseling, founded in 1937, is rethinking of policies and practices across
the professional home for more than 23,000 society. Among the recommendations
members who serve students in the transition outlined in the report are:
to postsecondary education. NACAC is a
trusted source of educational programming  Redesign college admission policy and
and resources that support college counseling practice to focus on the centrality of
and admission professionals in their individual students.
work with students and families. In  Emphasize transparency as a
addition to serving members critical policy measure to restore
directly, NACAC is undergoing trust in higher education.
a process of transformation to  Enact public policy that
assume a greater role in recommits our nation to
broader conversations about postsecondary access and
college access and equity and to success.
become the go-to source for  Strengthen policies and
information on the college practices aimed at protecting
counseling and admission processes. students’ rights and interests in the
transition to postsecondary education.
Advocating for Higher Education  Implement well-crafted, fully funded
as a Public Good public higher education policies to alleviate
The guiding principle behind NACAC’s uncertainty faced by students and institutions
reinvention is this conviction—If a alike.
postsecondary education is the key to
prosperity and social mobility, then access to NACAC’s shift in advocacy focus was
college should be considered a basic human catalyzed, in part, by the Department of
right. NACAC’s September 2020 report, Justice investigation of NACAC’s ethical
Roadmap for Change: Reimagining US Higher code, which compelled NACAC to move
Education as a Public Good, makes clear that beyond a role of self-regulation. In lieu of this
reimagining postsecondary education with role, the association is shifting its considerable

Guest Perspective: Angel B. Pérez
energy and passion to focus on education and Financial Aid Administrators (NASFAA), to
advocacy efforts—with the media, implement a grant from the Lumina
policymakers, professionals, students, and Foundation to reimagine the college
families. admission and financial aid practices through
the lens of racial equity. A panel of thought
Confronting Racism and Unconscious Bias leaders has been assembled to consider entry
challenges to postsecondary education for
NACAC believes it is critical that college traditional-aged and adult students of color
admission counseling professionals be aware and examine ways in which an admission and
of systemic inequities and racism, and that the financial aid system would be designed if
association assist in equipping the profession racial and ethnic equity were the primary
with antiracist and pro-equity tools. For more objective. The goal of the panel is to move
than 40 years, NACAC has offered its beyond theories of equity and make specific,
Guiding the Way to Inclusion (GWI) actionable recommendations for
conference to both serve professionals from policymakers, which would include a
racial and ethnic minority backgrounds guide for colleges centered around racial/
seeking to advance through the college ethnic inclusion, a related guide for
admission counseling profession and to postsecondary institutional leaders, and
provide educational offerings focused on recommendations for federal and state
advising and recruiting under-represented policymakers for an equity-based college
students. More recently, NACAC launched an transition.
Antiracist Education Institute, a four-part
professional development series designed Holistic Admission and the Role of
specifically for college counseling and Standardized Testing
admission professionals that increases
knowledge in antiracism, diversity, equity, Even before the pandemic forced changes in
and inclusion. The Institute features sessions the college admission process, NACAC was
on inclusive hiring practices in college taking a critical look at the role of
admission and counseling, understanding standardized testing. An expert group of
cultural identity and micro-aggressive office NACAC members participated in a year-long
environments, environmental harm for Task Force on Standardized Admission
students of color, and appropriate practices Testing for International and US Students,
and strategies to eliminate bias when advising which culminated in a 2020 report that called
or considering students for college admission. on colleges to examine their ACT and SAT
policies and practices. Most notably, the
NACAC has also begun work, in partnership report highlights the inequities associated
with the National Association of Student with standardized testing for college-bound

students, which were only exacerbated by the Connecting Students to Colleges During the
COVID-19 pandemic. Pandemic
NACAC called on colleges, particularly The COVID-19 pandemic has made it more
public institutions, to make standardized difficult for prospective students and school
admission tests optional during the counselors to connect with college admission
pandemic. The association also launched a representatives in meaningful ways. In a
“test-optional means test-optional campaign,” typical year, NACAC hosts in-person college
which allowed colleges to make a public fairs all over the country to facilitate that
commitment to students and families not to process, providing important opportunities
penalize applicants who didn’t submit test for one-on-one conversations. In order to
scores. The association has also provided maintain that service to both students and
guidance and professional development colleges during a time when large in-person
opportunities to assist colleges with making gatherings are not possible, NACAC shifted
this transition, including Tales of a Test- to a virtual format. Beginning in Fall 2020,
Optional Year. NACAC also collected data, NACAC has hosted a total of 13 virtual fairs,
released in July, that indicated colleges’ in- serving roughly 100,000 students. Another
person and virtual plans for Fall 2021, testing eight virtual fairs are planned for Fall 2021.
requirements for Fall 2022, and any pandemic Another way in which NACAC helps
-related changes in admission criteria. students connect with colleges is through the
annual College Openings Update. Now in its
Earlier this year, NACAC and The Character 34th year, the resource provides counselors,
Collaborative launched the first in a seven- teachers, and families with a list of colleges
course series designed to provide guidance on and universities that are still accepting
the value of character attributes in colleges applications from qualified first-
and schools. The new course reviews the year and transfer students after May 1,
challenges in assessing character, the core National College Decision Day. During a
principles of character assessment, selecting typical admission cycle, many colleges accept
tools for evidence of character, determining applications well after May 1 as a matter of
effective ways to rate character, and policy, while others continue to have
developing a sound decision-making process. openings available due to fluctuations that
Over the next year additional courses will be occur each year in the college admission
released, covering such topics as character process. Pandemic-related disruptions in the
assessment, writing letters of admission process for Fall 2020 pushed the
recommendation, and evaluating the impact process of finalizing admission and
of character in admission. enrollment decisions later for both students
and colleges. As a result, the resource has

been in particularly high demand. The 2020

list included almost 800 colleges, and NACAC
released the list before May 1 for the first-time
in its history.
NACAC’s role in the admissions eco-system

continues to have significant impacts, and we
are determined to support the professionals
doing this important work in schools and
campuses during a time of enormous
change. Our commitment to advocacy,
education, training, the cultivation of
community and coalition building is stronger
than ever. We invite colleagues from all over
the globe to join us in these important efforts.

NACAC logo used with permission granted by Perez.

Promoting Success for First-Generation

Students of Color: The Importance of Academic,
Transitional Adjustment, and Mental Health
Supports Authored by
Sophie W. Schuyler (University of Massachuse s Boston)
Jonique R. Childs (University of Massachuse s Amherst)
Timothy A. Poynton (University of Massachuse s Boston)
ABSTRACT ethnic minorities (U.S. Department of

Nearly 1 in 3 college students (30%) are first‐genera on Education, 2014), with Black and Latinx racial
students of color (FGSOC), possessing the intersec onal identities being the most represented (Fischer,
iden ty of being both a first‐genera on college student and
2007; Engle & Tinto, 2008). In other words,
a racial minority. FGSOC face increased psychological and
social difficul es in college when compared to students in
nearly 1 in 3 college students (30%) are both
other groups, resul ng from cultural differences, lack of first-generation college students and racial
academic preparedness, s gma surrounding socioeconomic minorities, possessing the intersectional
status, racial discrimina on, and marginaliza on. This ar cle identity of first-generation student(s) of color
summarizes peer‐reviewed literature related to three types
(FGSOC).
of supports that can improve the college experience and
promote the academic success of FGSOC: academic
supports, transi onal adjustment supports, and mental The theory of intersectionality (Crenshaw,
health supports. The reviewed literature is framed by a 1991) asserts that individuals experience life
social jus ce perspec ve. Implica ons for future research,
events and are perceived by others through
policy, and prac ce by educators, administrators, and staff
working with this popula on of students are discussed.
the intersection of the different identities they
hold (e.g., race, gender, sexual orientation).
Keywords: first‐genera on college students, students of Thus, individuals and groups who possess
color, academic success, mental health, supports multiple privileged identities will experience
A
greater advantages in society, while those
pproximately 56% of all college who possess multiple marginalized identities
students are from families with will experience greater disadvantages
parents or guardians who have (Crenshaw, 1991). FGSOC are academically,
not earned a Bachelor’s or higher socially, and psychologically at-risk (Gray,
degree (U.S. Department of Education, 2014), 2013) due to their multiple marginalized
commonly referred to as first-generation identities (low SES, person of color, first-
college students (Higher Education Act of generation college student), highlighting the
1965). First-generation college students are need for an increased understanding of the
more likely to come from families with lower unique challenges they face.
socioeconomic status (U.S. Department of
Education, 2014). Further, among all first- The influence of college-going generation
generation college students, 54% are racial/ status or racial identity on measures of college

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color
enrollment, persistence, and academic This literature review is informed and

performance) is relatively well described. For organized by the domains of social justice
example, previous research demonstrates that advocacy as outlined by the American
compared to continuing-generation students, Counseling Association: empowerment,
first-generation college students have lower collaboration, and action (Toporek & Daniels,
college GPAs (e.g., Chen, 2005), are more 2018). Using a social justice framework
likely to withdraw from or repeat college involves actively addressing the dynamics of
courses (e.g., Martinez et al., 2009), and are power, oppression, and privilege, recognizing
less likely to earn a college degree (e.g., that people have been socially stratified and
Cataldi et al., 2018). Black and Latinx students marginalized based on race, class, gender,
also have lower college GPAs and lower sexual orientation, ability, and other identities
college graduation rates (e.g., Bowan & Bok, throughout societal history (Toporek &
1998; Fischer, 2007; Slaughter, 2009). Daniels, 2018; Prilleltensky & Prilleltensky,
2003). Further, a social justice framework
Attention to the intersection between racial involves advocating on behalf of
identity and college-going generation status marginalized populations to challenge the
on college success metrics is less voluminous, way services are provided in order to meet
although a few studies do specifically address their unique needs (Fondacaro & Weinberg,
the experiences of FGSOC (McCoy, 2014; 2002; Kiselica & Robinson, 2001). As such, the
Tello & Lonn, 2017; Havlik et al., 2020; Dennis implications for research, policy, and practice
et al., 2005; Wang & Castañeda-Sound, 2008; included in this review focus on actions that
Ellis et al., 2019). Given the significance of the institutions can take to improve the college
barriers to success experienced by first- experiences and academic outcomes of
generation college students, and the FGSOC.
percentage of first-generation college students
who are in racial minority groups, the focus of Challenges Faced by FGSOC
the current article is to review empirical, peer
reviewed research regarding three types of Research focused on the first-generation
supports that influence FGSOC college aspect of the FGSOC identity indicates that
success: academic supports, transitional first-generation college students tend to face
adjustment supports, and mental health increased psychological and social difficulties
supports. Building on literature regarding that impact academic outcomes. These
first-generation college students, college challenges include having lower academic
students of color, and FGSOC, we discuss the and career related goals and standards for
experiences and importance of engaging with themselves, possessing decreased critical
these supports to promote success in college. thinking skills, and receiving less social and
intellectual support (McCarron & Inkelas,

2006), which can negatively impact their associated with high achievement and social
academic preparation (Lohfink & Paulsen, status (Bourdieu, 1986; Saunders & Serna,
2005; Pike & Kuh, 2005), persistence to degree 2004; Dumais & Ward, 2010; Richards, 2020).
completion (Burgette & Magun-Jackson, 2008; As a result of these factors, FGSOC are less
Engle & Tinto, 2008), and performance in their likely to participate in activities that lead to
college courses (Stephens et al., 2012). The academic and social success, such as studying
individualistic culture of U.S. universities in groups, using campus support services,
tends to discount first-generation college and interacting with faculty (Engle & Tinto,
students’ academic achievement, as these 2008).
students struggle to integrate their own
cultural values with the environment of their Focusing on the racial aspects of the FGSOC
institution (Stephens et al., 2014). identity, research demonstrates that college
students of color face additional barriers,
First-generation college students of lower including racial discrimination and racial-
socioeconomic status face additional barriers ethnic microaggressions (Ellis, et al., 2019;
to success, including stigma, marginalization, Bui, 2002; Davidson et al., 2004; Cataldi et al.,
and hardship that is related to their social 2018; Solorzano et al., 2000). These
class identities (Stephens et al., 2012). For experiences can create feelings of alienation,
example, first-generation college students isolation, and invisibility, and contribute to
report higher levels of classism on campus increased mental health difficulties (Cerezo et
from peers, professors, and the institution as a al., 2013; Pérez Huber & Solorzano, 2015;
whole than continuing generation students Reynolds et al., 2010; Pieterse et al., 2010).
(Allan et al., 2016; Rice et al., 2017). Some They may also contribute to the lower college
FGSOC report feeling invalidated and matriculation rates and prolonged degree
embarrassed due to stereotyping and completion times observed in students of
misinterpretations by instructors or peers that color (Fischer, 2007; Museus et al., 2008;
are linked to their socioeconomic realities Slaughter, 2009). Discrimination and
(Havlik et al., 2020). Due to having limited marginalization are even more pronounced
financial resources, many FGSOC work full- for FGSOC who attend Predominately White
time while earning their degrees and rely Institutions (PWIs), resulting in a college
disproportionately on financial aid (House et experience that is challenging and highly
al., 2019; Page & Clayton, 2016; Pratt et al., stressful (McCoy, 2014; Havlik, 2020).
2019). In addition, FGSOC are less likely than
students from economically advantaged Supporting FGSOC
backgrounds to possess traditional forms of The next section of this article reviews
cultural capital, including the education, literature that focuses on academic supports,
knowledge, and academic skills typically transitional adjustment supports, and mental

health supports for FGSOC on college (McCoy, 2014). School counselors are
campuses. We focus on these three areas as therefore a crucial source of college and career
they are places institutions can tangibly information for first-generation and low-
intervene to impact the success of FGSOC income students during the high school years
within a social justice framework. For (Owen et al., 2020). Once enrolled in college,
example, college self-efficacy (the level of FGSOC remain at a disadvantage by not being
confidence in one’s ability to effectively able to benefit from parental knowledge and
complete tasks related to college success; guidance related to the college experience,
Solberg et al., 1993) has been positively linked such as advice related to study skills and
to academic progress, college outcome assignments, time management, and the
expectations, the ability to cope with college importance of utilizing campus resources
related barriers, and career aspirations (Raque (McCarron & Inkelas, 2006; Davis, 2010; Ward
-Bogdan & Lucas, 2016). FGSOC have lower et al., 2012). As the number of meetings with
academic self-efficacy than white first- an academic advisor increases, however,
generation students (Wang & Castañeda- academic retention and performance improve
Sound, 2008), but when colleges provide for first-generation college students (Swecker
adequate academic, transitional adjustment, et al., 2013). Therefore, consistent and
and mental health supports for FGSOC their specialized academic support from school
self-efficacy is likely to improve (McCoy, counselors, advisors and mentors may lead to
2014). The provision of such supports is an greater academic success for FGSOC.
example of an equity-driven and socially just
endeavor aimed at increasing a sense of In addition, providing information to first-
empowerment among FGSOC. generation college students about how their
unique backgrounds may inform their college
Academic Supports experiences increases their utilization of
college resources (e.g., meeting with
Starting in K-12 education, FGSOC are at an professors) and improves their academic
academic disadvantage due to systemic performance (Stephens et al., 2014). Further,
inequities, such as higher rates of poverty and employing creative pedagogical approaches
lower quality classroom instruction (Bui, that emphasize multiculturalism, such as
2002; Ward et al., 2012). These disparities later collaborative learning groups, team-based
result in lower college entrance exam scores learning, and peer-instruction, can lead to
and decreased academic preparedness for more positive educational experiences for
college (Bui, 2002). In addition, many FGSOC FGSOC (Jehangir, 2010; Roberson &
receive very little support from parents/ Kleynhaus, 2020). These pedagogical
guardians during the college application approaches illustrate and emphasize the
process (Pascarella et al., 2004), resulting in a social justice advocacy principles of
challenging and frustrating experience

collaboration, empowerment, and action (Conrad & Gasman, 2015).

(Toporek & Daniels, 2018), which may
promote identity development and a sense of Transitional Adjustment Supports
belonging for FGSOC.
The transition to college, marked by academic
Another source of potential support for and social integration into the college
FGSOC includes attending Minority Serving environment during the first year of study,
Institutions (MSIs), which include Historically plays a crucial role in the retention and
Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) and achievement of all college students (Tinto,
Predominantly Black Institutions (PBIs). 1993). Such integration is often evidenced by
These institutions, which are often located in living away from home, dedicating
urban areas of the South, Midwest, and East, substantial amounts of time and effort to
provide access to postsecondary education for college related activities, building close
millions of students of color, low-income relationships with college peers, fulfilling
students, and first-generation college students academic responsibilities, and returning to
(Espinosa et al., 2017). The majority of PBIs college the following year (Inkelas et al.,
have student bodies that are 50 to 75 percent 2007). Receiving transitional adjustment
Black, while White and Latino/a/x students support from one’s parents/guardians (i.e.,
are the second largest racial groups enrolled. encouragement and advice), college peers
National Student Clearinghouse (NSC) data (i.e., affirmation and solidarity), and
shows that these institutions can positively institutions (i.e., campus resources and
impact persistence and performance in programs), is an important factor in
college, as the overall graduation rate for determining a successful transition to college
students of color at MSIs is much higher than (Ward et al., 2012), particularly for first-
the federal graduate rate, particularly at generation college students (Pascarella et al.,
public universities (51.5 percent vs. 16.6 2004; Ward et al., 2012) and college students
percent; Espinosa et al., 2017). The success of color (Hinton, 2008; Locks et al., 2008).
experienced by students who attend MSIs can
be attributed to the creation of safe and Compared to continuing-generation students,
empowering environments that recognize first-generation college students tend to feel
individual and collective achievement in less supported by parents, peers, and faculty
numerous ways (Conrad & Gasman, 2015). members in their college transition (Garriott
Not only are faculty and administrators et al., 2017). Further, FGSOC report lower
familiar with the unique backgrounds and perceived support during their college
academic support needs of non-traditional transition than white first-generation college
students, they embrace and celebrate students (McCoy, 2014; Wang & Castañeda-
students’ diverse cultural and racial identities Sound, 2008). Due to a lack of transitional

adjustment supports, FGSOC often experience receive instrumental support from family
difficulty adapting to the college environment members, peers, and institutions during the
and feel disconnected from their institutions college transition feel more empowered, have
(Covarrubias et al., 2020; Terenzini et al., greater opportunities for collaborative
1994). As a result, they are less likely to learning, and experience improved academic
socialize with college peers or to participate in performance and adjustment to college life as
extracurricular activities on campus a result.
(Pascarella et al., 2004; Terenzini et al., 1994)
and more likely to experience low GPAs Mental Health Supports
during their first semester of college (Dennis
et al., 2005). Greater support from parents/ Access to emotional support is important for
guardians or peers during the transition to the well-being of college students, as the
college can lead to improved academic self- transitional nature of college and young
efficacy, greater academic satisfaction, higher adulthood can contribute to increased
college outcome expectations, and increased psychological difficulties, including
retention for FGSOC (Havlik et al., 2020). depression, anxiety, and stress (Beiter et al.,
2015; Stallman, 2010). College students of
Institutional supports, such as academic and color are particularly vulnerable to the
social programs that provide specialized stressors of being a minority within a majority
guidance and mentorship from college faculty culture and the acculturation process that
and staff, also improve the transition to accompanies this experience (Mayorga et al.,
college for FGSOC (McCoy, 2014; Tello & 2018; Sanchez et al., 2018; Reynolds et al.,
Lonn, 2017). For example, McCoy (2014) 2010). Acculturation, or “...the internal
found that FGSOC who enrolled in a summer negotiation over the degree to which a
bridge program felt much better prepared to student’s personal attitudes and behaviors
start college. This program provided an conform to both the norms of the dominant
opportunity for FGSOC to gain familiarity culture and their culture of origin” (Mayorga
with the campus, connect with other students et al., 2018, p. 247), can negatively impact the
and faculty of color, and increase their mental health and well-being of FGSOC. For
confidence before the school year began. example, FGSOC have lower self-esteem and
Another study discovered that FGSOC who life satisfaction and higher levels of stress
participated in a living- learning program—a than white first-generation college students
unique residential community for students (Wang & Castañeda-Sound, 2008). Further,
with similar academic goals or shared stress related to acculturation has been found
interests—felt more integrated into their to increase symptoms of depression and
college campus than FGSOC who lived in a anxiety in students of color, as well as
traditional dormitory (Inkelas et al., 2007). decrease the ability to cope with these
These findings suggest that FGSOC who symptoms (Mayorga et al., 2018).

FGSOC may also experience racial-ethnic decreased psychological distress (Sanchez et

microaggressions, or “subtle statements and al., 2018). In addition, college students who
behaviors that unconsciously communicate receive the amount of emotional support that
denigrating messages to people of they perceive themselves to need are more
color” (Nadal, 2011, p. 470), which have been likely to experience a decrease in depressive
linked with greater psychological distress symptoms than those who receive more or
among both Latinx and Asian college less support than they perceive themselves to
students (Sanchez et al., 2018). It may feel need (Rankin et al., 2018). These findings
difficult for FGSOC to speak about their suggest that mental health support is
experiences of discrimination or their feelings important for the well-being of FGSOC and
of distress and isolation (Banks, 2018; McCoy, that it is crucial to carefully assess the amount
2014; Havlik et al., 2020). However, McCoy of support that is needed before intervening.
(2014) found that the
multicultural student center Implications for Research,
on one campus was Policy, and Practice
perceived as a safe space by
“Educators, researchers, school and The purpose of this literature
FGSOC to be their authentic
college counselors, and mental
selves, voice their review was to examine three
health clinicians working in
challenges, and build college counseling centers have an types of supports that
community. important role to play in influence the college success
identifying and advancing efforts of FGSOC: academic
Despite their potential for to decrease racism and other forms supports, transitional
of marginalization and oppression
increased mental health adjustment supports, and
to improve the college experiences
issues, FGSOC are unlikely and outcomes for FGSOC.” mental health supports.
to seek psychological When considering these
support through counseling supports from a social justice
centers on campus (Stebleton et al., 2014; perspective, it is imperative to recognize that
Banks, 2018). Further, all first-generation success in college is not solely the individual
college students are more likely than student’s responsibility, but a collective social
continuing-generation students to view responsibility that is shared by educational
themselves negatively if they do seek institutions themselves. Educators,
professional mental health services (Garriott researchers, school and college counselors,
et al., 2017). When counseling services are and mental health clinicians working in
utilized by students of color experiencing race college counseling centers have an important
-based stressors, however, they tend to view role to play in identifying and advancing
the mental health support positively (Banks, efforts to decrease racism and other forms of
2018; Hook et al., 2016) and to experience marginalization and oppression to improve

the college experiences and outcomes for self-efficacy.

FGSOC. Thus, promoting success for FGSOC
entails creating a smoother transition into Further, there is a scarcity of research that
college, increasing engagement in both focuses on first-generation students who do
academic and social activities on campus, graduate from college and go on to start
encouraging holistic growth and careers (Ward et al., 2012). It is therefore
development, and preparing students for a recommended that future research explores
meaningful life and career after graduation the impact of services and collaborative
(Ward et al., 2012). As noted by the research learning environments on the career
studies reviewed in this article and by Ward development of FGSOC, with the goal of
et al. (2012), it is important for colleges to gaining a better understanding of the factors
examine their recruitment and orientation that contribute to their preparation for and
programs, learning environments, experiences of post-graduation success. For
interactions between students and faculty, example, it would be helpful to know more
and their beliefs and biases about students to about the experiences of FGSOC in graduate
help FGSOC succeed on campus. and professional schools, as well as the steps
taken by FGSOC who become faculty
Research members. The lack of research related to
FGSOC translates into a lack of guidance for
Based on the research currently available and institutions to follow. It would be relatively
reviewed in this article, it is unclear whether easy to remedy this lack of guidance if
or not the majority of difficulties faced by researchers included the FGSOC identity as
FGSOC are related to their ethnic minority another demographic variable in their
identity, lower socioeconomic status, college- analyses. By identifying effective, evidence-
going generation status, or interactions based interventions and policies designed to
among these variables. Therefore, additional support FGSOC, opportunities to achieve
research that examines how first-generation socially just college and career success and to
status, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic promote inclusiveness will be enhanced.
status as separate and interrelated variables
may impact the mental health and academic Policy and Practice
performance of FGSOC is needed. More
research that examines various aspects of the Consistent with a social justice framework,
college experience for FGSOC is also needed the recommendations for policy and practice
to better understand their experience on included in this review focus on ways that
college campuses, identify strategies to reduce institutions can address systemic inequities
the occurrence of racial-ethnic that contribute to inadequate academic,
microaggressions, and increase their college transitional adjustment, and mental health

supports for FGSOC. Supporting and encouraged to promote help-seeking to

empowering FGSOC early and often, FGSOC as a form of cultural capital (Richards,
beginning in the high school years, is likely to 2020).
improve their transition to college. Increasing
focused advising and mentorship for FGSOC Cross-divisional collaboration is another
during the first year of college may also be practice that could improve the experiences of
particularly important. It is essential that FGSOC, as the infrastructure of an institution
institutions, specifically PWIs, hire more can greatly impact student success, retention,
faculty and staff of color and require white and well-being (Ward et al., 2012). College
and nonminority faculty and staff to attend campuses are often organized in ways that
training related to cultural sensitivity, such as create separation between student affairs and
seminars aimed at reducing the occurrence of academic affairs and between staff and faculty
racial-ethnic microaggressions. Further, given of different disciplines, which can inhibit the
the financial hardship faced by FGSOC, teamwork, interdisciplinary learning,
strategies to reduce this burden, such as support, and development of all students, and
tuition caps and special scholarships or FGSOC in particular. It is crucial for
grants, are needed. institutions to better integrate campus offices
and departments and to implement
Addressing mental health issues and approaches to serving FGSOC that place
improving overall well-being are important equal value on intellectual and psychosocial
for all college students. For FGSOC, it is development (Swecker, 2013). Such actions
crucial for higher education institutions to not would result in increased academic and social
only ensure that adequate social and support for FGSOC.
psychological supports are available, but to
increase access to and engagement with these Further, intentional and collaborative effort
supports. For example, psychotherapists by campus departments and organizations to
working on college campuses should have a acknowledge, embrace, and empower the
presence beyond the counseling center, such different cultural traditions, values, and assets
as helping to develop and facilitate initiatives of students could lead to improved learning
directed toward the psychosocial needs of environments for FGSOC. Along with using
FGSOC (Tello & Lonn, 2017). An example of collaborative learning groups, it is
such an initiative would be designing and recommended that institutions host events
testing a new support program that focuses and programs on campus that aim to expand
on academic achievement and social our understanding of cultural capital by
interaction within the context of being a promoting acceptance and celebration of
FGSOC (Ward et al., 2012). In addition, students’ diverse identities, knowledge, skills,
instructors, staff, and administrators are and achievements. Such programs could
facilitate an increased sense of belonging and

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Student Readiness of Colleges:

A Qualitative Study
Authored by
Karen Widger Caldwell (University of Michigan‐Dearborn)
Cala Millis (University of Michigan‐Dearborn)
Timothy N. Constant (University of Michigan‐Dearborn)
Patrick Borg (University of Michigan‐Dearborn)
Katherine Threa ‐Morgan (University of Michigan‐Dearborn)
Christopher J. F. Burke (University of Michigan‐Dearborn)
ABSTRACT
Using the framework of belonging, this qualita ve study
explores how one upper Midwestern college engages in matriculation. The study explores how one
student‐readiness and explores the disconnects that create
college located in a large suburb of an
barriers to student‐readiness. The study inves gates
‘student readiness’ broadly through the literature and more
industrial city in a Midwestern state works to
specifically by narrowing efforts to a detailed examina on of support students and the disconnects that
one college by conduc ng interviews, observa ons, and create barriers to being ‘student ready.’ We
collec ng ar facts. The results of the study revealed that conclude by offering recommendations for
the college addressed student readiness differently
increasing student supports, increasing a
depending on perspec ves of staff/faculty, administra on,
and students. Three themes emerged a er coding and sense of belonging, building community, and
examina on of the data: supports, community and reducing disconnects.
disconnect.

Literature Review
Keywords: student readiness, post‐secondary, perspec ves,
disconnect, support, community
The field of education has seen an increased
focus on ensuring that students are college
Introduction
and career ready (Conley, 2014). Conley (2008,
C
2010, 2013, 2014) has written extensively on
olleges often focus on the concept college and career readiness, and asserts that
of preparing students for college, being college ready means ensuring students
or making them ‘college ready.’ In took rigorous courses and met specific metrics
this case study (Yin, 2018) we take on standardized tests. Conley (2008)
the opposite perspective, asking what colleges identified analysis, interpretation, precision
do to make themselves ‘student ready,’ and accuracy, problem solving, and reasoning
including meeting the needs of students as essential cognitive and metacognitive skills
academically, social-emotionally, and for college students. He noted that while
financially. These supports are critical for writing is a skill closely associated with
increasing a student's sense of well-being and college success, students must have
belonging on campus, which increases knowledge of the big ideas of each content
persistence towards academic goals and area. Additionally, students must have

Student Readiness of Colleges
academic self-management behavior, embedded in the shared history, rituals, and

including time management, effective study stories about the community and become part
skills, and persistence (Conley, 2014). Lastly, of the place.
contextual skills such as how to navigate
college choice, admissions, and financial aid “College readiness” typically focuses on
and knowledge are necessary to navigate academic rigor, executive functioning, and
institutional systems during the first year. adequate financial resources (Tierney &
Duncheon, 2015). For students, readiness
The historic and recent framing of college and includes additional factors such as parental
career readiness focuses on the characteristics support, emotional intelligence, and financial
and experiences of students rather than on the management. It is also important to recognize
role of colleges supporting and including that the college years are when students are
students. The literature review examines developing their own identity, and this
academic, social-emotional, and financial identity is shaped and connected to their
supports related to increased student sense of communities. Being a student-ready college
well-being and belonging on campus. requires “defining success as student
Framing this discussion are the ideas of the learning” (McNair et al., 2016, p. 89) and
purpose of education, readiness, and providing academic and financial supports,
belonging. In this discussion, the term but also the social-emotional supports
“faculty” means the academic staff (teachers, students need to feel they belong on campus
instructors, professors, lecturers) of a higher and to persist.
education institution, while staff refers to all
non-academic staff that may provide services An important component of being student-
other than teaching to students. ready is fostering a sense of belonging on
campus. Research findings show how feelings
Making colleges student ready requires of academic and social belonging, as well as
colleges cultivate a sense of belonging as a commitment to the college and intention to
critical context for helping students navigate obtain a college degree, drive student
the social, academic, and cultural changes persistence (Tinto, 1987, 1993). Hausmann, et
they experience. bell hooks (2009) described al. (2007) systematically studied students’
belonging as a connectedness to a place that sense of belonging and student persistence,
resonates with your own history and cultural finding that race, gender, SAT scores, or
values. For a college to promote this sense of financial difficulty were not related to sense of
belonging, it needs to cultivate a sense of belonging, but peer-group interactions,
identity that students can connect with that interactions with faculty, and peer support
reflects shared values and beliefs. hooks were related. Students who reported more
(2009) suggested that these values are academic integration experienced an increase
in sense of belonging over time (Hausmann et

al., 2007). A sense of belonging is dependent (Brooms, 2018; Elliot et al., 2016; Garcia et al.
on the integration of social and academic 2019). Participation in extracurricular
experiences, which is promoted through activities can be a central part of students’
supports provided to students. identity development as members of the
school community. Research indicates that
Academic Supports organizations, philosophies, and practices
Academic supports have variously been that supported student identities contribute to
defined as advising, tutoring, mentoring, and a sense of well-being and belonging (Brooms,
interaction with faculty (Engle & Tinto, 2008; 2018; Savitz-Romer et al., 2009), as do the
Garcia, 2019; Hausman et al., 2007; Jacobson, creation of a campus community (Baleria,
2020; Moreno, 2019; Savitz-Romer et al., 2009; 2019; Elffers et al., 2012; Elliot et al., 2016;
Tinto, 2003). Opportunities to discuss, work Engle & Tinto, 2008; Tinto, 2003). It is
with, and engage in learning with peers in the important for college students to feel they
classroom (Baleria, 2019; Brewer et al., 2018; belong to a community and are supported
Elffers, 2012; Engle & Tinto, 2008) and academically, socially, and emotionally to
flexibility with assignments and due dates identify with the college and persist until
(Schademan & Thompson, 2016) have also graduation.
been defined as academic supports. Learning
communities have also been identified as a Financial Supports
form of academic support (Engle & Tinto, Financial supports for students have long
2008). These academic supports are provided been viewed as providing funding for college,
through both formal structures, such as particularly for low-income or first-generation
academic advising and faculty office hours, college students, in the form of loans,
and informal structures such as peer scholarships, work-study, or grants. Research
relationships in class and programs of study. suggests that students are more likely to
enroll in and successfully complete college if
Social-Emotional Supports they have knowledge of college systems,
Social-emotional supports play a significant specifically knowledge about financial aid
role in students’ sense of well-being and (Cunningham, et al., 2007; De La Rosa, 2006;
belonging on campus. Social-emotional Grodsky & Jones, 2007; Horn et al., 2003;
supports include, but are not limited to Perna, 2006). Colleges must be ready to
counseling services (Engle & Tinto, 2008; provide students with information about the
Garcia et al., 2019; Moreno, 2019; Turkpour & admissions process and financial aid. While
Mehdinezhed, 2016), opportunities for peer this information is the most critical aspect of
interaction on campus (Baleria, 2019; Brooms, college knowledge (Conley, 2008; Engle &
2018; Engle & Tinto, 2008; Tinto, 2003), and Tinto, 2008; McNair et al., 2016; Moreno, 2019;
belonging to student clubs and organizations Savitz-Romer et al., 2009), other researchers
have identified additional financial supports.

McNair et al. (2016) argued that financial sense of belonging and well-being, allowing
support for students needs to go beyond students to identify with the college and
paying for tuition and should also include persist until graduation. Using the framework
transportation, childcare, legal services, tax of belonging, this case study explores how
preparation services, nutrition services, and one Midwestern college engages in student-
health services. Savitz-Romer et al. (2009) also readiness and explores the disconnects that
argued for full-service higher education create barriers to student-readiness.
institutions that provide this broader range of
financial services. Methodology
Disconnects The faculty, staff, administration, and

While colleges offer many services to support students of Midwest College were the focus of
students, it is clear that there are challenges to this research. Midwest College was selected
providing and accessing the identified as the research site because it reflects the
supports. Colleges may not be growing population of students at community
organizationally or culturally ready due to the colleges and regional institutions. The
belief that students should be college ready research team consisted of five graduate
(McNair et al., 2016), and college faculty and students and one faculty member from the
students may have different concepts of University of Michigan-Dearborn College of
support and responsibility (Schademan & Education and Health and Human Services.
Thompson, 2016; Zerquera et al., 2018).
Faculty behavior played a significant role in Case setting
student learning, with more experienced and The college is located in a large suburb of a
full-time faculty engaging in practices most major midwestern city, which is
productive for student learning than part- predominantly African American, while the
time or less experienced faculty (Lancaster & suburb is predominantly White. The local
Lundberg, 2019). Students may not have community has a large immigrant population
knowledge of available supports or may not with a high percentage of the college age
be willing to use provided supports (Garcia et population speaking English as a second
al., 2019; Moreno, 2019; Schademan & language. The student population of 12,333
Thompson, 2016). students (2019-2020) is 57% White (with a
majority Arab-American), 16% Black or
As research has shifted from focusing on African American, 2% Hispanic or Latino, and
college-readiness to student-readiness, it has 3% Asian. Fifty-six percent of the students are
indicated that colleges should be prepared to female and 44% male, with 65% of students
meet the academic and social-emotional needs attending part-time. Sixty-two percent of the
of students. Doing so increases a student’s population speaks English as a first language.
Twenty-nine percent speak Arabic, 2%

Spanish, and 1.5% Polish as their first activity. Semi-structured and unstructured
languages. The average age of students interviews lasted from ten minutes to over an
enrolled is 24 years of age1. Of the faculty, 176 hour. Twelve full-time and part-time faculty
are full-time and 489 are adjunct. members from a variety of programs were
initially emailed an invitation for an interview
Midwest College is a community college that with 10 additional faculty contacted at a later
recently transitioned into a four-year date. Three faculty members responded to the
institution. Dual enrollment high school invitation. Of those three interviews, two
students (16%), transfer students (4%), were conducted over the telephone and one
traditional first-time college students (21%) as was conducted in person. Interviews with
well as returning adult students (57%) attend students were “person on the street
Midwest College. As a commuter school, interviews,” with researchers interviewing
Midwest College does not offer on campus students in non-academic settings in groups
housing. Sports, student clubs, theater, ranging from two to four students. All
student council, co-op, and internship interviews were semi-structured and focused
placement opportunities are available. on broad themes identified by the research
team prior to interviews around issues of
Data Collection challenges, supports, networks, and resources
in transitioning to college. Guiding questions
The research team conducted interviews, for student interviews are located in the
observations, and collected artifacts on Appendix. Interviews were left open-ended
Midwest College’s Main Campus and North with the intention of adjusting questions to
Campus from February 2020 to March 2020. reflect the different positions held by the
The research team made seven visits to participants. The research team often
campus to make observations and conduct discovered opportunities to collect artifacts
informal interviews. Visits were conducted during interviews. Notes were taken during
both during the middle of the day and in the the interviews on paper or in audio format
evening and on multiple days of the week and transferred to a field-notes template after
spread over a one month period at the the conclusion of each interview.
beginning of the winter semester. In addition,
formal interviews were conducted with seven Data Analysis
students, three faculty, and seven staff
including administrators. To coordinate data All data was examined collectively and coded
collection, a data log was created to track using a two-cycle process (Saldana, 2016). The
individual team member data collection first review of data used the elemental
method of initial coding to obtain first
1
Data was retrieved from the college website and cita ons impressions of the data and highlighted
are not being shared to maintain college anonymity. commonly observed ideas and characteristics.

This process identified three distinct voices or Support, the ways that the faculty and staff
perceptions of the data: student, staff/ at Midwest College sought to meet the
administration and faculty. This became needs of the students,
important as we triangulated the data and
began to look for common codes across the Community, the desire and efforts to
type of participants. develop a sense of togetherness among
the student body, and
The methods used for second-cycle coding
were focused, axial, and pattern. We began Disconnect, the evidence that students
second-cycle coding with the focused coding were often not aware or did not take
method by examining the frequency of codes advantage of support and efforts to
identified in the first cycle. The team then build community.
used axial coding to group frequent codes
and narrow the number of codes by grouping Support
similar codes. The codes identified in the first Everyone interviewed referenced efforts of
and second cycle of coding were added to a the college to provide support in a variety of
code book. Three themes were identified ways. There was a specific focus on support
through first and second cycle coding: from faculty and staff. Students referenced
Disconnect, Community, and Support. faculty members who provided academic
support and social-emotional support by
The team continuously triangulated data as it making sure they understood course content,
was collected and examined. For example, and facilitating social interactions and
data collected from a student interview and a friendships in class that made the campus feel
staff interview regarding the student food inclusive. Students were also appreciative of
pantry were triangulated with collected the support of Midwest College’s counseling
artifacts. Interviewees were asked if they had staff as indicated in staff evaluation
additional information they wanted to comments: “Dr. Brown2 was very interested
provide, opening up dialogue in helping me succeed in my program course”
opportunities. Summaries were provided to and “Dr. Brown was very empathetic, kind,
participants as a form of member checking. knowledgeable, and provided great assistance
and encouragement.”
Findings
Data analysis resulted in the identification of

three themes: 2
All names are pseudonyms.

The college provided several academic Higher Learning Commission recognized

supports, including a writing center and a Midwest College’s institutional commitment
learning lab. When asked what efforts to to providing these supports in the 2019
support students academically she was most accreditation review:
proud of, Dr. Jones, an administrator, stated:
This website provides students, faculty,
The way we get students who test into and staff with a list of Allies who can assist
developmental classes and transition them them during difficult times in addition to
into regular classes. I’m also proud of our resources related to housing, food pantries,
Accelerated Learning Program for shelters, and human services that could
struggling students. Not identified as assist them during these difficult times…
‘special’ in the regular course and stay (p. 10).
for an extra hour for
additional support. I The importance of providing
am also proud of our social-emotional support was
creative efforts in referenced by faculty, staff,
supporting the “This datasuggests that and students. This data
students. suggests that various
various stakeholders
stakeholders see intentional
Dr. Jones’s perspective is
see intentional systems
systems to provide social-
aligned with research that to provide social- emotional supports as critical
states schools that are emotional supports to student success. The
student-ready no longer as critical to emphasis placed on student
view students as at-risk but support systems throughout
student success.”
view them as at-promise the accreditation review
(Burke & Burke, 2005). report indicates an
When an institution sees institutional commitment to
ways to help students grow and progress, funding support programs moving forward.
rather than ways to label, they develop
supports to help students gain strategies and In addition to academic and social-emotional
knowledge so they are more prepared to support, Midwest College worked to meet the
manage their own learning (Conley, 2008). financial and basic needs of students. In an
acknowledgment that financial aid is one of
The college also worked to provide social- the most likely barriers for low-income
emotional support. Flyers advertising mental students (Engle & Tinto, 2008), the financial
health services, community groups, and aid office held regular FAFSA sessions.
student organizations were distributed Counselors worked to help students navigate
around campus in common spaces. The the institutional financial aid procedures.

Roughly two-thirds of the college’s students building is the high percentage of courses
receive federal aid, with a majority of taught by part-time faculty who are not
students receiving Pell Grants. Providing consistently on campus. The interviews with
support also included helping students meet two full-time faculty revealed that they teach
basic needs like food security and housing. five to six course sections per semester and
All of the participants mentioned the are on campus daily. Being present on
importance of the food pantry. A student campus full-time means that they are more
worker at the food pantry said the pantry available to meet with students and more
often “can’t keep up with the demand” from likely to sponsor organizations on campus, an
students. Students were more likely to be important component of establishing
food insecure if they received financial aid, community and building relationships. The
were first-generation college students, lived large number of part-time faculty also means
off-campus or identified as a racial minority that faculty are more transient, meaning
(El Zein, et al., 2019). The presence of the food students are less likely to have the same
pantry lessens anxiety in students who do not faculty member twice, preventing students
need to wonder where their next meal will from creating a relationship with faculty that
come from. is central to building community.
Most references regarding support provided Despite these realities, efforts to develop a
by the college focused on meeting students’ sense of community are ongoing. Faculty and
basic needs, crisis care for mental health or staff who were interviewed consistently
emotional needs, or academic support. While mentioned a desire to develop a sense of
there was talk about community, there was campus community. Full-time faculty
little evidence that any of the formal support members expressed a desire to build personal
was focused on developing a sense of and academic relationships with their
belonging or an identity as a member of the students. One professor shared, “I try to to
Midwest College community. learn about students’ personal lives and
challenges. I want to see each student as a
Theme of Community human being and convey that I care about
them as individuals.” They stressed the
Midwest College serves a diverse student importance of individualizing the learning
population, matriculating through the experience and providing the academic and
institution at various stages of their academic social-emotional support students
and personal lives. Midwest College is a need. Efforts to convey to students that they
commuter school with no residential housing, are cared about as individuals within the
presenting challenges to community building. larger campus community were discussed by
An additional complication to community faculty and staff members, but were not as
clearly articulated by the part-time faculty

and staff. Students also shared that fellow and the overall sense of community, but our
students worked to ensure the college was a research shows that there is a disconnect in
supportive community. In response to a the current beliefs of community between part
question about seeking help with classwork, a -time and full-time faculty, staff, and
student replied, “You can ask another students. While there is evidence of effort by
student. There is always someone around the college to develop a supportive
who is willing to help.” The supportiveness of atmosphere on the campus, there is also
the students was emphasized when a student evidence that the students are not actively
approached a researcher sitting at a table participating in the formal organizations
during a campus observation, introduced sponsored by the college.
herself, asked what year she was in and
offered to help. Theme of Disconnect
There are also non-academic facets that build While the researchers found evidence of
communities, such as Midwest College’s academic, social-emotional, and financial
offering of a variety of clubs, organizations, supports for students at Midwest College,
and intramural and school sponsored athletic support appears to be primarily academic.
teams. Staff identified between thirty and Interviews with faculty and staff revealed
thirty-five clubs with what they believed was differing philosophies relating to the amount
a high degree of participation. The college of support the students needed. For example,
requires clubs, which are driven by student where one faculty member viewed support
interest and not organized by the college, to through active engagement with their
have at least 10 members, but with only 30 students in their learning and getting to know
clubs, this equates to a minimum of 300 active them as individuals; other faculty members
students out of a student body of 13,000. A thought students were too coddled, saying
staff member talked about the college's “We do a lot of hand holding here,” and
athletic program as a source of community as would be better served by letting them figure
well, but in 2019 there were only 91 students out things on their own. Interviews revealed a
involved in sports teams sponsored by the difference among the perspectives of part-
college out of 13,000 students. While sports time or full-time faculty. Part-time faculty
and clubs can be an important source of were less flexible with providing additional
community and belonging, none of the eight supports, while full-time faculty saw
students interviewed referred to these clubs providing this support as a key component of
or sports. their teaching responsibilities.
The data highlighting the theme of Community Counseling staff also mentioned that some
demonstrates the desire of Midwest College faculty are more approachable and supportive
stakeholders to improve their campus culture of students who request accommodations

through the office of disability services. also divergent perspectives among the faculty
Feedback from a survey of a student who and staff at Midwest College. Dr. Jones stated,
received academic support echoes this “We are trying to dispel myths among the
counselor's input, “She provided great faculty. One of the myths we were able to
feedback and recommended me with debunk was that there was a disproportionate
professors that I should take and also helped number of Midwest College students with
me schedule my next semester's classes.” reading difficulties. Our research proved this
Counseling staff also described some students was not the case and we were able to share
as being too dependent on their parents and this data with the Midwest College faculty.”
staff. As evidenced by this quote from a staff
member, some staff members rely on a In addition to differences of perception
traditional teaching style versus a teaching among faculty and students about what
style that is grounded in developing a supports should be provided, there also
relationship between the faculty member and appeared to be a disconnect between the
student: support programs provided and their
utilization by students. During our
Faculty generally have traditional observations, there were very few students at
approaches and views to teaching and do the Writing Center and Learning Lab. While
not attempt to learn about students most students were aware of supports on
personally. They teach in their lane and do campus, some students had a limited
not leave their box although the student understanding of where to go for academic or
population of the college is stunningly financial support. This disconnect is evident
under educated. in an interview with a student activities
manager, who stated students were “not
A student’s level of connection with school really” aware of the supports on campus. Ms.
faculty and staff varied and was dependent Noble attributed this disconnect to
on each relationship. Students felt positive communication barriers, noting that the
about the connections with faculty and staff. student population at Midwest College is
This is evidenced in how students describe very diverse with different preferred modes
their relationship with some of their favorite of communication, the college has a split
faculty, as well as by the student surveys that campus, and high school students who were
provided the Assisted Learning Services enrolled in the Early College program. The
department with student feedback. When two campuses are not within walking
asked about their connections to faculty, distance of each other, making transportation
students cited the positive and negative difficult, and some students were not aware
aspects, for example, “I love my psych that some services are provided on the other
teacher. My CIS teacher knows his content but campus.
he is not engaged with us.” There are

In an effort to reduce communication barriers provide a wide variety of supports and

with students, Midwest College recently services for students, (b) develop effective
created a Student Activities Instagram systems to identify and address any
account, which has 300 followers, disconnects within the organizational
representing less than 3% of the student structures, especially how they may impact
population. Despite a concerted effort from student success, as defined by the attainment
the staff and administration of Midwest of a degree or certificate, and (c) make a
College to support students and develop a concerted effort to strengthen the students’
sense of community on campus, there was sense of community. Midwest College offered
little evidence this effort was recognized by services intended to support students, such as
students. No researcher observed students financial aid guidance and resources, FAFSA
wearing Midwest College shirts, hats, coats or nights, a writing center, and a food pantry. In
other items with the college logo, and no addition, full time faculty talked about the
student referred to themselves by the name of importance of grounding academic and social
the college mascot during our time on -emotional support in personal relationships.
campus. This would suggest that the students These supports are consistent with academic
may not feel a shared sense of identity, supports (Engle & Tinto, 2008; Garcia, 2019;
history, values, and purpose as members of Hausman et al., 2007; Jacobson, 2020; Moreno,
the college community. This may be 2019; Savitz-Romer et al., 2009; Tinto, 2003)
exacerbated by the large age range of students and financial supports (Cunningham et al.,
attending the college. While there is evidence 2007; De La Rosa, 2006; Grodsky & Jones,
that the college has invested time and 2007; Horn et al., 2003; Perna, 2006) described
resources into creating a sense of community, in the literature.
there is also evidence that many students do
not feel a strong sense of connection to the This finding of social and emotional supports
college. Given the transient nature of the leading to a feeling of community is
student population this is understandable, but consistent with the literature of how one feels
given the importance of belonging to student a sense of belonging in a community (hooks,
success identified by Tinto (1987), the 2009). Consistent academic advising and
disconnect between the efforts of the college counseling for students led to a feeling of
and the student body is an issue to be noted. trust in the institution; students wanted to feel
that the institution cared about them as
Discussion individuals. The literature suggests that
student clubs and organizations foster a sense
In this study, it became clear through our data of belonging (Brooms, 2018; Savitz-Romer et
collected and literature that colleges that are al., 2009). However, the effort put in by the
student ready (a) work continuously to institution, or lack thereof, to include students
in clubs, groups, or cohorts of any kind was

recognized by students and directly considering the themes of support and

contributed to whether students felt a sense of community, and finding solutions to
belonging or not, as evidenced by our disconnects that impact students. We believe
interviews. that efforts to cultivate a sense of belonging
on campus is a constructive way to address
We also found that while some students were the observed disconnects.
familiar with these supports there was a
disconnect and many students often did not Recommendations
know of these services and did not access
them. This disconnect is consistent with the In order for colleges to adequately prepare to
disconnects identified in the literature (Garcia support their students, we recommend they
et al., 2019; Moreno, 2019; Schademan & perform a review of all supports currently
Thompson, 2016). Many faculty and students offered, including academic, financial, mental
shared that services were often not used by health, social-emotional, and learning and
students who came to campus for class and study skills. This recommendation was based
then left when class was over. In addition, on the disconnect between supports offered
part-time faculty who also came to campus by the college and supports students had
just to teach one or two classes also did not knowledge of and used. Colleges need to
invest as much time building supportive view incoming applicants as whole people,
relationships with students. The findings of not just as students, and provide support in
this study are important because they all areas that will help a student succeed.
highlight the ways that disconnects Furthermore, colleges should provide
undermine colleges’ efforts to be student opportunities for personalized advising. For
ready. Midwest College had several systems example, financial support such as
in place to provide supports for students. scholarships can help students pay for tuition,
Most of these support systems were academic classes, books, and fees; however, many
in nature. They also provided systems that students lack financial management skills
support the development of students’ college needed to manage money from scholarships
knowledge and there were efforts to address and loans. Financial advising would help
the students basic needs and create students meet their financial obligations and
community. However, many of these systems determine if they need to work in addition to
were not accessed by students because of the school. This is especially important for first
disconnects evidenced on campus. Our generation college students, who may not
research can assist post-secondary institutions have assistance in navigating financial aid,
in increasing the number of students who classes, and degree paths. Evidence to
obtain degrees or certificates by considering support this recommendation was found in
how to best support students by carefully student interviews, when students
acknowledged the supports provided by the

institution but admitted to a lack of different groups at these institutions would

knowledge in how to navigate the process define student readiness. How do different
and take advantage of the supports. It is also stakeholders (faculty, students,
recommended that the college focus on administration) define a successful student at
multiple avenues of communication for their institution? Why are full-time faculty
students to learn about opportunities and perceived as more supportive than part-time
programs for support. Using faculty, social faculty? Would implementing a faculty
clubs, peer advisors, and social media in mentoring program support part-time faculty
addition to traditional communication in building relationships with students? Are
methods could increase awareness and the supports provided by the institution
participation in these support programs. accessible and sufficient for students? Do
Evidence for this recommendation was based students feel supported and set up for success
on interviews with students that revealed a by the institution? What are opportunities for
lack of awareness of supports offered by the growth and improvement among institutions
college. to ensure they are ready to support their
students within the community, lift their
Lastly, the issue of disconnect between what voices, and use feedback to continually grow
is offered by the college and what is known and change with the incoming student
and used by students could be addressed by population? Based on the observation of a
focusing on cultivating students’ sense of lack of campus identity, further research
belonging. This is most effectively done by could be conducted relating to the role of
focusing on personal relationships. This is branding, school pride, shared history, and a
evidenced in the comments by students who sense of belonging among students as a way
felt a connection with an individual faculty to facilitate addressing disconnects. Our
member, staff, or fellow student. Building and research into student readiness presented
maintaining these relationships takes time multiple paths for future research to support
and energy, and colleges need to prioritize students, post-secondary institutions, and
this work. Interviews with faculty and staff even the concepts of readiness and success in
suggested that full-time faculty had a greater a post-secondary academic career.
willingness to build and maintain
relationships with students. The study did not include alumni, students
who dropped or transferred out of the college,
Conclusion students who were not on campus at the time
of visits, or any specific targeting of distinct
Additional questions arose during our departments or areas of the college.
research that could be addressed in future Furthermore, during the twelve weeks of our
data collection and research, such as how research, both the institution of the
researchers and the college we were studying

closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. and community, and finding solutions to
Students, faculty, and administration had to disconnects that impact students within the
transition to working remotely, and thus had organization.
limited accessibility. Researchers were no
longer able to travel to campus to collect more
data and possibly follow up with participants REFERENCES
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APPENDIX
What are your goals/plans for (after) college?
STUDENT INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
If they freeze - tailor to ‘next semester’,
Hello, I am _________, a graduate student at ‘over the summer’, ‘next year’
University of Michigan-Dearborn, and I am
conducting a qualitative research study for a What role has the university played in
class. We are asking the question, “What do reaching those goals?
colleges do to make themselves student
ready?” Do you have a few minutes to talk
about what it’s been like starting here as a
student?
You can remain anonymous if you wish, and

if you decide you don’t want me to include
your thoughts I will not use them.
What was your experience in your

transitioning to college? Or what’s it been like
starting here as a student? What challenges
have you experienced since you’ve been a
student at this institution? What has gone
well in coming to school here?
What advice would you have for a new

student?
What university provided supports/resources

have you found here? How aware are you of
these supports and resources offered on
campus? What is your access to these
resources? Are you aware of [these other
resources] that are offered here?
What informal networks of support have you

found here? How did you find these
networks?
If I were to transfer to this institution and I

was struggling with _____ where would I go?
How would I get support?

College Access for Prospective First-generation

High School Students: Parent Perceptions
Authored by
Christopher W. Brown
(Southern Illinois University Edwardsville)
Alison Reeves (Southern Illinois University Edwardsville)
Laurel Puchner (Southern Illinois University Edwardsville)
ABSTRACT
This qualita ve interview study examined how parents of
poten al college‐going first‐genera on students in one high students are less likely to obtain a college
school perceive and experience their access to resources
degree than their peers who have parents or
and knowledge that would allow them to support their
adolescents’ successful entrance into postsecondary
family members that have obtained a college
ins tu ons. The study found that the parents believe that degree (Tym, Mcmillion, Barone, & Webster,
high schools will help their children with college but that 2004). One reason for this disparity may be
they underu lize the resources available and lack important FG students’ limited access to nonacademic
social capital needed to help their students succeed.
knowledge regarding college enrollment.

Keywords: college access, first genera on, parent Growing evidence demonstrates that there is
perspec ves, high school, social capital, educa on more to college readiness than academics, and
R
importantly, a key source of that information
esearch continues to show the long for successful students is parents. Researchers
-term financial benefit of obtaining have found that families of FG students
a college education, whether it is a generally lack needed knowledge to access
2-year associate degree or a 4-year college institutions, yet parental influence has
bachelor’s degree (Abel & Deitz, 2014). Data been identified as a critical factor in whether a
collected between 1970 and 2013 has shown student obtains a postsecondary education
that people obtaining a bachelor’s degree (Chlup et al., 2018; Holcomb-McCoy, 2018).
earn, on average, 56% more than people
obtaining only a high school diploma. Literature on the challenges faced by FG
Likewise, people earning an associate degree students often characterizes students and
will earn 21% more than people with a high their parents from a deficit perspective, which
school diploma (Abel & Dietz, 2014). does not lead to adequate approaches for
addressing the problem (Holcomb-McCoy,
The social and economic mobility that a 2018). For example, these students are usually
college education can offer is a core described as unprepared academically and as
motivation for first-generation (FG) college not understanding the culture and processes
students who enroll in and complete college of college (Thayer, 2000). Parents of FG
(Blackwell & Pinder, 2014). However, FG students are viewed by educational

Parent Perceptions
practitioners as disengaged from their Background Literature

children’s education (Holcomb-McCoy, 2018;
Land & Ziomek-Daigle, 2013) and as not FG students are less likely to enroll in college
possessing the knowledge or experience and less successful than other students once
about going to college that would enable they get there. Research has found that
them to guide their children (Holcomb- between 54% and 58% of FG students enroll
McCoy, 2018; Thayer, 2000). Instead of in college immediately after high school,
blaming students and their parents, research while 82% of students whose parents
suggests that to address these obstacles more obtained a bachelor’s degree enroll in college
fully, schools need to understand better their immediately after high school (Land &
responsibility in the distribution of this Ziomek-Daigle, 2013; Mead, 2018). In college,
knowledge (Chlup et al., 2018; Holcomb- FG students are more likely to take remedial
McCoy, 2018). courses and perceive themselves as less
academically prepared, especially in areas
The problem of lack of college access for FG related to math and science (Gibbons &
students can be viewed through a social Woodside, 2014).
capital lens. Bourdieu’s social capital theory
focuses on how people gain access to or are Family influence is one of the strongest
restricted from beneficial economic and predictors of a student obtaining a college
institutional resources through their degree (Chlup et al., 2018; Bui & Rush, 2016;
membership to social networks, such as Holcomb-McCoy, 2018), and a critical factor
family (Bourdieu, 1986). Using the lens of impacting whether an FG student persists in
social capital theory this study examined how college is the level of social support they
parents of potential college-going FG students receive from family and peers (Gibbons &
perceive and experience their access to the Woodside, 2014). One study found that
valuable resources and knowledge that would parental encouragement of their student to
allow them to support their adolescent’s take algebra was a predictor of students
successful entrance into postsecondary taking advanced mathematics in high school
institutions. This understanding can then be and enrolling in a university, and FG students
used by schools to build upon those supports were less likely than those whose parents had
and opportunities for the benefit of FG a college degree to receive such
families. Prior research on first-generation encouragement (Horn & Nunez, 2000). Other
college students covers a wide range of research shows that FG students not only
academic and social factors that have been receive less support from family for attending
found to impact FG students, but little college but also knew less about college when
research has focused on parent perceptions. compared to second-generation students
(Tym et al., 2004; York-Anderson & Bowman,
1991).

Parent Perceptions
Parental support also impacts whether or not college and underestimate the amount of
a student applies to college. financial aid available to them (Velez & Horn,
2018).
Only 65.6 percent of students who are from
the lowest SES and are also academically In a report discussing debt aversion as a
qualified applied for college (Cabrera & La barrier to college access, one study found
Nasa, 2002). This rate is 22% lower than there is a perception held by low-income
similar students from higher SES students that financial aid loans are not really
backgrounds (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2002). Choy a form of financial assistance (Burdman,
found among 1992 high school graduates that 2005). Choy (2004) explained that the benefits
were considered “college qualified,” FG of a college education may not always
students reported that they received less outweigh the financial cost because
support from their parents in the task of accumulated debt can be a huge risk as
applying for college. The level of support economic conditions or the inability to find a
increases as parents’ level of education job can jeopardize timely payment of student
increases (Choy, 2001). However, FG college loan debt. The fear of the crippling and life-
enrollment rates increase if their parents have altering debt student loans create is well
received guidance about the processes of founded. Friedman (2019) found that college
completing college entrance and financial graduates in the year 2017 owe an average of
applications (Engle, Bermeo, & O’Brien, 2006). $28,650 in student loans. Coupled with fears
of being academically incapable of completing
Another barrier for FG students is lack of college, college becomes a risk deemed too
knowledge about financial assistance for large to take (Choy, 2004).
attending college. For example, FG students
are less likely to have family members who While secondary schools have a significant
know that waivers exist to pay for the ACT or role in the distribution of college access
SAT and are less likely to complete the Free knowledge, they struggle to effectively
Application for Federal Students Aid (FAFSA) disperse this knowledge to FG students. FG
because of uncertainty about their or other students are more likely to go to college if
family members’ status as an immigrant, or their parents have received help and
because their parents are fearful of being information regarding college admission
audited by the IRS or ashamed of their processes (Engle et al., 2006). For example,
financial position (Mead, 2018). Additionally, Chlup et al. (2018) examined perceptions of
FG and low-income families often have Latino parents with children who would be
misconceptions about paying for college the first to go to college in their families,
leading to the tendency of FG students and focusing on their experiences working with
their families to overestimate the cost of their children’s schools. They found that
schools may believe that they are reaching

Parent Perceptions
parents, but they are not. Second, parents that successfully enroll in post-secondary
participated in this study perceived that their education. This research method uses inquiry
language and cultural backgrounds were to explore the perspectives of these
underutilized and undervalued by the school. participants and thus create an understanding
Third, parents felt uncomfortable with the that may inspire change (Glesne, 2016). This
school system (Chlup et al., 2018). study explored the following research
question:
Other research on the role of secondary
schools in providing information about What are the perceptions and experiences of the
college enrollment demonstrated how school parents of potential first-generation college
guidance counselors pose barriers to students at one high school in working with their
providing college access knowledge to child’s school in areas of applying for financial aid
students (Holcomb-McCoy, 2018). While and college entrance?
school counselors largely felt that it is their
responsibility to work with low-income and Participants
minority families in the area of college
processes, their actual efforts in organizing Participants in this study were 11 parents of
such activities have been found lacking current high school students selected from a
(Holcomb-McCoy, 2018). School guidance large Southern Illinois suburban high school
counselors may see low-income and minority situated in a mid-sized city. All participants’
students as incapable of excelling in college, highest level of education is high school.
so these students are steered towards Participants included 5 fathers (2 Black, 3
vocational programs, towards less rigorous White) and six mothers (3 Black, 3 White) as
pathways, and towards 2-year institutions shown in Table 1. The participants were
rather than 4-year institutions. Counselors intentionally selected in order to
may perceive that 2- year institutions are less proportionately represent the racial
expensive, although financial aid may be composition of the high school. This high
more accessible at a 4-year institution school had a student racial composition of
(Holcomb-McCoy, 2018). 46.3% White, 40.1% Black, 7.6% Bi-racial, 4.7%
Hispanic, and 1.1% Asian. Additionally, the
Methodology school had 44.5% low-income students,
identified by eligibility to receive free or
This ethnographic study used qualitative reduced lunch, live in substitute care, or
research methods to explore the perceptions receive public aid (Illinois State Board of
and experiences that parents of first- Education, 2019).
generation students have in regard to
accessing resources to help their children

Parent Perceptions
Table 1. Procedures
Participant Demographics.
Pilot interview procedures.
Pseudonym Rela onship Race Educa on Level
After approval from the
Charles Father White High School Institutional Review Board, two
Charmaine Mother Black High School pilot semi-structured interviews
Erica Mother White High School
Jimmy Father White High School
were conducted using a created
Kim Mother White High School set of questions. The interviews
Max Father White High School were with two parents who did
Ralph Father Black High School
not go to college. These pilot
Regina Mother White High School
Shelia Mother Black High School interviews allowed the
Steve Father Black High School researcher to practice interview
Tonya Mother Black High School skills and make necessary
changes to the questions. This helped increase
Data Source clarity and to make sure the questions serve
the purpose of the study. Further, after each
Semi-structured interviews were conducted interview, interviewees were asked for
for this study. All participants were feedback regarding the format of the
interviewed by the researcher. Each of the 11 questions. The researcher was interested to
participants was individually interviewed one know how the questions made the
time using the same set of open-ended interviewees feel, as it is essential to this
questions (Appendix A). Interview questions study that questions are not belittling,
aimed to find out parents’ perceptions and interrogative, or condescending in nature.
experiences of accessing process information Interviewees for this piloting were parents
about enrolling in college; more specifically, who have children who attend the selected
questions explored how these parents high school and who are already known not
perceive and experience institutions that hold to have ever gone to college. Pilot interviews
such information. Interviews took place in took place in the first two weeks of July; and
August through November of 2019, in the were approximately 45 minutes long and
researcher’s administrative office at the audio recorded.
school. The length of each interview was
approximately 45-60 minutes, and audio of Study interview procedures.
the interview was recorded for transcription. After necessary revisions to this study’s
piloted interview questions, the researcher
identified potential participants by providing
a letter to parents at the beginning of the year
Advancement Via Individual Determination
(AVID) AVID parent night. This letter

Parent Perceptions
requested parents who qualify for this study transcripts was conducted. During the third
to complete contact and demographic reading, six transcriptions were open-coded.
information and return the letter to a box. The open codes were narrowed down to a set
This letter also contained information of 26 focused codes. After a set of focused
regarding the incentive for participation, codes was created, the transcriptions were re-
which was a $25 gift card usable at a local gas read, focus coded, and annotated. When all
station. Participants (11) were then selected transcriptions were focus-coded, the focused
and contacted to set up interview times codes were narrowed to derive a final set of
during the month of August. This method of critical themes.
soliciting participation yielded only two
participants. As a result, the remaining nine In order to increase the trustworthiness and
participants were contacted through referrals credibility of the data analysis, the researcher
from other participants. All interviews were conducted a data analysis triangulation by
held confidentially in the school’s having participants conduct a review (Patton,
administrative offices, were audio-recorded, 2015). This method allowed the researcher to
and lasted approximately 45-60 minutes. Prior evaluate the accuracy and fairness of the data
to the start of the interview, interviewees analysis. To achieve this, 3 participants were
were provided another copy of the randomly selected to review a description of
recruitment form. At this time, interviewees the findings from their individual interviews.
were provided time to ask any questions they Participants were asked if the description
had about the interview procedures. Then aligned with what the participant believed
participants were verbally told that they had they said in the interview (Patton, 2015). The
an opportunity to review the transcription of results of these reviews by participants are
the interview when complete. reported in the limitations section of this
study. Also, throughout the entire process, the
Data Analysis researcher used a running list of notes
regarding the design of this study; any
Qualitative thematic analysis was used to identified flaws in this study’s design are
analyze the interview data for this study included in the limitations section of this
(Glesne, 2016). Each interview transcription report (Patton, 2015).
was read once to increase the researcher’s
familiarity with each interview. Then, each Findings
transcription was read line by line a second
time, stopping to annotate using the lens of The parents of potential FG college students
social capital theory (Glesne, 2016). Once all in the study fear costs and saw grants and
transcriptions were annotated with the scholarships as a primary way to finance
researcher’s thoughts, a third reading of the college.

Parent Perceptions
Financing college was a common topic for all going on now, and then you hear about how
parents. When talking directly about paying millennials aren’t buying homes, having kids,
for college, three parents discussed either an and this and that and it’s like, well, of course,
effort or a hope for their child to receive some they’re not. They’ve been saddled with
type of scholarship for college. For example, essentially a mortgage since they got out of
Regina stated, “That’s why I wanted her to college.”
get in band and get good at it and participate,
get some scholarships, help mom out a little Debt was a concern, and four parents alluded
bit. Anything she can do to get scholarships, to trade schools as a way to avoid college
every little bit helps.” Other parents discussed debt. Regina discussed how she is “investing
how they saw their income level as a way to in her [daughter] now to try to get
access grants. Erica talked about her hopes for scholarships to help out.” Regina then
her son to get financial aid in the form of described her fears of “…$200,000 of debt
grants by saying, “I’m hoping that there … I staring her in the face,” when she graduates.
mean, just based on our income, I’m hoping She described the influence this would have
that there’s aid. I know there are grants.” on her ultimate choice when she related a
Ralph, when asked if he saw financial aid as conversation she had with her daughter, “So
something that his son will need, replied, “I that’s why I said, is it a university, or is it a
believe that it will to a certain extent, but I technical school?” Max stated, “I don’t think
know what we need to mainly focus on is trade schools are pushed enough… You can
grants.” Several financial alternatives to make an honest, decent living doing that,
grants and scholarships were mentioned by without $100,000 in student debt probably.”
fathers such as using their G.I. bill or The parents of potential FG college students
considering army enrollment for their child. perceive the school’s role and responsibility to
be limited to academic preparation, high
Three parents discussed how scholarships or school course selection, and guidance upon
grants will affect their child’s college choice. request.
Kim best summarized this idea when she
talked about her son’s selection for college. Parents felt that their child’s school was
She described how her son really wanted to generally doing what it needed to do to help
attend St. Louis University until she saw how their child prepare for and enroll in college.
much it costs. She then stated, “he only got a Of the 11 parents, five of them talked about
half ride there, which was really not much.” how they felt either the school was doing an
Kim’s son ultimately chose another college excellent job of helping their child prepare for
that provided a “full ride.” Similarly, Ralph college and/or enroll in college or assumed
shared this same sentiment “I think that that the school was available for help if they
attributes to a lot of the problems that are needed it. For example, when Kim was asked
about what she thought the school could help

Parent Perceptions
her with, she replied, “I really don’t know, I The parents of potential FG college students
believe if a child wants to talk about it that perceive a lack of communication from the
there’s always somebody there to talk to school about accessing college. Participants
them. I don’t know what else you guys can do were asked to discuss information received
to push it.” Erica replied similarly with, “I from the school about applying for financial
don’t think so.” She then went on to explain, aid and for college. The vast majority of
“The high school’s job, to me, is getting him to participants (9 of 11) indicated they had not
graduation and then give us a little pointer on received any information. Some participants
what I can do to take him to the next level, but explained that while they have not received
I don’t feel that they are responsible for it any information regarding college enrollment,
too.” Steve stated, “Just keep her focused on they believed that the school would either
going to school. As long as she’s got good eventually provide that information or that
teachers that’s helping her and keeping her they can contact the school to get the
focused and disciplining her when it’s information. For example, Tonya stated,
necessary, that a big help in going to college.” “Yeah, they’re going to give me that
Parents of FG students felt it was important information, I believe. I think they’ll talk to
for the school to make sure that their high me about that if I come and talk to them.”
school course selection was correct. Max Finally, fathers had the perception that the
stated it this way, “Just making sure that he’s school was sending information regarding
on the right path, that he’s picking what he college enrollment, but it was only being sent
wants to do and taking the right classes and to their child’s mother. For example, Ralph
keeping up”. Sheila made the suggestion that explained that he is dependent on his wife to
the high school can help parents by helping share with him information that comes from
students put together a “game plan” by the school. Steve stated that he has not heard
“making sure that they’re taking the right of any information from the school about
courses.” Jimmy shared this same idea by college enrollment but believes the school has
suggesting that the high school discuss his communicated with his daughter’s mom.
son’s plans by asking him specific questions, Jimmy also discussed how he believes that his
much like he experienced when he was in son’s mother might be receiving the
high school. Jimmy felt that the school should information, but he is not.
also help the student assess strengths to
determine a postsecondary plan then “…This The parents of potential FG college students
is the path that will get you to that next step if get information from family and the internet
you’re looking to do this.” and lack awareness of other resources.
Six interviewees talked about getting
information about college access through a
family member or relative. Max would
consult “His godmother, who’s a teacher. My

Parent Perceptions
sister is a college graduate.” Jimmy and Steve on how the family structure seems to
both explicitly stated their sisters would be a reproduce perceptions of resources,
resource for this information. Steve said, particularly knowledge of financial and
“Like I said, my sister, she had with informational resources related to college
[experience] my niece. She knows going entrance. The resources these parents perceive
through the processes and stuff with her.” they have access to include grants and
The internet, in some form, was mentioned as scholarships, for financing college, and access
a resource by six of the participants. For to the internet and family to obtain
example, Jimmy stated that his sister and the information. But, the literature reveals that
“high school website” were resources he low-income families often lack the needed
could use to find information about college capital to navigate the bureaucratic process of
enrollment procedures. Other participants financial aid (Goldrick-Rab, Kelchen,
mentioned Google as a resource to find Douglas, & James, 2016), meaning that those
needed information. who need the aid the most are often least
likely to receive it.
Participants also acknowledged that they
either do not have any resources or are unsure The limited knowledge of available resources
of what resources exist that would help them on the part of the participants demonstrated
gain needed knowledge to help their child how the lack of social networks that
access college. For example, when asked disseminate college knowledge can negatively
about where he might get answers to his impact FG families. Support for this negative
questions, Max shared “I really don’t know, impact is found in a prior study that found
sir…I don’t have anybody to turn to outside that families of FG backgrounds knew less
of the school to ask questions. I just don’t.” about college when compared to families of
Steve had a similar answer when discussing second-generation backgrounds (York-
what his daughter would need help doing to Anderson & Bowman, 1991). This illustrates
enroll in college. Steve stated, “…I don’t that the lack of awareness of valuable
know who to talk to, who to see as far as resources creates a clear disadvantage for FG
looking into colleges and stuff like that. So, students. The use of the internet as an
that’s kind of one of our issues. Who do we informational resource is interesting in this
talk to?” regard as the amount of information that
exists could prove to be helpful to a parent,
Discussion but only if parents know what information to
look for or have the experience to see beyond
Parent access to resources. the face value of college marketing schemes
Parents viewed grants and scholarships as a and misleading information.
resource needed to help their child access
college. Here, social capital theory sheds light

Parent Perceptions
Role of the school. ideologies. Literature reports that often FG

The participants believe the secondary parents are viewed by educational
school’s role and responsibility is limited to practitioners as disengaged from their
academic preparation, high school course children’s education (Holcomb-McCoy, 2018;
selection, and guidance. This theme highlights Land & Ziomek-Daigle, 2013). This may
a contradiction between parent perceptions suggest one reason why the flow of college
and what research indicates about what knowledge capital fails to be shared between
schools should be doing to teach the schools and families of FG backgrounds.
contextual skills and knowledge associated However, a comparison of college planning
with college entrance. FG students are more services between more affluent districts and
likely to enroll in college if their parents have ones with higher low-income populations
received information and shows noticeable disparities
guidance regarding college in the amount of college
enrollment processes (Engle counseling expertise, focus,
et al., 2006); however, Chlup and resources students and
et al. (2018) found that “The trust FG [first families are provided. This
Hispanic parents perceived generation] parents comparison was easily done
that schools were not making place in the school to by the researcher using a
a connection with them as website review of a High
prepare students for
parents, undervalued their School known to be situated
cultural backgrounds, and
college entrance seems in an affluent area. The
that these parents felt to be positive but creates disparity of college planning
uncomfortable with the a ‘one-way street’ type resources is clear when
school system. These are of relationship.” comparing the two schools.
clear barriers to building a The comparison school,
relationship of shared social Prairie High School
capital. (pseudonym), has a college and career
counseling department staffed with 3
This discrepancy between schools and parents counselors while the research site school does
of FG backgrounds gives rise to two issues. not have a dedicated department (Missouri
First, the trust FG parents place in the school Department of Elementary & Secondary
to prepare students for college entrance seems Education, 2021). Prairie High School has 4
to be positive but creates a “one-way street” counselors, in addition to the college and
type of relationship. The second issue that career counseling department, serving 1,346
arises is the perception of parent students, while the research site has 6
disengagement this conflict may create or counselors for 2,392 students (Illinois State
enhance, possibly due to meritocratic Board of Education, 2019; Missouri
Department of Elementary & Secondary

Parent Perceptions
Education, 2021). This demonstrates how the a resource for information if they need it, but
emphasis on sharing this capital within this also acknowledge that they have not received
more affluent social network, and the lack of information from the school. While these
emphasis in other social networks, creates parents had positive perceptions of the
social and economic disparities. school, this study made it clear that the school
is not reaching these parents. Participants
Parents’ experiences working with their indicated a strong desire for their children to
child’s high school in areas of applying for go to college, and they felt they could go to
financial aid and college entrance are limited. the school for guidance in this endeavor.
Parents of potential FG college students in the Schools need to recognize this desire and
study perceive a lack of communication from capitalize on these positive perceptions by
the school about accessing college. When working to ensure that they are effectively
looking at this communication breakdown providing FG parents with all the guidance
through a social capital theory lens, it is clear they need. If schools understand these
that this school is failing to distribute its parents’ perceptions, coupled with the
knowledge regarding college enrollment barriers they face, a new perspective emerges.
procedures. This is in alignment with research This perspective challenges stereotypes of FG
indicating that schools may believe they are families being uninterested in their children’s
reaching parents, but in actuality, they are not education. Instead, it demonstrates that
(Chlup et al., 2018). Engaging FG fathers in schools are disengaged with FG families. With
this relationship is important as prior research this new perspective, schools can begin the
by Gibbons and Woodside (2014) found that work of engaging FG families break college
college expectations of fathers of FG children entrance barriers.
have a substantial impact on their children’s
decision to enroll in college. This evidence Implications
further magnifies the breakdown in the
sharing of college knowledge capital, Improving the college enrollment and
suggesting that schools are not effective completion rates of students with FG
distributors of such capital to families of FG backgrounds is a critical social justice issue. A
backgrounds. good starting point in addressing these social
and economic disparities is to examine how
Overall, parent perceptions of access are not social capital that schools possess has failed to
in alignment with research on college access be effectively distributed to students and
for FG students. The parents in this study families from FG backgrounds.
generally felt that they had access to all the
resources they would need to help their child One implication is that further research about
access college and perceived that the school is FG parents’ perceptions of financing college
needs to be conducted. This study found that

Parent Perceptions
FG parents aspire for their children to gain students for successful college enrollment.
scholarships and grants, yet they fail to This research could shed light on why there
mention student loans as a viable means to seems to be a breakdown in the distribution
finance college. While avoiding student loan of social capital from schools to FG families.
debt can be smart financially, the lack of This study also has implications for policy
knowledge parents have in this area needs and practice. It is evident that FG families
more attention from researchers. How much have limited capital that would grant them an
do FG parents really know about acquiring equal opportunity to access a college
either a scholarship or a grant for their child? education. Policymakers continue to force
Do FG families avoid loans because they are schools to focus on academic preparation for
aware of how smart it is to avoid loan debt, or college, but as stated before, the non-
are there other underlying reasons, as Mead academic skills and knowledge associated
(2018), Velez and Horn (2018) suggest? with college preparation needs to become a
Reasons such as not knowing or predominant part of schools’ mandated
understanding the true cost of going to curriculum and support services. This should
college or are FG families afraid of exposing include funds to employ specialized
their financial information through the counselors and implement programs like
FAFSA process. Do FG parents know that AVID, where a priority of the program is to
completing the FAFSA typically results in engage students and families, especially FG
access to grants, work-study programs, and families, in college awareness activities.
different types of student loans, subsidized or Additionally, policymakers need to rework
unsubsidized? the financial aid process and increase the
amount of the aid available. Studies
A second implication for future research demonstrate that on average a Pell grant only
pertains to the engagement of FG parents in pays for 33% of college costs. Goldrick-Rab et
activities that increase college awareness. al. (2016) stated that low-income families
Future research should examine how schools would need to spend as much as 75% of their
can engage FG parents in college awareness annual income to pay for their child’s college
activities more effectively, possibly exploring costs. Further, legislatures need to revisit the
more effective methods of communication initial intent of the Pell grant, which was to
and implementing resources. Additionally, increase college opportunities for low-income
future research could examine how to engage families to improve employment rates as a
FG fathers in college awareness activities, way to promote social mobility (Goldrick-Rab
since college attendance can be increased by et al., 2016). However, with Pell grants
engaging fathers. Further research also needs covering less and less of the cost of college,
to be conducted on school personnel’s FG students are still facing more out-of-
perceptions and practices of preparing FG pocket costs, which does not alleviate the
struggles associated with being poor and

Parent Perceptions
pursuing a college degree. interview, possibly due to feelings of

embarrassment or to avoid the perception of
Further, this study has major implications for being a disengaged parent. Evidence of this
K-12 educational practitioners. This study could exist in their responses to how well the
extends prior evidence that schools are not school was doing to prepare their child for
effectively distributing college knowledge college or by responses that ended with the
capital. The most alarming result of this study parent questioning what they said. A
is that FG parents reported not receiving any suggestion for future practice would be to
college enrollment information from the conduct the interviews away from the
school, yet they also report that the school is school’s campus.
doing a great job preparing their children for
college. Practitioners need to understand how As a part of this study’s effort to increase the
their own perceptions of how they distribute quality and credibility of the data analyses,
this capital to parents negatively impact three participants were randomly selected to
students. Understanding the magnitude of review the findings from their individual
this impact should force educational interview transcripts. These three participants
practitioners to evaluate the methods they are were Erica, Charmaine, and Jimmy. Erica felt
using to reach FG parents with this critical that the findings from her interview were
information. In this effort, education consistent with answers to the interview
practitioners should be mindful of their questions. Erica did add that she felt it was
position and experience as holders of college more of her son’s responsibility, rather than
degrees and reflect how this position may the school’s, to get into college because it is a
lead to the failure to effectively distribute this part of growing up and maturing. This
capital to FG parents. statement provided an extension to the
finding by providing reasoning for Erica’s
Limitations perception but does not alter the analyses.
Charmaine felt that the findings were accurate
The researcher’s position as an administrator in representing her perceptions. She added
at the school and is a college graduate limits that she felt that participating in the interview
this study. The researcher’s position was made her think more about what she can do
known and could have brought apprehension to assist her daughter in preparing for college.
to participants. This topic appeared to be Jimmy also felt that the analysis of his
sensitive to the interviewees, as there seemed interview was consistent with his perceptions
to be an element of embarrassment and and experiences regarding helping his son
caution in their demeanor and responses. access college. Jimmy added that he felt the
These feelings may have kept participants interview made him more aware of how
from being more open and truthful during the much he would need to rely on other
resources such as the school, friends, and

Parent Perceptions
family to help him make sure his son is REFERENCES

prepared to enter college successfully. In all,
Abel, J. R., & Deitz, R. (2014). Do the benefits of college s ll
these three participants thought that the outweigh the costs? Current Issues in Economics and
findings from their individual interviews Finance, 20(3), 1‐11. Retrieved from h ps://
were consistent with their thoughts and papers.ssrn.com

experiences, providing evidence that the Blackwell, E., & Pinder, P. J. (2014). What are the
described findings are creditable. mo va onal factors of first‐genera on minority college
students who overcome their family histories to pursue
higher educa on? College Student Journal, 48(1), 45‐56.
Conclusion
Bourdieu, P. (1986) The forms of Capital. In J.Richardson
(Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of
The findings of this study extend the educa on (pp.241‐258) Greenwood Press. h ps://
literature surrounding the college enrollment www.socialcapitalgateway.org

disparity between FG students and non-FG Bui, K., & Rush, R. A. (2016). Parental involvement in middle
students and conclude that educational school predic ng college a endance for first‐genera on
policymakers and practitioners need to students. Educa on, 136(4), 473‐489.

reexamine not only their efforts in remedying Burdman, P. (2005). The student debt dilemma: Debt
this disparity but also how they perceive aversion as a barrier to college access. Berkeley, CA: UC
Berkeley Center for Studies in Higher Educa on.
parents of FG students. The literature and
findings bring to light the critical role schools Cabrera, A. F., & La Nasa, S. M. (2002). Three cri cal tasks
play in sharing this college access knowledge America’s disadvantaged face on their path to college. New
Direc ons for Ins tu onal Research, 2000(107), 23‐29.
with FG families and the social responsibility h ps://doi.org/10.1002/ir.10702
they have in equalizing the college entrance
Chlup, D. T., Gonzalez, E. M., Gonzalez, J. E., Aldape, H. F.,
playing field. If schools focus on Guerra, M., Lagunas, B., ... Zorn, D. R. (2018). Nuestros hijos
understanding the perceptions of FG parents van a la universidad: La na parents’ percep ons and
experiences related to building college readiness, college
and use this new knowledge to find ways to
knowledge, and college access for their children‐A
engage effectively with FG families, schools qualita ve analysis. Journal of Hispanic Higher Educa on, 17
can increase the rate in which FG students (1), 20‐40. h ps://doi.org/10.1177/1538192716652501

successfully access college. Choy, S. (2001). Students whose parents did not go to
college: Postsecondary access, persistence, and a ainment
(NCES Publica on No. 2001–126). Washington, DC: Na onal
Center for Educa on Sta s cs.

Choy, S. P. (2004). Paying for college: Changes between
1990 and 2000 for full‐ me dependent undergraduates
(NCES Publica on No. 2004–075). Washington, DC: Na onal
Center for Educa on Sta s cs.

Engle, J., Bermeo, A., & O’Brien, C. (2006). Straight from the
source: What works for first‐genera on college students.
Retrieved from h p://www.pellins tute.org


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Friedman, Z. (2019). Student loan sta s cs in 2019: A $1.5 Pa on, M. Q. (2015). Enhancing the quality and credibility of

trillion crisis. Retrieved from h ps://www.forbes.com/sites/ qualita ve analysis. In Qualita ve research & evalua on
zackfriedman/2019/02/25/student‐loan‐debt‐sta s cs‐ methods (4th ed., pp. 541‐588). Saint Paul, MN: SAGE.
2019/#3daa5238133f
Thayer, P. B. (2000). Reten on of students from first‐
Gibbons, M. M., & Woodside, M. (2014). Addressing the genera on and low income backgrounds. Opportunity
needs of first‐genera on college students: Lessons learned Outlook: The Journal of the Council for Opportunity in
from adults from low‐educa on families. Journal of College Educa on, 3, 1‐9.
Counseling, 17(1), 21‐36. h ps://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161‐
1882.2014.00045.x Tym, C., Mcmillion, R., Barone, S., & Webster, J. (2004). First
‐genera on college students: A literature review. Round
Glesne, C. (2016). Becoming Qualita ve Researchers: An Rock, TX: Texas Guaranteed Student Loan Corpora on.
Introduc on (2‐downloads) (5th ed.). Pearson. Retrieved from h ps://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED542505

Goldrick‐Rab, S., Kelchen, R., Douglas, H., & James, B. Velez, E. D., & Horn, L. (2018). What high schoolers and their
(2016). Reducing income inequality in educa onal parents know about public 4‐year tui on and fees in their
a ainment: Experimental evidence on the impact of state. Retrieved from h ps://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch
financial aid on college comple on. American Journal of
Sociology, 121(6), 1762‐1817. h p:// York‐Anderson, D. C., & Bowman, S. L. (1991). Assessing the
dx.doi.org/10.1086/685442 college knowledge of first‐genera on and second‐
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Holcomb‐McCoy, C. (2018). Involving low‐income parent Development, 32(2), 116‐122.
and parents of color in college readiness ac vi es: An
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115‐124. h ps://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X1001400111
Horn, L., & Nunez, A. (2000). Mapping the road to college:

First‐genera on students’ math track, planning strategies,
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Land, C. W., & Ziomek‐Daigle, J. (2013). College 411: Get the
scoop. A small group plan to promote college success for
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(2021). School Data. Retrieved from h ps://dese.mo.gov/
state‐board‐educa on


Parent Perceptions
APPENDIX

Tell me about a favorite memory or story of your kid.
Tell me more about your kid.
Prompts, if needed: Tell me about their strengths? What are their main interests in and
outside of school? How has their high school experience been?
What are X’s post grad plans at the moment?
How do you feel about these? What do you think are factors that led to these plans?
What are your wishes for X a er high school?
What kinds of factors have led you to these wishes/hopes/plans for X?
To what extent are you and your child in agreement about post high school plans? Tell me about this.
If warranted/appropriate: What do you think X is likely to do a er she/he graduates? To what
extent, if at all, have you and X talked about college? Tell me about these conversa ons?
A. Ques ons if college seems to be the plan or a poten al plan.
Where is your child in terms of the college process?
What ac ons have you and/or your child taken related to college?
What do you think s ll needs to be done?
What do you see as your role in the college process for your child?
If appropriate: what challenges have you encountered with this?
What challenges do you foresee as the process moves along?
What kinds of ques ons do you have about the college issue at this point?
What have you done in terms of ge ng answers to ques ons thus far?
What challenges has X encountered in the college process this far.
What challenges do you foresee for X in the future?

Parent Perceptions
How ready is your child to go to college? Academically? Socially? Emo onally?
What do you think your child will need help doing in order to enroll in college?
What, if anything, has your child’s school done to help your child learn college enrollment
procedures?
What would you expect the school to help with?
What do you want from the school that you have not yet go en?
Tell me about the extent of communica on the school has had with you about college enrollment
informa on.
Describe the type of informa on you have received about paying for college.
To what extent has this informa on been helpful to you and your child?
Describe the type of informa on you have received about applying for colleges?
What sugges ons would you make to help your child’s school be more helpful?
What other resources, other than your child’s school, have been available to you?
What informa on, if any, do you need more informa on about?
How would you prefer to get this informa on?
B. Ques ons if parent answer does not state college as a hope or aspira on.
To what extent have your thought about the possibility of your child going to college?
Imagine if your child told you one day that they want to go to college; how would you respond?
How would you feel?
What would your opinion be?
What ques ons or fears would you have?
What would be your next ac ons once you receive this news?

Parent Perceptions
To what extent do you believe that your child would be ready to go to college?
Academically; socially; emo onally?
What do you think your child would need help doing in order to enroll in college?
What would you expect the school to help with?
What would your role be? What might be challenges in this role for you?
What would you want the school to do?
How has your child’s school helped your child learn college enrollment procedures?
Tell me about the extent of communica on the school has had with you about college enrollment
informa on.
Describe the type of informa on you have received about paying for college.
Describe the type of informa on you have received about applying for colleges?
What other resources regarding college enrollment, other than your child’s school, have been
available to you?
What topics, if any, do you need more informa on about?
How would you prefer to get this informa on?

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Journal of College Access

Volume 6 Issue 1 Article 1

Patrick J. O'Connor PhD

Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/jca

Part of the Higher Education Commons

This Complete Issue is brought to you for free and open

About the Journal………….…………………………………………………………………………………...3

JCA Editorial Board……………………………………………………………………………………………5

Coming Soon: Special Issues……………………………………………………………………………….…6

From the Editors……………………………………………………………………………………………….7

Guest Perspective: Angel B. Pérez………………………………………………………...……………...8-11

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color: The Importance of Academic,

Student Readiness of Colleges: A Qualitative Study ……..……………………………………..……26-42

About the Journal

The Journal of College Access (JCA) focuses on the

The Journal was co-founded by Dr. Patrick

Launched in March 2014, JCA is a part of Western

CALL FOR SUBMISSIONS

The Journal of College Access is affiliated with the

MCAN is a statewide non-profit organization

JCA Editorial Board

David D. Christian, Ph.D.

Coming Soon: Special Issues

We have three special issues in progress focused

College Access and Success for Equity-Based Career Development and

From the Editors

Guest Perspective: Angel B. Pérez

Guest Perspective: Angel B. Pérez

Guest Perspective: Angel B. Pérez

been in particularly high demand. The 2020

NACAC’s role in the admissions eco-system

Promoting Success for First-Generation

ABSTRACT ethnic minorities (U.S. Department of

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color

enrollment, persistence, and academic This literature review is informed and

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color

collaboration, empowerment, and action (Conrad & Gasman, 2015).

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color

FGSOC may also experience racial-ethnic decreased psychological distress (Sanchez et

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color

the college experiences and outcomes for self-efficacy.

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color

supports for FGSOC. Supporting and encouraged to promote help-seeking to

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color

social connectedness among FGSOC, aid in REFERENCES

among postsecondary institutions about Bui, K. V, T. (2002). First‐genera on college students at a

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color

Chen, X. (2005). First‐genera on students in postsecondary Espinosa, L. L., Turk, J. M., & Taylor, M. (2017). Pulling back

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color

Student Readiness of Colleges:

Student Readiness of Colleges

academic self-management behavior, embedded in the shared history, rituals, and

Student Readiness of Colleges

Student Readiness of Colleges