LOYOLA JESUIT COLLEGE ABUJA

PHYSICS NOTE
SS2 TERM 2

FRANK NWOKOCHA

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ALTERNATING CURRENTS

An alternating current is one in which the current changes periodically. The

waveform is sinusoidal. An alternating current is produced by an alternating
voltage(ALTERNATOR)
Also, recall that the emf 'E' produced by an alternator can be expressed as:

also V =Vosinωt

This is called an alternating emf since the current it produces in a conductor

alternates in direction. In this equation:

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In the above case:

RMS VALUES AND POWER

Consider:

With the switch in position (1), the current produced by the ac supply is adjusted to make
the bulb reasonably bright. Then, with the switch in position (2), the current produced by
the battery is varied until the bulb is at the same brightness. The switch can be flicked left
and right to compare the brightness. The reading on the ammeter gives the value of the
direct current ('dc'), and this is equal to the average or mean or effective value of the ac
current. In the above set-up, when the bulb is equally bright for both supplies, then:

Definition:

 The root mean square value of an alternating current is that value of direct
current which has the same heating effect per second in a given resistor

In the above arrangement, the reading on the ammeter is Idc, which equals Irms.
Using P = V2/R, steps similar to the above can be followed to infer that:

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(we often do not bother with the ‘dc’ subscripts)
In the ac case, the power is not constant, but its mean value, <P>, in the above
set-up, equals the steady power of the dc supply, so:

Sinusoidal ac
For a sinusoidal ac supply:

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We can see this visually in the above graph - if we ‘chop off’ the top half of a ‘hill’
it will exactly fill the adjacent ‘valley’.

Note that:

 We have the same equation for power for both dc and ac, P = VI, so long as it is
remembered that V and I are rms values in the ac case
 For a sinusoidal supply we can determine Vrms and Irms directly from the peak
values as V0/2 , and I0/2 respectively
 Ammeters and voltmeters that measure ac values usually give rms values
 When we specify an input or an output of, say, 200V for a transformer, the value
is an rms value

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AC THROUGH A RESISTOR

Suppose that the applied voltage is given by:

V and I reach their peak values at the same instant and are said to be in phase.

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AC THROUGH A CAPACITOR
Observation

With switch (1) closed and switch (2) open the lamp does not light, because there is only
a current flowing for the brief time that it takes the capacitor to charge.
With switch (1) open and switch (2) closed, the lamp does light, because the
capacitor is being repeatedly charged and discharged, so there is always a
current flowing. In effect, an alternating current can flow 'through' a capacitor,
whereas a direct current cannot.
Phase difference between V and I

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If the p.d. applied to the capacitor is given by:

Notice that I has its maximum value ¼ cycle before V has its maximum value.
We say that the current leads the voltage by ¼ cycle.

So, we can say that when ac is applied to a capacitor that:

Reactance of a capacitor, XC
This is the opposition that a capacitor has to the flow of ac, and is defined by:

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Example

AC THROUGH AN INDUCTOR
Observation

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When a dc supply is used (see earlier notes on self induction) bulb (2) lights shortly after
bulb (1), because the inductor opposes the rise of current, making it gradual.
When an ac supply is used, as in the above set up, bulb (1) lights up, but bulb (2)
never does. This is because the current is repeatedly changing directions and the
inductor prevents it rising enough to light the bulb. Phase difference between V
and I

We consider an inductor with zero resistance, called a pure inductance (in practice, the
coil does have some resistance).
An ac supply is applied across the inductor, and if the current I flowing at time t is

given by:

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Reactance of an inductor, XL This is the opposition that an inductor has to the
flow of ac, and is defined by:

Example Calculate XL for an inductor of inductance L = 10H, when: (a) f = 50Hz

and (b) f = 1kHz

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Reactance (X) is the opposition to the flow of a.c offered by a capacitor or an
inductor or both. . It is measured in ohms

POWER IN AC CIRCUITS

P =IV cosΦ
cosΦ = power factor
cosΦ =R/Z
cosΦ = power factor of resistance =1
cosΦ = power factor of capacitor =0
cosΦ = power factor of inductor =0
Hence power in ac =I2R
Resistor

Notice that the power varies at twice the frequency of V or I (the above shows 2 cycles of
P for one of V or I).
Inductor

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During the first ¼ cycle the current in the coil is rising, as is the energy stored in the
magnetic field created. During the second ¼ cycle, the current falls to zero, as does the
field, and the energy returns to the source. Thus:

 over a cycle, the power absorbed by a pure inductor is zero

In practice the coil of an inductor has some resistance, so some power is dissipated in the
coil as heat.
Capacitor The power variation is similar to that of an inductor. During the first ¼
cycle the charge on the capacitor is rising, as is the energy stored in the electric
field created. During the second ¼ cycle, the charge falls to zero, as does the
field, and the energy returns to the source. Thus:

 over a cycle the power absorbed by a capacitor is zero

LCR SERIES CIRCUIT

We consider a circuit in which an inductor L, a capacitor C and a resistor R are in
series, and across which there is an alternating p.d. V:

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At any instant:

Since L, C and R are in series, at any instant there is the same current I through each of
them.
From previous notes:

 VR is in phase with I VL leads I by 900  VL leads VR by 900

 I leads VC by 900  VR leads VC by 900

We can represent the relationships by:

Impedance, Z
This is the overall opposition of a mixed circuit (a.c) containing a resistor, an
inductor and/or a capacitor. It is measured in ohms

Again, the unit is the ohm as it is for resistance and reactance. It can be shown

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that:

Resonance in LCR circuits

Both XL and XC depend upon frequency of the supply, and therefore so does Irms.

The frequency f0 at which Irms is a maximum is called the resonant frequency of the
circuit.
Resonance frequency is the frequency of oscillation of an RLC series circuit when
the capacitive reactance is equal to the inductive reactance . The impedance is equal
to the resistance / the current is then maximum or the impedance is minimum.

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The equation above implies that Irms is a maximum, i.e. resonance occurs, when:

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We define a quantity called the Qfactor (‘quality factor’), also called the magnification
factor:

A circuit with a high Q factor gives rise to sharp resonance. We can ‘tune’ a
circuit to a particular frequency by varying the value of C. Variable capacitors can
be made by arranging the plates in such a way that the area of overlap can be
varied, thus varying the capacitance. Example

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Calculate:

a. the value of capacitance at which resonance would occur the p.d.s across the
inductor and capacitor at resonance
b. the Q factor at resonance

Application of Series RLC Resonant Circuit

Since resonance in series RLC circuit occurs at particular frequency, so it is used for
filtering and tuning purpose as it does not allow unwanted oscillations that would
otherwise cause signal distortion, noise and damage to circuit to pass through it.
Summary
For a series RLC circuit at certain frequency called resonant frequency, the following
points must be remembered. So at resonance:
1. Inductive reactance XL is equal to capacitive reactance XC.
2. Total impedance of circuit becomes minimum which is equal to R i.e Z = R.
3. Circuit current becomes maximum as impedance reduces, I = V / R.

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4. Voltage across inductor and capacitor cancels each other, so voltage across resistor
Vr = V, supply voltage.
5. Since net reactance is zero, circuit becomes purely resistive circuit and hence the
voltage and the current are in same phase, so the phase angle between them is zero.
6. Power factor is unity.

OPTICS LIGHT

Light ray: Path in which light travels.

This can be parallel beam, converging beam or diverging beam.
Luminous object: Objects which give out light
Non-luminous object: those which do not give out light
Opaque: Materials that do not allow light to pass through them or do not transmit light.
Transparent: materials transmitting light so that bodies situated beyond or behind can
be distinctly seen. e.g air, pure water, and clear glass
Transluscent : Substances that allow light, but not detailed shapes, to pass through;
semi-transparent. e.g Frosted window glass, Oily paper, tracing paper, oil, coloured
clear plastic and impure water.

Speed of light in vacuum: 3 x 108 m/s

LIGHT RAYS
In geometric optics, we only consider light travelling in straight lines.

 The direction light is travelling is represented by a ray (simply a line with an

arrow on it)
 A beam of light can be represented by a collection of rays

Consequences of rectilinear propagation of light

1. Shadows

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 2. Eclipses
3. Pinhole camera

Eclipses

Eclipse of the moon Figure 1

Eclipse of the Sun

3.Annular eclipse: A solar eclipse happens when the Moon covers the Sun's center,
leaving the Sun's visible outer edges to form a “ring of fire

Pinhole camera

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The above is a diagram of a pinhole camera where:

do - is the distance of the object (from the pinhole)

di - is the distance of the image (from the pinhole)
ho - is the height of the object
hi - is the height of the image

This is known as the magnification formula which is simply written as:

In a pinhole camera, the image formed is inverted and real. The disadvantages is that it
takes a long time for the image to be formed on a photographic plate. If the pinhole is
small the image is sharp and when the pinhole is large the image is blurred and bright

Diffuse Applications
When parallel rays of light strike a rough surface they create different angles of
incidence, so light rays reflect in various directions. Diffuse reflection is sometimes
called soft lighting. Light fixtures on your ceiling diffuse light so that it reflects off the
ceiling and walls resulting in fewer shadows.

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 Multiple Mirrors
If two mirrors are set at angles less than 90o, then several images are produced. Clothing
stores and hair salons often use two or three mirrors to produce a variety of images.

Finding Images Mathematically

When 2 mirrors are set up at an angle less than 90o, you can use the following formula to
determine how many images will be seen.

Example
If the angle between two mirrors is 60o, how many images will you see?

You will see five images.

Laws of reflection

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There are two laws of reflection:

1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence are all
in the same plane – hence, they can be drawn on a flat piece of paper, as in the
above diagram
2. The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection (i = r in the above diagram)

Glancing or glazing angle: angle between the incident ray and the surface(mirror) or
angle between the reflected ray and the mirror surface

Real and virtual

Real Image Virtual Image

1. It can be focused on a screen It cannot be focused on a
screen
2 Always inverted Always erect
3. Formed by actual intersection Formed by the intersection of
of light rays from an object imaginary rays projected
backwards

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Again, the rays entering the eye are, in effect, 'projected' backwards along straight lines
by the eye/brain, and where they appear to cross, a point is seen in focus. However, in
this case the point seen in focus is behind the mirror. The image is not real (it could not
be formed on a screen), and rays do not really come from it. The image is called a virtual
image and the rays which appear to come from it are called virtual rays.
Properties of images in plane mirrors
The image in a plane mirror is:

1. As far behind the mirror as the object is in front and the line joining a point on the
object to the corresponding point on the image is at right angles to the mirror
2. The same size as the object
3. Virtual (it cannot be formed on a screen and is behind the mirror)
4. Laterally inverted (left and right are interchanged)
5. Upright

Applications of mirrors
periscopes
sextant
kaleidoscope(fashion designers use it to generate multiple colours)
dressing mirror
solar furnace
Construction of meters

Refraction:

Laws of refraction
Refraction is the change in direction of Light as it moves from one medium to
another of different densities. i.e The bending effect of light as it passes through
another medium of different density. The speed and wavelength changes while the
frequency is constant
The light is refracted towards the normal when it travels from a less dense to a denser
medium and away from the normal when it is travels from a dense to a less dense
medium.

Refraction - From Less dense medium to Denser Medium(Light passing into an

optically more dense medium is bent towards the normal)

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Refraction - From Denser Medium to Less dense medium(Light passing into an
optically less dense medium is bent away from the normal)

Refraction - Along the Normal(When the ray is perpendicular to the refraction plane, it
will not be refracted).

There are two laws of refraction:

1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence are all
in the same plane –
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction
is a constant for a given pair of media(Snell's law)

Refractive Index: The value of (sin i)/(sin r) is called the refractive index of the
medium and it gives us an indication of its light-bending ability.

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Definition of refractive index: Refractive index of a medium can be defined as
the ratio of the speed of refracted light in vacuum to its speed in the medium.

Real Depth and Apparent Depth

The real depth of an object is the vertical distance of the object from the surface of the
liquid.The apparent depth of an object is the vertical distance of the image of the
object from the surface of the liquid.
Refractive index in terms of real depth and apparent depth:

.
Example

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Find ig if ang = 1.5

Consequences of Refraction

1. Apparent bending of straw partially immersed in water

2. Real and apparent depth objects at the bottom of a pool of water appears
shallower or less deep
3. Lateral displacement-bringing objects into view
4. Dispersion of white light in prism
5. Changes in sun’s altitude and position of stars when viewed from the earth-
Atmospheric refraction.
6. Mirages due to progressive refractive bending of light till it reaches critical
angle for total internal reflection to occur

Light through a parallel sided block

Light through a triangular prism

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At the successive boundaries:

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

This is a phenomenon which occurs when light travels from an optically denser
medium to an optically less dense medium and the critical angle is exceeded.

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Example

Conditions for total internal refection to occur

1. Light must travel from an optically dense medium to an optically less dense
medium.
2. The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the critical
angle c of the denser medium.

Applications of total internal reflection

1. Totally reflecting prism periscope
2. Prism binocular
3. Optical fibres
4. Explanation of mirage
5. Fish eye view
6. looming in telecommunication

Optical fibres
Total internal reflection is a very useful phenomenon. One important application is in
optical fibres. If light enters a very thin glass fibre, its angle of incidence is quite large,
larger than the critical angle for glass/air, which is about 420. It undergoes successive
total internal reflections, and emerges from the other end.

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Thin glass fibres are quite flexible. Individual fibres may be less that 0.01mm in
diameter, and many hundreds can be bundled together to make a ‘light pipe’, able to
transmit light from one end to the other. These are used by engineers and doctors to
inspect difficult to reach locations.
Optical fibres are now also used to transmit information such as TV and telephone
messages. They are cheaper and lighter than conventional wires.
A photodiode, which is a diode sensitive to the amount of light falling on it, can be used
to detect the pulses of light arriving at the end of an optical fibre, allowing a digital light
signal to be converted back into the original transmission. The materials used in
making optical fibres are glass (in very fine strands), polycarbonate, Teflon sheath,
silca (not silica or silicon), sapphire. However glass/plastic is most suitable for the
design of the core of an optical fibre. The condition necessary to confine the signal to
the core of an optical fibre is that the refractive index of the core must be greater
than that of the cladding.

Uses of optical fibres

1. Telecommunication engineering
2. Internal surgery to examine body cavities such as throat
3. To guide laser beams for eye surgical operation
Example
The following represents an optical fibre made of two glasses of different refractive
indices, one forming a core and the other the cladding around it. What is the critical angle
for the boundary between the two glasses?

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Advantages of optical fibres over copper cables

1. Speed-operates at higher speed in giga bits

2. Bandwidth-large carrying capacity
3. Distance-signals can be transmitted further without needing to be refreshed
or strengthened
4. Resistance-greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as radio
5. Maintenance- Fibre optics cost less to maintain

Conditions necessary to confine signal to the core of an optical fibre

i. The refractive index of the core must be greater than that of the
cladding

SOLAR PANELS/REFLECTORS
1. The function of the metal flat plate of solar panel is to receive and absorb
solar radiation to produce heat
2. The function of thermal insulator of solar panel is to minimize heat loss
3. The function of the tubes of a solar panel is to help to circulate the heat.

LASER: Light amplification for stimulated emission of radiation

Uses
1. Communication: holograms production, CD,VCD,DVD playing, data
transfer, fiber optic cable and space communication
2. Medicine: cervical cancer surgery, monitoring glucose level in diabetic
patients, cauterizing blood vessels, boring holes in the skull, welding retina of
the eye
3. Security: guidance system of missiles, aircrafts and satellites, generation of
isotopes for nuclear weapons.

Properties of laser beams that makes them preferable to ordinary light beam
i. They travel a very long distance without losing its intensity
ii. Has a very narrow optical bandwidth
iii. Can be emitted continuously
iv. Gives more intense light/ power
v. Is monochromatic

Totally reflecting prisms

Triangular prisms with angles of 900, 450, 450 can be used to turn light through 900 or
1800.

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The angles of incidence at A, B and C are 450, which is greater than the critical angle for
glass/air of about 420. Thus, total internal reflection occurs at these points. Such prisms
are used in binoculars.

Dispersion of Light

This is the separation of white light into its constituents/components/colours.

When light passes from air to glass it is refracted. The light changes direction - it bends
or is refracted. Light is made up of a range of different wavelengths and the different
wavelengths bend or are refracted by different amounts, because although light of all
wavelengths in air travels with the same speed of light in glass travels with a
speed that varies with the wavelength of the light. The white beam which enters the glass
prism is separated into it's different colours – it is dispersed.

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Red light bends the least and violet light bends the most.

If the dispersed light passes through a suitably positioned second prism it may recombine
into white light. The frequency does not change for light as it passes from air to glass or
vice versa, though of course it is different for each wavelength or colour of light.This is
due to different colours travelling different speeds in glass.

Red deviates (slows down) the least.

Violet deviates (slows down) the most.

Primary and Secondary Colours

The primary colours of light are Red , green and blue. In light there is additive
mixing of colours while in pigment, there is subtractive colour mixing.

Red + Cyan = White

Green + Magenta = White

Blue + Yellow = White

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Two colours which combine to give white are called complementary colours.

The diagram below is a convenient summary.

Converging Lens

Parallel rays of light refract in the lens and converge at a focal point called the principal
focus.

Optical centre (O) – The point through which rays of light pass without being deviated by
the lens.
Principal axis – The line passing through the optical centre of the lens and joining the
centres of curvature of its surfaces.
Principal focus (F) – This is the point on the principal axis to which incident parallel rays
and close to the principal axis converge or from which they appear to diverge after
reflection..
Focal length – The distance between the optical centre and the principal focus. The radius
of curvature is twice the focal length.

Types of Converging Lenses

Object and Image positions in a converging(convex lens)

Convex or converging lens

Ray diagram

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35
Diverging Lens

 Principal focus (F) - is virtual because it is in front of the lens and the image
cannot be projected onto a screen.
 Light rays appear to focus at F, but really diverge outward from the lens.

Types of Diverging Lenses

All diverging lenses are thicker at the edges and thinner in the centre.

Image from Diverging Lens

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Image formed is diminished, upright and virtual.

Note:

 Light ray parallel to principal axis passes through and diverges outward, but
appears to pass through F.
 Principal focus (F) is virtual and is on the same side as the object.
 Light ray passes through optical centre without refracting.

Image formed from a diverging lens is always upright, smaller, and virtual.

Lens Example Problems

1.An object 8.0 cm high is 18 cm from a converging lens that has a focal length of 10.0
cm.
a)Where is the image located?

..........
The image is real (di is positive) and located 23 cm beyond the lens.
b) How tall is the image?

..........
The image is inverted because hi is negative. You must have a decimal after the zero
in ten(10.cm) or use scientific notation to have 2 significant digits.
2. An object is 8.0 cm from a diverging lens that has a focal length of (-)4.0 cm. Where is
the image located?

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..........
The image is located 2.7 cm before the lens and is virtual (because di is negative).

Lens Formulas
The formulas used for finding image distance or height, object distance or height and
focal length for lenses are the same formulas you used with curved mirrors.
The mirror equation now becomes the lens equation and the magnification equation
maintains the same name.
Lens Equation

..........

 do - the distance from the object to the optical centre of the lens.
 di - the distance from the image to the lens.
 f - the focal length of the lens.

Magnification Equation
..........
hi di

ho do

 hi - height of image
 ho - height of object
 di - distance of image
 do - distance of object

Sign Convention
Real is positive convention

 All distances are measured from the optical centre (O).

 Distances of real objects and images are positive (+).
 Distances of virtual objects and images are negative (-).
 The focal length for converging lens is positive but negative for diverging lenses.

Lens Example Problems

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Lens Example Problems

1.An object 8.0 cm high is 18 cm from a converging lens that has a focal length of 10.0
cm.
a)Where is the image located?

..........

.
2. An object is 8.0 cm from a diverging lens that has a focal length of (-)4.0 cm. Where is
the image located?

..........
The image is located 2.7 cm before the lens and is virtual (because di is negative).

Power of lens

This is defined as the reciprocal of the focal length in metres

1
P=
f
Where f is in metres.

Power of lens is measured in Dioptres D

Converging lens is + D

Diverging lens is - D
Lens Applications
Human eyes and defects
Camera
Slide projector

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Simple microscope
Compound microscope
Astronomical telescope
Terrestrial telescope

The Human eye

.
Eye defects
1.Long Sightedness (Hypermetropia):This can be corrected by a converging (convex
lens)
2.Short Sightedness(Myopia):This can be corrected by a diverging(concave lens)
Other eye defects
3.Astigmatism: Caused by inequality of one or more refractive surfaces usually the
cornea( can be corrected by cylindrical lens)
4.Presbyopia: This is long-sightedness due to failure of accommodation of the eyes.( can
be corrected with converging lens or bifocal lens

The Simple Camera

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Comparison between the Human eye and the camera

Camera Human eye

1. The diaphragm controls the amount 1.The iris performs the same function in
of light entering the camera the eye
2. The camera has a light tight box
painted black 2.The human eye is impregnated with black
3. Have converging lens pigments
4. Light sensitive material on which
rays are focused(film) 3. Have converging lens
5. Aperture serves as the passage for
light unto camera 4. Light sensitive part on which rays are
focused(retina)

5.Pupil serves as passage for light into the

eye

Slide Projector

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This diagram shows how a slide or movie projector works.

 The light source is placed at the centre of curvature of a converging or concave

mirror.
 A concave mirror is used to reflect light back in fairly parallel rays.
 The condenser is made up of two plano converging lens that refract the light so
all parts of the slide are illuminated with parallel rays of light.
 The projection or converging lens provides a real, larger and inverted image. It
must be real to be projected on a screen.
 The slide (object) must be placed between F and 2F in order to produce a real,
larger, and inverted image.
 Because the image is inverted, the slide must be placed upside down and laterally
inverted so we can see the image properly.

Simple Microscope

A simple microscope or magnifying glass uses only 1 converging lens.

 The mirror reflects surrounding light to the specimen.

 The object (on the stage) must be placed inside the focal length (F) to produce a
larger, virtual, and upright image.

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 M= -( 1 + D/F)

Compound Microscope

A compound microscope uses 2 converging lenses with short focal lengths.

 The objective lens (lens1) produces a larger, real, inverted image (image1).
 The object therefore must be placed between F' and 2F' of lens1.
 Image 1 becomes the object for lens 2 (image 1 is a virtual object).
 Image 1 must be located inside the focal length (F2') of lens 2.
 Lens 2 is called the eyepiece.
 Lens 2 now produces a larger, virtual, upright image, with respect to image 1.
 Image 2, the final image that you see, appears inverted with respect to the original
object.
 Focusing is done by moving adjustment knobs that move the object closer or
farther from the lenses.

M= Mo/Me

Astronomical Telescope

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An astronomical telescope, sometimes called Keplerian telescope, uses 2 converging
lenses and works similar to a compound microscope.

 Astronomical telescopes are used for viewing distant objects like stars, planets, or
moons.
 Lens 1, the objective lens, has a long focal length and produces a real, larger, and
inverted image.
 Image 1 becomes the virtual object for lens 2, the eyepiece.
 Image 1 must form inside the secondary focus(F2') of lens 2.
 Lens 2 produces a virtual, larger and upright image, with respect to image 1.
 Image 2 appears inverted with respect to the original object.

M =FO/Fe

Astronomical telescopes, which use refraction to produce the images, are not as powerful
as reflecting telescopes. Refracting telescopes can only be supported around the edges
(just like a pair of eye glasses). Reflecting telescopes can be supported along the edges
and back, just like you could hold a mirror in your hand.

Terrestrial Telescope

Terrestrial telescopes are used for different purposes than astronomical telescopes.
Terrestrial telescopes are used for viewing objects on Earth. They can be used for bird
watching, and are usually more powerful than binoculars.

 Terrestrial telescopes have 3 lenses that produce an erect image, but otherwise are
generally very similar to astronomical telescopes.
 Lens 1 produces a larger, real, inverted image.
 Image1 is used as a virtual object for lens 2. Essentially lens 2 just inverts the
image and makes it right side up.
 Image 2, inside the secondary focus (F3') of lens 3 is a virtual object for lens 3.
 Lens 3 produces a virtual, larger, and erect image with respect to the original
object and image 2.

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Chromatic Aberration

 Light passing through the edges of a lens often gets slightly dispersed (split into
colors).
 The image therefore appears ringed with color.

 An achromatic lens is made up of concave and convex lenses.

 The result is no dispersion so the image is clear.
 All precision optical instruments have achromatic lenses.

Curved Mirrors

Curved mirrors that have a spherical shape are called spherical mirrors. The two
types of spherical mirrors are shown in the diagram below. Spherical mirrors can be
thought of as a portion of a sphere that was sliced away and then silvered on one of
the sides to form a reflecting surface. Concave mirrors were silvered on the inside of
the sphere and convex mirrors were silvered on the outside of the sphere.

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 If a concave mirror were thought of as being a slice of a sphere, then there would be a
line passing through the center of the sphere and attaching to the mirror in the exact
center of the mirror. This line is known as the principal axis. The point in the center
of the sphere from which the mirror was sliced is known as the center of curvature
and is denoted by the letter C in the diagram below. The point on the mirror's surface
where the principal axis meets the mirror is known as the pole and is denoted by the
letter A in the diagram below. The pole is the geometric center of the mirror. Midway
between the pole and the center of curvature is a point known as the focal point; the
focal point is denoted by the letter F in the diagram below. The distance from the pole
to the center of curvature is known as the radius of curvature (represented by R).
The radius of curvature is the radius of the sphere from which the mirror was cut.
Finally, the distance from the mirror to the focal point is known as the focal length
(represented by f). A common Physics demonstration involves using a large
demonstration mirror to set a carbon paper aflame in a matter of seconds. In the
demonstration, the paper is placed at the focal point and the concave mirror is pointed
upwards towards the sun. Whatever rays of light from the sun that hit the mirror are
focused at the point where the paper is located. To the surprise of many, the heat is
sufficient to ignite the paper.

1. Converging Mirror(concave mirror)

.......
Light rays reflect off a concave or converging mirror and meet or converge at a central
focal point.

2. Diverging Mirror(convex mirror)

Light rays reflect off a diverging or convex mirror and spread apart or diverge from each
other.
Ray Diagrams - Concave Mirrors

We will investigate the method for drawing ray diagrams for objects placed at various
locations in front of a concave mirror. To draw these diagrams, we will have to recall
the two rules of reflection for concave mirrors:

46
 Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis on the way to
the mirror will pass through the focal point upon reflection.
 Any incident ray passing through the focal point on the way to the
mirror will travel parallel to the principal axis upon reflection.

47
 Ray Diagram for Convex Mirrors

Image formed is diminished,virtual, upright, formed on the other side of the mirror

Curved Mirror Applications

Convex mirrors: uses and advantage

They are used as driving mirrors of motor cars because they give an erect
image of an object behind the driver. They also provide a wide field of view
therefore an object within a large angle can be seen.

Disadvantage:
1. The image formed is always smaller than the object
2. It gives a false impression of the distance as image seems further away.

Concave mirrors: uses

1. They are used shaving mirrors: When a person is in between the principal
focus and the pole, he sees an enlarged, erect and virtual image
2. Concave mirrors are used as reflectors in reflecting telescopes and
microscopes, slide projectors
3. Parabolic mirrors(A special type of concave mirrors) are used as car
headlamps and searchlights

General uses of curved mirrors

Reflecting Telescopes

Car Headlights
Flashlight
Makeup or shaving mirror

48
Solar Furnace & Heaters

Equations for Curved Mirrors

Mirror Formula

1 1 1
  f = focal length, u = object distance, v = Image distance
f u v

Concave mirror has positive foci, hence f =positive

Convex mirror has negative foci, hence f is negative

Mirror Equation

Where -do is the distance from the object to the pole of the mirror. The pole is also called
vertex
........... -di is the distance from the image to the pole of the mirror
............ -f is the focal length.
As an object approaches (infinity), 1/do approaches 0, making di = f. Therefore the image
appears at the focal point (f).
A sign convention is necessary to distinguish between real and virtual images.

Real is positive convention

 All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror.

 Distances of real objects and images are positive (+).
 Distances of virtual objects and images are negative (-).
 The focal length for converging mirrors is positive but negative for diverging
mirrors.

Example Problems

Converging Mirror Equation Example

An object is located 30.0 cm from a converging mirror with a focal length of 5.0 cm.
...a) Where will the image be formed?
...........\
Known information: f = 5.0 cm, do = 30.0 cm, ho = 4.0 cm

49
..........

The image is smaller and inverted

.
Diverging Problem Example

A diverging mirror with a focal length of -5.0 cm produces an image of an object that is
15.0 cm from the mirror.
a) What is the distance of the image?

..........
The negative sign means that the image is 3.8 cm behind the mirror.
The image is smaller (M<1) and erect (M is positive).

Light Terms
Refractive index - the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum (c) to the speed of light in
another given medium (v).
angle of deviation - when light passes from air into glass and then back into air, if the
refracting surfaces are not parallel (like a prism), then the emerging ray takes a different
path than the initial incident ray. The angle between the emerging ray and the incident ray
is called the angle of deviation.
angle of incidence - the angle between the incident ray and the normal.
angle of reflection - the angle between the reflected ray and the normal.
angle of refraction - the angle between the refracted ray and the normal.
astronomical unit (A.U.) - the length on the semimajor axis of the Earth's orbit.
1 A.U. = 1.50 x 1011m
beam - a combination of several rays of light.
Centre of curvature (C) - the centre of a spherical reflecting surface.

50
concave mirror - a mirror with a surface that converges reflected rays.
convex mirror - a mirror with a surface that diverges or spreads reflected rays.
critical angle - angle of incidence in a denser medium that results in a refracted angle of
90°.
diffuse reflection - parallel incident rays that are reflected in various directions from a
rough surface.
direct lighting - light travels straight toward an object or surface that produces sharp
shadows. Direct lighting light travels straight toward an object or surface that produces
sharp shadows.
eclipse - a shadow formed from a moon or planet blocking the light from the sun. A total
eclipse is the umbra of a shadow while a partial eclipse would be the penumbra of a
shadow.
electromagnetic spectrum - a continuum of electromagnetic waves or energies that
include radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays, and gamma
rays.
focal plane - the distance between the principal focus and the vertex.
glancing angle-The angle between the plane and the incident or reflected ray.
illuminance - the amount of light on a surface area measured in flux
incandescent body - a body that emits light after being heated (eg. a light bulb).
incident ray - a ray approaching a surface.
indirect lighting - light that reflects off one or more rough surfaces resulting in few or soft
shadows. Indirect lighting is sometimes called soft lighting or diffuse.
lateral displacement - when light passes from air into glass and back into air, if the
refracting surfaces are parallel, then the emerging ray is parallel to the incident ray, just
shifted over. This shift is called lateral displacement.
laterally inverted - left-right reversal. eg. when looking in the mirror, your right hand
appears to be on the left side.
light year - the distance traveled by light in one year.
1 light year = 9.46 x 1015m.
luminous body - a body that emits light waves (eg. the sun).
luminous flux - the rate of flow of light energy or power of visible light emitted from a
light source, measured in lumens
luminous intensity - the amount of light or brightness that is given off by a light source,
measured in candelas.
magnification - ratio of the size of an image (optical) to the size of an object.
nonluminous body - a body that reflects light (eg. the moon).
normal - a construction line drawn perpendicular (90°) to the surface at the point of
incidence.
opaque - an object or material that does not allow light to pass through.
parsec - the distance from the sun to a star such that it would have a parallax angle of one
second of arc as viewed from the Earth.
1 parsec = 3.09 x 1016m, or 3.26 light years.
partially reflected ray - some of the incident ray refracts and passes through a medium,
while some of the light (partially) simply reflects off the boundary surface.
penumbra - a partial shadow
principal axis - a construction line drawn through the vertex and center of curvature.

51
principal focus (F) - a point on the principal axis where parallel rays reflect and converge
or appear to converge (sometimes called focal point).
point of incidence - where an incident ray strikes a surface.
radius of curvature - the distance from the center of curvature to the pole of the mirror.
ray - a hypothetical line used to represent a single stream of light. Rays show the path of
light but do not exist in nature.
real image - an image that can be focused or projected on a screen.
rectilinear propagation - light travels in straight lines (sometimes just called linear
propagation).
reflected ray - a portion of the incident ray that leaves or reflects a surface at the point of
incidence.
refraction - the bending of light that takes place at a boundary between two different
mediums. Refraction is due to a change in the speed of light as it passes from one
medium to another.
spherical aberration - an optical defect in curved mirrors that result in reflected rays not
all converging at a principal focus.
total internal reflection - results when the angle of incidence is greater than the critical
angle of a medium. Light does not passes through and refract, rather it simply reflects off
the boundary surface.
translucent - objects that allow some light to pass through but diffuse or scatter in the
process. A clear image is not visible through this object.
transparent - objects that allow light to pass through them so that a clear image is visible.
umbra - a total shadow
vertex - the geometric center of a mirror.
virtual image - an image that cannot be projected on a screen. The image appears behind
(mirror or lens).

Sound
Sound is a form of energy and wave motion which is conveyed through an elastic
medium from a vibrating body to a listener.
Air: 330 - 340m/s
Water: 1500m/s
Steel: 5000m/s
Factors that affects the speed of sound in air
1. Absolute temperature: The speed of sound in air is directly proportional to the
square root of its temperature on the absolute scale
2. Direction of wind: The speed of sound increases in the direction of wind
3. Density of medium: The speed of sound increases with the density of medium

The speed of sound in solid is given by

Where E =young’s modulus of elasticity, =density of the solid

52
Speed of sound in fluid at rest (liquid or gas) is given by

Where K =Bulk modulus or stiffness coefficient, =density of the fluid

Echoes
Echoes refer to the reflection of sound wave from a barrier or hard surface such as a wall
or cliff. Echoes are formed when a sound is reflected off a hard and flat surface.
Reverberation is the perseverance of the sound after the source ceases. It is due to
multiple reflections or echo of the original sound. Excessive reverberation in concert
halls is undesirable. Reverberation is controlled by covering the walls of concert halls
with perforated pads or sound absorbent glass fibre.
The characteristics of buildings in relation to sound is called acoustics.

Useful applications of echo

1. Oil and gas prospecting
2. Echolocation by bats and dolphins for guidance and hunting
3. Warships use sonar to locate enemy submarines
4. Detecting flaws inside pieces of metals
5. Fathometer: to determine the depth of sea
6. Determine speed of sound in air
7. Measuring distance apart of wall and cliff

Where V is velocity of sound( echo), x = distance travelled, t =time taken

Problem
A person standing 99m in front of a high cliff claps his hands and hears the echo
0.6s later. Calculate the speed of sound wave in air.

Sonar(Sound navigation and ranging)-Sonar uses sound waves. It is most often used in
water, to find fish for example. Radar(Radio detecting and ranging)- Exactly the same
equation can be applied to find the distance of a plane using radar, except of course
that the speed of light.

Musical sound has regular frequency and wavelength and it is soothing to the ear
while noise is unpleasant and has irregular frequency and wavelength.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND

53
1. Pitch-The pitch of a sound enables us to differentiate between a high note and a low
note. It depends on the frequency of the wave. The higher the frequency, the higher the
pitch. Hence pitch depends on frequency.

2. Quality/overtone/timbre
This enables one to distinguish between notes played with different instruments.
Depends on higher harmonics or overtones

3. Loudness/Intensity-Loudness is a subjective quantity and perceptions of loudness

vary from person to person. Different people describe different intensity sounds as having
the same loudness It depends on amplitude. The Intensity of Sound measured in -
is the rate of flow of energy per unit area perpendicular to the direction of sound. The
sound intensity depends on the amplitude, so that a more intense or louder wave must
have larger amplitude. The relationship between intensity and amplitude is not linear –
intensity varies as the square of the amplitude of the wave.

Intensity obeys an inverse square law: .

Musical note have a regular waveform/frequency while noise has irregular waveform or
frequency. Musical note is pleasant to the ear; it soothes the mind and calms frailed
nerves. Noise is irritating and unpleasant to the ear.

Musical interval is the ratio of two frequencies e.g 512Hz to 256Hz =2

An octave is a note of twice the frequency e.g octave of 256Hz is 512Hz

Classification of musical instruments

1. Stringed: violin, guitar, cello, harp, piano, sonometer

2. Wind instruments: Trumpet, saxophone, trombone, flute, clarinets
3. Percussions: cymbals, drums, Xylophone, gongs, bells, tuning fork

The Decibel Scale

Sound intensity is measured on the decibel scale (dB),
Ultrasound

Ultrasounds are longitudinal waves of frequency above 20KHz. The upper limit of the
frequencies that people can hear is 20,000 Hz(20KHz). Ultrasound used in medicine is
typically just above 1 MHz..

54
Unlike X-rays, which is an ionizing radiation and is harmful to tissues, ultrasound is non-
ionizing. So it can safely be used to take images inside the body.

A probe is used to emit and collect pulses of ultrasound reflected at boundaries between
different types of tissue. There should be no air gap between probe and skin. If there
were, almost all the ultrasound would be reflected. To ensure there is no air gap, gel or oil
is spread over the skin, and the probe is moved over the gel or oil. The time taken
between emitting and receiving pulses enables to work out distances and after processing,
make images. Very strong reflections can take place at the interface of tissues with very
different densities, possibly causing multiple images by repeated reflecting between
bones. The ultrasound probe is moved over the body to find a position at which these are
minimised. The whole ultrasound scan can be captured on video for maximum viewing
pleasure.

The range of frequencies which a person can hear is known as the range of audibility.
Human: Between 20 Hz and 20 kHz
Dog: <20 kHz
Bats: Between 10 kHz and 120 kHz.
Its small wavelength means less diffraction and the echo formed is more precise in
direction.

Applications of ultrasound:
1. Determining depth of seabed
2. Locating sunken ships / shoals of fish
3. Cleaning small dirt from jewellery
4. Quality control (checking for cracks) in concrete
5. Medical applications (development of foetus)
6. Breaking down of kidney stones

STATIONARY WAVES ON STRETCHED STRINGS ( sonometer box)

The above arrangement allows us to control the frequency of the vibration, the length of
the string and the tension in it. The stroboscope provides a flashing light of controllable
frequency.

55
We can regard standing waves as a resonance phenomenon, i.e. the string has certain
natural frequencies and when it is forced to vibrate at one of these, a large amplitude
vibration occurs. Hence, the natural frequencies are also called resonance frequencies.
Expression for f0
The velocity v (m/s) of a transverse wave travelling along a stretched string, subject to a
tension T (Newton), is given by:

56
STATIONARY WAVES IN AIR COLUMNS
1. Pipe closed at one end
An air column in a pipe has certain natural frequencies, depending on its length, and if
the frequency of a tuning fork, held next to the open end, equals one of these frequencies,
resonance occurs and a loud note is heard.
Fundamental vibration
The vibrations of the air molecules are parallel to the length of the tube. The vibrations
are a maximum at the open end, where the air is free to vibrate, so there is an antinode
there and the vibrations actually stick out a bit as indicated. At the closed end the air
cannot vibrate sideways, so there is a node there.

The fundamental frequency is the lowest frequency but the strongest

audible frequency. The overtones are higher frequencies but are
quieter or softer than the fundamental frequency.

Representation
To represent the above graphically we, in effect, turn all the arrows though 900 and join
their points end to end:

57
This is a convenient representation, particularly when we consider more complex
standing waves.
If we hold a speaker over the open end, emitting a note which is gradually increased in
frequency, a sequence of standing waves is set up, with successively higher pitches.
In drawing diagrams representing these, remember that:

1. There is always a node at the closed end, since the air cannot vibrate freely
2. There is always an antinode at the open end, since the air is free to vibrate
3. Nodes and antinodes alternate

And as before:

Notice that only odd numbered multiples of the fundamental frequency occur.
2. Pipe open at both ends
The air in a pipe open at both ends will also resonate when subject to appropriate forcing
frequencies.
Fundamental vibration
In this case the air is free to vibrate at both open ends, so these are always antinodes. In
between two antinodes there must be a node.

58
Representation

Again, if we hold a speaker over an open end, emitting a note which is gradually
increased in frequency, a sequence of standing waves is set up, with successively higher
pitches.
In drawing diagrams representing these, remember that:

1. There is always an antinode at both open ends

2. Nodes and antinodes alternate

And as before:

59
End correction
In practice, an antinode at the open end of a pipe occurs at a distance c beyond the end,
called the end-correction.
a) For a pipe closed at one end, the effective length is (l + c):

b) For a pipe open at both ends, the effective length is (l + 2 c)

Determining speed of sound

Placing the resonance tube in a column of water is a convenient way of controlling the
length of the air column in the tube.
The resonance tube is almost completely immersed, and then a tuning fork is sounded
over the open end, and the tube is slowly raised until a loud note is heard. The
fundamental vibration now exists in the tube, as represented in the diagram above.

60
Thus, if a set of lengths are determined, as described above, for tuning forks of various
frequencies, a graph of l (y axis) against 1/f should be a straight line with slope equal to
v/4, and so the speed of sound, v = 4 * slope.

RESONANCE
This occurs whenever a particular body/system is set in oscillation at its own natural
frequency as a result of impulse/external forces/energy received from some other body/
system which is vibrating with the same frequency. At resonance, the amplitude is
maximum e.g
1. Tuning a radio/ sonometer
2. A vibrating divers board
3. Marching military column on bridges

61
 Amplitude
/m

Frequency
(Hz)
freq
Fo
(resonant
frequency

Beats

Beats is the periodic variation in the loudness of a sound which is heard when two notes
of almost the same frequency are played simultaneously. The frequency and amplitude
interfere.

Uses of beats

1. Musicians may use them to tune their instrument.

2. Beats can be used to determine the frequency of a tuning fork. As an instrument
is tuned to a note, the beat frequency decreases. When the instrument is tuned
correctly, the beats disappear. Beats may be illustrated by adding waves of similar
frequency as shown below.

If the frequencies of of the sounds creating the beats are and then the frequency of

the sound heard is while the beat frequency is

The beat frequency can be derived from the graphs by reflecting that the beat period is
the time for one wave to undergo one more oscillation than the other. In one second, the
waves will undergo and cycles respectively, so one will undergo one oscillation
more than the other times per second.

In fact the beat phenomena is not confined to sound. The Sun causes two tides a day on
the Earth as the Earth rotates, and the moon causes two tides every twenty five hours. The
similar periods (and frequencies) imply beats. When Sun and moon are aligned or in

62
phase we get spring (large) tides and when they are out of phase we get neap (small)
tides.

Conditions

1. To find the unknown frequency, if plasticine is placed on a tuning fork of known

frequency and sounded together with another note of unknown frequency

Case 1: If the beat frequency decreases

f = f2- f1
where f = initial beat frequency
f2 =frequency of known tuning fork
f1= frequency of unknown note
f1 = f2 – f

Caese2: If the beat frequency increases

f = f1 –f2
f1 = f + f 2

2. To find the unknown frequency, if plasticine is placed on the tuning fork of

unknown frequency and sounded together with a note of known frequency.

Case1: If the beat frequency decreases)

f = f1-f2
f1 = f + f2
The unknown frequency of the tuning fork will be of a higher frequency because
it was reduced by the plasticine

Case 2: If the beat frequency increases

f1 = f2 – f (The frequency of the tuning fork must be lower because the

beat was increased)

The Doppler Effect

This is the apparent change in frequency (Pitch) of a source when there is a relative
motion between the source and the observer. It occurs in both sound and light waves.

There are different equations for the Doppler effect for light and sound waves. The
equation for sound waves is given and illustrated below.

Note: If both S and O were stationary

Then

63
Hence the frequency heard will be the same.

1. Sound S moving towards a stationary observer O.

λ, = (Same direction)

Apparent frequency , f” = = The frequency is increased

Where VS = Velocity of source of sound
V = Velocity of sound
f = Frequency of source
f” = Apparent frequency

2. Source moving away from stationary observer

f” = (opposite direction, The apparent frequency decreases)

3. Source stationary and observer moving towards it

f” = f (opposite direction, the apparent frequency is increased)
vo = Velocity of the observer O

4. The source stationary and observer moving away from it.

f”= f (Same direction, the apparent frequency decreases)

5. Source and observer both moving away from each other f” is

’= f

6. Observer and source moving towards each other f” is

’=

7. Source approaching a stationary observer and observer moving away from source
f”

8. Observer approaching stationary source and source moving away from it

f” is

64
 VS =Velocity of the source
Vo= Velocity of the observer
V = Velocity of sound or light in the medium
f = frequency of source
f”= apparent frequency
λ” = apparent wavelength

Applications of Doppler effect.

1. In medicine, the Doppler Effect can be used to measure the direction and
speed of blood flow in arteries and veins. This is used in echocardiograms and
medical ultrasonography and is an effective tool in diagnosis of vascular
problems
2. Doppler effect is used by meteorologists to track storms.
3. Doppler effect is used by traffic police to track over speeding of vehicles on
the highways.
4. In astronomy Doppler effect is used to understand the theory of the expanding
universe i.e It has been used to measure the speed at which stars and galaxies
are approaching or receding from us;

Musical Instruments
1. Strings –piano, guitar, harp, banjo
2. Percussions-drums, cymbals, bell, gong, xylophone
3. Wind-saxophone, flute, trumpet, clarinet

REFERENCES

1. Best O Level Revision notes. GCE Study Buddy

Google.comsite/urbangeek class

2. GCE O Level Physics (Pure)

www.scribd.com/collections

3. Wikipedia-The free encyclopedia

www.wikipedia.org/

SS2 - Second Term - Physics

Weeks Topics Sub- topics Objectives

65
1 Alternating Alternating current Students should be able to
Current circuits 1. Explain the peak and
Nomenclature in a.c r.m.s values of current
circuits. and p.d
Peak and R.M.S values 2. Establish phase
. relationship between
Series circuits current and p.d in an a.c
containing resistance, circuit
inductance and 3. Explain reactance and
capacitance impedance
Reactance and 4. Determine current in
impedance circuits containing
Power in an a.c circuit. resistance and
capacitance
5. Explain resistance,
inductance and
capacitance.
6. Determine power in an
a.c circuit.

The Students should be able to:

2. Reflection of light 1. Images formed by 1. Explain real and virtual
curved mirrors. image
2. Mirror formula 2. Explain rotation of
mirrors and solve
problems
3. Determine the number of
images formed in an
inclined mirror using the
formula
4. Explain the types of
curved mirrors
- converging(concave
mirror)

-diverging(convex
mirror)

5. State the applications of

curved mirrors
6. State the advantages and
disadvantages of the two
types of mirrors
7. Construct ray diagrams
for concave and convex
mirrors
8. Apply the mirror
formula to solve
problems
12. Solve problems on
66 pinhole camera using the
magnification formula
. The Students should be able to:
3. Refraction of light Refraction through 1. Explain refraction
at plane surfaces rectangular glass block. 2. State the laws of
Laws of refraction. refraction
Determination of
3. Determine the refractive
refractive index. Real and
apparent dept. index of a rectangular
Consequences of glass block and
refraction. Refraction Triangular prism
through triangular prism. 4. State and Explain six
Total internal refraction. consequences of
Applications of total refraction of light
internal refraction.
5. Explain total internal
reflection’
6. State the conditions for
total internal reflection to
occur
7. State the applications of
total internal reflection
8. Explain optical fibres and
its applications
9. Solve problems using the
formulas of refractive
index

67
4. Dispersion of light Production of impure and The Students should be able to
pure spectrum. 1. Explain pure and impure
Recombination of light. spectrum
Rainbow formation. 2. Explain recombination of
Primary, secondary and
light colours
complementary colours.
Colour filters. Colour of 3. Explain rainbow
objects under different formation
colours of light. 4. Explain the terms
primary, secondary and
complementary colours
of light
5. Explain Newton’s colour
triangle and disc
6. Explain colour filters and
colour of objects under
different lights
7. Explain additive and
subtractive colour mixing
8. Explain the difference
between colour triangle
in light and
pigments/paint

68
5. Lenses Description and types of The Students should be able to:
lenses. Deviation of light 1. Define lens and give the
through thin lenses. types of lens
Construction of ray 2. Explain the deviation of
diagrams. Lens formula.
light through lens
Power of lenses.
Magnification. Uses of 3. Construct ray diagrams
lenses for converging
lens(convex lens)
4. Construct ray diagrams
for diverging
lens(concave lens)
5. Explain the uses of the
two types of lens
6. Explain the power of lens
with formula
7. Explain magnification
8. Apply lens formula to
solve problems
6.
Optical Simple and compound The Students should be able to:
instruments microscope. 1. Draw and explain the
Astronomical, terrestrial, workings of a simple and
Galilean telescope. The compound microscope
projector. The camera.
2. Draw and explain the
The human eye. Human
and lens camera workings of an
compared and contrasted. astronomical, terrestrial
and Galilean telescope
3. Draw and explain the
workings of the projector
and
4. Draw and explain the
workings of a simple
camera
5. Explain the Human eye
6. Explain eye defects and
their corrections
7. Compare and contrast the
human eye

69
7. Sound Source and The Students should be able to:
transmission of sound 1. Explain the sources and
Factors affecting transmission of sound
velocity of sound in air 2. State the factors affecting the
Characteristics of
velocity of sound in air and
sound: pitch, quality
and loudness other mediums
Echo and applications 3. Describe an experiment to
Calculation of velocity show that sound cannot travel
of sound through a vacuum
Beats and Doppler 4. State the characteristics of
effect sound
5. Explain the term echo and its
applications
6. Define reverberation and state
its use.
7. Define beats and explain its
application in tuning musical
instruments.
8. Calculate, using appropriate
equation:
o Beat frequency
o unknown frequency
when plasticine is
attached on tuning fork
of known frequency and
beat changes
o unknown frequency
when plasticine is
attached on tuning fork
of unknown frequency
and beat changes.
9. Define Doppler effect
10. Use the appropriate equation to
calculate apparent or real
frequency of the note emitted
form:
o Moving source and
stationary observer
o Moving source and
moving observer

70
 o Any other configuration
of observer and source.
11. Explain ultrasound and its uses
12. Explain the limits of human
audibility
13. Solve problems using
equations for velocity of sound
in different mediums

8. Musical Classification of The Students should be able to:

instruments musical instruments 1. Differentiate between musical
Harmonics in stretched note and noise
strings 2. Explain the classification of
Harmonics in open and
musical instruments and give
closed pipes
Acoustic resonance five examples each
Resonance tube and 3. Explain with illustrations the
uses vibration of sound wave in
stretched string
4. Explain with illustrations the
vibration of sound in closed
and open pipes
5. Explain the term resonance and
its uses
6. Explain the effect of resonance
7. Explain resonance tube and its
uses e.g to determine the speed
of sound

71