Chemistry Tasks

Namushakende Secondary School
Natural Sciences Department
Chemistry Laboratory Manual
Warning
Any breakages in the chemistry laboratory will result in the
replacement paid for by the candidate handling the apparatus
Darlington Naosa
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+260955997821
©Darlington Naosa
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system
or transmitted in any form or means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise without permission of the copy right owner.
Preface
I have made every effort to make this integrated Chemistry Laboratory Manual as effective,
clear, and readable as possible; to show the beauty and logic of Chemistry practical; and to
make Chemistry enjoyable to learn. ‘Personally, I am always ready to learn, although I do
not always like being taught.’ I believe that ‘to teach is to learn twice’.
Working in the Chemistry laboratory can be enjoyable part of your Chemistry experiences.
This Chemistry laboratory manual is for your laboratory work both worthy and enjoyable. The
Chemistry laboratory tasks as presented in this manual are designed to test your abilities, but
use the skills and values which you will acquire in Chemistry to solve problems in everyday
life. The manual for Chemistry for senior secondary school examination has been produced
to support practical work required to be done from grade 10 to 12.
This Chemistry laboratory manual is for use in strengthening teaching competencies, skills
and subject knowledge of teachers of Chemistry at the senior secondary school level
through school-based assessments (SBA).
Additionally, the Chemistry laboratory manual is also designed to help teachers acquire
competences and skills in designing differentiated activities for learners with special
education needs to enhance meaningful participation in learning activities.
Acknowledgments
I gratefully acknowledge permission to reproduce some copyright material in this manual.
Every effort has been made to trace copyright holders, but if any copyright infringements
have been made, I would be grateful for information that would enable any omissions or
errors to be corrected in subsequent impressions.
Appreciation of safety in the chemistry laboratory
Safety is the state of non-exposure to hazards or to danger. It can also be described as the
state of being safe.
Safety rules in the chemistry laboratory
1. Enter a laboratory only when a teacher says so.
2. Always wear closed shoes. No one wearing open footwear such as slippers and sandals
enters the laboratory. This is in order to reduce the chance of occurrence of foot injuries.
3. Wear protective clothes.
4. Do not run or play in the laboratory.
5. Do not perform any experiment without permission from the teacher, and always follow
the instructions carefully. Avoid handling any unfamiliar equipment in the laboratory.
6. Do not drink, eat or taste anything in the laboratory except when allowed to by the
teacher. The food might be contaminated with chemicals which are harmful to human
beings. When you suspect poisoning, note the suspected poisoning agent and call your
teacher immediately.
7. Always add acid to water and not water to acid. Never add water to concentrated acid
as doing so may result into an accident since the little water coming into contact with
the acid may boil immediately splashing the acid into your face.
8. Accidents and breakages must be immediately reported to the teacher.
9. Never point the mouth of a test tube containing a substance being heated towards
another person or yourself.
10. Do not hold very hot objects with your hand. Hold them with a test tube holder, tongs or
a piece of cloth or place them on a heat proof mat.
11. When smelling a substance, do not hold it very near the nose. Hold it about 20cm from
the nose and with the hand wave the vapour towards the nose and sniff carefully.
12. Use specified or small amounts of substances in reactions to avoid waste and reactions
which cannot be controlled.
13. Make sure you know the substances being used unless you are advised to use it as
unknown
14. Any chemical accidentally taken into the mouth or spilt onto any part of the body should
be washed off immediately with water and reported to the teacher. Seek medical
attention.
15. Do not use broken glass-ware. Glassware should frequently be checked. Broken pieces of
glassware should be put a vessel such as a bucket and kept securely for later disposal.
16. Do not bring flammable substances near a flame. If fires breaks out accidentally, quickly
turn off the gas, electricity or water if necessary. Electrical installations in the laboratory
should be checked for faults on a daily basis. This is in order to avoid the incidence of
such accidents as fire resulting from a short circuit.
17. Wear eye protection when you are told to and keep it on until you are told to take it off
when the practical is finished. Where a foreign matter enters the eye, flush with plenty of
water. Use an eye wash bottle or fountain.
18. When you are told to use a Bunsen burner, make sure hair, cardigans, scarves, ties etc.
are tied back or tacked in to keep them well away from the frame.
19. When you are working with liquids, always stand up and never sit. That way you can
move out of the way easily if something spills.
20. Always put any waste solids in the correct liter bin and not in the sink.
21. Bottles should be never held by the neck.
22. Be careful that the name or label on the bottle is exactly the same as that of the
chemical you require. Avoiding use of unlabeled chemicals. Any of such should be
treated as potentially dangerous.
23. Before leaving the laboratory, clean the apparatus, work surface and your hands well.
Nothing must be taken from the laboratory.
24. Make sure that no piece of apparatus is placed on the edge of a work bench.
Apparatus that are not in use should be stored in the correct designated places. Those
that are in use should be placed far from the bench edges.
25. Gangways should always be free of obstacles on which a person can stumble.
26. Gas taps should be kept closed at all times other than when gas burners are in use. It is
also important to ensure that there are no leaking points in the gas pipes.
27. Avoiding overcrowding work benches with such things as bags and pieces of apparatus
which are not in use.
28. When one suffers from burns, apply cold water. Call your teacher immediately.
29. When one has cuts and bruises, stop any bleeding by applying direct pressure. Cover
cuts with a clean dressing. Call your teacher immediately. Due to possibility of infection,
disposable gloves should be worn whenever there is a chance of contact with body
fluids such as blood.
30. When one faints, leave the person laying down. Loosen any tight clothing and keep
crowds away. Call your teacher immediately.
31. Any spills on skin, flush with large amounts of water or use safety shower. Call your teacher
immediately.
Reasons why laboratory accidents may occur
 Lack of awareness
 Lack of control
 Lack of knowledge
 Lack of right attitude
Laboratories are delicate places. Carelessness can lead to serious accidents. To avoid such
accidents, simple procedures or instructions should be followed strictly.
Measuring instruments and other laboratory apparatus used in the chemistry laboratory
Laboratory apparatus are the tools which chemists use while in the laboratory.
Stop watch
 A stop watch is used for measuring time.

 SI unit for time: Second, s.
Laboratory thermometer
 Common range is from −10o C to 110oC
 It is used for measuring temperature.

 SI unit for temperature: Kelvin, K.
Electronic balance
 The electronic balance is used to measure mass

 SI unit for mass: Kilogram, Kg.
Evaporating dish
 The evaporating dish is used to evaporate saturated solutions or filtrates in order to
form crystals.
 It is used for evaporating to dryness liquids or solutions by heating.

Beaker
 Beakers are in different sizes and have a scale on one side. Common sizes are
50cm3, 100cm3, 250cm3
 They can be made of plastic or glass. Glass beakers may be heated.
 They are used on tripod stand and gauzes for heating liquids.
 They are used for mixing liquids while using volumes which are too big for the test
tube.
 They are also used to measure volumes of liquids though they are not very
accurate.
Burette
 A burette has an accuracy of 0.1cm3 and it can measure small amounts of
volume.
 It has a scale which starts from 0cm3 at the top up to 50cm3 at the bottom. The
scale is more sensitive than the measuring cylinder.
 A burette has a long narrow shape which ensures a ‘long movement’ for a small
volume of liquid delivered out of the jet.
 It is used for accurate measurements of different volumes of liquids.

 For example, a burette can be used to measure a volume of 15.6cm3 accurately.
Pipette
 A pipette has to be filled carefully by sucking up the liquid or by using a special
adaptor. The fixed volume of the liquid delivered is marked on the bulb. Common
sizes are 25.0ml and 20.0ml. It is accurate to one decimal place. Most of the liquid
is held in the bulb.
 It is used for measuring and delivering accurately a fixed volume of liquid.

 For example, a pipette can be used to measure exactly 25.0cm3 of solution
Desiccator
 It is used for drying solid substances such as salts once prepared. The sample to be
dried is placed on a perforated metal.
 A desiccator is used for drying substances or keeping them free from moisture.
Measuring cylinder
 Measuring cylinders are in different sizes. Common sizes are 10cm3, 25cm3, 50cm3,
100cm3, 500cm3, and 1000cm3.
 Measuring cylinders can be made of plastic or glass
 It is used for making approximate measurements of volumes of liquids.

Flat bottomed flask
 A flat bottomed flask has a mark at the top so that if filled with liquid up to the
mark, the indicated volume of liquid will have been obtained
 The flat bottomed flask can stand on the table

 It is used in carrying out reactions involving a solid and a liquid. It is also used for
holding liquids.
Conical flask
 A conical flask has a mark at the top so that if filled with liquid up to the mark, the
indicated volume of liquid will have been obtained
 It is used for mixing liquids while shaking.

 It is also used to measure a fixed volume of a liquid.
Round bottomed flask
 A round bottomed flask has a mark at the top so that if filled with liquid up to the
mark, the indicated volume of liquid will have been obtained
 Its shape enables uniform heating of the liquid it contains

 It is used for heating liquids for longer periods.
Volumetric flask
 It has a flat bottom and a long neck with a graduation mark below the middle of
the neck. The mark indicates the capacity.
 It is used for the preparation of a standard molar solution.

 It is used to make a solution of known concentration.
Test tube
 A test tube is normally made of soft soda-glass. But for experiments requiring strong
heating, it must be made of hard glass such as Pyrex (Pyrex is a trade name).
 It is used for heating and mixing liquids or solids

 It is used for holding liquids and solids
 It is used for carrying out simple tests
Ignition tube
 An ignition tube is smaller, narrower and shorter than a test tube.
 It is used for heating solids strongly.

Boiling tube
 A boiling tube is larger and bigger in size than a test tube
 It is used for heating solids or liquids

Test tube holder
A test tube holder may be made of wood or a metal
 A test tube holder is used to hold test tubes while carrying out experiments.
Clamp and stand
 It is a holding mechanical device
 It is used to hold an object firmly in position.
Test tube Racks
 They can be made of wood or plastic.
 They are used to hold test tubes in a vertical position.

Test tube brush
 A test tube brush is used to clean test tubes

Spatula
 A spatula is a flexible metal, plastic or rubber utensil.
 It is used for scooping or lifting and transferring small amounts of powdered (solid)
chemicals from reagent bottles into a weighing vessel.
Defragging spoon
 It is also called a gas jar spoon or a combustion spoon.
 It is a long handled metallic spoon
 It is used for heating solids in a gas jar. It is used for testing the burning
characteristics of substances in gases.
Funnel
 Funnels can be made of glass or plastic. Common size holds 12.5cm diameter filter
paper.
 It is used in pouring solutions or liquids into the container.

 It is used to guide liquids and other substances into containers. It aids in pouring
liquids into small openings without spilling them.
Glass rods / Stirring rods
 They are used for stirring a mixture of substances in a beaker.

 Stirring rods are used for stirring or mixing purposes.
Dropper
 It is used to add liquids or solutions drop wise.

 It is used to measure and transfer small amounts of liquids.
Separating funnel
 It is used for separating immiscible liquids.

Wire gauze
 It is a square shaped iron wire or stainless steel mesh with a round asbestos or
ceramic centre. It is placed on a tripod stand during activities.
 The ceramic centre on the wire gauze prevents the flame or heat from coming
into direct contact with the glass vessel and ensures uniform distribution of heat.
This helps to support apparatus like beakers on to a tripod stand when heating.
 It is placed on a tripod stand and then the beaker or conical flask or round
bottomed flask is placed on it.
Tripod stand
 It is a three legged cast iron or stainless steel stand with rectangular or round top.
Apparatus are placed on it during heating. This helps to hold apparatus in position
while heating.
 It is used to support an evaporating dish, beaker, flask or crucible placed on a wire

gauze or pipe clay triangle.
Pipe-clay triangle
 The pipe-clay triangle is used to support apparatus like crucibles, conical flasks,
beakers and others on the tripod stand while heating.
 It is used in place of wire gauze.
Crucible and cover
 A crucible is a dish-like apparatus made from porcelain
 It is used to support clay crucibles while heating.

 It is used when heating solids substances but with an aim of minimizing loss of
materials.
Safety goggles
 They must be worn at all times while working in the laboratory.
 They are used to protect the eyes.

Grinding apparatus
 The bowl is called the mortar while the grinding stick is called the pestle. Solid
substances can be ground to powder in the chemistry laboratory by use of
porcelain mortar and pestle.
 The mortar and pestle are used to grind crystals and lumpy chemicals to a
powder. Glass and wooden mortars and pestles are also available.
Tongs
 A pair of tongs is a grasping device consisting of two pieces joined at one end by
a pivot or hinged like scissors.
 In the chemistry laboratory, hot objects such as crucibles, flasks and beakers are
handled by means of tongs.
Forceps
 Forceps are used to hold or pick up small objects.

Gas syringe
 A gas syringe is used to measure accurately volumes of gases produced or consumed in

chemical reactions.
 A syringe can also be used to measure the volume of a liquid.
Gas jar
 It is a cylindrical wide mouthed glass container with ground flange at the top.
 It is used for collecting gases during experiments.

 The gas collected is protected from contamination or escaping by covering it with a gas jar
cover.
White tile
 It mainly helps in the observation of colour change for different samples
 It is also used as a chopping board for cutting substances into smaller pieces.
Plastic wash bottle
 A plastic wash bottle is a flexible plastic bottle.
 The sides of the plastic wash bottle can be squeezed to dispense water.
Fire extinguishers
 Fire extinguishers are used to put out fires.

Petri dish
 It is used to hold specimens for observations and to grow cultures.
Gas jar stand / Beehive shelf
 It is a short, porcelain cylinder with openings at the top and on the other side. It is used for
collecting gases by down ward displacement of water. For this purpose, it is placed into a
trough of water. A delivery tube from the gas generators enters through the side of the hole.
A gas jar filled with water is inverted and placed on top of the beehive shelf.
Delivery tubes
 They are narrow glass tubes with uniform bore. They are used to carry and deliver gases.
Trough
 It is a round or rectangular thick walled glass or plastic with a wide mouth. It can hold large
quantity of water. This is a large glass or porcelain container for keeping large volumes of
liquid (e.g. water) during collection of gases. It is used to collect gases by down ward
displacement of water.
Water bath
 A water bath is a metal or glass reservoir containing water and provided with an electric
heater or heated over a gas burner. The simplest form is a beaker containing water that is
heated by means of a flame
 A water bath is used to heat substances with low boiling points such as ether, benzene,
propane and ethanol.
Spirit burner (Spirit lamp)
 A spirit burner or a small lamp consists of a small glass container with a loose cap and
porcelain or metal wick holder fitted with a wick. Adjusting the position of the wick changes
the intensity of the spirit burner flame.
 It is used as a source of heat.

The Bunsen burner
 The Bunsen burner is connected to the cylinder or gas tap and lighted.
 It is the most common tool for heating.
 It is used as a source of heat.

 It is used for burning and heating substances.
Component parts of a Bunsen burner
A flame is a region where gases combine chemically and give out heat and light. Burning
gases produce flames. The hot gases give out light; they are said to be incandescent.
Luminous flame (air-holes closed)

When the holes in a Bunsen burner are closed so that no air enters the tube, the flame is
large and bright. It gives out light. The zones of the flame have different colours.
Non-luminous flame (air-holes open)
When the holes are open, air enters the tube and mixes with the gas, which therefore burns
quickly and completely. The flame becomes smaller and hotter. It gives out only little light
because it contains no white-hot carbon. The flames in gas-cookers and gas-fires are
examples in everyday life.
Zone A
 It is a blue flame
 It produces the greatest amount of heat because methane gas is completely burnt. It is the
hottest part of the flame and it used for heating.
Methane(g) + Oxygen(g) → Carbon dioxide(g) + Water(l)
Zone B
 It is a blue green flame
 It contains unburnt hydrocarbons
 It appears blue green because of the incomplete combustion of methane.
Methane(g) + Oxygen(g) → Carbon monoxide(g) + Water(l)
 It has the lowest temperature and it is called non-luminous.
Zone C
 It is a yellow flame
 It is luminous because it gives out light. The gas burns in this zone but not completely as there
is not enough air. Tiny particles of solid carbon form; they become white-hot and give out
light. The flame blackens cold glass or porcelain.
 The yellow flame is called a ‘dirty flame’ because it coats things held inside it with a black
deposit. This black substance is carbon.
Methane(g) + Oxygen(g) → Carbon(s) + Water(l)
 The cause of the colour in zone C is carbon charring due to incomplete combustion of
methane.
Standard Solutions
Most Laboratory Chemicals are supplied as concentrated solids or solutions.
Such chemicals are both difficult and dangerous for the candidates to use during practicals.
In order to make these chemicals less dangerous for our candidates to use, we need to reduce
the concentration. The process of reducing the concentration to a known concentration is
called Standardization. Therefore, a standard solution is a solution whose concentration is
known.
Why prepare standard solutions on our own?
Chemicals that are standardized by the people who are going to use them;
 are cheaper
 can be accurate hence reducing the chances of obtaining wrong results due to technical
errors when diluting.
 is a requirement by the Examining body that some chemicals be freshly prepared e.g. Iron
(II) Sulphate need to be prepared on the actual day of the practical.
How to prepare standard solutions:
Chemicals are standardized differently depending on how they come (i.e. solids or solutions):
[A] Solids (powder)
Steps
1. Weigh a known mass of the powder (the known mass is calculated from the equations
depending on the units for concentration).
2. Dissolve the powder or solid in a small amount of water, stir and transfer into a volumetric
flask or measuring cylinder.
3. Finally add water until the level goes to the dilution mark. After dilution, you would have
prepared the standard solution ready for use.
If you are using a measuring cylinder, then the last mark will be the dilution mark.
Concentration can be expressed;

 as a percentage (%)
 in grams per cubic decimeters (g/dm3)
 in moles per cubic decimeters (mol/dm3)
(a) Concentration expressed as a percentage (%)
If concentration is expressed as a percentage;
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 x 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑
 Mass to be weighed =
100cm3
Note
 A 1% solution is prepared by dissolving 1g of solute in water such that the volume is made up
to 100cm3.
 Ensure that the units for volume are the same.
Example
• Prepare 1L of 10 % sodium hydroxide solution, NaOH.
Data
Mass to be weighed =?
Volume to be prepared = 1L = 1000cm3
Concentration to be prepared = 10%
[A 10% solution is prepared by dissolving 10g of solute in water such that the volume is made
up to 100cm3]
Solution
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 x 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑
Mass to be weighed =
100cm3
1000cm3 x 10g
=
100cm3
= 100g
 This means that we will need to weigh 100g of sodium hydroxide and dissolve in a small
amount of water (say 500mL), stir and transfer into a 1L volumetric flask or measuring
cylinder. Finally add water until the level goes to the dilution mark. After dilution, you would
have prepared 10% of sodium hydroxide standard solution ready for use.
(b) Concentration expressed in grams per cubic decimeters (g/dm3)
If concentration is in grams per cubic decimeters;
 Mass to be weighed = volume to be prepared x concentration to be prepared
Note
 A 1g/dm3 solution is prepared by dissolving 1g of solute in water such that the volume is
made up to 1dm3.
 Ensure that the units for volume are in cubic decimeters or litres.
Example
• Prepare 1L of 9g/dm3 sodium carbonate, Na2CO3.
Data
Volume to be prepared = 1L (1dm3)
Concentration to be prepared = 9.0g/dm3
Mass to be weighed = volume to be prepared x concentration to be prepared
= 1dm3 x 9g/dm3
= 9g
 This means that we will need to weigh 9g of sodium carbonate and dissolve in a small
have prepared 9g/dm3 of sodium carbonate standard solution ready for use.
(c) Concentration expressed in moles per cubic decimeters (mol/dm3)
If concentration is in grams per cubic decimeters;
 Mass to be weighed = volume to be prepared x concetntration to be prepared x molar
mass
Note
 A 1mol/dm3 solution is prepared by dissolving 1mole of solute in water such that the volume
is made up to 1dm3.
 Ensure that the units for volume are the same.
Example
• Prepare 2L of 0.8mol/dm3 copper (II) Nitrate, Cu(NO3)2.
Data
Volume to be prepared = 2L (2dm3)
Concentration to be prepared = 0.8mol/dm3
Molar mass = 188g/mol
Solution
Mass to be weighed = volume to be prepared x concetntration to be prepared x molar
mass
= 2dm3 x 0.8mol/dm3 x188g/mol
= 300.8g
 This means that we will need to weigh 300.8g of copper (II) Nitrate and dissolve in a small
have prepared 0.8mol/dm3 of copper (II) nitrate standard solution ready for use.
Standard reagents
The following standard reagents should be stocked among others. These are of paramount
importance during practicals.
 Hydrochloric acid 1.0 mol/dm3
 Nitric acid 1.0 mol/dm3
 Sulphuric acid 0.5mol/dm3
 Aqueous ammonia 1.0 mol/dm3
 Aqueous sodium hydroxide 1.0mol/dm3
 Lime water (a solution of calcium hydroxide)
 Aqueous silver nitrate 0.05 mol/dm3
 Aqueous potassium dichromate (VI) 0.1 mol/dm3
 Aqueous potassium iodide 0.1 mol/dm3
 Aqueous lead (II) nitrate 0.2 mol/dm3
 Aqueous potassium permanganate (VII) approximate 0.02 mol/dm3
 Barium nitrate 0.2 mol/dm3
 In addition chemical substances such as aluminium foil, red litmus paper, blue litmus paper
and universal indicators should be in stock.
Common commercial laboratory solutions and their specifications
Reagent Density Percentage Molar mass Commercial
concentration
Sulphuric acid 1.84 96 % 98 g/mol 18.0 mol/dm3
H2SO4 g/cm 3 98 % 18.4 mol/dm3
Hydrochloric acid 1.18 36 % 36.5 g/mol 11.6 mol/dm3
HCl g/cm3 33 % 10.7 mol/dm3
Phosphoric acid 1.70 85 % 98 g/mol 14.7 mol/dm3
H3PO4 g/cm3
Nitric acid 1.50 70 % 63 g/mol 16.7 mol/dm3
HNO3 g/cm3 55% 13.1 mol/dm3
Acetic acid 1.05 100 % 60 g/mol 17.5 mol/dm3
CH3COOH g/cm 3
Aqueous ammonia 0.90 28 % 35 g/mol 7.2 mol/dm3

NH4OH g/cm 3 25 % 6.4 mol/dm3
Standardization of an acid concentrate and dilution
Concentration, in moles per cubic decimeter, of a stock solution can be determined using
the formula below:
Density x percent concentration x 10
Commercial concentration =
Molar mass
d x % x 10
M1 =
mm
- 𝑀1 = Concentration of the stock solution before dilution
- d = density of the stock solution
- % = Percent concentration of the stock solution
- mm = molar mass of the stock solution
- 10 is a factor
The percent concentration of the stock solution is always clearly indicated on the container in
which it is supplied by the manufacturer. Always procure chemicals that are properly labelled
from certified suppliers especially for the acids and other solutions. Ensure that the percentage
and density are clearly given.
Dilution
Definition: Dilution is the decrease in concentration of a solution
Chemists often find it necessary to dilute solutions from one concentration to another by adding
more solvent (water) to the solution.
The highly concentrated solutions are known as stock solutions. When we want to use stock
solutions, they are diluted to the required concentrations suitable for carrying out specific
experiments.
Dilution problems
To solve dilution problems correctly, it is important to distinguish between:
1. How much solvent must be added to dilute a solution to a particular concentration
2. To what volume must a solution be in order to prepare a solution of a particular
concentration
The number of moles of solute in solution before dilution is the same as after dilution.
Number of moles before dilution = number of moles after dilution
𝑛1 = 𝑛2
𝑛1 = number of moles before dilution
𝑛2 = number of moles after dilution
To prepare a particular volume of a standardized solution, the relationship M2V2 = M1V1 is
applied.
𝑛
But concentration, M = , thus, n = M x V
𝑣
𝑛1 = M1V1
𝑛2 = M2V2
Therefore, M1V1 = M2V2
If a solution is diluted by adding more solvent (water), the volume of the solution increases
while the number of moles of the solute in solution remains the same. Thus the concentration
of the solution decreases. This principle gives us the dilution law; M1V1 = M2V2
M1 = Concentration / Molarity before dilution
V1 = Volume before dilution
M2 = Concentration / Molarity after dilution
V2 = Volume after dilution
[B] Solutions (Liquids)
Some chemicals come as concentrated solutions or in layman's language as liquids. Good
examples of such chemicals are acids.
To prepare standard solutions of acids, we follow the steps below:
 Find the volume of the acid to be measured from the stock solution. (this volume is
calculated using the equation):
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 x 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 x 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Volume to be measured =
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 x 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 x 10
V2 x M2 x mm
V1 =
% x d x 10
- 𝑉1= Volume before dilution (Volume of stock solution to be measured / extracted from
the container)
- 𝑉2 = Volume after dilution (Volume of solution you intend to prepare)
- 𝑀2 = Concentration after dilution (Concentration of the solution to be prepared)
- mm = molar mass of the stock solution
- % = Percent concentration of the stock solution (this is provided on the container)
- d = density of the stock solution
- 10 is a factor
 Fill the appropriate volumetric flask atmost half way with water.
 In a measuring cylinder carefully measure the volume from the stock solution.
 Add the measured volume of acid to the volumetric flask containing water. (Do not add
water to concentrated acid)
 Now add water to the volumetric flask containing acid and water until the level goes to the
dilution mark.
 At this point you would have prepared the standard acid solution.
Note
 In the above equation, ensure that the volume to be measured and volume to be prepared
are in the same the units (i.e. in cubic centimeters or milliliters).
V2 x M2 x mm d x % x 10
 V1 = is a combination of M1 = and M1 V1 = M2 V2
% x d x 10 mm
Example
 Prepare 1.5 L of a 0.1 mol/dm3 Sulphuric acid solution given that percentage concentration
is 98% and density on the label is 1.84g/cm3
Data
Volume to be measured =?
Volume to be prepared = 1.5 L (1500cm3)
Concentration to be prepared = 0.1mol/dm3
Molar mass = 98g/mol
Percent concentration = 98%
Density =1.84g/cm3
Solution
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 x 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 x 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 x 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 x 10
1500cm3 x 0.1mol/dm3 x 98g/mol
98% x 1.84g/cm3 x 10
Volume to be measured = 8.2cm3
Steps
 Using a 10cm3 measuring cylinder, measure exactly 8.2cm3 of concentrated Sulphuric acid
 In a 1.5L volumetric flask or measuring cylinder, add water up to a mark nearer to half.
 Add the measured 8.2cm3 of the acid to the volumetric flask or measuring cylinder
containing water.
 Then add more water until the level goes to the 1500cm3 mark.
Preparation of other solutions
1. Recipe for Preparation of One Litre of Benedict's Solution
 Dissolve 173.0g sodium citrate and 100.0g sodium carbonate in 800ml warm distilled
water;
 Separately dissolve 17.3g copper (II) sulphate pentahydrate in 100 ml distilled water;
 Slowly pour the first solution into the second solution with constant stirring;
 Make the volume to 1 litre with distilled water.
2. Recipe for Preparation of One Litre of Biuret Reagent
 Dissolve 1.5g copper (II) sulphate pentahydrate (CuSO4.5H2O) and 6.0g sodium
potassium tartrate in 500ml distilled water;
 Add 300ml 10 % (w/v) sodium hydroxide;
 Make the volume to 1 litre with distilled water;
 Add 1.0g potassium iodide to inhibit the reduction of copper.
3. Recipe for the Preparation of One Litre of Iodine Solution
 Dissolve 6.0g potassium iodide in 200 ml distilled water;
 Add 3.0g iodine crystals;
 Make the volume to 1 litre with distilled water.
4. Recipe for Preparation of One Litre of 1 % copper (II) sulphate solution
 Dissolve 10g of copper (II) sulphate in one liter of distilled water and shake
thoroughly to mix or completely dissolve the contents.
5. Recipe for Preparation of One Litre of 10 % sodium hydroxide solution
 Dissolve 100g of sodium hydroxide in one liter of distilled water and shake
thoroughly to mix or completely dissolve the contents.
6. Recipe for Preparation of One Litre of lime water
 Add 2.5g of calcium hydroxide to one liter of distilled water. Shake
periodically over a 24 hour period. After settling, the lime water is ready for
use.
7. Recipe for Preparation of One Litre of 1% starch solution by weight
 Mix 10g analar soluble starch with 50ml distilled water. Boil 800ml distilled
water and pour the mixture (starch-distilled water) into the boiling water;
 Allow the contents to cool and make up to one litre with distilled water.
Precautions when standardizing
Ensure that:
 the apparatus are thoroughly clean.
 the room (place) where you are doing measurements is free from too much wind.
 you use the stock chemicals which are correctly labelled. Never make
assumptions.
 you avoid mixing chemicals anyhow.
 you never add water to acid when making dilute solutions.
Quantitative analysis
Alternative term: Volumetric analysis
Volumetric analysis is a means of estimating quantities of certain substances (often acids
or alkalis) by analytical process which involves accurate measurements of volumes of
solutions, using pipettes, burettes and measuring cylinders. Weighing may also be
involved.
Analyzing a material means finding out what it is made of. Quantitative analysis means
finding out how much it contains.
Acid–base titrations
Titration is a process in which a standard solution is titrated against another solution of
unknown concentration, with the aim of determining the concentration of the unknown
reagent. Acid-base titrations are based on neutralization reactions. It is a technique used
to determine the concentration of a solution using a standard solution. To titrate is to
determine the concentration of one reagent using another reagent whose
concentration is known.
During titration experiments, one reagent is carefully added to a measured volume of
another reagent usually in a conical flask. The reagent being added is known as the
titrant and the reagent in the reaction vessel is called analyte. The titrant is the standard
solution. A standard solution is a solution whose concentration is known
As the titrant is being added to the analyte, a reaction takes place until one of the
reagents is used up. At this point we say the reaction has reached end point or
equivalent point and the addition of the titrant is stopped immediately. The end point is
signaled by change in colour of the standard solution. The point at which the colour
changes is called end point
The completion of the reaction is usually traced by an indicator which shows a change in
colour at the end point.
The titrant is normally added from the burette so the volume of the titrant used is read
from the burette. At the end point, the volume of titrant used is measured at the bottom
of the meniscus in the burette. This volume reading is called titre. Titre is the volume in cm3
of a solution run through the burette during titration. It is also called titration value.
At the end point, the solution in the reaction vessel will contain only water and a salt as
the only products formed if it is the acid-base titration. During titration as we near the end
point, the titrant is slowly added drop wise up to when addition of one drop causes
permanent colour in the standard solution.
The analysis is carried out by preparing a standard solution of a given substance and
determining the volume of it needed to react with a known volume of another solution
whose concentration is not known. The equation for the chemical reaction must be
known.
Titration Rough 1 2 3
Final burette reading/cm3
Initial burette reading/cm3
Volume used/cm3 p q r s
Tick best titration result(√)
Chemistry practicals embrace four principles (tenets) that define a standard examination
and has no features of departure from any of these principles. The tenets are
predictability, comparability, validity and standardization.
1. Predictability
The candidates are able to predict the format of the paper as there is ‘no hide
and seek’ sort of scheme when assessing the candidates.
2. Comparability
They must all know that the paper comprises two questions based on quantitative
and qualitative (salt) analysis.
3. Validity
No one would change this format overnight. If it has to change, then the
candidates will have to be informed in advance.
4. Standardization
The paper is equally tailored to uphold the fundamental principles on which the
curriculum is anchored. These are the KSV principles, that is, knowledge, skills and
values.
Allocation (Distribution) of the marks on titration table
The marks are allocated into 3 categories namely:
 Accuracy
 Concordance
 Average titre
1. Accuracy
The marks are given using any of the candidate’s values not just ticked ones.
In this case a range is given for a candidate to score the accuracy mark. Accuracy is
scored when there are at least two titre readings that fall within ± 0.2 with respect to
the supervisor’s value.
The standard value in this case is the supervisor’s volume.
 Accurate titration results should not differ by more than ± 0.1cm3. There must be at
least values that fall within 0.2 with respect to the written supervisor’s value. To
achieve this, teachers must train their pupils to foster the accuracy skills in titration.
 Candidates must do the actual experiment and avoid seemingly cooked data.
2. Concordance / Precision / Consistence
The marks are based on all the values ticked by the candidate (not just those chosen
for the accuracy marks) and are independent of the accuracy marks. Concordance
is basically precision.
Among the varying data a candidate must have the ability to identify the values that
are consistent (concording) and discard or ignore those that are far distant from each
other.
The candidates are instructed to indicate the concording/consistent values by way of
ticking (√) and ignore values that are far distant. Candidates may lose marks for not
ticking or simply showing one tick.
3. Average titre
The candidates must calculate the average of the ticked values only and show the
arithmetic mean in the summary of the titration table. Since the first titration is a
“rough” or “trial run”, it should be neglected. The average volume of a substance
used from subsequent accurate titration results must be used. The average mark is
scored when the average of the ticked values is indicated to the nearest 0.05 in the
summary.
q+r+ s+…
Average volume used = , where n is the number of titrations of the
n
ticked values
The mark(s) can be scored if the candidate calculates a correct average (error not
greater than 0.05) of all the ticked values.
Pertinent precautions to be taken to ensure accuracy in titration
1. Rinse the burette with the titrant (solution to be filled in the burette)
2. Rinse the pipette with the titor (solution to be pipette).
3. Never rinse the conical flask with any of the two reacting solution, but always
clean with water every after each titration run.
4. For accurate titre readings, slow down the titration to foster drop-wise titration so
that the end-point (colour-change) is brought about just by one drop of the titrant.
5. Set the initial reading while the lower tip of the burette is also filled up.
6. Read the lower meniscus of the burette/pipette readings at eye-level to avoid
parallax errors.
7. Do not blow out the pipette solution with your mouth lest your exhaled carbon
dioxide changes the chemical composition of titor but allow the last drops to be
forced out by surface tension.
8. Make several titration runs (at least 4). A number of titrations is carried out in order
to obtain consistent or accurate results
9. Read and record the burette readings to the nearest 0.05. Burette readings should
be recorded correct to 2 decimal places. Do not record blank whole numbers……
like 12, 24, 26 etc. but 12.00, 24.00, 26.00 respectively.
Considerations to secure marks for concordance and average
1. Never leave the space for ticking blank.
2. Tick the titre values that are concording and ignore those that are far distant.
 If there are values that are exactly the same, such values must be ticked.
 If there are no values that are exactly the same tick those that differ by 0.2.
 Do not tick values that differ by more than 0.2.
3. Then show the correct arithmetic average (mean) titre value in the summary to
the nearest 0.05cm3.
Penalties are applied to candidates as:
- 1R (for wrong titre value)
- 1 sub (for each wrong subtraction of initial and final readings)
- 1Br (for each wrong burette reading like 12.32, 61.0)
- 1 DP (if no decimal point is shown anywhere in the table)
Types of acid-base titrations
1. Titration to determine the concentration of the analyte
2. Titration to determine the relative atomic mass of a constituent element
3. Titration to determine the percentage composition of the constituent substance
(back titration)
Qualitative analysis
Alternative term: Salt analysis
Analyzing a salt means finding out what it is made of. Qualitative analysis means finding out
what is there.
Qualitative analysis involves the analysis of chemical substances by their colour, aroma (odour),
texture, melting and boiling points or solubility. It involves the identification of solids, liquids, gases
or ions produced in a chemical reaction. It also involves making careful observations and
inferences based on the observation made and drawing suitable conclusions.
Qualitative analysis tests
Test for anions in solution
Common anions tested are: carbonates (𝐶𝑂32− ), chloride (𝐶𝑙 − ), iodide (𝐼 − ), sulphate (𝑆𝑂42− ) and
nitrate (𝑁𝑂3− ). There are specific reagents used in the identification of each of these anions.
Qualitative tests can give positive or negative information. Both types of information are useful.
1. Carbonate ion, 𝐂𝐎𝟐− 𝟑
Test method
Put about 2cm3 portion of the carbonate solution in the test tube. Then add any dilute acid
Positive test result

Effervernsce occurs and lime water turns milky. Carbon dioxide gas is produced
+
CO2−
3(aq) + 2H(aq) → CO2(g) + H2 O(l)
Functions of lime water
 To test the presence of carbon dioxide produced during the reaction.
 To show that carbon dioxide is produced.
2. Chloride ion, 𝐂𝐥−
Test method
Put about 2cm3 portion of the chloride solution in the test tube. Add a few drops of dilute
nitric acid to make the solution acidified. Then add a few drops of silver nitrate.

A white precipitate of silver chloride forms.
−
Ag +
(aq) + Cl(aq) → AgCl(s)
3. Iodide ion, 𝐈 −
Test method
Put about 2cm3 portion of the iodide solution in the test tube. Add a few drops of dilute nitric
acid to make the solution acidified. Then add a few drops of aqueous lead (II) nitrate.

A yellow precipitate of lead (II) iodide forms
Pb2+ −
(aq) + 2I(aq) → PbI2(s)
4. Sulphate ion, 𝐒𝐎𝟐− 𝟒
Test method
Put about 2cm3 portion of the sulphate solution in the test tube. Add a few drops of dilute
nitric acid to make the solution acidified. Then add a few drops of barium nitrate.

A white precipitate of barium sulphate forms.
Ba2+ 2−
(aq) + SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s)
5. Nitrate ion, 𝐍𝐎𝟑 −
Test method
Put about 2cm3 portion of the nitrate solution in the test tube. Add a few drops aqueous
sodium hydroxide then aluminium foil; introduce damp red litmus paper into the test tube
and warm carefully.

Damp red litmus paper turns blue. Ammonia gas is produced
8Al(s) + 3NO− − −
3(aq) + 5OH(aq) + 2H2 O(l) → 3NH3(g) + 8AlO2(aq)
Note that the nitrate ions are reduced to ammonia (NO3 − → NH3 ) which turns damp red
litmus paper blue. Addition of hydrogen atoms to NO3 − to form NH3 is called reduction.
Test for anions in solution
Anion Test Test result
Carbonate Add a dilute acid. Effervescence occurs, carbon
2−
(CO3 ) dioxide produced.
Chloride Acidify with dilute nitric acid, then White ppt.
(Cl− ) add aqueous silver nitrate.
Iodide Acidify with dilute nitric acid, then Yellow ppt.
−
(I ) add aqueous lead (II) nitrate.
Nitrate Add aqueous sodium hydroxide, Ammonia produced.
(NO− 3 ) then aluminum foil, warm carefully.
Sulphate Acidify with dilute nitric acid, then White ppt.
(SO2−4 ) add aqueous barium nitrate.
Identification of cations
The cations commonly tested are aluminium, ammonium, calcium, copper (II), iron (II), iron (III)
and zinc ions. These ions show characteristic reactions when reacted with reagents such as
sodium hydroxide and aqueous ammonia. The cations form precipitates of specific colours and
sometimes interesting behaviours are observed with their reactions with these reagents.
Test for cations in solution
When testing for a cation using either aqueous sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia, two
observations will help identify the cation present:
 the colour of the precipitate formed on adding a few drops of chemical reagent;
 the solubility of the precipitate in excess chemical reagent
The cations react with hydroxide ions present in aqueous sodium hydroxide or ammonia to form
insoluble hydroxides. These hydroxides appear as precipitates.
Some of these precipitates dissolve in excess aqueous sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia
to form soluble complex salts. These appear as colourless solutions, or in the case of copper (II)
ions in excess aqueous ammonia, a dark blue solution.
Copper (II), iron (II) and iron (III) ions are easily identified by the characteristic colour of their
precipitates.
Aluminium, lead (II) and zinc ions all give the same observations when aqueous sodium
hydroxide is used. However, only zinc ions will give a white precipitate soluble in excess aqueous
ammonia; aluminium and lead ions do not.
To distinguish between aluminium and lead (II) ions, dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) or aqueous
potassium iodide can be used:
Al3+
(aq) + 3Cl− (aq) → AlCl3(aq)
(from HCl) (colourless solution)
2+ −
Pb(aq) + 2Cl(aq) → PbCl2(s)
(from HCl) (white precipitate)
Similar results will be obtained if potassium iodide is used. Aluminium ions will give a colourless
solution of aluminium iodide while lead (II) ions will give a yellow precipitate of lead (II)
iodide.
Test for cations in solution
Cation Effect of aqueous sodium hydroxide Effect of aqueous ammonia
Aluminium White ppt. soluble in excess giving a White ppt., insoluble in excess
(Al )
3+ colourless solution
Ammonium Ammonia produced on warming -
(NH4+ )
Calcium (Ca2+ ) White ppt., insoluble in excess No ppt. or very slight white ppt
Copper (II) (Cu2+ ) Light blue ppt., insoluble in excess Light blue ppt., soluble in excess,
giving a dark blue solution
Iron(II) Green ppt., insoluble in excess Green ppt., insoluble in excess,
(Fe )2+ turns reddish-brown on standing
Iron (III) Red-brown ppt., insoluble in excess Red-brown ppt., insoluble in
( Fe )3+ excess
Zinc White ppt., soluble in excess giving White ppt. soluble in excess
(Zn2+) a colourless solution giving a colourless solution
Test for gases
When recording observations for gases, it is important to record
 Presence of effervescences, if any. Effervescences is the rapid evolution of bubbles of a gas
from a solution
 Colour and smell of the gas
 Chemical test for the gas and test result
 Name of the gas
1. Oxygen, 𝐎𝟐
Colour and smell: Colourless and odourless
Test method
Introduce a glowing splint in the gas jar containing oxygen.

Relights / rekindles a glowing splint.
2. Hydrogen, 𝐇𝟐
Test method
Introduce a burning splint in the gas jar containing hydrogen gas

Burns with a pop sound
3. Carbon dioxide, CO2
Test method
Bubble carbon dioxide into lime water (Calcium hydroxide)

A white precipitate forms. Lime water turns milky. Lime water is aqueous calcium hydroxide
(Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
Functions of lime water
 To test the presence of carbon dioxide produced during the reaction.
 To show that carbon dioxide is produced.
4. Ammonia, NH3
Colour and smell: Colourless and Pungent smell
Test method
Introduce damp red litmus paper into the gas jar containing ammonia.

Turns damp red litmus paper blue
NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4OH(aq)
5. Chlorine, Cl2
Colour and smell: Yellow green and pungent smell
Test method
Hold moist blue litmus paper at the mouth of a gas jar containing chlorine gas

Moist blue litmus paper turns red, and then gets bleached.
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) turns the blue litmus paper red while hydrochlorous acid (HClO) is
responsible for bleaching the litmus paper.
6. Sulphur dioxide, SO2
Colour and smell: Colourless and Pungent smell
Test method
Dip a filter paper in acidified potassium dichromate (VI) and then drop the filter paper in a gas
jar of sulphur dioxide.
Turns orange acidified potassium dichromate (VI) green.
Alternatively, bubble sulphur dioxide through acidified potassium permanganate. The acidified
potassium permanganate changes from purple to colourless.
Explanation
(a) Colour change from orange to green
K2Cr2O7 (Orange) → Cr3+ (Green)
The oxidation state of chromium changes from +6 in K2Cr2O7 to +3 in Cr3+, so the chromium
ions are reduced
(b) Colour change from purple to colourless
This colour change is possible when using dilute acidified potassium permanganate (VII),
KMnO4
KMnO4 (purple) → Mn2+(aq) (colourless)
The manganese ions are reduced from +7 in KMnO4 (purple) to +2 in Mn2+
Test for gases
Gas Test Test result
Ammonia Introduce damp red litmus paper to Turns damp red litmus
(NH3) the gas paper blue
Carbon dioxide Bubble the gas through lime water Turns lime water milky
(CO2) (White precipitate formed)
Chlorine Introduce damp blue litmus paper Turns blue litmus paper red
(Cl2) to the gas then bleaches it
Hydrogen Introduce a lighted splint into the Puts out the lighted splint
(H2 ) gas with a ‘pop’ sound
Oxygen Introduce a glowing splint into the Glowing splint relighted
(O2) gas
Sulphur dioxide Bubble the gas through acidified Turns orange potassium
(SO2 ) potassium dichromate (VI) dichromate (VI) green
Note
 When testing for hydrogen gas, hold the lighted splint at the mouth of the test tube.
 When testing for oxygen gas, insert the glowing splint into the test tube.
 When recording the colour change of acidified potassium dichromate (VI), always record as
changing from orange to green, and not just acidified potassium dichromate (VI) turned
green.
SN NAME OF CANDIDATE EXAMINATION NUMBER CENTER NUMBER SEX CLASS
MINISTRY OF GENERAL EDUCATION

NATURAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT
CHEMISTRY SCHOOL BASED ASSESSMENT
TASK NUMBER DATE
You are provided with:
 Y (20cm3 of 0.1M sodium hydroxide solution)
 Z (20cm3 of 0.1M Sulphuric acid solution)
 A beaker of about 50cm3 to 250cm3 capacity
 2 measuring cylinders of about 25cm3 to 50cm3
 Methyl orange indicator solution
 A stirring rod
In this experiment, you will investigate the end point in a chemical reaction. You have been
provided with solutions Y and Z with an indicator.
(a) Measure about 40cm3 of solution Y in a measuring cylinder and transfer it into the beaker
Add three drops of the indicator provided to solution Y in the beaker and stir the solution.
Write your observation
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) (I) Measure 10cm3 of solution Z using a measuring cylinder and add this solution to the
beaker containing solution Y and an indicator. Sir the solution using the stirring rod provided
Write your observation
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(II) Add 5cm3 of solution Z to solution Y and write your observation
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(III) Add another 5cm3 of solution Z to solution Y and write your observation
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) (I) Calculate the total volume of solution Z that has reacted with 40cm3 of Y
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(II) Compare the volume of Y to the volume of Z at the end point of the reaction and state
the ratio
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(d) Assuming that solution Z is an acid and solution Y is a base both of the same concentration,
determine the number of replaceable hydrogen atoms in an acid.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
[Total = 10marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
You are provided with laboratory apparatus labelled
 A
 B
 C
 D
 E
In this experiment, you required to identify the apparatus used in the chemistry laboratory.
(a) Identify and state the use of the apparatus labelled A, B and C
(I) Name of apparatus A: ………………………………………………………………….. [1]
Use of apparatus A: ………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(II) Name of apparatus B: ………………………………………………………………….. [1]
Use of apparatus B: ………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(III) Name of apparatus C: ………………………………………………………………….. [1]
Use of apparatus C: ………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(b) Which of the apparatus provided is used
(I) for burning and heating
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(II) for measuring a fixed volume of exactly 25.0cm3 of solution
……………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(c) State any two laboratory safety rules
(I) …………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(II) …………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
[Total = 10marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
You are provided with the following materials / apparatus;
 Silver nitrate solution
 Sodium chloride solution
 Test tube
(a) Put a small sample of sodium chloride solution in the test tube and then add a small
amount sample of silver nitrate solution.
(I) Write your observations
………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(II) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction in (a) (I) above
………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(III) Deduce the ionic equation for the reaction above
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(IV) Name the salt which is formed as a precipitate in the reaction in (a) (II)
………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(V) Name the solution which is formed in solution form in the reaction in (a) (II)
………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(b) Name the materials / apparatus that were used in the experiment
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Explain how you would obtain a pure dry sample of the salt named in (IV). Briefly outline
the procedure involved
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
[Total = 10marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
You are provided with
 Solution X (prepared by dissolving 16.0g of zinc sulphate in 1dm3 of distilled water)
 2.0M sodium hydroxide
 2.0M ammonia solution
 2.0M barium chloride solution
 1.0M hydrochloric acid
 3 test tubes in a rack
In this experiment, you must identify the formula of the cation and anion in solution X and state one
of the metallic element present in solution X
Method
You are provided with an unknown aqueous solution X. Carry out the following tests on the aqueous
solution
Test No Test Observations
(a) Pour about 2cm3 of solution X in a test tube
(I) Add a few drops of sodium hydroxide
solution
(II) Add excess sodium hydroxide solution to

the mixture in (a) (I)
(b) Pour about 2cm3 of solution X in a test tube
(I) Add a few drops of ammonia solution
(II) Add excess ammonia solution to the mixture

in (b) (I)
(c) Pour about 2cm3 of solution X in a test tube
Add a few drops of barium chloride solution
(d) Add equal volume of dilute hydrochloric acid to

the contents in (c) above
[14]
Conclusion
1. Identify the formula of the cation and anion in solution X
(I) Cation
………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(II) Anion
……………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
2. State one of the metallic element present in solution X
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
You are provided with the following
 Filter paper, filter funnel, spatula, sand, water, salt, 3 beakers, measuring cylinder and
a source of heat
In this experiment, you required to separate a mixture of sand and salt.
Procedure 1
 Put a spatula full of sand into a beaker
 To the same beaker, add another spatula full of salt
 Add 20cm3 of water and stir using a spatula
 Wet the filter paper with water
 Fold a filter paper into a cone and place it in the filter funnel
 Place the filter funnel onto the clean beaker
 Stir the mixture again and gently pour onto the filter funnel
 A colourless liquid will be collected in the beaker. Keep this liquid for use in procedure 2
(a) What name is given to this type of separation of mixtures?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Name one application of the separation technique used at home
………..……………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(c) What name is given to the liquid which you have collected in the beaker?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(d) What was the purpose of adding water to the mixture of sand and salt then stirring?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(e) Why did you have to wet the filter paper?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
Procedure 2
 Set the apparatus as shown below
 Heat the liquid as shown in the diagram until it has all evaporated
(a) Describe what happens as the liquid in the beaker disappears?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) What name is given to this method of separating mixtures?
.……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Mention three processes that enabled you to separate the mixture of sand and salt?
(I) .………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(II) .………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(III) .………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
[Total = 10marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Thermometer
 Beaker
 Ice cubes
In this experiment, you will investigate the effect of heating ice
1. Put the ice cubes in the beaker
2. Place the thermometer bulb in the ice.
(a) What is the reading on the thermometer?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(b) What must be done to the melting ice for it to completely change to the next state of
matter?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(c) Describe the change of state that the ice will undergo in question (b) above
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(d) What term is used to describe the temperature at which ice changes its state?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(e) Some substances can change from solid state into gaseous state without becoming a liquid.
What term is used to describe such a reaction?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
[Total = 10 marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Solution R [50g of pure grade (analar) CuSO4.5H2O crystals and 12.0g of NaCl in
1dm3 of distilled water]
 0.05M silver nitrate
 2M nitric acid
 Tap water BUT labelled as barium nitrate
 2M sodium hydroxide
 2M aqueous ammonia
 4 test tubes
In this experiment, you will determine the formula of the cation and anion in R and also
determine the formula and name of the salt in R
The pain experienced in a toothache can be reduced when traces of one of the salts in the
chemistry syllabus gets into contact with the affected area
You are provided with such a salt solution labelled R. R contains one anion and one cation
both specified in your syllabus
Carry out the following tests on R and use your observations to identify the ions and salt in R
Test No: Test Observations
1. (a) To a portion of R, add aqueous sodium hydroxide
little by little until a change is seen
(b) Add excess sodium hydroxide to the mixture in (a)
2. (a) To a portion of R, add aqueous ammonia little by

little until a change is seen
(b) Add excess aqueous ammonia to the mixture in
(a)
3. (a) To a portion of R, add almost equal volume of
barium nitrate
(b) Add dilute nitric acid to the mixture in (a)
4. (a) To a portion of R, add almost equal volume of silver

nitrate
Allow the mixture in (b) to stand for five minutes (if
necessary expose to light)
[15]
Conclusion
1. The formula of the anion in R is: ……………………………………………………… [1]
2. The formula of the cation in R is: …………………………………………………….. [1]
3. The formula and name of the salt in R is: ……………..and………… respectively [2]
4. Which test number was used to identify the anion in R?: ………………………. [1]
[Total = 10marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Separating funnel
 Water
 Cooking oil
 Conical flask
In this experiment, you will separate a mixture of water and cooking oil
1. Mix cooking oil and water and shaken well and poured in the separating funnel.
2. Allow the mixture to settle for about five minutes.
3. Two layers are formed, that is, a layer of water and a layer of cooking oil.
(a) What name is given to the apparatus marked A

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) Identify the layers marked B and C?
(I) Layer B: ………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(II) Layer C…………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(c) Identify the method of separating the mixture shown above.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(d) Give the type of mixture separated using the method shown above.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(e) Explain how a mixture is separated using the method shown above.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
[Total = 10 marks

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Lime water in a test tube
 Liquid X (Water) in a test tube
 Delivery tube / straw
(a) Take a deep breath in with the delivery tube NOT dipped into the lime water and then
breathe out through a delivery tube or straw into lime water as shown in the diagram
below. Caution: Do not suck the lime water into the mouth.
Take another deep breath in and then breathe out through another delivery tube into
liquid X.
Record your observations in the table below:

Observations with lime water
Observations with liquid X
[2]
(b) Explain your observations in the test with lime water
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(c) State the name of the gas which is responsible for the change observed in the test with
lime water
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(d) Name the process which occurs in the human body which produces this gas and explain
the importance of this process.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(e) What is the role of liquid X in the experiment?
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
[Total = 10marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Solution Z (to be prepared by dissolving 25.g of copper (II) sulphate in 1dm3 of distilled water)
 0.2M Barium nitrate solution
 1.0M sodium hydroxide solution
 1.0M aqueous ammonia solution
 0.1M silver nitrate solution labeled acidified silver nitrate
Question
In this experiment, you will carry out tests on solution Z to identify the cations and anion present in
this compound
Test NO Test Observations
(a) (I) To about 2cm portion of solution Z
3
in a test tube, add a few drops of

aqueous sodium hydroxide
(II) Add excess aqueous sodium

hydroxide to the test tube in (a) (I)
(b) (I) To about 2cm3 fresh portion of

solution Z in the test tube, add a
few drops of aqueous ammonia
(II) Add excess aqueous ammonia to

the test tube in (b) (I)
(c) (I) To about 2cm3 fresh portion of solution

Z, add acidified silver nitrate
(d) (I) To about 2cm3 fresh portion of solution

Z, add acidified barium nitrate
[16]
Conclusion
(I) Name the cation present in solution Z
……………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(II) Write the formula of the anion present in solution Z
……………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(III) Which test number was used to identify the anion in Z?
……………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(IV) Write the chemical formula of compound Z
……………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 R is calcium chloride and S is ammonium hydrogen carbonate. Supply these two chemicals
on watch glasses. Use hydrated calcium chloride
 0.05M acidified silver nitrate solution
 2M sodium hydroxide solution
 2M ammonium hydroxide solution
 Distilled or de ionized water
 Cobalt chloride paper (or crystals of white copper sulphate)
 Litmus paper
 2M calcium hydroxide solution (lime water)
 Test tubes
 Source of heat
In this experiment, you will identify the cations and anions in compounds R and S
You are provided with solid compounds R and S. Carry out the following experiments on both R and
S and record your observations in the table
You should identify any gases that are evolved
NB: Strong heat is needed
Test No Test Observation on R Observation on S
1. Heat a little of the sample of R and S separately
2. (a) Add water to the remaining samples of R
and S and stir until no further changes occur
(divide into three portions)
(b) To the first portion, add acidified silver
nitrate and let it stand for about 5 minutes
3. (a) To the second portion, add sodium
hydroxide solution
(b) Add excess sodium hydroxide. Warm the
mixture gently
4. (a) To the third portion, add ammonia solution
(b) Add excess ammonia solution
[16]
Conclusion
(I) What is the cation in
(a) Compound R?
………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(b) Compound S?
………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(II) What is the anion in compound
(a) Compound R?
………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(b) Compound S?
………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Solution R (prepared as follows: in 1dm3 of 1M sulphuric acid, dissolve 0.5mol of iron (II)
chloride)
 Solution S (prepared as follows: in 1dm3 of distilled water, dissolve 0.5mol of zinc nitrate)
 0.05M silver nitrate solution
 Red litmus paper
 Aluminium foil
 Source of heat
 5 test tubes
 1M dilute nitric acid
 0.5M sulphuric acid
In this experiment, you will state the cation in solution R and to write the formula of the salt in
solution S. You are provided with solution R and S. R and S contain one salt each with one cation
and one anion both specified in the syllabus
Carry out the following tests on R and S and record your results in the table below accordingly
Test No Test Observation
1. To a portion of R, add an equal volume of aqueous silver
nitrate solution (KEEP FOR TEST 2)
2. (a) Divide the mixture in (1) above into two. To one portion,
add dilute nitric acid and
(b) To the other portion add an equal volume of aqueous
ammonia
3. (a) To a portion of R, add aqueous sodium hydroxide little by
little until in excess
(b) Allow the mixture in (a) to stand for sometime
4. (a) To a portion of S, add aqueous sodium hydroxide until a
change is seen
(b) Add excess aqueous sodium hydroxide to the mixture in
(a). (Keep the resultant for test (c )
(c) Put half of the resultant from test (b) into a test tube, add
aluminium foil and then warm carefully
5. (a) To a portion of S, add aqueous ammonia until a change is
seen
(b) To a mixture in (a) above, add excess aqueous ammonia
[17]
Conclusion
(I) The formula of the cation in solution R is
………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(II) What process has the cation in R undergo in test 3(b)?
………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(III) The formula of the salt in solution R is
………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Solution R (0.5mol/dm3 ammonium chloride)
 Solution S (0.5mol/dm3 aluminium sulphate)
 2mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide
 2mol/dm3 ammonia solution
 0.2mol/dm3 barium nitrate
 0.05mol/dm3 silver nitrate
 2mol/dm3 dilute nitric acid
 Test tubes
 Source of heat
In this experiment, you will name the cation in R and the anion in R. You will also state formula of the
compound S
You are provided with two solutions R and S. Both R and S contain one cation and one anion but
different ones, all specified in the chemistry syllabus
Carry out the following tests on R and S and record your observations as specified in the qualitative
notes provided. You should test and identify any gas(es) produced
Test No Test Observations
1. (a) To a small portion of R, add aqueous sodium
hydroxide and warm gently
2. (a) To a portion of R, add a few drops of
aqueous silver nitrate
(Divide the mixture into two parts)
(I) To one part add dilute nitric acid
(II) To the other part add aqueous
ammonia until in excess
3. (a) To a small portion of S, add little sodium
hydroxide solution
(b) Add excess of sodium hydroxide to the
mixture in 3(a)
4. (a) To a portion of S, add aqueous ammonia
solution
(b) Add excess of ammonia solution to the
mixture in 4(a)
5. (a) To a portion of S, add aqueous barium
nitrate followed by dilute nitric acid
[17]
Conclusion
(I) Name of the cation in R is
………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(II) Name of the anion in R is
………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(III) Formula of the compound S is
………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Solution R (R is Iron (II) ammonium sulphate or mixture of iron (II) sulphate and ammonium
sulphate (all analar). R is made by dissolving 0.5mol/dm3 of both ammonium sulphate and
iron (II) sulphate in 1dm3 of 1M H2SO4
 2M ammonia solution
 1M dilute nitric acid
 0.2M barium nitrate
 Distilled water labeled as acidified silver nitrate
 0.0200mol/dm3 potassium permanganate
 Access to heating source
In this experiment, you will identify the cations in solution R and hence the formula of the metallic
salt in R
You are provided with solution R which contains two cations and one anion all specified in the
syllabus. This means that R contains two salts both containing the same anion
Carry out the following tests on R and record your observations as provided in the qualitative notes.
Use your observations to identify the two salts in R
Test No Test Observation
1. To a portion of R, add almost an equal volume of acidified water
2. (a) To a portion of R, add almost an equal volume of barium nitrate
3. (a) To a portion of R, add a little amount of sodium hydroxide until a
change is seen
(b) Add excess of sodium hydroxide to the mixture in (a)
(c) Warm gently the mixture in (b)
4. To a portion of R, add ammonia solution little by little until in excess
5. (a) Put a portion of potassium permanganate in a test tube and add
equal volume of R to it
(b) Add equal volume of sodium hydroxide to a portion from the
resultant of (a)
[15]
Conclusion
(a) The formula of the anion in R is
………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) R contains two cations whose formulae are
(I) ………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(II) ………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Hence the formula of the metallic salt in R is
………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(d) In test 5(a), R is acting as
………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 R (2.0g of copper (II) carbonate)
 S (30cm3 of 0.5M zinc sulphate solution)
 20cm3 of acidified water (i.e. 1M dilute H2SO4)
 2M aqueous sodium hydroxide
 2M nitric acid
 0.05M aqueous silver nitrate
 Lime water
 Distilled water
 6 test tubes
 Aluminium foil
 2M hydrochloric acid
In this experiment, you are required to state the chemical formula of the anions in R and S and to
state the section of the Periodic Table to which the metal in R belongs
Carry out the following tests on R and S. Record your observations in the table. You should identify
and name any gas evolved
Test on R
Test number Test Observation
1. (a) To a small portion of R in a test tube, add
2cm3 of acidified water. Keep the resultant
for test 2 and 3
2. (a) To a portion of the mixture from (1), add
aqueous sodium hydroxide, until a
change is seen
(b) Add excess aqueous sodium hydroxide
to the mixture in 2(a)
3. (a) To a portion from test 1, add aqueous
ammonia until a change is seen
(b) Add an excess of aqueous ammonia to

the mixture in 3(a)
4. (a) To a portion of R, add dilute hydrochloric

acid
Test on S
Test number Test Observations
5. (a) To a portion of S, add dilute nitric acid
(b) To the mixture in 5(a), add an equal

volume of aqueous silver nitrate
(c) Add an equal volume of aqueous

ammonia to the mixture in (b)
6. (a) To a portion of S, add sodium hydroxide

solution little by little until a change is seen
7. (a) To a portion of S, add ammonia solution

little by little until in excess
[17]
Conclusion
(a) The formula of the anion in
(I) R is
………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(II) S is
………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) State the section of the Periodic Table to which the metal in R belongs
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 A stoppered boiling tube or closed petri dish labeled R and S containing about 2g of zinc
nitrate as R and 2g of potassium chloride as S respectively
 0.05M silver nitrate
 2M dilute nitric acid labeled as such
 2M aqueous sodium hydroxide labeled as such
 2M aqueous dilute hydrochloric acid
 Distilled water
 Test tubes
 Bunsen burner
 Aluminium foil
 Stirring rod
 Litmus paper
In this experiment, you will identify the anions (negative ions) in compounds R and S and suggest
the chemical formula for R
You are provided with compounds R and S. Carry out the following experiments and record your
observations in the table. Identify any gases which are evolved
Test No Test Observation on R Observation on S
1. (a) Heat a little of the sample in a Pyrex test tube
until no further change is seen
Allow to cool
2. (a) To the remaining samples of R and S, add water
(divide into 4 portions)
(b) To the first portion, add dilute sodium hydroxide
(c) Add excess of aqueous sodium hydroxide to the

mixture in 2.(a)
3. (a) To the second portion, add dilute nitric acid
then aqueous silver nitrate
4. (a) To the third portion, add aqueous sodium
hydroxide, then aluminium foil. Warm carefully.
5. (a) To the last (fourth) portion, add a little portion of
aqueous ammonia
(b) Add excess of aqueous ammonia to the mixture
in (a)
[17]
Conclusion
(a) What are the anions (negative ions) in the compounds?
(I) R
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(II) S
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Suggest the chemical formula for R
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 2M dilute hydrochloric acid
 V (Magnesium powder)
 X (Iron fillings)
 Y (Copper turnings)
In this experiment, you will investigate the reactivity of metals with dilute hydrochloric acid
Use about half a spatula-full of each of the metals V, X and Y
(a) Place metal V in test tube I, metal X in test tube II and metal Y in test tube III as shown in
the diagram below
To each of the three test tubes containing the metals, add about 2cm3 of hydrochloric acid
provided
Record your observations in the space below:
Test tube I: ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
Test tube II: ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
Test tube III: ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) Arrange the metals V, X and Y in increasing order of their reactivity
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(c) Suggest the method of extraction of metal X
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(d) Assuming metal V has a valence of 2, write a balanced chemical equation for its
reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid using symbol V
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(e) Describe the identity test for the gaseous product in this experiment
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
[Total = 10marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Solution S (0.5mol/dm3 copper (II) sulphate, CuSO4.5H2O)
 2M ammonia solution
 2M nitric acid
 2M sodium carbonate
 0.2M barium nitrate
 6 test tubes
In this experiment, you will state the formula of cation and anion in solution S and also to state
the formula of the salt in solution S
You are provided with sample S. You are to carry out the tests indicated in the table. Record
your observations in the table below. S contains one cation and one anion both specified in the
syllabus
Test No: Test Observations
1. (a) Describe the appearance of S
(b) To a small portion of S, add an equal

volume of nitric acid
2. (a) To a second portion of S, add a few drops
of sodium hydroxide until a change is seen
(b) To the mixture in (a), add excess sodium
hydroxide solution
3. (a) To another small portion of S, add a few
drops of aqueous ammonia
(b) To the mixture in (a), add an excess of
ammonia
4. (a) To another portion of S, add a small portion
of sodium carbonate solution
(b) To the mixture in (a), add a small amount
of nitric acid
5. (a) To another small portion of S, add a small
amount of barium nitrate or barium
chloride solution
(b) To the mixture in (a), add a small amount
of nitric acid
[15]
Conclusion
1. The formula of cation in solution S is: ………………………………………………………….. [1]
2. The formula of anion in solution S is: …………………………………………………………… [1]
3. The formula and name of the salt in solution S. Formula: ………… Name ……………… [3]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 1M hydrochloric acid solution
 Conical flask
 Pipette
 Burette
 Phenolphthalein indicator
 White tile
 Clamp and stand
 Electronic balance
In this task, you will quantitatively determine the concentration of an acid. Aqueous solutions
of acids yield H + and OH − . The particles react in a neutralization reaction according to the
following equation: H + + OH − → H2 O
Method
1. Pipette 25cm3 of sodium hydroxide into the conical flask and add 3 drops of
phenolphthalein indicator. Indicate the colour of the indicator on the sodium hydroxide
………………….…………………………………………………………………………………
………….………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
2. Fill the burette with hydrochloric acid
3. Place the conical flask under the spout of the burette
4. Set up the apparatus as shown below
5. Titrate in the usual manner until the end point. Carry out at least three titrations until you
achieve consistent results. What is the colour at the end point?
………….…………………………………………………………………………………………….
………….……………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
6. Record your results in the table below
Titration number Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Final reading/ cm3
First reading / cm3
Volume of acid used /cm3
Tick best titration results (√)
[12]
(a) Use the best titration results to find the average volume of the acid used
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) Why is it necessary to do three trials?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) Use the relationship, MAVA = MBVB, and the information collected in the titration and
the balanced chemical equation to find the concentration of the hydrochloric acid in
mol/dm3
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Wires
 Sticky staff
 Hard cover paper
In this experiment, you will construct the structure of an atom
Method
1. Make models of the following:
 Nitrogen 7 electrons
 Sodium 11 electrons
 Fluorine 9 electrons
 Aluminium 13 electrons
 Chlorine 17 electrons
2. Use wires for shells, hard cover paper for electrons and sticky stuff to stick the electrons
on the shells
3. Always start with filling the first shell, then second and then third. The first shell should
only have 2 electrons, the second and third shells should not exceed 8 electrons.
(a) Name at least two atoms with the same number of electrons in the second shell
(I) …………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(II) …………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) Which atom:
(I) Had the least number of shells. Give a reason for your answer
…………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(II) Had the largest number of shells. Give a reason for your answer
……………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) What is the relationship between number of electrons and number of shells?
…………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(d) What is the relationship between the number of shells and size of an atom?
…………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
[Total = 10 marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Clay or beads of different colours
 Sticks or strolls
 Water
 Colours or any other coloured pigments
In this experiment, you will demonstrate the formation of simple molecules using models
Method
1. Make models of the following molecules
 Oxygen, O2
 Water, H2O
 Carbon dioxide, CO2
 Hydrogen, H2
2. Mould balls from clay of different sizes for each of the elements (each ball should
have a hole drilled in it using the stick or straw)
3. Colour the elements, each should have its own colour
4. Using sticks or straws, join the balls to make the molecules
(a) What does the colour of each ball represent?
………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) What do the sticks joining atoms in a molecule represent?
………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(c) Which molecules are formed by:
(I) Same kind of atoms
………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(II) Different kinds of atoms
………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(d) Arrange the following atoms according to their size (starting with one with the
smallest size)
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine
…………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(e) Draw the structure of the molecules you have made using the clay balls
[3]
[Total = 10 marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Beaker
 Zinc metal
 Spatula
 Copper (II) sulphate solution
 Measuring cylinder
In this experiment, you investigate the type reaction between zinc and copper (II) sulphate
Method
1. Put 25cm3 copper (II) sulphate solution in a beaker
2. Add 0.5g of zinc granules to the beaker containing copper (II) sulphate solution
while stirring until no further change is observed and remove the excess zinc
(a) Suggest the reason why the colour has changed when zinc was added to
copper (II) sulphate
……………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(b) State the colour and name of the metal that has settled at the bottom of the
beaker
Colour: …………………………………………………………………………… [1]
Name of metal:…………………………………………………………………. [1]
(c) Suggest the name of the colourless solution formed
…………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(d) What do you think happened to the
(I) Zinc metal
……………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(II) Copper in copper (II) sulphate
……………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(e) Write a word equation for the reaction
…………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
[Total = 10marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Iron (II) sulphate solution
 Sodium hydroxide solution
 Beakers
In this experiment, you will investigate the law of conservation of matter in a chemical
reaction
Method
1. Weigh 8cm3 of iron (II) sulphate solution and record the mass
Mass of iron (II) sulphate = ………………………………………………………………. [1]
2. Weigh 8cm3 of sodium hydroxide and record the mass
Mass of sodium hydroxide = ……………………………………………………………. [1]
3. Add the mass of iron (II) sulphate and sodium hydroxide and record as initial mass,
M1, in grams
M1 = …………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
4. Mix the two solutions together in the beaker and observe the changes that take
place. Write your observations.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
5. Weigh the mass after reacting two solutions and record it as the final mass, M2
M2 = …………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
6. Compare the initial (before reaction) and final mass (after reaction)
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
7. What conclusion can you make from the results obtained from 6
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
[Total = 10marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Vinegar
 Thermometer
 Baking soda
 Tea spoon
 Plastic cup
In this experiment, you will identify the nature of chemical reaction between vinegar and
baking soda
Method
1. Pour about 10cm3 of vinegar into a small plastic cup
2. Then, place a thermometer into the vinegar. Record the initial temperature, T1
T1 = ……………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
3. While the thermometer is in the cup, add about half tea spoon of baking soda to the
cup
4. Watch the thermometer for any change in temperature. After it has stopped
changing, record the final temperature, T2
T2 = ……………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
5. Calculate the temperature change for the reaction using the formula: T = T2 – T1
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
6. State whether the reaction is endothermic or exothermic
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
7. Based on the change in temperature in the reaction between vinegar and baking
soda, was heat absorbed or given out?
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
[Total = 10marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Sodium hydroxide solution
 Thermometer
 Hydrochloric acid
 Beaker
In this experiment, you will identify the nature of chemical reaction between sodium
hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
Method
1. Pour about 25 cm3 of hydrochloric acid in a beaker
2. Then, place a thermometer into the beaker containing hydrochloric acid. Record the
initial temperature, T1.
T1 = ……………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
3. While the thermometer is in the beaker, add 25cm3 of sodium hydroxide
4. Watch the thermometer for any change in temperature. After it has stopped
changing, record the final temperature, T2
T2 = ……………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
5. Calculate the temperature change for the reaction using the formula: T = T2 – T1
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
6. State whether the reaction is endothermic or exothermic
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
7. Based on the change in temperature in the reaction between sodium hydroxide and
hydrochloric acid, was heat absorbed or given out?
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
[Total = 10marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Conical flask
 Wrist watch / stop watch
 White plain paper
 Distilled water
 Graph paper
 100ml measuring cylinder
 25ml measuring cylinder
 2M hydrochloric acid
 0.25M sodium thiosulphate
Theory
Rate of a chemical reaction is simply the speed at which a given reaction takes place. There
are many factors which affect the rates of chemical reactions. One of them is the
concentration of the solutions used. You will investigate how changing the concentration of
one solution ultimately changes the speed at which the reaction goes to completion.
In this practical, you are going to investigate the effects of concentration on the rate of a
reaction using sodium thiosulphate.
When dilute hydrochloric acid is added to sodium thiosulphate solution, a cream white
precipitate of sulphur is formed which becomes more and more opaque and difficult to see
through.
2HCl(aq) + Na2 S2 O3(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2 O(l) + SO2(g) + S(s)
The intensity of the precipitate at any moment represents the extent of the reaction. In this
experiment, the rate of the reaction is measured by determining time taken for a certain
amount of sulphur to be formed. The amount is that which makes the cross on the white
plain paper to disappear.
In this experiment, you will investigate the effects of concentration on the rate of a reaction
using sodium thiosulphate.
Method
1. Draw a cross (X) about 1cm x 1cm on the white plain paper using a blue or black pen.
2. Measure 50cm3 of sodium thiosulphate solution into a conical flask and place it on top of the
cross.
3. Measure 5cm3 of 2M hydrochloric acid in a measuring cylinder and add the acid to the
conical flask, swirl it once or twice.
4. Immediately start reading the number of seconds as you watch from above to when you
can longer see the cross. See the figure below.
5. Record the time taken for the cross to disappear.

6. Repeat steps 2 and 3 using 40cm3, 30cm3, 20cm3 and 10cm3 of sodium thiosulphate solution,
make up to 50cm3 by adding distilled water.
7. Fill the table by getting the reciprocal of time in each case above.
1
8. Plot a graph of volume of sodium thiosulphate (y – axis) against time (x – axis)
Results
Complete the table below by filling in the boxes
Flask Volume of Volume of Total volume Volume of Time taken for 1
No Na2S2O3 water in of solution in HCl the cross to Time
solution in (cm3) (cm3) (cm3) disappear (s) (s −1 )
(cm3)
1. 50 0 50 5
2. 40 10 50 5
3. 30 20 50 5
4. 20 30 50 5
5. 10 40 50 5
[10]
𝟏
Graph of volume of sodium thiosulphate against
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞
[6]
From the information in the table and the graph, what can you conclude about the rate of
this reaction?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [4]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Burette
 Pipette
 Conical flask
 White tile
 A 0oC to 100oC thermometer, graduated at 1oC
 A 50cm3 or 100cm3 measuring cylinder
 An expanded polystyrene (or other light plastic) cup of at least 150cm3 capacity
supported in a suitable beaker
 Solution P (1.5mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid)
 solution Q (1.2mol/dm3 aqueous sodium hydroxide)
 Suitable indicator
In this experiment, you will investigate the temperature rises which occur when different
volumes of the two solutions are mixed and use the results to calculate the concentration of
the hydrochloric acid, P. The reaction between P and Q is exothermic. Use the following
procedure to investigate the temperature rises which occur when different volumes of the
two solutions are mixed. Use your results to calculate the concentration of the hydrochloric
acid P
Method
(a) Consider the following:
(I) Put P into the burette and use it to put 10cm3 of P into a plastic cup. Measure the
temperature of P to the nearest 0.5oC and record the value I column D of the table
(II) Measure 40cm3 of Q as carefully as possible, using a measuring cylinder. Pour this
volume of Q into the plastic cup containing P. stir, using a thermometer, and measure
the highest temperature reached. Record the value in column E of the table.
Calculate the temperature rise for the experiment and record the value in column F
of the table.
(III) Empty the plastic cup and rinse it with water
(IV) Repeat the procedures described in (I) and (II) but using different volumes of P and Q
given in columns A and B of the table below.
A B C D E F
Volume of Volume of Total Initial Highest Temperature
P/ cm3 Q/ cm3 volume/ temperature temperature rise /oC
cm 3 of P/ C
o of mixture/
oC
10 40 50
15 35 50
20 30 50
25 25 50
30 20 50
35 15 50
40 10 50
[7]
(b) Plot a graph of temperature rise (column F) against volume of P (column A) on the grid
provided in the question paper. Using these points, draw two straight lines. The lines should
cross.
[3]
(c) From the graph, what is the largest temperature rise which could occur?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(d) (I) From the graph, read the volume of P needed to cause the temperature rise in (c)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(II) Calculate the volume of Q which reacts with this volume of P
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]
(e) Assuming that the volumes of P and Q in (d) exactly neutralizes each other, calculate the
concentration in mol/dm3, of the hydrochloric acid in P
(Q is 1.2mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Solution P (a freshly prepared solution containing 27.0g of hydrated iron (II) sulphate
(FeSO4.7H2O) in 1dm3 of approximately 1.0mol/dm3 sulphuric acid)
 Solution Q (0.020mol/dm3 potassium manganate (VII))
 Pipette
 Burette
 Conical flask
 White tile
 Clamp and stand
Theory
Hydrated iron (II) sulphate forms crystals of the formula FeSO4.XH2O
P is a solution of FeSO4.XH2O containing 27.0g/dm3 dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid
Q is 0.020mol/dm3 potassium manganate (VII)
In this experiment, you are to determine the value of X in the formula FeSO4.XH2O by titrating
P with Q. No indicator is required since the products of the reaction are colourless and one
drop of potassium manganate (VII) in excess produces a readily seen pink colour.
Method
(a) Put the potassium manganate (VII) solution Q into the burette. Because the colour of Q is so
intense, you may find it easier to read the top of the meniscus
Pipette a 25.0cm3 portion of P into a flask and titrate with Q. At first, the purple colour
disappears rapidly but, as the titration proceeds, this disappearance is less rapid until at the
end point one drop of Q produces a pink colour that does not disappear on swirling.
Record your results in the table, repeating the titration as many times as you consider
necessary to achieve consistent results
Titration number 1 2 3
Final reading/ cm3
First reading / cm3
Volume of Q used /cm3
[12]
Summary
………………………………cm3 of P required ……………………..cm3 of Q
State which titration results were used in calculating this volume of Q ………….
(b) Q is 0.020mol/dm3 potassium manganate (VII)
Five moles of iron (II) sulphate reacts with one mole of potassium manganate (VII)
Using the titration results, calculate the concentration in mol/dm3, of FeSO4.xH2O present in P
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….... [3]
(c) P contains 27.0g/dm3 of FeSO4.xH2O
Using your answer to (b), calculate the relative molecular mass of FeSO4.xH2O
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….... [2]
(d) The relative molecular masses of FeSO4 and H2O are 152 and 18 respectively
Using your answer to (c), calculate the value of X in the formula FeSO4.XH2O
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….... [3]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Burette
 Pipette
 Conical flask
 White tile
 Clamp stand
 Solution Q (0.1000mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide)
Theory
Haematite is the main ore from which iron is extracted and the major component in
haematite is iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3
You are required to determine the percentage of iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3 in the ore,
haematite. The main impurity in the ore is sand (silicon (IV) oxide)
P is a solution of hydrochloric acid, HCl, that remained after 12.00g of haematite was
added to 1dm3 of solution containing 0.6000mol of HCl.
All the iron (III) oxide in haematite reacted and the unreacted impurity (sand) was filtered
off. Iron (III) oxide and hydrochloric acid react according to the following equation:
Fe2O3 + 6HCl → 2FeCl3 + 3H2O
In this experiment, you will determine the percentage of iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3 in the ore,
Heamatite. To determine the molar concentration of HCl in P and use it to determine the
percentage of iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3 in the ore, Heamatite
Method
(a) Put P into the burette. Pipette 25.0cm3 of Q into a clean conical flask. Add 3 drops of the
indicator provided and quickly titrate Q with P to obtain your rough titre value
Record your rough titre value in the space below
Final reading/ cm3
Initial reading/ cm3
Rough titre /cm3
Then repeat your titration procedure four times but accurately. Among these accurate
values, tick only the titre values that are consistent (concording) as best value, calculate
the average titre value and indicate it in the summary.
NB: Show your titre value to the nearest 0.05
Final reading/ cm3
Volume of P used /cm3
Best results (√)
[5]
Summary
Volume of Q pipetted = ……………………………………………………………….. [1]
Average titre volume of P
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) P contains HCl. Q is 0.1000mol/dm NaOH. Use your titration results to calculate the
3
concentration, in mol/dm3, of HCl in P

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) P is the solution that remained after haematite was added to 1dm3 of solution containing
0.6000mol of HCl. Use your answer to (b) to calculate the number of moles of HCl that had
earlier reacted with iron (III) oxide I haematite
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(d) HCl and Fe2O3 react with each other according to the following equation:
Fe2O3 + 6HCl → 2FeCl3 + 3H2O
Use your answer to (c) to calculate the number of moles of Fe2O3 that reacted with HCl
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(e) Use your answer to (d) to calculate the mass, in grams, of Fe2O3 that reacted with the
acid. [Mr: Fe2O3 = 160g/mol]
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(f) 12.00g of haematite was added to the acid. Use your answer to (e) to calculate, the
percentage of iron (III) oxide in haematite
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(g) Calculate the mass, in grams of the impurity i.e. sand in the 12.00g of the haematite
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Burette
 Pipette
 Conical flask
 White tile
 Clamp stand
 Solution Q (0.1000mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide)
Theory
P is a solution of dibasic acid, H2X, suspected to either carbonic acid, H2CO3 or sulphuric
acid, H2SO4.
Q is a 0.1000mol/dm3 NaOH
In this experiment, you are to determine the concentration of H2X in P by titration and use
it to identify H2X
P contains 3.44g/dm3 H2X
Method
(a) Put P into the burette. Pipette a 25.0cm3 portion of Q into a conical flask. Add 3 drops of
the indicator provided and then titrate with P.
Record your results in the table, repeating the titration procedure as many times as you
consider necessary to achieve consistent results.
Tick (√) the consistent (concording) results as your best results
Indicate the average of the ticked value in the summary
Final reading/ cm 3

Best results (√)
[9]
Summary
The volume of Q used is …………………………………………………….……. cm3 [1]
The average volume of P required
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) Q is 0.1000mol/dm sodium hydroxide. Using your results from (a), calculate the
3
concentration, in mol/dm3, of H2X in P.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) P contains 3.44g of H2X per dm3. Use your answer to (b) to calculate the molar mass of
H2X.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(e) Calculate the relative formula masses (RFM) of both H2CO3 and H2SO4
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(f) Hence identify H2X
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Clamp stand
 Two beakers
 Triple beam balance(scale)
 Spatula
 Burette
 Pipette
 Conical flask
 Volumetric flask (100cm3)
 Funnel
 Distilled water
 Indicator
 Sodium hydroxide pellets
 Dilute hydrochloric acid
Theory
Volumetric analysis is a technique for determining the amount of a certain substance by
doing a titration. A titration involves delivery (from a burette) of a measured volume of a
solution of known concentration (the titrant) into a solution containing the substance
being analyzed (the analyte). The titrant contains a substance that reacts in a known
manner with the analyte. The point in the titration where enough titrant has been added
to react exactly with the analyte is called the equivalence point or the stoichiometric
point. This point is often marked by an indicator, a substance added at the beginning of
the titration that changes color at (or very near) the equivalence point. The point where
the indicator actually changes color is called the endpoint of the titration. The goal is to
choose an indicator such that the endpoint (where the indicator changes color) occurs
exactly at the equivalence point (where just enough titrant has been added to react with
all the analyte).
In this experiment, you are to determine the concentration of HCl using volumetric
analysis.
In order to do this, you will accurately prepare a standard solution of a Base that you will
use in the analysis.
Method
Accurately measure out 10.4cm3 of the concentrated Hydrochloric acid dilute it with
water to make 100cm3 solution in a volumetric flask.
Measure out 4.00g of sodium pellets and prepare a standard solution of NaOH using the
volumetric flask provided.
(a) State the concentration of the standard solution that you have prepared.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) Pipette 20cm aliquot of the standard solution and transfer it in a conical flask and add 3
3
drops of the indicator provided. Indicate the colour of the indicator in the standard
solution.
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) Set up your titration apparatus and titrate the 20cm3 NaOH with HCl.
Repeat your titration procedure as many times as you possibly can to achieve consistent
results. Record your results in the table below:
Results
Final reading
Initial reading
Volume of titrant used
Best titration results (√)
[6]
(d) Using your titration results, calculate the concentration of HCl.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(e) Calculate the concentration of Cl ions in the acid.
−
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
Pre lab questions
(I) What is a standard solution? Describe how you can prepare a standard solution of Sodium
hydroxide.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(II) What is meant by the equivalence point of a titration?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(III) What volume of 0.1M NaOH would you have added to 30.0m3 of 0.2M HCl at equivalence
point?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(IV) Given the following equation:
NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2O
(a) Write the mole – mole relationship involving the reactants in your balanced
equation above.
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) Determine the molarity of NaOH required to completely react with 15.0m3 0.5M of
the solution of HCl.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Conical flask
 White tile
 Burette
 Pipette
 Clamp and stand
 Funnel
 Solution P (0.1050mol/dm3 of hydrochloric acid). Note that the question describes P as
sulphuric acid
 Solution Q (0.1000mol/dm3 of sodium hydroxide)
Theory
P is a solution of sulphuric acid of unknown concentration
Q is 0.1000mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide solution
In this experiment, you are to determine the concentration of the sulphuric acid by
titration, and the mass of the solution formed
Method
(a) Put P in the burette. Pipette a 25.0cm3 portion of Q into a conical flask and titrate wit P
using the indicator provided
Repeat your titration procedure so that you have four titrations
Among your four accurate titrations values, tick only those consistent (concording) and
indicate the average value of the ticked values in the summary below. Do not tick the
rough value
Results
Titration number Rough 1 2 3
Final reading/ cm 3
First reading / cm3

Tick (√) best results
[14]
Summary
……………………………….. cm3 of Q requires ………………………… cm3 of P [2]
(b) Calculate the number of moles of NaOH in the pipetted volume of Q
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) Using your answer in (b) above, calculate the number of moles of H2SO4 which reacted
with the volume of Q pipetted
H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(d) Using your answer to (c), calculate the concentration of sulphuric acid, H 2SO4 in P. Use
your titration average volume.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(e) Assuming no evaporation takes place during this reaction, what will be the mass of the
solution formed at end point?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
[Total = 20marks]
NAME OF CANDIDATE EXAMINATION NUMBER CENTER NUMBER SEX CLASS

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Clamp stand
 Two beakers
 Spatula
 Burette
 Pipette
 Conical flask
 Volumetric flask(100cm3)
 Funnel
 Distilled water
 Indicator
 Sample of impure sodium hydroxide
 Dilute hydrochloric acid
In this experiment, you are to determine the percentage purity of an impure sample of
sodium hydroxide using volumetric analysis. In order to do this, you will accurately prepare
a standard solution of the acid (HCl) that you will use in the analysis.
You are required to prepare a standard solution of HCl to use in the titration.
Method
(I) Accurately measure out 10.4cm3 of the concentrated Hydrochloric acid dilute it with
(II) State the concentration of the acid that you have prepared.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(III) Titrate the HCl you have prepared with the solution of the potassium Hydroxide
provided, pipetting 10cm3 of the 1.0mol/dm3 KOH each time. [Run only two titration]
Calculate the concentration of the HCl using your titration results.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(This is the actual concentration of the HCl that you prepared)
(IV) Accurately measure 15.0g sample of impure sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and dissolve it
in distilled water to make a solution of volume 250cm3. Label this solution S.
(a) Pipette 25.0cm3 aliquot of S and transfer it in a conical flask. To this aliquot add a few
drops of the indicator provided and note the colour change
(b) Titrate S with the standard solution of HCl.
(c) Repeat your titration procedure as many times as you consider necessary to achieve
consistent results.
(d) Record your titration results in the table below.
Results
Final reading/ cm3
First reading / cm3
Volume of titrant used /cm3
[4]
Summary
……………………. 25.0cm3 of solution S required …………………. cm3 of HCl. [2]
(e) Using your results, Calculate the percentage purity of the sample of impure sodium
hydroxide
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
Pre lab questions
1. An environmental analyst weighted 20g of an impure compound of Heamatite (iron ore)
which was suspected of containing sand as an impurity. Upon heating the sample to
1000C, it was noted that the mass of the sample reduced by 1g. The sample was there
after reacted with 4.0g of carbon monoxide at very high temperature in a sealed
chamber:
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
(a) Why did the analyst heat the sample to 1000C?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) Calculate:
(I) The mass of water (if any) in the sample
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(II) Percentage purity of the Iron ore
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(III) Mass of sand in the sample
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 3 pieces of magnesium ribbon (same mass)
 Y (200cm3 of HCl with a concentration of 2mol/dm3 in a 250ml beaker)
 3 empty beakers labelled A, B and C (250ml or any other)
 Stop watch / clock
Theory
One of the factors that affect the rate of chemical reaction is the concentration of the
reactants
In this experiment, you will investigate the effect of diluting a reacting solution on the rate
of a reaction
You will use the reaction of magnesium ribbons of the same mass with dilute hydrochloric
acid labelled as solution Y
NB: Y is 2.0M HCl.
The reaction of HCl and Mg is;
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
The time taken for effervescence to stop suggests the rate of the reaction
You are provided with 3 empty beakers labelled A, B and C and solution Y
In this experiment, you are to investigate the effect of diluting a reacting solution on the
rate of a reaction
Method
(I) Measure 50cm3, using a measuring cylinder, of solution Y and transfer the whole 50cm3
into beaker A
(II) Add 50cm3 of distilled water to beaker B. Measure and add 50cm3 of solution Y to beaker
B
(III) Add 150cm3 of distilled water to beaker C. Measure and add 50cm3 of solution Y to
beaker C
Calculate and record the new concentrations of HCl in beakers B and C and record your
values in the table provided. (Show your working in the space below)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(IV) Put one of the ribbons in beaker A and immediately start your stop watch and determine
the reaction time until there is no more of the ribbon. Record the reaction time t1 in
minutes, taken for the whole ribbon to react, in the table below
(V) Put the second ribbon in beaker B and also record the time, in minutes taken for the
ribbon to react completely as t2 in the table below.
(VI) Put the third ribbon in beaker C and also record the time, in minutes taken for the ribbon
to react completely as t3 in the table below.
Table
Beaker HCl concentration / mol/dm3 Reaction time/ minutes
A 2.0
B
C
[5]
(VII) On the grid provided, plot a graph for the three concentrations against t1, t2 and t3.
(VIII) Draw a best fit straight line through the three points
[9]
Conclusion
1. What is the effect of diluting (reducing concentration) a reacting solution on the rate of
the reaction?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
2. Which quantity of the HCl was not changing i.e. constant, in beakers A, B and C?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Clamp stand
 Two beakers
 Spatula
 Burette
 Pipette
 Conical flask
 100cm3 volumetric flask
 Funnel
 Distilled water
 Indicator
 Sodium hydroxide pellets
 Concentrated hydrochloric acid
Theory
Volumetric analysis is a technique for determining the amount of a certain substance by
doing a titration. A titration involves delivery (from a burette) of a measured volume of a
solution of known concentration (the titrant) into a solution containing the substance
being analyzed (the analyte). The titrant contains a substance that reacts in a known
manner with the analyte. The point in the titration where enough titrant has been added
to react exactly with the analyte is called the equivalence point or the stoichiometric
point. This point is often marked by an indicator, a substance added at the beginning of
the titration that changes colour at (or very near) the equivalence point. The point where
the indicator actually changes colour is called the endpoint of the titration. The goal is to
choose an indicator such that the endpoint (where the indicator changes color) occurs
exactly at the equivalence point (where just enough titrant has been added to react with
all the analyte).
pH is defined as the measure of alkalinity or acidity of a solution. It is also explained as the
measure of the concentration of Hydrogen compared to that of hydroxide ions. pH is
measured using a pH meter. Acids have pH values between the ranges of 0 to 7 while
basic substances have pH ranging from 7 to 14. Because [H + ] in an aqueous solution is
typically quite small, the pH scale provides a convenient way to represent solution acidity.
The pH is a log scale based on 10, where:
pH = −log[H + ]
Weak acids have lower pH than weak acids. For this reason, weak acids have lower
𝐾𝑎 values than strong acids.
In this experiment, you are to determine the pH of the Acid. In order to do this, you will
accurately prepare a standard solution of a Base that you will use in the analysis.
Method
(a) Accurately measure out 10.4cm3 of the concentrated hydrochloric acid dilute it with
(b) Describe how you can prepare a standard solution of Sodium hydroxide, by measuring
out 40.00g of sodium hydroxide pellets and using the volumetric flask provided.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) Using your description, prepare the standard solution of NaOH. State the
concentration of the standard solution that you have prepared.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(d) Pipette 25cm3 aliquot of the standard solution and transfer it in a conical flask and add
3 drops of the indicator provided. Indicate the colour of the indicator in the standard
solution.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(e) Set up your titration apparatus and titrate the 25cm3 NaOH with HCl.
Repeat your titration procedure as many times as you possibly can to achieve
consistent results. Record your results in the table below:
Final reading/ cm 3
First reading / cm3

Volume of titrant used /cm3
[10]
(f) Using your titration results, calculate
(I) the concentration of HCl
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(II) the pH of the solution of HCl
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Solution P (P is a solution of sulphuric acid of 0.0500 mol/dm3. Note that the question paper
describes P as hydrochloric acid 0.200mol/dm3)
 Q is a solution of sodium hydroxide of concentration 0.1050mol/dm3. Note that the
question paper describes Q as hydrated Na2CO3.nH2O
 Burette
 Pipette
 Conical flask
 White tile
Theory
P is a solution of hydrochloric acid of concentration 0.2000mol/dm3
Q is a solution made by dissolving hydrated Na2CO3.nH2O which remained after
Na2CO3.10H2O had undergone partial efflorescence (loss of water of crystallization).
In this experiment, you are required to determine the value of n in Na2CO3.nH2O and
hence calculate the efflorescence percentage of Na2CO3.nH2O
Method
(a) Put P in the burette. Pipette 25.0cm3 portion of Q and transfer them into two separate
conical flasks. Add 2 drops of the indicator provided to the solutions of Q and immediately
titrate each portion with P.
Repeat your titration procedure so that you have 4 titration runs. Indicate the consistence
(concording) values by ticking in the titration table below. Use ticked values to indicate
the average volume of P that neutralizes 25.0cm3 of Na2CO3.nH2O. Show the values to the
nearest 0.05cm3 in the summary below. Do not tick the rough value.
The results: Burette readings in cm3
Final reading/cm3
Volume of P used/cm3
Tick (√) best result
[8]
Summary
..................................cm3 of Q requires ……………………… cm3 of P [1]
(b) P is a solution of hydrochloric acid of concentration 0.2000mol/dm . Q contains Na2CO3.
3
Use your titration results to calculate the concentration in mol/dm3 of Na2CO3 in Q

Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) Use your answer to (b) to calculate the mass in grams of Na2CO3 in 1dm3 of Q
(Molar mass of Na2CO3 = 106g/mol)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(d) Q is a solution made by dissolving 12.896g of Na2CO3.nH2O in 1dm3 of distilled water. Use
your answer to (c) to calculate the mass of water (H2O) in the hydrate
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(e) Determine the whole number of moles ratio of Na2CO3 to H2O using the masses of Na2CO3
and H2O and hence state the value of n in Na2CO3.nH2O
Mole ratio of Na2CO3 : H2O =
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
Hence n = ………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(f) Na2CO3.nH2O is a compound that remained after Na2CO3.10H2O had undergone partial
efflorescence. Use your answer to (e) to calculate % of efflorescence of Na2CO3.10H2O
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Q (0.100M sodium hydroxide)
 P (0.1050M hydrochloric acid)
 Burette
 Pipette
 Conical flask
 White tile
Theory
Solution P was prepared by adding unknown mass of iron (III) oxide to excess 1.00dm3 of
0.200mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid
Solution Q is 0.100mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide.
You are to determine the concentration of the acid remaining in P by titrating Q with P,
and to calculate the mass of iron (III) oxide that has been added to the hydrochloric acid
Method
(a) Put P into the burette. Pipette 25.0cm3 portion of Q into a conical flask. Put 2 or 3 drops of
indicator provided into Q
Titrate P and Q until just a drop changes the colour of the indicator
Repeat the titration as many times as you can, in order to get concording (consistent)
results. Tick (√) these concording values
Final reading/ cm 3
First reading / cm3

Best titration (√)
[8]
Summary
Volume of solution Q used was ……………cm3. [1]
Using the ticked results, the average volume of P required was…………..cm 3 [1]
(b) Q is 0.100mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide
Using the titration results, calculate the concentration, in mol/dm3, of hydrochloric acid
present in solution P
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) Initially, 1.000dm3 of the acid contained 0.200mol acid. Using your answer to (b) calculate
the number of moles of the acid that reacted with iron(III) oxide
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(d) Using your answer to (c), calculate how many moles of iron (III) oxide had been added to
the hydrochloric acid
Fe2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) ⇾ 2FeCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
……………………………………………………………………………………………
(e) Using your answer to (d), calculate the mass in grams of iron (III) oxide added to the
hydrochloric acid ( Mr , Fe2O3 = 160)
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(f) Using your to (e), calculate the mass in tonnes of iron (III) chloride that would be
produced if 0.8 tonnes of iron (III) oxide were added to excess hydrochloric acid
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
[Total = 20marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Solution P [solution of 0.09mol/dm3 of hydrated iron (II) sulphate]
 Solution Q [a solution of 0.02mol/dm3 potassium manganate (VII)]
 Burette
 Pipette
 Conical flask
 White tile
Theory
6.00g of sample containing iron was obtained for analysis. All the iron in it was converted
into iron (II) and the solution made up to 1000cm3.
P is a solution containing iron (II) ions, prepared as described below.
Q is 0.02mol/dm3 potassium manganate (VII) solution
In this experiment, you are to calculate the mass of iron in 1.0 dm3 and to calculate the
percentage of iron in the original sample
Method
(I) Dissolve 25.02g of FeSO4.7H2O in 500cm3 of 1mol/dm3 H2SO4 and diluting to 1dm3 with
distilled water. Label the solution P
(II) Dissolve 3.16g of KMnO4 in 1dm3 of distilled water. Label the solution Q
(a) Put Q into the burette. Pipette 25cm3 portions of P into a flask. No indicator is required.
Add Q from the burette until a faint pink colour persists.
Since Q is dark, you may find it suitable to read the upper meniscus.
Results
Titration number Rough 1 2
Final burette reading/cm 3
Initial burette reading/cm3

volume of Q used/cm3
Tick best titration result(√)
[10]
Summary
Tick (√) the best titration results
Using these results, the average volume of solution Q used was …………cm3 [1]
Volume of solution P used was…………….cm3 [1]
The reaction between iron (II) ions and manganate (VII) is given below
+ 2+ 2+ 3+
MnO− 4(aq) + 8H(aq) + 5Fe(aq) → Mn(aq) + 5Fe(aq) + 4H2 O(l)
(b) Q is 0.02mol/dm3 of potassium manganate (VII).
Using your answer to (a), calculate the number of moles of potassium manganate (VII)
in the average volume of Q.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) Using your answer to (b) above and the equation given, calculate the number of moles of
iron (II) in 25cm3.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(d) Using your answer to (c), calculate the mass of iron in 25cm3
(Molar mass of iron is 56g/mol)
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(e) Using your answer to (d), calculate the mass of iron in 1000cm3.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
(f) Using your answer to (e), calculate the percentage of iron in the original sample.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
[Total = 20marks]
AIM: To determine the concentration of cuso4 and hence the percentage of copper in the
sample
REQUIREMENTS
 0.1mol/dm3 of copper (II) sulphate labeled P

 0.1mol/dm3 of sodium thiosulphate labeled Q
 2% starch labeled as such (prepared by dissolving 2g of soluble starch in 100cm3 of boiling
water)
 100cm3 of 0.2mol/dm3 of potassium iodide labeled as such
 Distilled water
 Burette
 Pipette
 Conical flask
 White tile
THEORY
Solution P is a solution of copper (II) sulphate prepared by dissolving 10.0g of copper ore in
sulphuric acid and hence making an unknown concentration of copper (II) sulphate
solution.
Q is 0.1000mol/dm3 of sodium thiosulphate, Na2S2O3.
You are to determine the concentration of CuSO4 and hence the percentage of copper
in the sample
The consequential reactions are:
(I) 2CuSO4 + 4KI → 2CuI + 2K2SO4 + I2

(II) 2Na2S2O3 + I2 → Na2S4O6 + 2NaI
The iodine liberated in reaction (I) is then titrated with sodium thiosulphate using starch as
an indicator, as in reaction (II)
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
(a) Pipette a 25cm3 of copper (II) solution (solution P) and add a test tube full of potassium
iodide (the solution turns brown)
(b) Fill the burette with sodium thiosulphate solution (solution Q), and titrate the two until a
pale yellow colour appears
Add starch as an indicator at this stage (a blue colour appears). Cautiously continue
titrating until the colour disappears and a faint white precipitate is produced
Repeat the titration procedures as many times as you can, in order to get concording
(consistent) results
Record your results in the table below:
RESULTS
Final reading /cm3
initial reading/ cm3
Volume of Q used/
cm3
Best titration (√)
SUMMARY
………………. cm3 of P (CuSO4) requires an average ………………… cm3 of Q (Na2S2O3).
Q is 0.1000mol/dm3 of sodium thiosulphate
(c) Calculate the concentration in mol/dm3 of Copper (II) sulphate in P
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(d) Calculate the mass in grams of Cu2+ ions in the pipetted portion (RAM of Cu = 64)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(e) Use your answer in (c) to calculate the mass of Cu2+ in 1dm3 of the solution.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(f) The one liter (1dm3) contains 10.0g of copper ore. Calculate the percentage of copper in
the ore.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
AIM: To identify T and determine the mass of T which had been added to the hydrochloric acid
REQUIREMENTS
 0.5g of zinc carbonate, labeled T

 0.1mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid (HCl), labeled S
Note that in the question this solution is described as having been made by adding T to
0.5mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid, but this is not necessary
 0.1mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide (approximately 4.0g/dm3 NaOH)

 Methyl orange or screened Methyl orange indicator or phenolphthalein
 Burette
 Pipette
 White tile
 Conical flask
THEORY
You are provided with a solid T and a solution S. S was prepared by adding T to 1.00dm3 of
0.5mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid. You are to identify T and determine the mass of T which
had been added to the hydrochloric acid.
(a) Identification of solid T
Carry out the following tests on solid T and record your observation in the table. You
should test and name any gas evolved
Test number Test Observation
1. (a) Put your sample of T into a
boiling tube and slowly add
dilute hydrochloric acid, until
the boiling tube is about one
third full
(b) Filter the mixture form 1 (a). Use
the solution for test 2 and test 3
2. (a) To a portion of the mixture from
test 1, add aqueous sodium
hydroxide until a change is
seen
(b) Add excess aqueous sodium
hydroxide to the mixture from 2
(a)
3. (a) To a portion of the mixture from
test 1, add aqueous ammonia
until a change is seen
(b) Add excess aqueous ammonia
to the mixture from 3 (a)
(c) Use the data given in the table below to calculate the relative molecular mass of T
Element Ar Element Ar
H 1 Cl 35.5
C 12 Ca 40
N 14 Fe 56
O 16 Cu 63.5
Na 23 Zn 65
Al 27 I 127
S 32 Pb 207
(d) Determination of the concentration of the hydrochloric acid in S
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
R is 0.100mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide
Put S into the burette
Pipette a 25.0cm3 portion of R into a flask and titrate with S using the indicator provided
Results
Burette readings/ cm3
Titration number 1 2 3 4
Final reading/ cm 3
initial reading/ cm3

Volume of S used/ cm3
Tick (√) best result
Summary
Using these results, the average volume of S required was_______cm3
Volume of solution R used was_______cm3
(e) R is 0.100mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide
Using your results form (c), calculate the concentration, in mol/dm3, of the hydrochloric
acid in S.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(f) S was prepared by adding T to 1.00dm3 of 0.500mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid. Calculate the
number of moles of hydrochloric acid which had reacted with T
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(g) One mole of T reacts with two moles of hydrochloric acid.
Using your answer to (b) and (f), calculate the mass in grams of T which had been added
to 1.00dm3 of hydrochloric acid to produce solution S
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
AIM: To determine the mole ratio for the reaction by titrating the iodine produced with a
solution of sodium thiosulphate whose concentration is known
REQUIREMENTS
 Conical flask
 Burette
 Pipette
 White tile
 clamp and stand
 A solution of 0.008mol/dm3 potassium iodate (V) labeled P
 A solution of 0.05mol/dm3 sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3.5H2O). Labeled as Q
 A freshly prepared solution of approximately 0.25mol/dm3 potassium iodide labeled
‘aqueous potassium iodide’
 2% aqueous starch, labeled ‘starch indicator’. [This should be freshly prepared]
 1.0mol/dm3 sulphuric acid
THEORY
P is 0.0200mol/dm3 sodium bromate (V) NaBrO3

Sodium bromate (V) oxidizes acidified potassium iodide, KI, to iodine. The mole ratio for
the reaction can be determined by titrating the iodine produced with a solution of sodium
thiosulphate whose concentration is known.
Q is 0.125mol/dm3 sodium thiosulphate
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
(I) Dissolve 1.7g of potassium iodate (V) [KIO3] in 1dm3 of distilled water. Labeled P.
Note that in the question P is described as a solution of sodium bromate (V)
(II) Dissolve 12.4g of sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3.5H2O) in 1dm3 of distilled water.
Labeled as Q. Note that in the question Q is described as 0.125mol/dm3 sodium
thiosulphate
(III) Dissolve 42g of KI in 1dm3 of distilled water), labeled ‘aqueous potassium iodide’
(IV) Mix 2g of soluble starch with a little cold water until a firm paste is obtained. Add
100cm3 of boiling water and stir. Boil until a clear solution is obtained (about 15
minutes). This should be freshly prepared]
(a) Put Q in the burette
Pipette a 25.0cm3 portion of P into a flask and add about a test tube full of dilute sulphuric
acid followed by a test tube full of aqueous potassium iodide. The solution should turn red-
brown. Do not add the starch indicator at this stage.
Add Q from the burette until the red brown colour fades to pale yellow, then add a few
drops of the starch indicator. This will give a deep blue solution. Continue adding Q slowly
from the burette, until one drop of Q causes the blue colour to disappear, leaving a
colourless solution. Record your results in the table, repeating the whole procedures as
many times as you consider necessary to achieve consistent results.
RESULTS
Titration number 1 2 3 4
Final reading/ cm 3

Volume of Q
used/cm3
Best titration results(√)
SUMMARY
Using these results, the average volume of solution Q required was________cm3.
Volume of solution P used was________cm3
(b) Q is 0.125mol/dm3 sodium thiosulphate. Using your answer to (a), calculate the number of
moles of sodium thiosulphate in the average volume of Q.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(c) One mole of sodium thiosulphate reacts with the iodine produced by one mole of
potassium iodide. Using your answer to (b), state the number of moles of potassium iodide
used in each titration.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(d) P is 0.0200mol/dm3 sodium bromate (V). Calculate the number of moles of sodium
bromate (V) pipetted for use in each titration
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(e) Using your answer to (c) and (d), calculate
the number of moles of potassium iodide

=
the number of moles of sodium bromate (V)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(f) Using your answer to (e), complete the partial equation below for the reaction of sodium
bromate (V) and potassium iodide
……NaBrO3 + ……..KI + acid → iodine and other products

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Pipette
 Burette
 White tile
 Clamp and stand
 Conical flask
 Q (0.100mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide solution)
 P (0.1050mol/dm3 nitric acid)
Theory
A ternary acid is an acid with three elements of which two of them are H and O. Some
ternary acids of general formula HXO3 are known, where X can be Nitrogen, Phosphorus,
Chlorine or Bromine.
The reaction occurs according to the equation below
NaOH + HXO3 → NaXO3 + H2O
P is one of these acids containing 7.50g/dm3
Q is 0.100mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide
You are to identify x by titrating Q with P
In this experiment, you are to identify X by titrating Q with P to determine the formula of a
ternary acid HXO3
Method
(a) Put solution P into a burette
Pipette a 25.0cm3 portion of Q into a flask and titrate with P using the indicator provided
Results
Final reading/ cm 3
First reading / cm3

[10]
Summary
……………….. cm3 of Q required ………………. cm3 of P [1]
State which titration results were used in calculating this volume of P …………… [1]
(b) Q is 0.100mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide
One mole of the acid HXO3 reacts with one mole of sodium hydroxide
Using the titration results, calculate the concentration, in mol/dm3, of the acid HXO3
present in P
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) P is a aqueous HXO3 which contains 7.50g/dm3
Using your answer to (b), calculate the relative molecular mass of HXO3
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(d) Complete the table below. The relative atomic masses of hydrogen and oxygen are 1
and 16 respectively
Element Relative atomic Formula of its Relative molecular
mass acid HXO3 mass of its acid
Bromine (Br) 80 HBrO3
Chlorine (Cl) 35.5 HClO3
Nitrogen (N) 14 HNO3
Phosphorous (P) 31 HPO3
[2]
(e) Use your answer to (c) and the information in the completed table to identify the element
X
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
[Total = 20 marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 P (0.2M hydrochloric acid)
 Q (0.1M sodium hydroxide)
 Conical flask
 Pipette
 Burette
 White tile
 Clamp stand
Theory
Group I metals (alkalis metals) generally form hydrated carbonates of the formula
X2CO3.10H2O
P is a solution of hydrochloric acid, HCl, of concentration 0.400mol/dm3
Q is a solution of X2CO3 made by dissolving 31.80g of the hydrate X2CO3.10H2O per dm3 of
its aqueous solution
In this experiment you are required to
(I) Determine the mole ratio concentration of X2CO3 in Q and
(II) Use the mole ratio of X2CO3:H2O to determine the molar mass, Mr of X2CO3 and thus
identify element X
Element X is suspected to be one the following alkali metals;
Lithium, Li, Sodium, Na, Potassium, K or Rubidium, Rb
Method
(a) Put P into the burette. Pipette 25.0cm3 of Q into a clean conical flask. Add three drops of
the indicator provided and titrate with P quickly to have a rough titre in the space below.
[Indicate your initial and final readings]
Final reading /cm3
Initial reading /cm3
Rough titre/ cm3
[2]
Repeat your titration procedure, but this time accurately as many times as you consider
necessary to achieve consistent (concording) values which you must tick (√) as your best
results in the table below
Show the average of the ticked values in the summary and use this mean (average) value
for your calculations in (b)
The results i.e. burette readings /cm3
Final reading /cm3
Initial reading /cm3
Titre volume /cm3
Best results (√)
[10]
Summary
Volume of Q pipetted = ……………………………………. cm3 [1]
Average titre volume of P = ……………………………….. cm 3 [1]
(b) P is 0.4000mol/dm3 HCl. Q contains X2CO3. Use your titration results to calculate the
concentration, in mol/dm3, of X2CO3 Q.
2HCl + X2CO3 → 2XCl + H2O + CO2
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) Q is a solution of X2CO3.10H2O. use your answer to (b) and the mole ratio of X2CO3: H2O to
calculate the number of moles of water molecules in the sample used in this experiment
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(d) The molar mass of water is 18g/mol. Use your answer to (c) to calculate the mass of water
in the hydrate used.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(e) Q contains 31.80g of X2CO3.10H2O. use your answer to (d) to calculate the mass of X2CO3
in the 31.80g
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(f) The mass you have calculated in (e) is contained in 1dm of solution Q. Use your answer to
3
(b) and (e) to calculate the molar mass of the compound X2CO3.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(g) Hence identify element X in X2CO3 through its relative atomic mass, Ar.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
[Total = 20 marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Glass dish
 2 beakers (100ml)
 3 beakers (250ml)
 25ml graduated cylinder
 Funnel
 Filter paper
 2 stirring rods
 Distilled water in a wash bottle
 Sodium hydroxide
 Copper (II) sulphate
Theory
This experiment is designed to illustrate the relationship between quantities of reactants
and the amount of product produced by a chemical reaction. The principles of
Stoichiometry and limiting reactants will be used to predict the amount of product
produced by mixing two solutions. The reaction to be studied is as follows:
NaOH + CuSO4 →Na2SO4 + Cu(OH)2
It is often difficult and impractical to combine the right amount of two reactants needed
for a particular reaction to occur. This experiment is designed for one reactant to go to
completion. The reactant that goes to completion is defined as limiting reactant because
it limits the amount of product being formed. Since the other reactant will have a quantity
remaining, it's called the excess reactant.
From the given date, you will be asked to calculate the mole of each chemical added for
the reaction to occur. Using the principles of stoichiometry, you will be able to determine
which chemical is the limiting reactant and thereby predict how much precipitate will be
formed. This stoichiometric determination will then be compared to the actual mass of
the precipitate formed.
Chemists are often concerned about the optimal yield of manufacturing certain
chemicals. One way to predict the amount of chemical produced, chemists use percent
yield of that particular chemical using the following formula:
Actual yield
Percent yield = Theoretical yield x 100%
In this experiment, you are to identify the limiting and excess reactants and determine the
percentage yield of the precipitate formed.
Method
1. Measure 1.00g of sodium hydroxide in a 100ml beaker.
2. Use the graduated cylinder to measure 25ml of water and add it to the beaker that
contains sodium hydroxide.
3. Stir until the sodium hydroxide has dissolved completely. If necessary you may add a little
more water.
4. Measure 1.00g of copper (II) sulphate in another 100ml beaker.
5. Use a clean graduated cylinder to measure 25ml of water and add it to the beaker that
contains Copper (II) Sulphate.
6. Stir until the copper (II) sulphate has dissolved completely. If necessary you may add a
little more water.
7. Combine the two solutions. A precipitate should form.
8. Measure the mass of a clean piece of filter paper and write the mass of the filter paper, a
group names, and trial number 1on the edge of the filter paper in pencil.
9. Set the filtration apparatus
10. Pour the mixture you got from step 7 through the filter paper.
11. Rinse the filter itself with a small amount of cold water.
12. Store your filter paper (containing precipitate) on a watch glass and allow it to dry.
13. Divide the filtrate in the beaker into two portions in medium-size test tubes.
14. Treat one portion with 2 drops sodium hydroxide and record your observations.
15. Treat the second portion with 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator and record any
observations.
16. Clean your glass wares and repeat steps 1-15 with 0.4g of sodium hydroxide and 4.0g of
copper (ii) sulphate.
17. Clean your glass wares and repeat steps 1-15 with 0.80g of sodium hydroxide and 1.30g of
Copper (II) Sulphate. .
18. Clean your mess.
RESULTS
Record your observations and complete the following table
Trial Mass of Molarity Mass of Molarity of Calculated Measured Predicted Excess
NaOH of NaOH CuSO4 CuSO4 Mass of mass of limiting reactant
Cu(OH)2(S) Cu(OH)2(S) reactant found
1
2
3
[6]
Data analysis
(a) Calculate the percentage yields for each of the trials
1. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
2. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
3. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Calculate the concentration of all the ions in remaining excess reactant
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
Pre lab questions
1. Define a precipitation reaction
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
2. Outline how you would test for the presence of Cu ions in a given solution
2+
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
3. You mix two solutions of separately dissolved solids of barium nitrate and sodium
sulphate.
(a) What is the name of the precipitate that will be formed
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) If you had 2M and 50ml of each solution, determine:
(I) the limiting reactant
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(II) the mass of the precipitate formed
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(III) concentration of each ion in the two solutions
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
[Total = 20 marks]

TASK NUMBER DATE
 Two beakers (100m3)
 Spatula
 Wash bottles
 Pipette
 50m3 measuring cylinder
 Distilled water in a wash bottle
 Unknown substances: A, B, C, D
Theory
Density is a basic physical property of a homogeneous substance; it is an intensive property,
which means it depends only on the substance's composition and does not vary with size or
amount. The determination of density is a nondestructive physical process for distinguishing
one substance from another.
Density is the ratio of a substance's mass to its own volume. In the metric system the unit of
density for a liquid or solid is measured in g/ml or g/cm3.
mass
d = volume
In this experiment you will determine the density of two liquids and compare the physical
properties of those liquids by identifying them. The volume of a liquid is measured using a
graduated cylinder, a pipette, or some other volumetric apparatus. You also will determine
the density of two solid (powdered) substances. The difficulty in determining the volume of a
powdered substance arises when the powder is soluble in water. The method commonly
used is to measure the change in the volume of water when the powder is immersed in the
water. The object displaces a volume of water equal to its own volume.
If the powdered material is soluble in water, another liquid, in which the solid is insoluble, is
used (e.g. carbon tetrachloride or Ethanol for salts). Alternatively, the powder can be
placed in thin protective latex or plastic wrapper.
In this experiment, you are to determine the densities of four different unknown substances
and use the densities to identify the unknown substances.
Method
Part I: Density of Liquids
1. Measure and record the mass of a beaker to the nearest 0.01g.
2. Use the same beaker to measure 40 mL Liquid A.
3. Measure and record the mass of the beaker with the Liquid A.
4. Repeat steps 1-3 using a graduated cylinder instead of beaker.
5. Clean your mess to start part II.
CAUTION: HANDLE THE CHEMICALS WITH CARE AND AVOID MIXING THEM
Part II: Density of Solids
(a) Measure and record the mass of the powdered solids to the nearest 0.01g.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Use the graduated cylinder to measure 20 cm3 water.
(c) Immerse the object inside the cylinder and record the volume to the nearest 0.1cm3.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
Note: If the powder dissolves in water, use the alternative measures
(d) Use the calculated mass and volume of the object to calculate the density.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
Clean your mess.
Results
Record your observations; i.e. the physical properties such as colour, smell of fumes if any of the
substances A, B, C, D
Part I
Empty beaker Mass of empty graduated cylinder
Mass of beaker and A Mass of graduated cylinder and A
Mass of A Mass of A
Volume of A Volume of A
Density of A Density of A
Empty beaker Mass of empty graduated cylinder

Mass of beaker and B Mass of graduated cylinder and B
Mass of B Mass of B
Volume of B Volume of B
Density of B Density of B
Part II
Mass of powder C Mass of powder D
Volume of C Volume of D
Volume of water and C Volume of water and D
Volume of C Volume of D
[10]
Data analysis
1. Determine the densities of the substances A, B, C, D.
A. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
B. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
C. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
2. Use the densities to identify the chemical substances and write the full chemical names and
formulae.
A. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
B. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
C. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
Pre lab questions
(I) The density of Aluminium is 2.70g/cm3 and the density of Chromium is 7.19g/cm3. If equal
masses of Aluminium and chromium are transferred to equal volumes of water in
separate graduated cylinders, which graduated cylinder would have the greatest
volume change? Explain.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(II) Why can density be used as a means for identification?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
[Total = 20 marks]
Look for the theoretical densities of the following chemical substances at r.t.p and come
with them to the laboratory on the day of the experiment:
 Hydrochloric acid
 Sulphuric acid
 Nitric acid
 Ammonia
 Ethanol
 Water
 Boric acid
 Ethanoic acid
 Calcium hydroxide
 Calcium carbonate
 Copper (II) sulphate
 Sodium hydroxide
 Sodium carbonate
 Lime water
 Hexane
 Copper
 Barium sulphate
 Silver nitrate
 Copper (II) hydroxide

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Namushakende Secondary School

Natural Sciences Department

Chemistry Laboratory Manual

 A stop watch is used for measuring time.

 It is used for measuring temperature.

 The electronic balance is used to measure mass

 It is used for evaporating to dryness liquids or solutions by heating.

 It is used for accurate measurements of different volumes of liquids.

 It is used for measuring and delivering accurately a fixed volume of liquid.

 It is used for making approximate measurements of volumes of liquids.

 The flat bottomed flask can stand on the table

 It is used for mixing liquids while shaking.

 Its shape enables uniform heating of the liquid it contains

 It is used for the preparation of a standard molar solution.

 It is used for heating and mixing liquids or solids

 It is used for heating solids strongly.

 It is used for heating solids or liquids

 They are used to hold test tubes in a vertical position.

 A test tube brush is used to clean test tubes

 It is used in pouring solutions or liquids into the container.

 They are used for stirring a mixture of substances in a beaker.

 It is used to add liquids or solutions drop wise.

 It is used for separating immiscible liquids.

 It is used to support an evaporating dish, beaker, flask or crucible placed on a wire

 It is used to support clay crucibles while heating.

 They are used to protect the eyes.

 Forceps are used to hold or pick up small objects.

 A gas syringe is used to measure accurately volumes of gases produced or consumed in

 It is used for collecting gases during experiments.

 Fire extinguishers are used to put out fires.

 It is used as a source of heat.

 It is used as a source of heat.

Luminous flame (air-holes closed)

Concentration can be expressed;

Aqueous ammonia 0.90 28 % 35 g/mol 7.2 mol/dm3

Positive test result

Positive test result

Positive test result

Positive test result

Positive test result

Positive test result

Positive test result

Positive test result

Positive test result

Positive test result

MINISTRY OF GENERAL EDUCATION

MINISTRY OF GENERAL EDUCATION

MINISTRY OF GENERAL EDUCATION

MINISTRY OF GENERAL EDUCATION

(II) Add excess sodium hydroxide solution to

(II) Add excess ammonia solution to the mixture

(d) Add equal volume of dilute hydrochloric acid to

MINISTRY OF GENERAL EDUCATION

MINISTRY OF GENERAL EDUCATION

(a) What is the reading on the thermometer?