EXPERIMENTAL

STRESS ANALYSIS
 The object of experimental stress
analysis is to deduce the stress
conditions in a structural element
subjected to some specified loading
either by observation of the physical
changes brought about in it by the
applied loads or by measurements
made on a model.
 MODELS and SCALE FACTORS

When experimental stress analysis techniques are

applied in the design of structures or machines, it is
usually necessary to employ reduced scale models in
the investigations. Furthermore, it may be inconvenient
or impracticable to make the model of the same
material as the prototype or again, it may be desirable
to use a model material of low elastic modulus in order
to obtain easily measurable strains.
It is thus essential that we should know the
relationship between phenomena observed in
a scale model and the corresponding effects in
the full sized construction which it represents.
It is, of course, necessary that this knowledge
should be available at the outset in order that
the model may be designed so as to represent
correctly the behavior of the prototype.
Suppose that it is required to investigate the behavior
of a particular type of beam.

Denoting the load on the prototype and on the model

by appropriate subscripts and assuming geometrical
similarity and homologous load systems, we can write:
In this way it is possible to determine the relationship between
corresponding quantities in the model and prototype and thus to
interpret model observations in terms of full size.
EXAMPLE
A half-scale model is made to represent a prototype
design. A single force 8.0 kN will be applied to the
proposed prototype.
(a) The model is loaded to 800 N, and the maximum
stress is found to be 7.0 MPa. Determine the
maximum stress in the prototype.
(b) If the modulus of elasticity of the material model is
3.5 GPa and the modulus of the prototype is 70 GPa,
estimate the maximum deflection of the prototype if the
maximum deflection of the model is 5 mm.

Solution:
(a): The length scale factor is
𝐿𝑝 𝐿𝑝
𝐿𝑟 = = =2,
𝐿𝑚 0.5𝐿𝑝
and the force scale factor is
𝐹𝑝 8 3
𝐹𝑟 = = (10) = 10
𝐹𝑚 800
The stress scale factor is thus
𝐹 10
𝜎𝑟 = 2 = = 2.5
𝐿 (2)2
𝜎𝑝
and since stress scale factor, 𝜎𝑟 = , then
𝜎𝑚

𝜎𝑝 = (2.5) (7) = 17.5 MPa

(b) The modulus scale factor is

𝐸𝑝 70
𝐸𝑟 = = = 20
𝐸𝑚 3.5

This gives a deflection scale factor of

𝐹 10
𝛿𝑟 = = = 0.25
𝐿. 𝐸 2 . (20)
 𝛿𝑝
and since deflection scale factor, 𝛿𝑟 = , then
𝛿𝑚

𝛿𝑝 = 𝛿𝑟 . 𝛿𝑚 = 0.25 . 5 = 1.25 𝑚𝑚
EXAMPLE
A simply supported steel beam 3.0 m long of rectangular
cross section 75 mm wide, 150 mm deep and modulus
of elasticity E= 200 GPa is loaded with a uniform load
of 6 kN/m along the entire span. A scale model 500 mm
long is to be constructed of a material with a modulus of
elasticity of 20 GPa. Determine the cross section of the
model. The model is loaded with a uniform load of 240
N/m and the following data were recorded:
Maximum bending stress= 1.4 MPa
Maximum deflection= 0.05 mm
Estimate the corresponding values associated with
the prototype.
Solution:
(a) The length scale factor is

𝐿𝑝 3000
𝐿𝑟 = = = 6, then
𝐿𝑚 500

𝑏𝑝 75
=6= 𝑏𝑚 = 12.5 𝑚𝑚
𝑏𝑚 𝑏𝑚

𝑑𝑝 150
=6= 𝑑𝑚 = 25.0 𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝑚
(b) The force scale factor is
𝐹𝑝 6 . 3 . 1000 . (1000)
𝐹𝑟 = = = 150
𝐹𝑚 500 . 240 .

The stress scale factor is

𝐹 150 25
𝜎𝑟 = 2 = 2
=
𝐿 (6) 6
𝜎𝑝
and since stress scale factor 𝜎𝑟 = , then
𝜎𝑚
25
𝜎𝑝 = 𝜎𝑟 . 𝜎𝑚 = 1.4 = 5.833 𝑀𝑃𝑎
6
The modulus scale factor is
𝐸𝑝 200
𝐸𝑟 = = = 10
𝐸𝑚 20
This gives a deflection scale factor of
𝐹 150
𝛿𝑟 = = = 2.5
𝐿. 𝐸 6 . (10)
𝛿𝑝
and since deflection scale factor, 𝛿𝑟 = , then
𝛿𝑚

𝛿𝑝 = 𝛿𝑟 . 𝛿𝑚 = 2.5 . 0.05 = 0.125 𝑚𝑚

Mechanical Testing and
Stress Analysis
 The successful employment of any
materials in engineering applications
relies on the ability of the material to
meet design and service
requirements and to be fabricated to
the proper dimensions.
 The capability of a material to meet
these requirements is determined by
the mechanical and physical properties
of the material. Physical properties are
those typically measured by methods
not requiring the application of an
external mechanical force (or load).
 Typical examples of physical
properties are density, permeability,
thermal conductivity, electrical
properties (e.g., resistivity), and
coefficient of thermal expansion.
 Mechanical properties are described as the
relationship between forces (or stresses) acting on
a material and the resistance of the material to
deformation (i.e., strains) and fracture. Different
types of tests, which use an applied force, are
employed to measure properties, such as elastic
modulus, yield strength, elastic and plastic
deformation (i.e., elongation), hardness,
fatigue resistance, and fracture toughness.
 Uniaxial Tension Testing
THE TENSION TEST is one of the most commonly
used tests for evaluating materials.
When properly conducted, the tension test provides
force extension data that can quantify several
important mechanical properties of a material. These
mechanical properties determined from tension tests
include, but are not limited to, the following:
· Elastic deformation properties, such as the
modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) and
Poisson's ratio
· Yield strength and ultimate tensile strength
· Ductility properties, such as elongation and
reduction in area
· Strain-hardening characteristics
These material characteristics from tension tests are
used for quality control and for dealing with the
static strength requirements of design.
The basic principle of the tension test is quite simple,
but numerous variables affect results. General sources
of variation in mechanical-test results include several
factors involving materials, namely, methodology,
human factors, equipment, and ambient conditions, as
shown in the “fish-bone” diagram
“Fish-bone” diagram of
sources of variability in
mechanical-test results
Specimen preparation
In order to obtain a uniform stress in the measurement
area, the shape of the test piece must allow for a well-
founded mechanical modeling. The ends must be shaped
in such a manner that the maximum stress and therefore,
the breakage appear in the useful area of the test piece
where the estimation of the stress is correct.
The shape criteria of the test specimens and the selection
of anchorages are given by the standards.
The heads are in
a “dog bone”
shape to prevent
slippage of the
specimen into
the jaws during
the tensile test.
And, the ratio of
diameter, or
thickness, and
length allows
establishing a
uniform stress Example of test specimen shape
field in the useful
zone.
ASTM Specifications
 Schematic diagram of
Tensile Testing Machine
 The stress at which a
permanent deformation occurs
is called the elastic (or
proportional) limit; however,
an offset yield strength (e.g.,
0.2% offset) is typically used
to quantify the onset of plastic
deformation due to the ease
and standardization of
measurement.

Engineering stress-strain curve. Intersection of the dashed line with the curve
determines the offset yield strength
 Concrete Tensile Strength

Tensile strength is an important property of concrete

because concrete structures are highly vulnerable to
tensile cracking due to various kinds of effects and
applied loading itself. However, tensile strength of
concrete is very low in compared to its compressive
strength.
 Due to difficulty in applying uniaxial tension to
a concrete specimen, the tensile strength of the
concrete is determined by indirect test methods:
(1) Split Cylinder Test, and
(2) Flexure Test.
It should be noted that both of these methods give
the higher value of tensile strength than the
uniaxial tensile strength.
ASTM Specifications
Split-Cylinder Test
It is the standard test, to determine the tensile strength of
concrete in an indirect way. A standard test cylinder of concrete
specimen (300 mm x 150mm diameter) is placed horizontally
between the loading surfaces of Compression Testing Machine
The compression load is applied diametrically and uniformly
along the length of cylinder until the failure of the cylinder
along the vertical diameter.
 To allow the uniform distribution of this applied
load and to reduce the magnitude of the high
compressive stresses near the points of application
of this load, strips of plywood are placed between
the specimen and loading platens of the testing
machine. Concrete cylinders split into two halves
along this vertical plane due to indirect tensile stress
generated by Poisson's effect.
Assuming concrete specimen behaves as an elastic
body, a uniform lateral tensile stress of ft acting along
the vertical plane causes the failure of the specimen,
which can be calculated from the formula as,
2𝑃
𝑓𝑡 = PROVE?
𝜋𝐿𝐷
where
𝑓𝑡 = splitting tensile strength, MPa,
P = maximum applied load indicated by the
testing machine, N,
L = length, mm, and
D = diameter, mm.