Topic: Insect ecology

Prepared by:

Name: Md. Shah Alam

ID # PG 05-32-14-001
Batch: 32, 1st semester
Department: Masters in Environmental Science
Course name: Ecology

1.0 Background

The insect ecology is the scientific study of how insects, individually or as a community, interact
with the surrounding environment or ecosystem. Insects play significant roles in the ecology of
the world due to their vast diversity of form, function and life-style; their considerable biomass;
and their interaction with plant life, other organisms and the environment. Since they are the
major contributor to biodiversity in the majority of habitats, except in the sea, they accordingly
play a variety of extremely important ecological roles in the many functions of an eco-system.
Taking the case of nutrient recycling; insects contribute to this vital function by degrading or
consuming leaf litter, wood, carrion and dung and by dispersal of fungi.
Insects form an important part of the food chain, especially for vertebrates such as
many mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles. Insects play an important role in maintaining
community structure and composition; in the case of animals by transmission of
diseases, predation and parasitism, and in the case of plants, through phytophagy and by plant
propagation through pollination and seed dispersal. From an anthropocentric point of view,
insects compete with humans; they consume as much as 10% of the food produced by man and
infect one in six humans with a pathogen.1
Insects are the dominant group of organisms on earth in terms of both taxonomic diversity and
ecological function. Insects represent the vast majority of species in terrestrial and freshwater
ecosystems, and are important components of near-shore marine ecosystems as well. This
diversity of insect species represents an equivalent variety of adaptations to variable
environmental conditions. Insects affect other species (including humans) and ecosystem
parameters in a variety of ways. The capacity for rapid response to environmental change makes
insects useful indicators of change, major engineers and potential regulators of ecosystem
conditions, and frequent competitors with human demands for ecosystem resources or vectors of
human and animal diseases. Insects play critical roles in ecosystem function. They represent
1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_ecology
1

important food resources, predators, parasites or disease vectors for many other organisms,
including humans, and they have the capacity to alter rates and directions of energy and matter
fluxes (e.g., as herbivores, pollinators, detritivores, and predators) in ways that potentially affect
global processes. In some ecosystems insects and other arthropods represent the dominant
pathways of energy and matter flow, and their biomass may exceed that of the more conspicuous
vertebrates species are capable of removing virtually all vegetation from a site. The affect and are
affected by, environmental issues as diverse as ecosystem health biodiversity conservation, food
production, genetically modified crops, disease epidemiology, frequency and severity of fire and
other disturbances, control of invasive exotic species, land use, water and air pollution and
climate change. The rapid change in frequencies of particular genes within insect populations, in
response to changing environmental conditions, has provided some of the best confirmation of
evolutionary principles.

Figure 1: Distribution of described species within major taxonomic groups. Species numbers for insects, bacteria
and fungi likely will increase greatly as these groups become better known.

2.0 Description
a. Food chain
A food chain shows how each living thing gets its food. Some animals eat plants and some
animals eat other animals. For example, a simple food chain links the trees & shrubs, the giraffes
(that eat trees & shrubs), and the lions (that eat the giraffes). Each link in this chain is food for
the next link. A food chain always starts with plant life and ends with an animal.

Plants are called producers because they are able to use light energy from the Sun to
produce food (sugar) from carbon dioxide and water. The process by which plants make
food is called photosynthesis.

Animals cannot make their own food so they must eat plants and/or other animals. They
are called consumers. There are three groups of consumers.
o Animals that eat ONLY PLANTS are called herbivores (or primary consumers).
o Animals that eat OTHER ANIMALS are called carnivores.

carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers

carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers

e.g., killer whales in an ocean food web ... phytoplankton small fishes
seals killer whales

Animals and people who eat BOTH animals and plants are called omnivores.

Then there are decomposers (bacteria and fungi) which feed on decaying matter.
These decomposers speed up the decaying process that releases mineral salts back into
the food chain for absorption by plants as nutrients. 2

b. Food web

2 http://www.vtaide.com/png/foodchains.htm
3

Food web (or food cycle) depicts feeding connections (what-eats-what) in an ecological
community and hence is also referred to as a consumer-resource system. Ecologists can broadly
lump all life forms into one of two categories called trophic levels: 1) the autotrophs, and 2)
the heterotrophs. To maintain their bodies, grow, develop, and to reproduce, autotrophs
produce organic matter from inorganic substances, including both minerals and gases such
as carbon dioxide. These chemical reactions require energy, which mainly comes from
the sun and largely by photosynthesis, although a very small amount comes from hydrothermal
vents and hot springs. A gradient exists between trophic levels running from complete autotrophs
that obtain their sole source of carbon from the atmosphere, to mixotrophs (such as carnivorous
plants) that are autotrophic organisms that partially obtain organic matter from sources other than
the atmosphere, and complete heterotrophs that must feed to obtain organic matter. The linkages
in a food web illustrate the feeding pathways, such as where heterotrophs obtain organic matter
by feeding on autotrophs and other heterotrophs. The food web is a simplified illustration of the
various methods of feeding that links an ecosystem into a unified system of exchange. There are
different

kinds

of

feeding

relations

that

can

be

roughly

divided

intoherbivory, carnivory, scavenging and parasitism. Some of the organic matter eaten by
heterotrophs, such as sugars, provides energy. Autotrophs and heterotrophs come in all sizes,
from microscopic to

many tonnes -

from cyanobacteria to giant

from viruses and bdellovibrio to blue whales. 3

c. Abiotic and biotic factors

The main factors influencing life are:

-Abiotic factors,
- Biotic factors.
- Anthropogenic factors

3 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_web

redwoods,

and

In ecosystems, biotic factors are all living organisms and the waste that they produce. This refers
to large life-forms such as trees or mammals, small life-forms such as insects and algae, and
microscopic life-forms such as bacteria. These are the most diverse and easily changeable parts
of ecosystems, subject to the balance of food chains and influenced by disease, pollution and
abiotic conditions. 4Abiotic factors are all lifeless inorganic and organic elements of Biosphere
(temperature, terrain, climate, soil humus, etc.).

The major abiotic factors are given below.

Climatic factors
Determine adjustment, so the spreading, also limiting of the population, depending on climatic
conditions (temperature, humidity, precipitation, winds blow, the intensity of sunlight, etc.).
Geographical factor
Living environment for all organisms, is directly dependent on the geographical location of their
area of development (latitude, longitude, altitude).
Orographic factor
This factor, is a geographical-climatic one, caused by climatic features, depending on terrain,
especially altitude, but also on the slope inclination or slope exhibition.
Geological factor
Type of rock from the ground surface and especially from the depth, determines soil properties
and therefore plant development on account of which, directly or indirectly, all other living
creatures are alive, including humans.

4 http://www.ehow.com/about_5135640_biotic-factors-ecosystems.html
4

 Edaphic factor
Factor characterizing the soil, in all its physical and chemical properties (pH, structure, texture,
volume, etc.), having an overwhelming role for all food chains.
Biotic factors
Biotic factors are all organic elements endowed with

life of the Biosphere (bacteria,

actinomycetes, fungi, plants, insects, vertebrates, etc.) and mutual relationship established
between them. The role of biotic factors is essential to all organisms and populations, for in
isolation, they cannot survive, even if they have the most favorable conditions offered by
biotic factors. Thus, through biotic factors occurs insect pollination, which ensure the
5

perpetuation of many plant species. The existence of mushrooms - allow for many forests to
exist, the optimum development of herbs leads to maintain herbivore animals, etc.
Anthropogenic factor
In environment, is involved a very stressful and complex element, namely the anthropogenic
factor, ie those determined by human activity. Human, through its activities affect, very
pronounced and often negative, the entire biosphere. However, there were few cases in which,
through human intervention (creation of protected areas, reforestation, rational exploitation of
natural resources, etc.), Nature had won. Soon or later every man will have the task of repairing
what was damaged, otherwise, its very existence is jeopardized. 5

3.0 Current issues/researches done in this field

5 http://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-main-factors-biosphere-thatinfluence-life-125947
6

Insect responses to fire, compared to other conversion management of other

habitat by Swengel A.B.
Background

The "ecosystem approach" to conservation, which emphasizes natural (ecological and

evolutionary) processes over individual species, is frequently advocated today. But concerns
have been raised about negative impacts for localized or rare insects attributed to ecosystem
management with fire. However, others present observations of particular species or sites as
corroboration that insects specialized to live in open habitats asserted to be fire-dependent will
likewise be fire-adapted. A factor contributing to this controversy is that studies of entomological
responses to ecosystem management techniques have used a variety of analytical approaches,
comparisons (i.e., types of managements and sites compared), and taxonomic scales (i.e., level of
insect identification).

Action
This paper contains a critical review and synthesis of 172 articles in the international scientific
literature concerning the following issues:
1) types of management comparisons - more vs. less recent burning; single wildfire vs. rotational
fire management; burning vs. idling (long-term non-management), and burning vs. other
plausible and feasible conservation managements (e.g., grazing, haying, mowing);
2) spatial and temporal scales of treated and untreated areas;
3) types of insect groupings - all members of a higher taxon (e.g., family, order) vs. individual, or
groups of, species categorized by habitat affinity, dispersal tendency, or conservation concern;
4) utility of theories about ecological processes for explaining insect patterns and responses,

compared to the utility of life history traits and habitat specificity of the taxa.

Consequences
a)

More vs. less recent burning: Many insect groups decline markedly immediately after
fire, with the magnitude of reduction related to the degree of exposure to the flames and
mobility of the insect. Niche diversity is lower in recently burned habitat, and the rate of
insect increase following fire also relates to the species' ability to gain access to the
regrowing vegetation. Postburn flora can be quite attractive to some recolonizing insects,
possibly to some degree as a result of fire-caused insect mortality which provides plants
with short term release from insect herbivory. As a long-term strategy for conservation of
open-habitat insects, the broadcast killing of grassland insects by recurrent fires so that
the lushly regrowing vegetation will attract recolonizing grassland insects should be
7
examined with caution. The reduction of generalist and pest insects by fire will likely be
short-term, but the (inadvertent) reduction of more habitat-restricted species by the same
fires may be much longer term, or even permanent.

b) Single wildfire vs. rotational fire management: When insect responses to a single
wildfire are more favorable than to rotational fire management, this can be understood as
functions of access and time to repopulate, since these wildfires occurred in a context of
long-unburned adjacent habitat also occupied by the species. Another factor may be the
relatively higher suitability of habitat after wildfire (more likely to be stand-replacing,
and therefore canopy-reducing) than rotational fire management (which, to stay
controllable, may be restricted more to the herb layer).
c) Burning vs. idling: At the scale of higher taxa (family; order), the literature indicates
minimal differences between burning and idling. Studies of individual species showed
varied and sometimes inconsistent, responses. Thus, based on studies of overall insect
faunas, it is difficult either to justify the investment in fire management or substantiate
harm from it. Results become only somewhat more conclusive when examining particular
species of conservation concern. Even then, though, differences between idling and
burning are often relatively minor compared to other types of management compatible
with the continued existence of the floristic community.

d) Burning vs. haying/mowing: Insect declines may follow immediately after mowing, but
are usually of lesser degree and shorter duration than after a fire of comparable timing
and size. Season and scale of cutting may affect how much and which species showed
positive or negative responses. Cut areas offer the vegetational structure and composition
preferred by some insects, but cutting, or cutting at certain scales, seasons, or frequencies,
is also unfavorable for some species.
e)

Grazing: Heavy grazing results in niche and assemblage simplification. Nonetheless,

some invertebrates prefer the short turfs and bare ground resulting from heavier grazing.
Other species vary in whether they peak in abundance and diversity in intermediate, light,
or no grazing.

In comparisons of mowing/haying and grazing regimes of similar compatibility with

maintenance of the same habitat types, responses of particular species and species groups varied
as to whether they had a preference for one or the other.
f) Theory vs. observation: Mortality during treatment, stress post-treatment in a more
simplified habitat, suitability of regrowing vegetation, and ability to repopulate appear
equally useful for explicating the effects of fire as well as other managements such as
haying, mowing, and grazing on insect species. Another basis for predicting insect
response to fire (and other managements) assumes that the most habitat restricted species
should be most adapted to (or dependent on) the ecological forces thought to be prevalent
in that ecosystem. But life history traits that may afford some protection from fire
mortality (or other managements) are not ecosystem specific but rather taxonomically
associated. Thus, insect responses to fire (and other managements) can be interpreted on
the basis of biological mechanisms and traits that do not assort by ecosystem type.

Conclusions
This literature review suggests the importance of retaining considerable spatiotemporal variation
among sites of the same ecosystem type in the frequency of fire and other natural events, such as

grazing, and other management interventions, such as mowing and cutting. Reducing this
variation leads to greater uniformity (simplification) of niches and therefore species among sites
of the same habitat type. Optimal site management for an open habitat patch can only be
determined based on the efficacy of fire or other management to produce a specified species
composition and abundance. 6

4.0 Application in real world

a. Forests and Ecology
One easily understandable example of ecosystems and ecology in action is the forest. Virtually
everyone has visited a forest at one time or another, and those who are enthusiasts for the great
outdoors may spend a great deal of time in one. In the past, of course, people interacted with
forests not so much out of choice, and certainly not with recreation as the foremost aim in mind,
but simply because they depended on the forest for survival. Not only did the forest provide
hunters and food-gatherers with an abundance of wildlife and fruit, but trees provided material
for building dwellings. It is no wonder, then, that many early human settlements tended to be in,
or at the edges of, forests. A forest is simply an ecosystem dominated by trees. There are many
varieties of forest, however, because so many factors go into determining the character of a forest
ecosystem. The fact that the forest is an ecosystem means that its qualities are defined by far
more than just the varieties of trees, which are simply the most visible among many biological
forms in the forest. Numerous abiotic, or nonbiological, factors also affect the characteristics of a
forest as well. For instance, there is weather, defined as the condition of the atmosphere at a
given time and place, and climate, the overall patterns of weather for extended period. These
play a clear role, for instance, in defining the tropical rain forest, a place where constant rainfall
ensures that there are always plenty of plants in flower. Because the trees and other species of
6 http://www.conservationevidence.com/individual-study/703
9

vegetation do not all shed at the same time, the rain forest canopythe upper layer of trees in the
forestremains rich in foliage year-round. Hence, the tropical rain forest is an example of an
evergreen forest. Climate can determine the type of life forms capable of surviving in the forest
ecosystem. This can be illustrated by referring to a forest almost perfectly opposite in character
to a rain forest: the taiga, orboreal forest, that spans much of northern Eurasia. The taiga is
a deciduous forest, meaning that its trees shed their leaves seasonally; indeed, because of the
very cold climate in taiga regions, where the temperature during winter is usually well below the
freezing point, trees spend a great portion of the year bare. Rainfall is much, much lower than in
a rain forest, of course: only about 10-20 in. (250-500 mm) per year, as compared with more than
70 in. (1,800 mm) for a typical rain forest.

10

The dry, inhospitable climate of the taiga makes it a forbidding place for reptiles and amphibians,
though the taiga is home to many endothermic (warm-blooded) creatures such as mammals or
birds.

b. Latitude, altitude, and forests

Elevation or reliefthat is, height above sea levelalso determines the character of a forest, as
do latitude (distance north or south of the equator) and topography, or the overall physical
configuration of Earth's surface in a given area. Rain forests can exist anywhere, but by

definition a tropical rain forest, such as those along the Amazon River in South America or the
Congo River in Africa, must lie between the Tropic of Cancer in the north and the Tropic of
Capricorn in the south.
Naturally, in the tropical rain forest, temperatures are hightypically, about 86F (30C) during
the day, cooling down to about 68F (20C) at night. By contrast, there are much cooler rain
forests in the temperate zones. An example is the Cherokee National Forest on the border

between North Carolina and Tennessee, which, though located in the southeastern United States,
is chilly even in the summer months.
Just as latitude affects a forest, so does altitude. Rain forests at relatively high elevations, such as
the highlands of New Guinea, are known as montane forests. These forests, though they may be
located at the same latitude as tropical rain forestsmost montane forests are in eastern Brazil,
southeastern Africa, northern Australia, and parts of southeast Asiaare much cooler. Lush by
comparison to most non-rain forests, their vegetation is nonetheless much less dense than in a
typical tropical rain forest.
In addition to its role in defining the overall character of the forest, differences in relative altitude
or elevation resulting from the great height of trees in the rain forest also influence the formation
of differing biological communities. For example, monkeys, flying squirrels, and other animals
capable of swinging,gliding, or otherwise moving from tree to tree inhabit the canopy, which is
rich in well-watered leaves and other food sources. These top-dwellers seldom even need to
come down to the ground for anything. The rain forest floor, by contrast, is mostly bare, since the
trees above shade it. On this level live creatures such as chimpanzees and gorillas, who feed off
of low-lying plant forms. Other biological communities exist above or below the forest floor.
11

c. Humans and Forests

Earlier we noted the fact that humans' early history kept them, like other primates, close to the
forest. In modern times, a growing awareness of ecology, and of the distance that technology has
placed between modern society and the forests, led to the movement for the establishment of
national parks in general, and of national forests in particular.
The first of these preservesplaces where commercial development is forbidden and
commercial activity is limitedwas Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, established by the
administration of President Ulysses S. Grant in 1872. Though Yellowstone contains enormous

areas of forest land, the first national forest reserve (as national forests were called at the time)
was Sequoia National Park, established in 1891. Home to some of the largest, most aweinspiring trees in the world, Sequoia is part of a group of national forests and parks to the
northeast of Bakersfield, California.
The United States Forest Service was actually founded earlier (1905) than the National Park
Service (1916), a fact that illustrates the importance of pristine forests to maintaining a proper
balance between humans and their environment. Since the establishment of the forest service
under the aegis of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the lands controlled by the forest service
have grown to encompass about 191 million acres (77.3 million hectares), an area larger than
Texas. During the same period, the U.S. example of national parks and forests has inspired
nations around the world to create their own preserves.
Coupled with the rise of national parks and forests at the turn of the nineteenth century was a
growing interest in conservation and management of environmental resources. This interest
manifested across a broad spectrum, from environmentalists who urged that the forests be left in
their original state to industrial foresters who view the forest as a resource that can be utilized.
Both sides have their merits, and both have their complaints about the other. The close historical
ties between conservationism and the science of forestry (the management of forest ecosystems
for purposes such as harvesting timber), both of which had their origins during the nineteenth
century, suggest that there is no inherent reason that the two sides should be in conflict. If
anything, responsible forestry goes hand-in-hand with an attitude of conserving as many
resources as is feasible.
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d. Comparing Angiosperms and Gymnosperms

Several times we have referred to angiosperms, a name that encompasses not just certain types of
tree but also all plants that produce flowers during sexual reproduction. The name, which comes
from Latin roots meaning "vessel seed," is a reference to the fact that the plant keeps its seeds in

a vessel whose name, the ovary, emphasizes the sexual quality of the reproductive process it
undergoes.
Angiosperms are a beautiful example of how a particular group of organisms can adapt to
specific ecosystems and do so in a highly efficient manner, such that the evolutionary future
heralds only greater dominance for these species. This is all the more interesting in light of the
contrast between the success of the angiosperm and the rather less impressive results achieved by
another broad category of sexually reproducing plant, one that formerly dominated Earth's forest:
the gymnosperm.
Flowering plants evolved only about 130 million years ago, by which time gymnosperms (of
which modern pines are an example) had long since evolved and proliferated. Yet in a relatively
short period of time, angiosperms have become the dominant plants in the world today. About
80% of all living plant species are flowering plants, and based on the record of angiosperms and
gymnosperms heretofore, it is likely that the world of 100 million years from now will be one in
which the forests are typified by angiosperms. Gymnosperms, meanwhile, may well become a
dying, if not a dead, breed.
Pollination By Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms reproduce sexually as well, but they do so by a much less efficient method than
that of the angiosperm. Whereas the angiosperm keeps its seeds safely tucked away inside the
ovary and coexists with its ecosystem most favorably by putting the insect and animal life to
work, gymnosperm reproduction is an altogether less effectiveand, indeed, less pleasant
process.
For starters, gymnosperms produce their seeds on the surface of leaflike structures, and this
makes the seeds vulnerable to physical damage and drying as the wind whips the trees' branches
back and forth. Furthermore, insects and other animals view gymnosperm seeds as a source of
nutrition, as indeed they are.
13

In contrast to the angiosperm, which attracts bees and other creatures to it, gymnosperms
package the male reproductive component in tiny pollen grains, which it releases into the wind.
Eventually, the grains make their way toward the female component of another individual within
the same species, but the fact that they do is an example of the wonder inherent in life itself and
not of the efficiency of gymnosperm reproduction. Gymnosperms shower their ecosystems with
pollen, a fact familiar to anyone who lives in a place with a high gymnosperm populationand
hence a high pollen count in the spring. In gymnosperm-heavy environments, yellowish dust
forms on everything, and where humans interact with the natural world, this can create a great
deal of discomfort in the form of hay fever andallergies. Meanwhile, cars, windowsills,
mailboxes, and virtually every other available surface takes on a yellow film that usually is not
relieved until a good rain falls or, more likely, pollination ends for the year.
Though pollen is unpleasant to humans, it should be noted that like all natural mechanisms, it
benefits the overall ecosystem. Packed with energy, pollen grains contain large quantities of
nitrogen, making them a major boost to the nutrient content in the soil. But it costs the
gymnosperm a great deal, in terms of chemical and biological energy and material, to produce
pollen grains, and the benefits are uncertain.

e. Pollination By Angiosperms
If the gymnosperm and angiosperm varieties of pollination were compared to marketing
campaigns, gymnosperm reproduction would involve the client (i.e., the gymnosperms
themselves) investing maximum capital for minimal returns. In a very real sense, gymnosperm
pollination is like the marketing of a company that bombards a neighborhood with leaflets, such
that advertising rapidly becomes another form of trash simply to be swept up and thrown away.
By contrast, the "marketing" of angiosperms is like that of a company that uses carefully
targeted, researched advertising, utilizing as many free means as possible for getting out word
about itself. Just as a smart marketer sets in place the conditions to get consumers talking about a
productthus using advertising that is both free and extremely effectivethe angiosperm enlists

the aid of mobile organisms in its environment. In addition, the angiosperm puts a great deal of
its energy into producing reproductive structures,an effort that pays off bountifully.

14

By evolving bright colors, scents, and nectar, the flowers of angiosperms attract animals, which
travel from one flower to another, unintentionally moving pollen as they go.
Thus, whereas insects and animals pose a threat to gymnosperms, angiosperms actually put bees,
butterflies, hummingbirds, and other flower-seeking creatures to work assisting their
reproductive process.
Because of this remarkably efficient system, animal-pollinated species of flowering plants do not
need to produce as much pollen as gymnosperms. They can put their resources into other
important functions instead, such as growth and greater seed production. In this way, the
angiosperm solves its own problem of reproductionand, as a side benefit, adds enormously to
the world's beauty.

f. Deforestation
Returning to the subject of forests in general, if a forest experiences significant disturbance, it
may undergo deforestation. Despite the finality in the sound of the word, deforestation does not
necessarily imply complete destruction of the forest. In fact, deforestation can describe any
interruption in the ordinary progression of a forest's life, including clear-cut harvestingeven if
the forest fully recovers.
Deforestation can occur naturally, as a result of changes in the soil and climate, but the most
significant cases of deforestation over the past few thousand years have been the consequence of
human activities. Usually deforestation is driven by the need to clear land to harvest trees for fuel
or, in some cases, to obtain building materials in the form of lumber. Though deforestation has

been a problem the world over, since the 1970s it has become an issue primarily in developing
countries.
In developed nations such as the United States, environmental activism has raised public
awareness concerning deforestation and led to curtailment of large-scale cutting in forests that
are deemed important environmental habitats. By contrast, developing nations, such as Brazil,
are cutting down their forests at an alarming rate. Generally, economics is the dominant factor,
with the need for new agricultural land or the desire to obtain wood and other materials typically
driving the deforestation process.

15

g. Consequences of Deforestation

The deforestation of valuable reserves such as the Amazon rain forest is an environmental
disaster in the making. As discussed in the essay The Biosphere, the soil in rain forests as a rule
is "old," and leached of nutrients. Without the constant reintroduction of organic material from
the plants and animals of the rain forests, it would be too poor to grow anything.

Therefore, when nations cut down their own rain forest lands, they are in effect killing the golden
goose to get at the egg: once the rain forest is gone, the land itself is worthless.
Deforestation has several other extremely serious consequences. From a biological standpoint, it
greatly reduces biodiversity, or the range of species in the biota. In the case of tropical rain
forests as well as old-growth forests (see Biological Communities), certain species cannot

survive once the environmental structure has been ruptured. From an environmental perspective,
it leads to dangerous changes in the carbon content of the atmosphere, discussed later in this
essay. In the

case of old-growth

forests

or rain forests, deforestation removes

an irreplaceable environ mental asset that contributes to the planet's bio diversityand to its
oxygen supply.
Even from a human standpoint, deforestation takes an enormous toll. Economically,
it depletes valuable forest resources. Furthermore, deforestation in many developing countries
often is accompanied by the displacement of indigenous peoples, while still other political and
social

horrors

may lurk in

the

shadows.

For

example,

Brazil's

forests

are

home

to charcoal factories that amount to virtual slave-labor camps. Aboriginal peoples (i.e., "Indians")
are lured from cities with promises of high income and benefits, only to arrive and find that the
situation is quite different from what was advertised. Having paid the potential employer for
transportation to the work site, however, they are unable to afford a return ticket and must labor
to repay the cost.

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h. The Greenhouse Effect

The most potentially serious aspect of cutting down forests may well be the greenhouse effect,
which some scientists and activists believe is causing an overall warming of the planet. Today,
thanks to the popularity of environmental causes among entertainment figures and on college
campuses, terms such as "the greenhouse effect" and "global warming" are commonplace.
However, these phrases are used so frequently, and sometimes so confusingly or misleadingly,
that it is worthwhile to address their meaning briefly; then, we can conclude our discussion by

looking at what impact the steady reduction in forest lands has had on the increasing release
of greenhouse gases.
The greenhouse effect itself is not a consequence of any action on the part of human beings;
rather, it is a part of life on Earth.

In fact, without it, there could be no life on Earth. Though the planet receives an incredible
amount of energy from the Sun, much of it is lost by being absorbed or reflected in the
atmosphere or on the surface. So-called greenhouses gases such as carbon dioxide, however, help
to trap this energy, keeping much more of the Sun's warmth within Earth's atmosphere, much as a
greenhouse helps trap heat. Without the greenhouse effect, Earth would be so cold that the
oceans would freeze.
Obviously, then, the greenhouse effect is a good thingbut only if greenhouse gases are kept at
certain levels. Earth, after all, is not the only planet in the solar system that experiences a
greenhouse effect; there is also Venus, a hellish place where surface temperatures are as high as
932F (500C). To many environmentalists, there is a grave danger that Earth could be slowly
going the way of Venus, building up greenhouse gases such that the temperature is slowly
increasing. This is the phenomenon of global warming, which threatens to melt the polar ice caps
and submerge much of Earth's land surface. At least, that is the opinion of environmentalists and
others who subscribe to the idea that Earth is steadily warming as a result of human pollution and
industrial activity.
There

is

considerable

body

of

scientific

knowledge

that

challenges

the environmentalist position on global warming and the greenhouse effect, but it is not our
purpose here to judge the various positions. Rather, our concern is the link between forests and
the increase of greenhouses gases in the atmosphere.

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Old-growth or mature forests of the type discussed in Succession and Climax contain vast
amounts of carbonthe basis for all living thingsand when these forests are cut down, that
carbon has to go somewhere. Specifically, carbon, in the form of carbon dioxide, will be released
into the atmosphere, increasing the amount of greenhouse gases there.
This release may occur quickly, as when wood is burned, or more slowly, if the timber from the
forest is used over long periods of timefor instance, in the building of houses or other
structures. Statistics suggest an alarming change in the amount of carbon in the forests as
compared with that in the atmosphere: since about 1850, the amount of carbon stored in forests
had dropped by about one-third, while the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has
increased by a comparable factor. Thus, the effort to keep greenhouse gases at viable levels is
inextricably tied to the movement to preserve forest ecosystems.7

5.0 Conclusion
Insects can be found in every environment on our planet. Insects have adapted to a broad range
of habitats, successfully finding their own niche, because they will consume almost any
substance that has nutritional value.
Insects perform a vast number of important functions in our ecosystem. They aerate the soil,
pollinate blossoms, and control insect and plant pests; they also decompose dead materials,
thereby reintroducing nutrients into the soil. Burrowing bugs such as ants and beetles dig tunnels
that provide channels for water, benefiting plants. Bees play a major role in pollinating fruit trees
and flower blossoms. Gardeners love the big-eyed bug and praying mantis because they control
the size of certain insect populations, such as aphids and caterpillars, which feed on new plant
growth. Finally, all insects fertilize the soil with the nutrients from their droppings.
Studying ecology is very important because simple change in the environment can have a
profound effect on all living things, the destruction of one species can mean the death of many
7 http://www.answers.com/topic/ecosystems-and-ecology
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others. We cannot harm the environment due to poor understanding of ecology. So the more we
know the better. For example, humans continue to destroy wildlife habitats in order to build
cities, they introduce contaminants such as pesticides and industrial wastes into the environment
and then deplete nonrenewable natural resources such as fossil fuels. These behavior, if
unchanged, could someday render the earth uninhabitable. Thankfully, there is movement to
better understand ecology and take necessary steps to reduce pollution and end destructive
human activities.

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