CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

The rise of insect pests and diseases is mainly due to imbalance of

organisms within an ecosystem. Such scenario is aggravated by man’s greed
to cultivate a single crop in a wide track of land for many years coupled with
rampant use of synthetic chemicals and fertilizer. Such situation promotes
higher pest pressure and lower number of natural enemies.

This Unit introduces the concept of maintaining balance among organisms and
the findings that support the reason why go into using biological control of
insect pests and pathogens causing diseases.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit the students shall have been able to:

1. present and discuss the balance among organisms and ecological

concepts;
2. articulate the basic terms relative to insect pests/pathogens as well as
biological control agents and their characteristics;
3. discuss historical Development on Use of Biological Control Against Insect
Pests and Diseases and identify and discuss factors that determine the
existence of an organisms in an ecosystem.

A. THE BIOLOGICAL WORLD AND ITS BALANCING MECHANISM

Biological control is a critical component of integrated pest management. It
is used to control or mitigate pests and has been the subject of heated debate for
a long period of time. Hundreds of species of natural enemies were introduced,
successfully eradicating a variety of pests. However, the ecological processes that
contribute to its success are generally quite complex.

Terminologies:
Species- groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations
that are reproductively isolated from other such groups (Ernst
Mayr)
Individual- A single organism (bacterium, weed, nematode, insect)
Population- a group of individuals or a species occurring in a given area or
locality at a specific time. It denotes groups of individuals of any
kind of organism.
Community- all populations in the area at a specific time.
Ecosystem- is the functioning together of community and the nonliving
environment where continuous exchange of matter and energy
takes place. It is the complex system of biotic and abiotic factors.
 Biome- The grouping of communities that have similar structure
composed of ecosystem of a similar vegetation type

Habitat- is the place where the organism lives.

Biosphere- all the earth’s ecosystems functioning together on the global
scale.
Landscape- a cluster of interacting ecosystems.

In ecology, a trophic level refers to the position on a food chain or ecological

pyramid that a group of organisms with a similar feeding mode occupy. A food
chain is a hierarchical structure in which organisms in an ecosystem are classified
according to their trophic (nutritional) levels. The trophic levels are depicted
sequentially or sequentially to represent the flow of food energy and the feeding
relationships between them. An ecological pyramid, on the other hand, represents
an ecosystem's biomass or energy flow. Both the food chain and ecological
pyramid begin at trophic level 1, or primary producers. The following trophic level
is comprised of organisms that obtain nutrition from primary producers. The
succeeding groups are then comprised of organisms that feed on the organisms in
the preceding group. The succession of trophic levels can take the form of a one-
way chain or more intricate trophic paths referred to as food webs. A food web is
made up of numerous interconnected food chains. Rather than a direct chain of
what-eats-what, most ecosystems have a complex web structure.

Figure 1. Trophic Level Pyramid Source: Biologyonline.com

An ecological pyramid (energy pyramid) comprised of different trophic levels.
Trophic level 1 is found at the base of the pyramid. The structure, then, tapers like
a pyramid to indicate the diminishing amount of energy and biomass as the trophic
level goes up.
1. 1st trophic level or primary producers like plants, which photosynthesize
2. 2nd trophic level or consumers, sub-divided as:
 2.1 Primary consumer – feed on living plants, thus, as pests
2.2 Secondary – feed on primary consumers, thus called predators or
parasitoids
2.3 Tertiary consumers – feed on secondary consumers
2.4 Quarternary consumers – eat tertiary consumers
When an organism dies, it is eaten by detritivores (like hawks, crabs)
and decomposers (bacteria and fungi) and the exchange of energy
continues.

Equilibrium/ Balance
As the number of carnivores increases, they eat more and more of the
herbivores, decreasing the herbivore population. It then becomes harder for the
carnivores to find herbivores to eat, and the population of carnivores decreases. In
this way, the carnivores and herbivores stay in a relatively stable equilibrium, each
limiting the other's population. Similar equilibrium exists between plants and plant-
eaters.

Let’s watch!
Trophic Levels: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0glkXIj1DgE

B. REVIEW OF ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS – BASES OF BIOLOGICAL

CONTROL
Biological control is the control of pests (and diseases) by disrupting their
ecological status, as using organisms that are natural predators, parasites, or
pathogens. (The American Heritage Science Dictionary, 2005)

1. Population of Ecology

Populations- a group of individuals or a species occurring in a given area or

locality at a specific time. It denotes groups of individuals of any
kind of organism.

Characteristics of a Populations
1. Size – changes in the number of individuals due to:
a. environmental factors (biotic and abiotic)
b. migrations of individuals into or out of the local population

2. Age structure/ population structure

- in some species, all the members at any time may be
approximately the same age or in the same stage of
development
- in some insect species however, individuals of all ages occur
together, and generations are not synchronized but strongly
overlap. This is commonly found in short-lived insects with
many generations per year (e.g. aphids, hoppers, mites, etc.)

2. Populations are dynamic with regards to geographic distribution. They tend to

spread until some limiting environmental condition is encountered such as
 geographical barriers like coast, mountain ranges, desert boundary or absence
of a required resources like food or habitat.

3. Populations do not exist in isolation. They occur in habitats in association with

other species, forming communities.

Importance of Age Structure in Biocon

When it comes to host populations where only one or two stages of
development are exploitable by a particular natural enemy, close synchronization
between the natural enemy and host life cycles is required to achieve successful
host control.

Importance of Population Studies in Biocon

1. Aids in classifying the role played by natural enemies as well as the other forces
2. In communities, trophic or nutritional association between interacting species
can be distinguished:
Primary producers – green plants
Primary consumers – herbivores
Secondary consumers – carnivores, decomposers, scavengers

C. DEFINITION OF PESTS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

A pest is:
• Any organism which competes with mankind for a limited resources or is
threatening to man’s health or comfort and possessions.
• Ecologically, there are no pests, only consumers. However, when an
organism begins to take what mankind wants, that organism becomes a
pest
D. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT ON USE OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
AGAINST INSECT PESTS AND DISEASES

1. Predators and Parasites Against Insect Pests

900 A. D Chinese citrus growers used ants (Oecophylla amaragdina F.)
to protect trees from other insects.
1762 Mynah birds (Gracula religiosa) from India introduced to other
countries for 1st time to control red locusts (Nomadacris
septemfasciata)
1882 Importation of Trichograma spp. from US to Canada to control
gooseberry sawfly (Nematus ribesii).
1883 First parasitoid (Cotesia/ Apanteles glomeratus) against
cabbage white buterfly Pieris rapae by USDA.
1919 Mass rearing from insectaries and periodic release of lady beetle
(Cryptolaemus montrouzieri) to control mealy bugs.
1980-81 A parasitic wasp (Apoanagyrus lopezi) from Paraguay were
imported to Nigeria to control cassava mealybug (Phenacoccus
manihoti) thru the Africa-wide Biological Control Project headed
by Hans Herren, who was later awarded the prestigious World
Food Prize in 1995.
2. Microbes Against Insect Pests
▪ 330 – 323 - 1st documentation of insect diseases by Aristotle on
honeybees.
▪ Almost 2000 years after Aristotle, Agostino Maria Bassi working with
white muscardine (later named Beauveria bassiana) in silkworm,
showed that the disease can be artificially passed by needle to
different insect species following the germ theory of disease.
▪ Other Fungi as Biocontrol agents
COMMERCIAL NAME PRODUCER FUNGI/STRAIN TARGET PESTS

Soft bodied
Ago Bio. Bassiana Ago Biocontrol Beauveria bassiana
insects
Metarrhizium anisopliae
Bioblast Ecoscience Termites
/ESF 1
Verticillium lecaii
Mycotal Kopert Whitefly
/Whitefly strain
Whitefly, thrips,
Paecilomyces fumosoroseus
PFR-97 Thermo trilogy aphids,
Apopka 97
spidermites
▪ 1948 – the first microbial insecticides in the U. S. were from the
bacterium Bacillus, mainly for lepidopterous insects.
▪ Bacillus thuringiensis (B. t.) since its registration in 1961 accounted
for all microbial insecticide worldwide with estimated sales of $145
Million in 1997.
Commercially Available Bacillus thuringiensis
COMMERCIAL NAME PRODUCER B. t. Subsp./Strain
Dipel Abbott Kurstaki HD-1
Xentari Abbott aizawai
Thuricide Thermo trilogy Kurstaki HD-1
Ringer BT Verdant Inc. Kurstaki HD-1
BT 320 Wilbur Ellis Inc. Kurstaki HD-1
▪ Beauveria bassiana has been used against coffee berry borer,
grasshopper, whitefly, aphids, and thrips; Metarrhizium flavoviridae
against locusts and grasshoppers and Verticillium lecanii against
thrips, aphids and whiteflies (Butt and Copping, 2000;
http://www.konacoffeefarmers.org/wp-content-Balancingpest-risk-
with-cost-of-control-when-using-Beauveria).

3. Viruses as Biocon

▪ 1st viral insectide- Single-nucleocapsid nucleopolyhedrosis virus of

Helicoverpa (Heliothis) zea causing corn earworm registered in 1971
▪ Nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) against tobacco budworm (Jackson et
al., 1992).
4. Microbes Vs. Microbes
Hartley (1921)- first to introduce antagonists against soil-borne diseases.
Introduced forest nursery soils with antagonistic fungi into
sterilized soil and inoculated with soil-borne pathogenic fungi
like Pythium, Phoma, etc.
Henry (1931)- found that 8 cultures of actinomycetes, fungi and bacteria from
soil, when inoculated in various combinations in sterilized soil,
resulted in slightless disease caused by Helminthosporium
sativum on wheat.
Sandford and Broadfoot (1931)- 1st to use terms “biological control” and
“suppressive effect” in plant pathology. Used 40 bacteria, 24 fungi
and 3 actinomycetes isolated from soil, roots, and culms of wheat
as inoculants of sterilized soil vs. take-all fungus
(Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici).
Wright (1952-57)- showed that Trichoderma viride can produce 10 µg gliotoxin
per gram of autoclaved non-supplemented soil and 320 µg
supplemented with wheat meal.
Also showed that Penicillium nigricans produced griseofulvin in
the same soil sterilized but that the antibiotic was rapidly
degraded by a Pseudomonas sp. (potato wilt).
Bliss (1951)- showed soil fumigation Armillaria mellea in citrus by sublethal
dosage of carbon disulfide to weaken the fungus of its antibiotic
activity followed by application of Trichoderma viride controlled
the fungal infection on citrus, forming the 1st commercial use of
chemical-biological control combination
Costa and Muller (1980)- demonstrated commercial cross protection of citrus
trees against tristeza virus by prior inoculation with attenuated
strains of the virus.
Harman et al. (1980, 1981)- showed seed coating of Trichoderma hamatum
spores protect radish and peas seeds from decay by Pythium and
Rhizoctonia spp.
Villanueva and Davide (1984) showed that Paecilomyces lilacinus, marine
fungus, has suppressive effects against Globodera rostochiensis
(golden cyst nematode).
Bhat (2005)- Verticillium hemileae/V. lecanii as common in tropical and sub-
tropical countries parasitizing insects and mites as well as rust and
powdery mildew fungi.
Perez et al. (2016) found that killer yeasts (Saccharomyces, Pichia, Candida
anmd Clavispora) were antagonistic to Penicillium digitatum
(lemon fruit rot), thus, a good biocontrol for postharvest diseases.
Liu et al. (2017) used Saccharomyces cerevisiae isolated from wine against
grape anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) and
attributed competition for nutrients as means for said control.
Enmodias and Tad-awan (2020)- found that a bacterium (Paenibacillus
polymyxa) markedly inhibited growth of coffee anthracnose
(Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) up to 83%, comparable to
Bacillus subtilis.

E. FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE EXISTENCE OF AN ORGANISM

IN AN ECOSYSTEM
1. Food Supply
Food is the basic need of any organism in an ecosystem. Insufficiency of this factor
greatly affects the other vital processes of an organisms like growth and
development, mating and reproduction.
• Starvation – blowflies needing flesh may not find necessary corpses or
wounds, silkworms hatching before bud opening of mulberry leaves.
• Decline in Supply – cabbage aphids at end of seasonal crop or after harvest.
• Dependence up food chain e.g., predators of above cannot find prey.

Potential food exists but is unavailable for consumption

• Accidental loss of food – lice, fleas fall off host; aphids, grasshoppers blown by
wind
• Interference by other species – humans apply repellent to crops or livestock
• Insect behavior. Tsetse flies do not feed on animals in the open. If host is not
close by shade, they will not feed.
• Cannibalism – If codling moth larvae encounters another in an apple, one is eaten
despite plenty of apple for both.
• Effects of insect feeding on hosts – If buffalo flies are in large numbers, their host
will take action to avoid being bitten.
• Nutrient deficiencies – Mite numbers, egg production and longevity are related to
N2 content in leaves.
• Development time in mites is indirectly related to the N2 content in leaves.
• Lack of food at critical time – often dependent upon weather
▪ Hover flies (syrphid) require spring pollen for maturation of ovaries.
▪ Sorghum midges diapause over winter as mature larvae, emerging
with summer rains as adults for only 2 days and need to find
sorghum flowers in that time.
HOW DO INSECTS OVERCOME FOOD PROBLEM?
• Dispersal
• Polyphagy – eat multiple species of predators or plants
• Storage of food – social insects – ants, bees.

2. Predator Number
The numerical response in ecology is the change in predator density as a
function of change in prey density. The term numerical response was coined by
M.E. Solomon in 1949. It is associated with the functional response, which is the
change in predator’s rate of prey consumption with change in prey density. As
Holling notes, total predation can be expressed as a combination of functional and
numerical response. The numerical response has two mechanisms: the
demographic response and the aggregational response. The numerical response
is not necessarily proportional to the change in prey density, usually resulting in a
time lag between prey and predator populations. For example, there is often a
scarcity of predators when they prey population is increasing.

3. Habitat Advantage
The type of soil in a habitat influences an insect’s distribution and
abundance and is easily disturbed by agriculture, e.g., Irrigation changes moisture
and subsequently, the type of pest in a crop. Chemicals in soil affect plant growth
and therefore the dependent insects.

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Identification. Write your answers in the space provided.
A group of individuals or a species occurring in a given area or
1.
locality at a specific time.
What
2. is the basic need of any organism in an ecosystem?
It refers to the position on a food chain or ecological pyramid
3.
that a group of organisms with a similar feeding mode occupy.
Any organism which competes with mankind for a limited
resources
4. or is threatening to man’s health or comfort and
possessions.
The importation of this biocontrol agent from US to Canada
5.
controlled the population of gooseberry sawfly.
Refers to the habit of eating multiple species of predators or
6.
plants
A marine fungus that has suppressive effects against Golden
7.
cyst nematodes.
What microorganism were the first microbial insecticides in the
8.
U. S. made for the control of lepidopterous insects?
What Biocontrol agent was imported to Nigeria to control
9.
cassava mealybug?
It10.
is made up of numerous interconnected food chains.
EVALUATION ACTIVITY
Let’s watch! Watch the video and address the following:
Biological Control: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Qq20q5UnC0
1. List and discuss the types of Biological control.
A.

B.

C.

2. Why is Balance important in Biological control?

3. How can Biological control empower the farmers?

4. What pest is the major problem in the country? How were they
controlled?

5. List advantages of Biological control according to Sivapragasam

Annamalai