Environment by Shankar IAS 6TH Edition

ENVIRONMENT
Revised Edition
SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY BOOK PUBLICATIONS

AP-2241, 2nd Floor, 12th Main Road, Anna Nagar, Chennai - 600 040. Tamil Nadu.
Mobile : 9962002006
www.shankariasacademy.com
Email : [email protected]
SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
©
SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY BOOK PUBLICATIONS
1st Edition – 2012

2nd Edition - 2013
3rd Edition - 2014
3rd Edition Reprint - February, 2015
4th Revised Edition - June, 2015
4th Revised Edition Reprint - January, 2016
4th Revised Edition Reprint - May, 2016
5th Revised Edition - June, 2017
6th Revised Edition - September, 2018
ISBN - 978-81-934226-0-1
Pages : 400 (xxxvi + 364)
PUBLISHED BY SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY BOOK PUBLICATIONS

AP-2241, 2nd Floor, 12th Main Road,
Anna Nagar, Chennai - 600 040. Tamil Nadu.
Mobile : 9962002006
www.shankariasacademy.com
Email : [email protected]
© Copyright is reserved to the publisher, therefore the person who will try to intimate or to print this book illegally
or without the prior written permission of this publisher in any form, will be responsible for the loss and may be
punished for compensation under the copyright act.
ii All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
“Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s need but not every man’s greed”
- Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. iii
iv All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
CONTENTS
Previous Year UPSC Question paper analysis (2011 to 2018) �� xiii
PART-I
ENVIRONMENTAL ECOLOGY
S�No Chapter Page No�
1� ECOLOGY �� 3-9
History of Ecology..................................................................................................................... 3
Environment and its Components .......................................................................................... 3
Levels of Organisation ............................................................................................................. 4
2� FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM �� 11-21

Energy Flow ............................................................................................................................ 11
Food Chain .............................................................................................................................. 11
Food Web .................................................................................................................................12
Ecological Pyramid .................................................................................................................13
Pollutants and Trophical Level ..............................................................................................15
Biotic Interaction .....................................................................................................................16
Bio-Geochemical Cycle ...........................................................................................................16
Ecological Succession ............................................................................................................. 20
3� TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM ��23-32

Tundra ..................................................................................................................................... 23
Forest Ecosystem .................................................................................................................... 23
Indian Forest Types ................................................................................................................ 25
Deforestation ........................................................................................................................... 27
Grassland Ecosystem ..............................................................................................................28
Desert Ecosystem (Thar & Cold) ...........................................................................................29
Desertification ..........................................................................................................................31
State of forest report, 2017 ..................................................................................................... 32
4� AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM ��33-53

Aquatic Organism ................................................................................................................... 33
Lake Ecology ........................................................................................................................... 35
Eutrophication......................................................................................................................... 36
Harmful Algal bloom ..............................................................................................................38
Wetland Ecosystem ................................................................................................................. 39
National Wetland Conservation Programme ....................................................................... 42
Montreux Record .................................................................................................................... 43
Estuary Ecosystem ................................................................................................................. 43
Mangrove Ecosystem .............................................................................................................. 45
Coral Reefs .............................................................................................................................. 47
Coral Bleaching ....................................................................................................................... 49
Initiatives to Protect Coastal Environment .......................................................................... 50
Ganga Action Plan ..................................................................................................................51
Namami Ganga Program ........................................................................................................51
Clean Ganga Fund................................................................................................................... 52
Recent Measures ...........................................................................................................................53
5� ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION ��55-82

Pollutants ................................................................................................................................. 55
Air Pollution ............................................................................................................................ 55
Smog ................................................................................................................................... 56
Indoor Air Pollution ........................................................................................................... 57
Fly Ash ................................................................................................................................ 58
NAMP & NAAQ .................................................................................................................. 60
Air Pollution in India ..........................................................................................................61
Water Pollution........................................................................................................................ 62
Soil Pollution ........................................................................................................................... 65
Noise Pollution ........................................................................................................................ 66
Radio Active Pollution ............................................................................................................ 67
E-Waste .................................................................................................................................... 69
Solid Waste ...............................................................................................................................71
Thermal Pollution ................................................................................................................... 73
Plastics Pollution ..................................................................................................................... 74
Bio-Remediation...................................................................................................................... 76
Environmental Pollution and Health .................................................................................... 77
Acid Rain ................................................................................................................................. 78
6� RENEWABLE ENERGY�� 83-91

Solar Energy ............................................................................................................................ 83
International Solar Alliance ................................................................................................... 84
Luminescent Solar Concentrators .........................................................................................84
Wind Energy ........................................................................................................................... 85
Hydro Power............................................................................................................................86
Ocean Thermal Energy .......................................................................................................... 87
Cogeneration ...........................................................................................................................88
Waste to Energy ...................................................................................................................... 89
Geothermal Energy ................................................................................................................ 89
Fuel Cells .................................................................................................................................90
7� ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES�� 93-108

Indian Himalayan Region ..................................................................................................... 93
Sand Mining in India .............................................................................................................. 97
Palm Oil - Environmental Issues ......................................................................................... 100
Colony Collapse Disorder ......................................................................................................102
Wildlife Deaths Due to Collision With Trains .................................................................... 104
Impact of Radiation ...............................................................................................................105
Genetically Engineered Trees .............................................................................................. 106
MoEFCC Banned Dolphin Captivity .................................................................................... 106
Prohibition of Removal of Shark Fins in the Sea ................................................................107
Cost of Environmental Degradation in India ..................................................................... 108
8� ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT �� 109-119

The Need for EIA................................................................................................................... 109
EIA Cycle and its Procedures ................................................................................................ 110
Components of EIA ................................................................................................................ 113
Procedure of Public Hearing ................................................................................................. 116
Drawbacks and Recommendations of EIA ........................................................................... 116
Environmental supplemental plan ....................................................................................... 119
PARIVESH .............................................................................................................................. 119
PART-II
BIODIVERSITY
9� BIODIVERSITY �� 123-127

Biodiversity .............................................................................................................................123
Levels of Biodiversity .............................................................................................................123
Measurement of Biodiversity ............................................................................................... 124
Biodiversity Services............................................................................................................. 124
Modes of Conservation ..........................................................................................................125
Botanical Garden and Zoo ................................................................................................... 125
Red Data Book ....................................................................................................................... 126
10� INDIAN BIODIVERSITY �� 129-137

Indian Bio-Geographical Classification ............................................................................... 129
Fauna Diversity ...................................................................................................................... 131
Flora Diversity ........................................................................................................................133
Indian Wildlife ......................................................................................................................136
11� SCHEDULE ANIMALS OF WPA, 1972 �� 139-152

Schedule List - WPA...............................................................................................................139
12� ANIMAL DIVERSITY OF INDIA �� 153-159

Mammal Critically endangered ............................................................................................153
Marine Mammals...................................................................................................................155
Egg Laying Mammals ............................................................................................................ 155
Marsupial ................................................................................................................................ 155
Birds Critically endangered ..................................................................................................156
Corals ......................................................................................................................................158
Bird Migration ........................................................................................................................158
Wild Life Disease....................................................................................................................158
Species Extinction ................................................................................................................. 158
Man- Animal Conflict ............................................................................................................159
13� PLANT DIVERSITY OF INDIA �� 161-169

Plant Classification................................................................................................................. 161
Effect of Abiotic Components on Plants ............................................................................... 161
Insectivorous Plant ................................................................................................................162
Invasive Alien Species........................................................................................................... 164
Invasive Alien Flora of India ................................................................................................ 164
Medicinal Plants .................................................................................................................... 166
Tree Characters ......................................................................................................................167
14� MARINE ORGANISM ��171-173

Plankton.................................................................................................................................. 171
Phyto-Plankton....................................................................................................................... 171
Zoo-Plankton ..........................................................................................................................172
Sea Grass ................................................................................................................................172
Sea Weed.................................................................................................................................173
15� PROTECTED AREA NETWORK �� 175-185

National Initiative
Wildlife Sanctuary and National Parks .......................................................................... 175
Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves ........................................................177
Coastal Protected Areas ................................................................................................... 177
Sacred Groves of India .....................................................................................................178
Export Prohibited Items ...................................................................................................179
Global Initiative
Man And Biosphere ..........................................................................................................179
Biosphere Reserves .......................................................................................................... 180
National Biosphere Reserve Programme ........................................................................ 181
World Network of Biosphere Reserves ............................................................................182
Biodiversity Hotspots .......................................................................................................183
World Heritage Sites ........................................................................................................ 184
16� CONSERVATION EFFORTS �� 187-199

Project Tiger ...........................................................................................................................187
Project Elephant .................................................................................................................... 190
Vulture ....................................................................................................................................192
One Horned Rhinoceros ........................................................................................................195
Project Snow Leopard........................................................................................................... 196
Secure Himalaya ................................................................................................................... 197
Sea Turtle Project ...................................................................................................................197
Crocodile Conservation Project ............................................................................................197
Project Hangul ...................................................................................................................... 198
Captive Breeding ................................................................................................................... 198
Dolphin .................................................................................................................................. 198
Government Measures ......................................................................................................... 199
India Adopt SAWEN .............................................................................................................. 199
PART-III
CLIMATE CHANGE
17� CLIMATE CHANGE �� 203-210
Global Warming ....................................................................................................................203
Green House Effect ...............................................................................................................204
Green House Gases ............................................................................................................... 205
Climate Forcing .....................................................................................................................208
Global Warming Potential ....................................................................................................209
Receding Glaciers. A Symptom of Global Climate Change ................................................ 210
18� OCEAN ACIDIFICATION ��211-213

19� OZONE DEPLETION �� 215-220
20� IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE – INDIA �� 221-226
Agriculture and Food Security .............................................................................................221
Water Stress and Water Insecurity ..................................................................................... 222
Sea Level Rise........................................................................................................................ 223
Ecosystem and Biodiversity ................................................................................................. 224
Climate Change and Health ................................................................................................. 225
21� MITIGATION STRATEGIES ��227-231

Carbon Sequestration ........................................................................................................... 227
Carbon Sink ........................................................................................................................... 228
Carbon Credit ........................................................................................................................228
Carbon Offsetting ................................................................................................................. 229
Carbon Tax ............................................................................................................................229
Geo-Engineering ................................................................................................................... 230
22� INDIA AND CLIMATE CHANGE �� 233-250

India’s Position on Climate Change .................................................................................... 233
Observed Climate and Weather Changes in India ............................................................. 233
Current Actions for Adaptation and Mitigation ................................................................ 234
National Action Plan on Climate Change ............................................................................ 235
Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ............................................................... 241
National Communication (NATCOM) .................................................................................242
India’s Policy Structure Relevant to GHG Mitigation......................................................... 243
Green Building .....................................................................................................................244
Griha ...................................................................................................................................... 245
National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture ........................................................ 247
BSE Greenex .........................................................................................................................248
Fame-India Programme ....................................................................................................... 249
Long Term Ecological Observatories (LTEO) ....................................................................249
The National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC)...........................................249
Other Critical Entities ......................................................................................................... 249
23� CLIMATE CHANGE ORGANISATIONS �� 251-271

UNFCCC ..................................................................................................................................251
KYOTO Protocol ....................................................................................................................251
Conference of Parties............................................................................................................ 258
Other Mechanism of UNFCCC .............................................................................................260
REDD and REDD+ ................................................................................................................261
Global Environment Facilities ............................................................................................ 262
Climate Smart Agriculture .................................................................................................262
Inter Governmental Panel on Climate Change ................................................................... 263
National Green House Gas Inventories Programme ..........................................................264
Green Economy .................................................................................................................... 265
Climate Finance Architecture .............................................................................................. 267
PART-IV
AGRICULTURE
24� AGRICULTURE�� 275-293
Agriculture ............................................................................................................................ 275
Crop and its Classification ................................................................................................... 276
Tillage .................................................................................................................................... 279
Cropping System and Pattern ..............................................................................................280
Farming System .................................................................................................................... 282
Sustainable Agriculture ........................................................................................................ 283
Organic Farming ...................................................................................................................284
Integrated Farming System ................................................................................................. 285
Soil Science ............................................................................................................................288
PART-V
25� ACTS AND POLICIES �� 297-311
Wild Life Protection Act 1972 .............................................................................................. 297
Environmental Protection Act 1986 ....................................................................................298
National Forest Policy 1988 .................................................................................................. 299
Biological Diversity Act 2002 ...............................................................................................299
Schedule Tribes and Other Forest Dwellers Act 2006 .......................................................299
Coastal Regulation Zone ..................................................................................................... 302
Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules, 2016 .....................................................................307
E-Waste Management Rules, 2016 ...................................................................................... 308
Plastic Waste Management (PWM) Rules, 2016 ................................................................ 309
Wetland Rules 2010 .............................................................................................................. 310
Nation Green Tribunal ......................................................................................................... 311
The Ozone Depleting Substances Rules ............................................................................... 311
26� INSTITUTION AND MEASURES �� 313-319

National Wide Life Action Plan .............................................................................................313
National Afforestation And Eco-Development Board..........................................................313
CAMPA ................................................................................................................................... 314
Joint Forest Management ..................................................................................................... 314
Social Forestry ...................................................................................................................... 315
National Bamboo Mission ....................................................................................................315
CEPI.........................................................................................................................................316
Lighting a Billion Lives ..........................................................................................................316
Eco-Mark ................................................................................................................................317
USERS .....................................................................................................................................317
BCRLIP.................................................................................................................................... 317
National Clean Energy Fund ................................................................................................. 317
National Mission for Electric Mobility ............................................................................... 318
Science Express - Bio Diversity Special ............................................................................. 318
Mangrove for Future ............................................................................................................319
27� ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANISATIONS �� 321-324

Animal Welfare Board ..........................................................................................................321
Central Zoo Authority .......................................................................................................... 322
National Bio Diversity Authority ........................................................................................ 322
Wildlife Crime Control Bureau ........................................................................................... 323
National Lake Conservation Plan ........................................................................................ 323
National Ganga River Basin Authority ...............................................................................324
28� INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONVENTIONS ��325-340

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ...................................... 325
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) ........................................................................... 326
Ramsar Convention On Wetlands ....................................................................................... 330
CITES ..................................................................................................................................... 332
The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network (TRAFFIC) ......................................................... 332
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS) .......................................... 333
Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT) .................................................................. 333
International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) ......................................................... 334
United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF).......................................................................... 334
IUCN....................................................................................................................................... 335
Global Tiger Forum (GTF).................................................................................................... 335
Stockholm Convention.......................................................................................................... 336
Basel Convention .................................................................................................................. 337
Rotterdam Convention ........................................................................................................ 337
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification ...................................................... 338
International Whaling Commission (IWC) ........................................................................ 338
Vienna Convention and Montreal Protocol ........................................................................ 339
Kigali Agreement .................................................................................................................. 349
Globally Important Agriculture Heritage Systems ............................................................340
Minamata Convention ......................................................................................................... 340
29� ENVIRONMENT ISSUES AND HEALTH EFFECTS �� 341-346

Toxicology Effects ................................................................................................................ 341
Lead in Paints........................................................................................................................ 342
Transfat.................................................................................................................................. 342
High Caffeine in Energy Drinks ..........................................................................................342
Pesticide in Human Blood .................................................................................................... 342
Testing of Pesticide Toxicity .................................................................................................342
Diseases Caused by Environmental Degradation............................................................... 343
Miscellaneous Topics - CHIPKO Movements ......................................................................344
APPIKO Movements ..............................................................................................................344
The National Wastelands Development Board ................................................................... 345
GLOSSARY�� 347-354
APPENDIX �� 355-363
Ramsar Wetland Sites in India ............................................................................................ 355
Tiger Reserves of India ......................................................................................................... 355
Elephant Reserves in India .................................................................................................. 356
Mike Sites in India ................................................................................................................ 357
Biosphere Reserves ............................................................................................................... 357
List of India’s Biosphere Reserves in UNESCO’s Map List................................................. 358
Natural World Heritage Sites ...............................................................................................358
List of Sacred Groves ............................................................................................................ 359
Mangrove Sites in India........................................................................................................ 359
List of Key Activities and Likely Associated Air Pollutants ...............................................360
Respiratory Irritants and Toxic Chemicals ..........................................................................361
 
PRELIMINARY
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION PAPERS

2011 QUESTION PAPER
ENVIRONMENTAL ECOLOGY & 3. Recycling of waste

BIODIVERSITY 4. Pollination of crops
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
1� Consider the following statements: a. 1,2 and 3 only b. 2,3 and 4 only
1. Biodiversity is normally greater in the lower lati- c. 1 and 4 only d. 1,2,3 and 4
tudes as compared to the higher latitudes.
4� Which one of the following is not a site for in-situ
2. Along the mountain gradients, biodiversity is nor-
method of conservation of flora?
mally greater in the lower altitudes as compared to
the higher altitudes. a. Biosphere Reserves
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? b. Botanical Garden
a. 1 only b. 2 only c. National Park
c. Both 1 and 2 d. Neither 1 nor 2 d. Wildlife Sanctuary
2� Three of the following criteria have contributed to 5� Among the following States, which one has the most
the recognition of Western Ghats – Sri Lanka and suitable climatic conditions for the cultivation of a
Indo-Burma regions as hotspots of bio-diversity� large variety of orchids with minimum cost of pro-
1. Species richness duction, and can develop an export oriented industry
2. Vegetation density in this field?
3. Endemism a. Andhra Pradesh
4. Ethno-botanical importance b. Arunachal Pradesh
c. Madhya Pradesh
5. Threat perception
d. Uttar Pradesh
6. Adaptation of flora and fauna to warm and humid
conditions 6� A sandy and saline area is the natural habitat of an
Which three of the above are correct criteria in this Indian animal species� The animal has no predators
context? in that area but its existence is threatened due to the
a. 1, 2 and 6 b. 2, 4 and 6 destruction of its habitat� Which one of the following
c. 1, 3 and 5 d. 3, 4 and 6 could be that animal?
a. Indian wild buffalo
3� Biodiversity forms the basis for human existence in
the following ways: b. Indian wild ass
1. Soil formation c. Indian wild boar
2. Prevention of soil erosion d. Indian Gazelle
7� The “Red Data Books’ published by the International Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Re- a. 1 only b. 1 and 2 only
sources (IUCN) contain lists of c. 2 and 3 only d. 1,2 and 3
1. Endemic plant and animal species present in the 11� The Himalayan Range is very rich in species diver-
biodiversity hotspots. sity� Which one among the following is the most
2. Threatened plant and animal species. appropriate reason for this phenomenon?
3. Protected sites for conservation of nature & natural a. It has a high rainfall that supports luxuriant veg-
resources in various countries. etative growth.
Which of the statement given above is / are correct? b. It is a confluence of different bio geographical zones.
a. 1 & 3 b. 2 only c. Exotic and invasive species have not been intro-
c. 2 & 3 d. 3 only duced in this region.
d. It has less human interference.
8� In the context of eco-system productivity, marine
upwelling zones are important as they increase the 12� If a tropical rain forest is removed, it does not re-
marine productivity by bringing the generate quickly as compared to a tropical deciduous
forest� This is because
1. Decomposer microorganisms to the surface.
a. the soil of rain forest is deficient in nutrients
2. Nutrients to the surface.
b. propagules of the trees in a rain forest have poor
3. Botton-dwelling organisms to the surface. viability
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? c. the rain forest species are slow-growing
a. 1 and 2 b. 2 only d. exotic species invade the fertile soil of rain forest.
c. 2 and 3 d. 3 only 13� When the bark of a tree is removed in a circular
9� The 2004 Tsunami made people realize that man- fashion all around near its base, it generally dries
groves can serve as a reliable safety hedge against up and dies because
coastal calamities� How do mangroves function as a a. Water from soil cannot rise to aerial parts.
safety hedge? b. Roots are starved of energy
a. The mangroves swaps separate the human settle- c. Tree is infected by soil microbes
ments from the sea by a wide zone in which people d. Roots do not receive oxygen for respiration
neither live nor venture out
b. The mangroves provide both food and medicines CLIMATE CHANGE
which people are in need of after any natural dis-
aster. 14� Consider the following:
c. The mangroves trees are tall with dense canopies 1. Photosynthesis
and serve as an excellent shelter during a cyclone 2. Respiration
or tsunami
3. Decay of organic matter
d. The mangroves trees do not get uprooted by storms 4. Volcanic action
and tides because of their extensive roots.
Which of the above add carbon dioxide to the carbon
10� There is a concern over the increase in harmful cycle on Earth?
algal blooms in the seawaters of India� What a. 1 and 4 only b. 2 and 3 only
could be the causative factors for this
phenomenon? c. 2,3 and 4 only d. 1, 2, 3 and 4
1. Discharge of nutrients from the estuaries. 15� Consider the following:

2. Run-off from the land during the monsoon. 1. Carbon dioxide
3. Upwelling in the seas. 2. Oxides of Nitrogen
3. Oxides of Sulphur 3. Customs Act, 1962
Which of the above is/are the emission / emissions 4. Indian Forest Act, 1927
from coal combustion at thermal power plants? Which of above Acts have relevance to / bearing on the
a. 1 only b. 2 and 3 only biodiversity conservation in the country?
c. 1 and 3 only d. 1,2 and 3 a. 1 and 3 only b. 2,3 and 4 only
16� The formation of ozone hole in the Antartic region c. 1,2,3 and 4 d. None of the above Acts
has been a cause of concern� What could be the rea-
son for the formation of this hole?
a. Presence of prominent tropospheric turbulence; and
CURRENT AFFAIRS
inflow of chlorofluoro carbons
19. Recently, ‘oilzapper’ was in the news. What is it?
b. Presence of prominent polar front and stratospheric
a. It is an eco-friendly technology for the remediation
clouds; and inflow of chloro fluorocarbons
of oil sludge and oil spills.
c. Absence of polar front and stratospheric clouds; and
b. It is the latest technology developed for under-sea
inflow of methane and chloro fluorocarbons.
oil exploration.
d. Increased temperature at polar region due to global
warming c. It is a genetically engineered high biofuel yielding
maize variety.
17� Regarding “carbon credits”, which one of the follow-
d. It is the latest technology to control the accidentally
ing statements is not correct?
caused flames from oil wells.
a. The carbon credit system was ratified in conjunc-
tion with the Kyoto Protocol
b. Carbon credits are awarded to countries or groups MAP BASED QUESTION
that have reduced greenhouse gases below their
emission quota 20� Two important rivers – one with its source in
c. The goal of the carbon credit system is to limit the Jharkhand (and known by a different name in Odi-
increase of carbon emission quota sha), and another, with its source in Odisha – merge
d. Carbon credits are traded at a price fixed from time at a place only a short distance from the coast of Bay
to time by the United Nations Environment Pro- of Bengal before flowing into the sea. This is an im-
gramme. portant site of wildlife and bio-diversity and a pro-
tected area� Which one of the following could be
ACT & POLICIES this?
a. Bhitarkanika
18� With reference to India, consider the following Cen-
b. Chandipur-on-sea
tral Acts:
c. Gopalpur-on-sea
1. Import and Export (Control) Act, 1947.
2. Mining and Mineral Development (Regulation) Act, 1957 d. Simlipal
2011 - Answers
1(c) 2(c) 3(d) 4(b) 5(b) 6(b) 7(b) 8(b) 9(d) 10(d)
11(b) 12(a) 13(a) 14(c) 15(d) 16(b) 17(d) 18(c) 19(a) 20(a)
 
2012 QUESTION PAPER
1� Which of the following can be threats to the biodiver- 5� Consider the following:
sity of a geographical area? 1. Black-necked crane
1. Global warming 2. Cheetah
2. Fragmentation of habitat 3. Flying squirrel
3. Invasion of alien species 4. Snow leopard
4. Promotion of vegetarianism Which of the above are naturally found in India?
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. a. 1,2 and 3 only b. 1,3 and 4 only
a. 1, 2 and 3 only b. 2 and 3 only
c. 2 and 4 only d. 1,2,3 and 4
c. 1 and 4 only d. 1, 2, and 4
6� Consider the following kinds of organisms
2� In which one among the following categories of pro-
1. Bat
tected areas in India are local people not allowed to
collect and use the biomass? 2. Bee
a. Biosphere Reserves 3. Bird
b. National Parks Which of the above is/are pollinating agent / agents?
c. Wetlands declared under Ramsar Convention a. 1 and 2 only b. 2 only
d. Wildlife Sanctuaries c. 1 and 3 only d. 1, 2 and 3
3� Consider the following protected areas 7� Which one of the following groups of animals be-
1. Bandipur longs to the category of endangered species?
2. Bhitarkanika a. Great Indian Bustard, Musk Deer, Red Panda and

Asiatic Wild Ass
3. Manas
b. Kashmir Stag, Cheetal, Blue Bull and Great Indian
4. Sunderbans
Bustard
Which of the above are declared Tiger Reserves?
c. Snow Leopard, Swamp Deer, Rhesus Monkey and
a. 1, 3 and 2 only Saras (Crane)
b. 1, 3 and 4 only d. Lion-tailed Macaque, Blue Bull, Hanuman Langur
c. 2, 3 and 4 only and Cheetal
d. 1, 2, 3 and 4 8� What would happen if phytoplankton of an ocean is
4. What is the difference between the antelopes Oryx completely destroyed for some reason?
and Chiru? 1. The ocean as a carbon sink would be adversely af-
a. Oryx is adapted to live in hot and arid areas fected.
whereas Chiru is adapted to live in steppes and 2. The food chains in the ocean would be adversely
semi-desert areas of cold high mountains. affected.
b. Oryx is poached for its antlers whereas Chiru is 3. The density of ocean water would drastically de-
poached for its musk. crease.
c. Oryx exists in western India only whereas Chiru Select the using codes given below:
exists in north-east India only.
a. 1 and 2 only b. 2 only
d. None of the statements a, b, and c given above is
c. 3 only d. 1,2 and 3
correct.
9� With reference to the wetlands of India, consider the 13� The acidification of oceans is increasing. Why is this
following statements: phenomenon a cause of concern?
1. The country’s total geographical area under the 1. The growth and survival of calcareous phytoplank-
category of wetlands is recorded more in Gujarat as ton will be adversely affected.
compared to other States.
2. The growth and survival of coral reefs will be ad-
2. In India, the total geographical area of coastal wet- versely affected.
lands is larger than that of inland wetlands.
3. The survival of some animals that have phytoplanktonic
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
larvae will be adversely affected.
a. 1 only b. 2 only
4. The cloud seeding and formation of clouds will be
c. Both 1 and 2 d. Neither 1 nor 2 adversely affected.
10� Vultures which used to be very common in Indian Which of statements given above is / are correct?
countryside some years age are rarely seen nowa-
a. 1,2 and 3 only b. 2 only
days� This is attributed to
a. the destruction of their nesting sites by new inva- c. 1 and 3 only d. 1,2,3 and 4
sive species.
b. a drug used by cattle owners for treating their dis-
eased cattle.
ACT & POLICIES
c. scarcity of food available to them
d. a widespread, persistent and fatal disease among 14� The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 was enacted in
them consonance with which of the following provisions of the
Constitution of India?
1. Right to healthy environment, construed as a part of
CLIMATE CHANGE part of Right to life under Article 21.
2. Provision of grants for raising the level of adminis-
11� Consider the following statements: Chlorofluorocar- tration in the Scheduled Areas for the welfare of
bons, known as ozone- depleting substances, are Scheduled Tribes under Article 275(1)
used
1. in the production of plastic foams
a. 1 only b. 2 only
2. in the production of tubeless tyres
c. Both 1 and 2 d. Neither 1 nor 2
3. in cleaning certain electronic components
4. as pressurizing agents in aerosol cans 15� How does National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)
help in protecting the Indian agriculture?
1. NBA checks the biopiracy and protects the indige-
a. 1, 2 and 3 only b. 4 only nous and traditional genetic resources.
c. 1, 3 and 4 only d. 1, 2, 3 and 4 2. NBA directly monitors and supervises the scientific
12� The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air research on genetic modification of crop plants.
is slowly raising the temperature of the atmosphere, 3. Application for intellectual Property Rights related
because it absorbs to genetic / biological resources cannot be made
a. the water vapour of the air and retains its heat. without the approval of NBA.
b. the ultraviolet part of the solar radiation. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
c. all the solar radiations. a. 1 only b. 2 and 3 only
d. the infrared part of the solar radiation c. 1 and 3 only d. 1, 2 and 3
CURRENT AFFAIRS MAP BASED QUESTION
16� Government of India encourages the cultivation 17� A particular State in India has the following charac-
of ‘sea buckthorn’� What is the importance of this teristics:
plant? 1. It is located on the same latitude which passes
a. It helps in controlling soil erosion and in preventing through northern Rajasthan.
desertification. 2. It has over 80% of its area under forest cover.
b. It is a rich source of biodiesel. 3. Over 12% of forest cover constitutes Protected Area
c. It has nutritional value and is well-adapted to live Network in this State.
in cold areas of high altitudes. Which one among the following States has all the above
characteristics?
d. Its timber is of great commercial value.
a. Arunachal Pradesh b. Assam
c. Himachal Pradesh d. Uttarakhand
2012 - Answers
1 (a) 2 (b) 3 (b) 4 (a) 5 (b) 6 (d) 7 (a) 8 (a) 9 (a) 10 (b)
11 (d) 12 (d) 13 (a) 14 (a) 15 (c) 16 (a) 17 (a)
(Q�no� 7 is disputed)
 
2013 QUESTION PAPER
ENVIRONMENTAL ECOLOGY, BIODIVERSITY, CLIMATE CHANGE, ACT &

POLICIES, CURRENT AFFAIRS AND MAP BASED QUESTIONS
1� Consider the following statements: 6� Mycorrhizal biotechnology has been used in reha-
Which one among the following industries is the bilitating degraded sites because mycorrhiza enables
maximum consumer of water in India? the plants to
(a) Engineering (b) Paper and pulp 1. Resist drought and increase absorptive area
(c) Textiles (d) Thermal power 2. Tolerate extremes of pH
2� Fruits stored in a cold chamber exhibit longer stor- 3. Resist disease infestation
age life because Select the correct answer using the code given below
(a) Exposure to sunlight is prevented (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(b) Concentration of carbon dioxide in the environment (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
is increased
(c) Rate of respiration is decreased 7� With reference to the food chains in ecosystems,
which of the following kinds of organism is/are
(d) There is an increase in humidity
known as decomposer organism/organisms?
3� Consider the following fauna of India: 1. Virus 2. Fungi
1. Gharial 3. Bacteria
2. Leatherback turtle
Select the correct answer using the code given below
3. Swamp deer
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
Which of the above is/are endangered?
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None 8. Which of the following is/are unique characteristic/
characteristics of equatorial forests?
4� Many transplanted seedling do not grow because
1. Presence of tall, closely set trees with crowns form-
(a) the new soil does not contain favourable minerals ing a continuous canopy.
(b) most of the root hairs grip the new soil too hard 2. Coexistence of a large number of species.
(c) most of the root hair are lost during transplantation 3. Presence of numerous varieties of epiphytes.
(d) leaves get damaged during transplantation Select the correct answer using the code given below
5. Which of the following leaf modification occurs/ (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
occur in desert areas to inhibit water loss? (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
1. Hard and waxy leaves
9� Consider the following crops:
2. Tiny leaves or no leaves
1. Cotton 2. Groundnut
3. Thorns instead of leaves
3. Rice 4. Wheat
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: Which of these are Kharif crops?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (a) 1 and 4 (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1 2, and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4
10� “Climate is extreme, rainfall is scanty and the people 15� With reference to food chains in ecosystems, con-
used to be nomadic herders”� sider the following statements:
The above statement best describes which of the 1. A food chain illustrates the order in which a chain
following regions?
of organisms feed upon each other.
(a) African Savannah
2. Food chains are found within the populations of a
(b) Central Asian Steppe
species.
(c) North American Prairie
(d) Siberian Tundra 3. A food chain illustrates the numbers of each organ-
ism which are eaten by others.
11� Under the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional
Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
2006, who shall be the authority to initiate the pro- (a) 1 only (doubt) (b) 1 and 2 only
cess for determining the nature and extent of indi-
vidual or community forest rights or both? (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None (Doubt)
(a) State Forest Department 16� Consider the following pairs:
(b) District Collector / Deputy Commissioner National Park River flowing through
(c) Tahsildar / Block Development Officer / Mandal
the Park
Revenue Officer
(d) Gram Sabha 1. Corbett National Park : Ganga
2. Kaziranga National Park : Manas
12� Improper handling and storage of cereal grains and
oilseeds result in the production of toxins known as 3. Silent Valley National Park : Kaveri
aflatoxins which are not generally destroyed by nor- Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
mal cooking process. Aflatoxins are produced by
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 3 only
(a) bacteria (b) protozoa
(c) moulds (d) viruses (c) 1 and 3 (d) None
13. Due to improper / indiscriminate disposal of old and 17� Consider the following organisms:
used computers or their parts, which of the follow- 1. Agaricus 2. Nostoc
ing are released into the environment as e-waste?
3. Spirogyra
1. Beryllium 5. Mercury
2. Cadmium 6. Lead Which of the above is/are used as biofertilizer/
3. Chromium 7. Plutonium biofertilizers?
4. Heptachlor (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only
(a) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only 18. Which of the following adds/add nitrogen to the soil?
(b) 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only
1. Execretion of urea by animals
(c) 2, 4, 5 and 7 only
2. Burning of coal by man
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
3. Death of vegetation
14� Acid rain is caused by the pollution of environment
by Select the correct answer using the codes given
(a) carbon dioxide and nitrogen below.
(b) carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) ozone and carbon dioxide (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) nitrous oxide and sulphur dioxide
19� In which of the following States is lion-tailed ma- Select the correct answer using the codes given
caque found in its natural habitat? below.
1. Tamil Nadu 2. Kerala (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 4 and 5 only
3. Karnataka 4. Andhra Pradesh (c) 1,3 and 5 only (d) None
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
codes 25� Consider the following Animals
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only 1. Sea cow 2. Sea horse
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 3. Sea lion
20� Which one of the following terms describes not only Which of the above is / are mammal/mammals?
the physical space occupied by an organism, but also (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 3 only
its functional role in the community of organisms?
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1,2 and 3
(a) Ecotone (b) Ecological niche
(c) Habitat (d) Home range 26� With Reference to the usefulness of the by-products
of sugar industry, which of the following statements
21� Photochemical smog is a resultant of the reaction
is/are correct?
among
(a) NO2, O3 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence of 1. Begasse can be used as biomass fuel for the gen-
sunlinght eration of energy
(b) CO, O2 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence of 2. Molasses can be used as one of the feedstocks for
sunlight the production of synthetic chemical fertilizers.
(c) CO, CO2 and NO2 at low temperature 3. Molasses can be used for the production of
(d) high concentration of NO2 O3 and CO in the evening ethanol.
22� Recombinant DNA technology (Genetic Engineering) Select the correct answer using the codes given
allows genes to be transferred below
1. across different species of plants (a) only (b) and 3 only
2. from animals to plants (c) and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
3. from microorganisms to higher organisms
27� Consider the following pairs:
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
1. Nokrek Bio-sphere Reserve : Garo Hills
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 2. Logtak (Loktak) Lake : Barail Range
3. Namdapha National Park : Dafla Hills
23� Consider the following:
1. Star tortoise 2. Monitor lizard Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
3. Pygmy hog 4. Spider monkey (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
Which of the above are naturally found in India? (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only
28� In the grasslands, trees do not replace the grasses
(c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1, 2 3 and 4
as a part of an ecological succession because of
24� Which of the following can be found as pollutants in (a) Insects and fungi
the drinking water in some parts of India?
1. Arsenic 2. Sorbitol (b) Limited sunlight and paucity of nutrients
3. Fluoride 4. Formaldehyde (c) Water limits and fire
5. Uranium (d) None of the above
29� Which of the following is the correct sequence of 30� Contour bunding is a method of soil conservation
ecosystems in the order of decreasing productivity? used in
(a) Oceans, lakes, grasslands, mangroves (a) Desert margins, liable to strong wind action
(b) Mangroves, oceans, grasslands, lakes (b) Low flat plains, close to stream course, liable to
flooding
(c) Mangroves, grasslands, lakes, oceans
(c) Scrublands, liable to spread of weed growth
(d) Oceans, mangroves, lakes, grasslands.
(d) None of the above
2013 - Answers
1(d) 2(c) 3(d) 4(c) 5(d) 6(d) 7(b) 8(d) 9(c) 10(b)
11(d) 12(c) 13(b) 14(d) 15{a (or) (d) doubt} 16(d) 17(b) 18(c) 19(a) 20(b)
21(a) 22(d) 23(a) 24(c) 25(b) 26(c) 27(a) 29(c) 30(d)

28(c)
 
2014 QUESTION PAPER
ENVIRONMENTAL ECOLOGY, 3. Gulf of Mannar

BIODIVERSITY, CLIMATE CHANGE, ACT 4. Sunderbans
& POLICIES, CURRENT AFFAIRS AND Select the correct answer using the code given below.
MAP BASED QUESTIONS (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 4 only
1� With reference to ‘Eco-Sensitive Zones’, which of the (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
following statements is/are correct? 5� In India, the problem of soil erosion is associated
1. Eco-Sensitive Zones are the areas that are declared with which of the following?
under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. 1. Terrace cultivation
2. The purpose of the declaration of Eco-Sensitive 2. Deforestation
Zones is to prohibit all kinds of human activities in 3. Tropical Climate
those zones except agriculture.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
6� Consider the following Pairs:
2� Consider the following statements: Wetlands Confluence of rivers
1. Animal Welfare Board of India is established under 1. Harike Wetlands : Confluence of Beas and
the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Satluj / Sutlej
2. National Tiger Conservation Authority is a statutory 2. Keoladeo Ghana : Confluence of National Park
body. Banas and Chambal
3. National Ganga River Basin Authority is chaired by 3. Kolleru Lake : Confluence of Musi and
the Prime Minister. Krishna
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3
(c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
3� There is some concern regarding the nanoparticles 7� The most important strategy for the conservation of
of some chemical elements that are used by the in- biodiversity together with traditional human life is
dustry in the manufacture of various products� the establishment of
Why? (a) biosphere reserves
1. They can accumulate in the environment, and con- (b) botanical gardens
taminate water and soil. (c) national parks
2. They can enter the food chains. (d) wildlife sanctuaries
3. They can trigger the production of free radicals. 8. The scientific view is that the increase in global tem-
Select the correct answer using the code given below. perature should not exceed 2°C above pre-industrial
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only level� If the global temperature increases beyond 3°C
above the pre-industrial level, what can be its pos-
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 sible impact/impacts on the world?
4. Which of the following have coral reefs? 1. Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a net carbon
1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands source
2. Gulf of Kachchh 2. Widespread coral mortality will occur
3. All the global wetlands will permanently disappear. 13� Every year, a month long ecologically important
4. Cultivation of cereals will not be possible anywhere campaign / festival is held during which certain
in the world communities / tribes plant saplings of fruit-bearing
trees� Which of the following are such communities
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
/ tribes?
(a) Bhutia and Lepcha
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(b) Gond and Korku
9. What are the benefits of implementing the Inte- (c) Irula and Toda
grated Watershed Development Programme?
(d) Sahariya and Agariya
1. Prevention of soil runoff
14� With reference to two non-conventional energy
2. Linking the country’s perennial rivers with sea-
sources called ‘coalbed methane’ and ‘shale gas’,
sonal rivers
consider the following statements:
3. Rainwater harvesting and recharge of groundwater
table. 1. Coalbed methane is the pure methane gas extracted
from coal seams, while shale gas is a mixture of
4. Regeneration of natural vegetation. propane and butane only that can be extracted from
Select the correct answer using the code given below: fine-grained sedimentary rocks.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only 2. In India, abundant coalbed methane sources exist,
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 but so far no shale gas sources have been found.
10� Lichens, which are capable of initiating ecological Which of the statements given above is / are correct?
succession even on a bare rock, are actually a sym- (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
biotic association of (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(a) algae and bacteria
15� In India, cluster bean (Guar) is traditionally used as
(b) algae and fungi a vegetable or animal feed, but recently the cultiva-
(c) bacteria and fungi tion of this has assumed significance. Which one of
(d) fungi and mosses the following statements is correct in this context?
(a) The oil extracted from seeds is used in the manu-
11� If you travel through the Himalayas, you are likely
facture of biodegradable plastics
to see which of the following plants naturally grow-
ing there? (b) The gun made from its seeds is used in the extrac-
tion of shale gas
1. Oak 2. Rhododendron
(c) The leaf extract of this plant has the properties of
3. Sandalwood
anti-histamines
(d) It is a source of high quality biodiesel
16� With reference to Neem tree, consider the following
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
statements:
12� Which of the following are some important pollut- 1. Neem oil can be used as a pesticide to control the
ants released by steel industry in India? proliferation of some species of insects and mites.
1. Oxides of sulphur 2. Neem seeds are used in the manufacture of biofuels
2. Oxides of nitrogen and hospital detergents.
3. Carbon monoxide 3. Neem oil has applications in pharmaceutical indus-
4. Carbon dioxide try.
Select the correct answer using the code given below. Which of the statements given above is / are correct?
(a) 1, 3 and 4 only (b) 2 and 3 only (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
17� Which one of the following is the process involved 3. It is a movement to raise the awareness about the
in photosynthesis? climate change and the need to save the planet.
(a) Potential energy is released to form free energy Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(b) Free energy is converted into potential energy and (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only
stored (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) Food is oxidized to release carbon dioxide and water
22� Which one of the following is the correct sequence
(d) Oxygen is taken, and carbon dioxide and water va-
of a food chain?
pour are given out
(a) Diatoms-Crustaceans-Herrings.
18. Which of the following statements is / are correct
(b) Crustaceans-Diatoms-Herrings.
regarding vegetative propagation of plants?
(c) Diatoms-Herrings-Crustaceans.
1. Vegetative propagation produces clonal population.
(d) Crustaceans-Herrings-Diatoms.
2. Vegetative propagation helps in eliminating the
virus. 23. What are the significances of a practical approach
3. Vegetative propagation can be practiced most of the to sugarcane production known as ‘Sustainable Sug-
year. arcane Initiative’?
Select the correct answer using the code given below: 1. Seed cost is very low in this compared to the con-
ventional method of cultivation.
2. Drip irrigation can be practiced very effectively in
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
this.
19� Among the following organisms, which one does not 3. There is no application of chemical/inorganic ferti-
belong to the class of other three? lizers at all in this.
(a) Crab (b) Mite 4. The scope for inter cropping is more in this com-
(c) Scorpion (d) Spider pared to the conventional method of cultivation.
20� Consider the following international agreements: Select the correct answer using the code given below.
1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only
for Food and Agriculture. (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Deserti-
24� If a wetland of international importance is brought
fication.
under the ‘Montreux Record’, what does it imply?
3. The World Heritage Convention.
(a) Changes in ecological character have occurred, are
Which of the above has/have a bearing on the occurring or are likely to occur in the wetland as a
biodiversity? result of human interference.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (b) The country in which the wetland is located should
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 enact a law to prohibit any human activity within
five kilometers from the edge of the wetland.
21� Consider the following statements regarding ‘Earth
Hour’ (c) The survival of the wetland depends on the cultural
practices and traditions of certain communities liv-
1. It is an initiative of UNEP and UNESCO.
ing in its vicinity and therefore the cultural diver-
2. It is a movement in which the participants switch sity therein should not be destroyed.
off the lights for one hour on a certain day every
(d) It is given the status of ‘World Heritage Site’.
year.
25� With reference to Bombay Natural History Society Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(BNHS), consider the following statements: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
1. It is an autonomous organization under the Minis- (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
try of Environment and Forests.
29� Which of the following phenomena might have in-
2. It strives to conserve nature through action based fluenced the evolution of organisms?
research, education and public awareness.
1. Continental drift 2. Glacial cycles
3. It organizes and conducts nature trails and camps Select the correct answer using the code given below.
for the general public.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
30� Other than poaching, what are the possible reasons
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 for the decline in the population of Ganges River
26� With reference to ‘Global Environment Facility’, Dolphins?
which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. Construction of dams and barrages on rivers.
(a) It serves as financial mechanism for ‘Convention on 2. Increase in the population of crocodiles in rivers.
Biological Diversity’ and ‘United Nations Frame- 3. Getting trapped in fishing nets accidentally.
work Convention on Cliamte Change’. 4. Use of synthetic fertilizers and other agricultural
(b) It undertakes scientific research on environmental chemicals in crop-fields in the vicinity of rivers.
issues at global level. Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(c) It is an agency under OECD to facilitate the transfer (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
of technology and funds to underdeveloped coun- (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
tries with specific aim to protect their environment.
31. Brominated flame retardants are used in many
(d) Both (a) and (b).
household products like mattresses and upholstery�
27� Consider the following pairs: Why is there some concern about their use?
1. Dampa Tiger Reserve : Mizoram 1. They are highly resistant to degradation in the en-
2. Gumti Wildlife Sanctuary : Sikkim vironment.
2. They are able to accumulate in humans and animals.
3. Saramati Peak : Nagaland
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
32� Consider the following:
28� With reference to a conservation organization called
1. Bats 2. Bears
‘Wetlands International’, which of the following
statements is/are correct? 3. Rodents
1. It is an intergovernmental organization formed by The phenomenon of hibernation can be observed in

which of the above kinds of animals?
the countries which are signatories to Ramsar Con-
vention. (a) 1 and 2 only
2. It works at the field level to develop and mobilize (b) 2 only
knowledge, and use the practical experience to ad- (c) 1, 2 and 3
vocate for better policies. (d) Hibernation cannot be observed in any of the above.
33. Which of the following adds/add carbon dioxide to 34� If you walk through countryside, you are likely to see
the carbon cycle on the planet Earth? some birds stalking alongside the cattle to seize the
1. Volcanic action 2. Respiration insects disturbed by their movement through grasses�
Which of the following is / are such bird/birds?
3. Photosynthesis
1. Painted Stork 2. Common Myna
4. Decay of organic matter
3. Black-necked Crane
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only
2014 - Answers
1(d) 2(b) 3(d) 4(a) 5(b) 6(a) 7(a) 8(b) 9(c) 10(b) 11(a) 12(d) 13(b) 14(d) 15(b) 16(c) 17(b)
18(c) 19(a) 20(d) 21(c) 22(a) 23(b) 24(a) 25(c) 26(a) 27(c) 28(b) 29(c) 30(c) 31(c) 32(c) 33(c) 34(b)
 
2015 QUESTION PAPER
1� Which one of the following National Parks has a 5� In India, in which one of the following types of for-
climate that varies from tropical to subtropical, tem- ests is teak a dominant tree species?
perate and arctic?
a) Tropical moist deciduous forest
a) Khangchendzonga National park
b) Tropical rain forest
b) Nandadevi National Park
c) Tropical thorn scrub forest
c) Neora Valley National Park
d) Temperate forest with grasslands
d) Namdapha National park
2� ‘BioCarbon Fund Initiative for Sustainable Forest 6� Which one of the following is the best description of
Landscapes’ is managed by the the term “ecosystem”?
(a) Asian Development Bank a) A community of organisms interacting with one
(b) International Monetary Fund another
(c) United Nations Environment Programme b) That part of the Earth which is inhabited by living
(d) World Bank organisms
c) A community of organisms together with the envi-
3� The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee is
ronment in which they live.
constituted under the
(a) Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 d) The flora and fauna of a geographical area.
(b) Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration 7� H1N1 virus is sometimes mentioned in the news with
and Protection) Act, 1999 reference to which one of the following diseases?
(c) Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (a) AIDS (b) Bird flu
(d) Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (c) Dengue (d) swine flu
4� With reference to ‘Forest Carbon Partnership Facil- 8� Which of the following National Parks is unique in
ity’, which of the following statements is/are cor-
being a swamp with floating vegetation that sup-
rect?
ports a rich biodiversity?
1. It is global partnership of governments, businesses,
a) Bhitarkanika National Park
civil society and indigenous peoples
b) Keibul Lamjao National Park
2. It provides financial aid to universities, individual
scientists and institutions involved in scientific for- c) Keoladeo Ghana National park
estry research to develop eco-friendly and climate d) Sultanpur National park
adaptation technologies for sustainable forest man-
9� With reference to the International Union for Con-
agement
servation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
3. It assists the countries in their ‘REDD+ (Reducing and the Convention on International Trade in En-
Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degrada- dangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES),
tion+)’ efforts by providing them with financial and which of the following statements is/are correct?
technical assistance. 1. IUCN is an organ of the United Nations and CITES
Select the correct answer using the code given is an international agreement between govern-
below ments
a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only 2. IUCN runs thousands of field projects around the
c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 world to better manage natural environments.
3. CITES is legally binding on the States that have 13� Which one of the following regions of India has a
joined it, but this Convention does not take the place combination of mangrove forest, evergreen forest
of national laws. and deciduous forest?
Select the correct answer using the code given below. a) North Coastal Andhra Pradesh
a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only b) South-West Bengal
c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 c) Southern Saurashtra
d) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
10. With reference to ‘fly ash’ produced by the power
plants using the coal as fuel, which of the following 14� Which one of the following is associated with the
statements is/are correct? issue of control and phasing out of the use of ozone-
1. Fly ash can be used in the production of bricks for depleting substances?
building construction a) Bretton Woods Conference
2. Fly ash can be used as a replacement for some of b) Montreal Protocol
the Portland cement contents of concrete c) Kyoto Protocol
3. Fly ash is made up of silicon dioxide and calcium d) Nagoya Protocol
oxide only, and does not contain any toxic elements.
15� What is Rio+20 Conference, often mentioned in the
news?
a) 1 and 2 b) 2 only
a) It is the United nations Conference on Sustainable
c) 1 and 3 d) 3 only
Development
11� With reference to ‘dugong’, a mammal found in b) It is a Ministerial Meeting of the World Trade Or-
India, which of the following statements is/are cor-
ganization
rect?
c) It is a Conference of the Inter-governmental Panel
1. It is a herbivorous marine animal.
on Climate Change
2. It is found along the entire coast of India
d) It is a Conference of the Member Countries of the
3. It is given legal protection under Schedule 1 of the
Convention on Biological Diversity
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
Select the correct answer using the code given below. 16� Which of the following statements regarding ‘Green
Climate Fund’ is/are correct?
a) 1 and 2 b) 2 only
1. It is intended to assist the developing countries in
c) 1 and 3 d) 3 only adaptation and mitigation practices to counter cli-
12� Which one of the following is the national aquatic mate change.
animal of India? 2. It is founded under the aegis of UNEP, OECD, Asian
a)Saltwater crocodile Development Bank and World Bank
b) Olive ridley turtle Select the correct answer using the code given below.
c) Gangetic dolphin a) 1 only b) 2 only
d) Gharial c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
2015 - Answers
1(d) 2(d) 3(c) 4(c) 5(a) 6(c) 7(d) 8(b) 9(b) 10(a) 11(c) 12(c) 13(d) 14(b) 15(a) 16(a)
 
2016 QUESTION PAPER
1� The FAO accords the status of ‘Globally Important Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Agricultural Heritage System (GIAHS)’ to traditional (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
agricultural systems� What is the overall goal of this
initiative? (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
1. To provide modern technology, training in modern 4� Recently, our scientists have discovered a new and
farming methods and financial support to local distinct species of banana plant which attains a
communities of identified GIAHS so as to greatly height of about 11 metres and has orange-coloured
enhance their agricultural productivity fruit pulp� In which part of India has it been discov-
2. To identify and safeguard eco-friendly traditional ered?
farm practices and their associated landscapers,
(a) Andaman Islands
agricultural biodiversity and knowledge systems of
the local communities (b) Anaimalai Forests
3. To provide Geographical Indication status to all the (c) Maikala Hills
varieties of agricultural produce in such identified (d) Tropical rain forests of northeast
GIAHS
Select the correct answer using the code given below. 5. What is/are unique about ‘Kharai Camel’, a breed
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only found in India?
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 1. It is capable of swimming up to three kilometres in
seawater.
2� Consider the following pairs:
2. It survives by grazing on mangroves.
Terms sometimes Their origin seen in the news
3. It lives in the wild and cannot be domesticated.
1. Annex—I Countries : Cartagena Protocol
2. Certified Emissions Reductions: Nagoya Protocol Select the correct answer using the code given below.
3. Clean Development Mechanism: Kyoto Protocol (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
matched?
6� With reference to an initiative called ‘The Economics
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)’, which of the
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 following statements is/are correct?
3. Which of the following best describes/ describe the 1. It is an initiative hosted by UNEP, IMF and World
aim of ‘Green India Mission’ of the Government of Economic Forum.
India?
2. It is a global initiative that focuses on drawing at-
1. Incorporating environmental benefits and costs into tention to the economic benefits of biodiversity.
the Union and State Budgets thereby implementing
the `green accounting’ 3. It presents an approach that can help decision-mak-
ers recognize, demonstrate and capture the value
2. Launching the second green revolution to enhance
agricultural output so as to ensure food security to of ecosystems and biodiversity.
one and all in the future Select the correct answer using the code given below.
3. Restoring and enhancing forest cover and respond- (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
ing to climate change by a combination of adapta-
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
tion and mitigation measures
7� With reference to ‘Red Sanders’, sometimes seen in 11. Which of the following statements is/are correct?
the news, consider the following statements: Viruses can infect
1. It is a tree species found in a part of South India. 1. bacteria
2. It is one of the most important trees in the tropical 2. fungi
rain forest areas of South India. 3. plants
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
12� ‘Gadgil Committee Report’ and ‘Kasturirangan Com-
8. Which of the following statements is/are correct? mittee Report’, sometimes seen in the news, are
Proper design and effective implementation of UN- related to
REDD+ Programme can significantly contribute to (a) constitutional reforms
1. protection of biodiversity (b) Ganga Action Plan
(c) linking of rivers
2. resilience of forest ecosystems
(d) protection of Western Ghats
3. poverty reduction
13. On which of the following can you find the Bureau of
Select the correct answer using the code given below. Energy Efficiency Star Label?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only 1. Ceiling fans
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 2. Electric geysers
9. What is ‘Greenhouse Gas Protocol’? 3. Tubular fluorescent lamps
(a) It is an international accounting tool for govern-
ment and business leaders to understand, quantify
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
and manage greenhouse gas emissions
(b) It is an initiative of the United Nations to offer fi- 14� Consider the following statements:
nancial incentives to developing countries to reduce 1. The International Solar Alliance was launched at
greenhouse gas emissions and to adopt eco-friendly the United Nations Climate Change Conference in
2015.
technologies
2. The Alliance includes all the member countries of
(c) It is an inter-governmental agreement ratified by the United Nations.
all the member countries of the United Nations to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions to specified levels
by the year 2022
(d) It is one of the multilateral REDD+ initiatives
hosted by the World Bank 15� In the cities of our country, which among the fol-
lowing atmospheric gases are normally considered
10� With reference to ‘Agenda 21’, sometimes seen in the in calculating the value of Air Quality Index?
news, consider the following statements: 1. Carbon dioxide
1. It is a global action plan for sustainable development 2. Carbon monoxide
2. It originated in the World Summit on Sustainable 3. Nitrogen dioxide
Development held in Johannesburg in 2002. 4. Sulfur dioxide
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 5. Methane
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (c) 1, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
16� With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC 19. What is/are the importance/importances of the
Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following ‘United Nations Convention to Combat Desertifi-
statements is/are correct? cation’?
1. The Agreement was signed by all the member coun- 1. It aims to promote effective action through innova-
tries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017. tive national programmes and supportive inter-
2. The Agreement aims to limit the greenhouse gas national partnerships.
emissions so that the rise in average global tem- 2. It has a special/particular focus on South Asia and
perature by the end of this century does not exceed
North Africa regions, and its Secretariat facilitates
2 °C or even 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels.
the allocation of major portion of financial re-
3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical sources to these regions.
responsibility in global warming and committed to
donate $ 1000 billion a year from 2020 to help de- 3. It is committed to bottom-up approach, encourag-
veloping countries to cope with climate change. ing the participation of local people in combating
Select the correct answer using the code given below. the desertification.
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
17� Consider the following statements:
1. The Sustainable Development Goals were first pro- 20� In which of the following regions of India are you
posed in 1972 by a global think tank called the ‘Club most likely to come across the `Great Indian Horn-
of Rome’. bill’ in its natural habitat?
2. The Sustainable Development Goals have to be (a) Sand deserts of northwest India
achieved by 2030.
(b) Higher Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir
(c) Salt marshes of western Gujarat
(d) Western Ghats
21� Which of the following are the key features of ‘Na-
18� The term ‘Intended Nationally Determined Contri-
tional Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA)?
butions’ is sometimes seen in the news in the con-
text of 1. River basin is the unit of planning and management.
(a) pledges made by the European countries to reha- 2. It spearheads the river conservation efforts at the
bilitate refugees from the war-affected Middle East national level.
(b) plan of action outlined by the countries of the world 3. One of the Chief Ministers of the States through
to combat climate change which the Ganga flows becomes the Chairman of
(c) capital contributed by the member countries in the NGRBA on rotation basis.
establishment of Asian Infrastructure Investment Select the correct answer using the code given Below.
Bank
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(d) plan of action outlined by the countries of the world
regarding Sustainable Development Goals (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
2016 - Answers
1(b) 2(c) 3(c) 4(a) 5(a) 6(c) 7(a) 8(d) 9(a) 10(a) 11(d)
12(d) 13(d) 14(a) 15(b) 16(b) 17(b) 18(b) 19(c) 20(d) 21(a)
 
2017 QUESTION PAPER
1� From the ecological point of view, which one of the 5� According to the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972,
following assumes importance in being a good link which of the following animals cannot be hunted by
between the Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats? any person except under some provisions provided
(a) Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve by law?
(b) Nallamala Forest 1. Gharial
(c) Nagarhole National Park 2. Indian wild ass
(d) Seshachalam Biosphere Reserve 3. Wild buffalo
2� Consider the following statements in respect of Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Trade Related Analysis of Fauna and Flora in (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
Commerce (TRAFFIC) :
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
1. TR AFFIC is a bureau under United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP). 6� With reference to ‘Global Climate Change
Alliance’, which of the following statements
2. The mission of TRAFFIC is to ensure that trade in
wild plants and animals is not a threat to the is/are correct?
conservation of nature. 1. It is an initiative of the European Union.
Which of the above statements is/are correct ? 2. It provides technical and financial support to
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only targeted developing countries to integrate climate
change into their development policies and budgets.
3. It is coordinated by World Resources Institute
3� Due to some reasons, if there is a huge fall in the
(WRI) and World Business Council for sustainable
population of species of butterflies, what could be
Development (WBCSD).
its likely consequence/consequences ?
1. Pollination of some plants could be adversely
affected. (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
2. There could be a drastic increase in the fungal (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
infections of some cultivated plants.
7� Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard cri-
3. it could lead to a fall in the population of some terion for
species of wasps, spiders and birds.
(a) Measuring oxygen levels in blood
(b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems
(c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystems
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Assessing oxygen levels in high altitude regions
4� In the context of mitigating the impending global
warming due to anthropogenic emissions of carbon 8� Consider the following statements :
dioxide, which of the following can be the potential 1. Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) to Reduce
sites for carbon sequestration ? Short Lived Climate Pollutants is a unique initiative
1. Abandoned and uneconomic coal seams of G20 group of countries.
2. Depleted oil and gas reservoirs 2. The CCAC focuses on methane, black carbon and
3. Subterranean deep saline formations hydrofluorocarbons.
Select the correct answer using the code given below: Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
9� If you want to see gharials in their natural habitat, (c) It is endemic to a particular region of India.
which one of the following is the best place to visit?
(d) Both (b) and (c) stated above are correct in this
(a) Bhitarkanika Mangroves context.
(b) Chambal River
11� Recently there was a proposal to “translocate some
(c) Pulicat Lake (d) Deepor Beel
of the lions from their natural habitat in
10� In India, if a species of tortoise is declared protected Gujarat to which one of the following sites ?
under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act,
1972, what does it imply ? (a) Corbett National Park
(a) It enjoys the same level of protection as the tiger. (b) Kuno Palpur Wildlife Sanctuary
(b) It no longer exists in the wild, a few individuals are (c) Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary
under captive protection; and now it is impossible
(d) Sariska National Park
to prevent its extinction.
2017 - Answers
1(a) 2(b) 3(c) 4(d) 5(d) 6(a) 7(c) 8(b) 9(b) 10(a) 11(b)
 
2018 QUESTION PAPER
1� How is the National Green Tribunal (NGT) different 4� Which of the following is/are the possible
from the Central Pollution Control Board ( CPCB) ? consequence/s of heavy sand mining in riverbeds?
1. The NGT has been established by an Act whereas 1. Decreased salinity in the river
the CPCB has been created by an executive order of 2. Pollution of groundwater
the Government. 3. Lowering of the water-table
2. The NGT provides environmental justice and helps Select the correct answer using the code given below:
reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
whereas the CPCB promotes cleanliness of streams
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
and wells, and aims to improve the quality of air in
the country. 5� With reference to agricultural soils, consider the
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? following statements
(a) 1 only 1. A high content of organic matter in soil drastically
reduces its water holding capacity.
(b) 2 only
2. Soil does not play any role in the sulphur cycle.
(c) Both 1 and 2
3. Irrigation over a period of time can contribute to
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 the salinization of some agricultural lands.
2� With reference to the ‘Global Alliance for Climate- Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Smart Agriculture (GACSA)’, which of the following (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
statements is/are correct ? (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
1. GACSA is an outcome of the Climate Summit held
6� The Partnership for Action on Green Economy
in Paris in 2015. (PAGE), a UN mechanism to assist countries transi-
2. Membership of GACSA does not create any binding tion towards greener and more inclusive economies,
obligations. emerged at
3. India was instrumental in the creation of GACSA. (a) The Earth Summit on Sustainable Development
Select the correct answer using the code given below: 2002, Johannesburg
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) The United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development 2012, Rio de Janeiro
(b) 2 only
(c) The United Nations Framework Convention on
(c) 2 and 3 only Climate Change 2015, Paris
(d) 1, 2 and 3 (d) The World Sustainable Development Summit 2016,
3� Which of the following statements best describes New Delhi
“carbon fertilization” ? 7� Consider the following statements:
(a) Increased plant growth due to increased concentra- 1. Most of the world’s coral reefs are in tropical
tion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere waters.
(b) Increased temperature of Earth due to increased 2. More than one-third of the world’s coral reefs are
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere located in the territories of Australia, Indonesia and
Philippines.
(c) Increased acidity of oceans as a result of increased
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere 3. Coral reefs host far more number of animal phyla
than those hosted by tropical rainforests.
(d) Adaptation of all living beings on Earth to the cli-
mate change brought about by the increased con-
centration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
8� “Momentum for Change: Climate Neutral Now” is 10� Consider the following statements:
an initiative launched by 1. The definition of “Critical Wildlife Habitat” is incor-
(a) The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change porated in the Forest Rights Act, 2006.
(b) The UNEP Secretariat 2. For the first time in India, Baigas have been given
(c) The UNFCCC Secretariat Habitat Rights.
(d) The World Meteorological Organization 3. Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change officially decides and declares Habitat
9� In which one of the following States is Pakhui Wild- Rights for Primitive and Vulnerable Tribal Groups
life Sanctuary located? in any part of India.
(a) Arunachal Pradesh Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(b) Manipur (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) Meghalaya (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Nagaland
2018 - Answers
1(b) 2(b) 3(a) 4(b) 5(b) 6(b) 7(d) 8(c) 9(a) 10(a)
PART - I
CHAPTER - 1
ECOLOGY
E cology ‘Oikos’ meaning home or place to live in and

‘logos’ meaning study. Literally it is the study of the
home of nature.
Ecology is defined “as a scientific study of the relationship
The environment is defined as ‘the sum total of living,
non-living components; influences and events, surrounding
an organism.
All organisms (from virus to man) are obligatorily depend-
of the living organisms with each other and with their ent on the other organism and environment for food, en-
environment.” ergy, water, oxygen, shelter and for other needs.
It deals with the ways in which organisms are moulded by The relationship and interaction between organism and
their environment, how they make use of environmental environment are highly complex. It comprises both living
resources including energy flow and mineral cycling. (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components.
The environment is not static. Both biotic and abiotic fac-
1.1. HISTORY OF ECOLOGY tors are in a flux and keeps changing continuously.
The roots of ecology lie in Natural History, which is as old
as human civilization itself. Since early history, man has Components of Environment
indulged in ecology in a practical sort of way, knowingly Abiotic Biotic
and unknowingly. In primitive societies every individual Energy Green plants
was required to have an intimate knowledge of his envi- Radiation Non-green plants
ronment for their survival, i.e., about the forces of nature Temperature & heat flow Decomposers
and of plants and animals around him/her. Water Parasites
Our ancient Indian texts have references to ecological prin- Atmospheric gases and wind Symbionts
ciples. The classical texts of the Vedic period such as the Fire Animals
Vedas, the Samhitas, the Brahmanas and the Aranyakas- Gravity Man
Upanishads contain many references to ecological concepts. Topography
The Indian treatise on medicine, the Charaka-Samhita and Soil
the surgical text Sushruta-Samhita, show that people during Geologic substratum
this period had a good understanding of plant and animal For instance: Let’s take the environment of a fish in the
ecology. pond.
These texts contain classification of animals on the basis
of habit and habitat, land in terms of nature of soil, climate External environment of fish
and vegetation; and description of plants typical to various • Its environment consists of abiotic components such as
localities. Charaka- Samhita contains information that air, light, temperature, including the water in which nutri-
land, water and seasons were indispensable for life and ents, oxygen, other gases and organic matter are dis-
that polluted air and water were injurious to health. solved.
• The biotic environment consists of microscopic organ-
1.2. ENVIRONMENT AND ITS COMPONENT isms called plankton which it assume as well as aquatic
Everything that surrounds or affects an organism during plants, animals and decomposers.
its life time is collectively known as its environment.
Internal environment of fish Population density is the relation between the number of
• It is enclosed by the outer body surface. individuals of a population and the area they occupy.
• The internal environment is relatively stable as com- 1�3�3� Community
pared to the external environment.
If we look around ourself, we will notice that population
• However, it is not absolutely constant. Injury, illness or of plants and animals seldom occur by themselves. The
excessive stress upsets the internal environment.
reason for this is quite obvious. In order to survive, indi-
• For example, if a marine fish is transferred to a fresh viduals of any one species depend on individuals of dif-
water environment, it will not be able to survive. ferent species with which they actively interact in several
ways.
1.3 LEVELS OF ORGANISATIONS IN
For eg: Animals require plants for food and trees for shel-
ECOLOGY
ter. Plants require animals for pollination, seed dispersal,
The main levels of organisation of ecology are six and are and soil microorganism to facilitate nutrient supply.
as follows.
Communities in most instances are named after the dom-
inant plant form (species).
For example: A grassland community is dominated by
grasses, though it may contain herbs, shrubs, and trees,
along with associated animals of different species.
A community is not fixed or rigid; communities may be
large or small.
Do you know?
The skies over North India are seasonally filled with
a thick soup of aerosol particles all along the southern
edge of the Himalayas, Bangladesh and the Bay of
Bengal.- NASA research findings.
Ecological Organisation
Types of Community
1�3�1� Individual
On the basis of size and degree of relative independence
Organism is an individual living being that has the ability communities may be divided into two types:
to act or function independently. It may be plant, animal,
bacterium, fungi, etc. It is a body made up of organs, or- (a) Major Community
ganelles, or other parts that work together to carry out on These are large-sized, well organized and relatively inde-
the various processes of life. pendent. They depend only on the sun’s energy from out-
side and are independent of the inputs and outputs from
1�3�2� Population
adjacent communities.
Population is a group of organisms usually of the same
E.g: tropical ever green forest in the North-East
species, occupying a defined area during a specific time.
Population growth rate is the percentage variation between (b) Minor Communities
the number of individuals in a population at two different These are dependent on neighbouring communities and
times. Therefore the population growth rate can be positive are often called societies. They are secondary aggregations
or negative. within a major community and are not therefore com-
The main factors that make population increase are birth pletely independent units as far as energy and nutrient
and immigration. The main factors that make population dynamics are concerned. e.g: A mat of lichen on a cow
decrease are death and emigration. dung pad.
The main limiting factors for the growth of a population
are abiotic and biotic components.
Structure of a community and light energy etc. It also involves chemicals like oxygen,
In a community the number of species and size of their nitrogen etc. and physical processes including volcanoes,
population vary greatly. A community may have one or earthquakes, floods, forest fires, climates, and weather
several species. conditions.
Abiotic factors are the most important determinants of
The environmental factors determine the characteristic of
where and how well an organism exists in its environment.
the community as well as the pattern of organisation of
Although these factors interact with each other, one single
the members in the community.
factor can limit the range of an organism.
The characteristic pattern of the community is termed as
structure which is reflected in the roles played by various a) Energy
population, their range, the type of area they inhabit, the Energy from the sun is essential for maintenance of life.
diversity of species in the community and the spectrum of In the case of plants, the sun directly supplies the neces-
interactions between them. sary energy. Since animals cannot use solar energy directly
they obtain it indirectly by eating plants or animals or
1�3�4� Ecosystem both. Energy determines the distribution of organisms in
An ecosystem is defined as a structural and functional unit the environment.
of biosphere consisting of community of living beings and b) Rainfall
the physical environment, both interacting and exchanging
materials between them. Water is essential for all living beings. Majority of bio-
chemical reactions take place in an aqueous medium.
It includes plants, trees, animals, fish, birds, micro-organ- Water helps to regulate body temperature. Further, water
isms, water, soil, and people. bodies form the habitat for many aquatic plants and
Ecosystems vary greatly in size and elements but each is a animals.
functioning unit of nature. Everything that lives in an
ecosystem is dependent on the other species and elements c) Temperature
that are also part of that ecological community. If one part Temperature is a critical factor of the environment which
of an ecosystem is damaged or disappears, it has an impact greatly influences survival of organisms. Organisms
on everything else. can tolerate only a certain range of temperature and
When an ecosystem is healthy (i.e. sustainable) it means humidity.
that all the elements live in balance and are capable of d) Atmosphere
reproducing themselves. Ecosystem can be as small as a The earth’s atmosphere is responsible for creating condi-
single tree or as large as entire forest. tions suitable for the existence of a healthy biosphere on
this planet.
Difference between ecology, environment and
e) Substratum
ecosystem
Land is covered by soil and a wide variety of microbes, pro-
For example, let us take Shankar IAS Academy and its
tozoa, fungi and small animals (invertebrates) thrive in it.
students. Let’s say that ecology would be the scientific
Roots of plants pierce through the soil to absorb water and
study of student’s relationship with the Shankar IAS
nutrients. Organisms can be terrestrial or aquatic. Terrestrial
Academy as a whole. The Shankar IAS Academy being
animals live on land. Aquatic plants, animals and microbes
the environment in which the student studies, and the
live in fresh water as well as in the sea. Some microbes live
set of circumstances surrounding the student in which
even in hot water vents under the sea.
environment would be the teachers, books, other stu-
dents, etc are said to be ecosystem. f) Materials:
(i) Organic compound such as proteins, carbohydrates,
Components of Ecosystem lipids, humic substances are formed from inorganic
compound on decomposition.
the components of ecosystem and environment are same.
(ii) Inorganic compound such as carbon dioxide, water,
1� Abiotic Components sulphur, nit rates, phosphates, a nd ions
Abiotic components are the inorganic and non-living parts of various metals are essential for organisms to
of the world. The abiotic part consists of soil, water, air, survive.
g) Latitude and altitude (ii) Micro consumers - Saprotrophs (decomposers
Latitude has a strong influence on an area’s temperature, or osmotrophs)
resulting in change of climates such as polar, tropical, and • They are bacteria and fungi which obtain energy and
temperate. These climates determine different natural bi- nutrients by decomposing dead organic substances (de-
omes. tritus) of plant and animal origin.
From sea level to highest peaks, wild life is influenced by • The products of decomposition such as inorganic nutri-
altitude. As the altitude increases, the air becomes colder ents which are released in the ecosystem are reused by
and drier, affecting wild life accordingly. producers and thus recycled.
2� Biotic Components • Earthworm and certain soil organisms (such as nema-
todes, and arthropods) are detritus feeders and help in
Biotic components include living organisms comprising the decomposition of organic matter and are called det-
plants, animals and microbes and are classified according rivores.
to their functional attributes into producers and consumers.
Classification of Eco-system:
a) Primary producers - Autotrophs (self-
nourishing)
Natural Ecosystem
• Primary producers are basically green plants (and cer-
tain bacteria and algae).
• They synthesise carbohydrate from simple inorganic Terrestrial Aquatic
raw materials like carbon dioxide and water in the
presence of sunlight by the process of photosynthesis
for themselves, and supply indirectly to other non- • Forests • Fresh Water
producers.
• Grasslands • Saline Water
• In terrestrial ecosystem, producers are basically herba-
ceous and woody plants, while in aquatic ecosystem • Deserts • Marine Water
producers are various species of microscopic algae.
b) Consumers – Heterotrophs or phagotrophs The detailed study of ecosystem will be dealt in the subse-
(other nourishing) quent chapters.
• Consumers are incapable of producing their own food Ecosystems are capable of maintaining their state
(photosynthesis). of equilibrium. They can regulate their own spe-
• They depend on organic food derived from plants, ani- cies structure and functional processes. This capacity
mals or both. of ecosystem of self regulation is known as
homeostasis�
• Consumers can be divided into two broad groups
namely micro and macro consumers. Goods and Services provided by ecosystems
(i) Macro consumers include:
• They feed on plants or animals or both and are catego- • Provision of food, fuel and fibre
rised on the basis of their food sources. • Provision of shelter and building materials
• Herbivores are primary consumers which feed mainly • Purification of air and water
on plants e.g. cow, rabbit. • Detoxification and decomposition of wastes
• Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers e.g. • Stabilization and moderation of the Earth’s climate
wolves. • Moderation of floods, droughts, temperature extremes
• Carnivores which feed on secondary consumers are and the forces of wind.
called tertiary consumers e.g. lions which can eat
wolves.
• Generation and renewal of soil fertility, including nutri-
ent cycling.
• Omnivores are organisms which consume both plants • Pollination of plants, including many crops Control of
and animals e.g. man, monkey. pests and diseases
• Maintenance of genetic resources as key inputs to crop physical and chemical factors that a species needs to sur-
varieties and livestock breeds, medicines, and other vive, stay healthy and reproduce.
products A niche is unique for a species, which means no two species
• Cultural and aesthetic benefits have exact identical niches. Niche plays an important role
Ecotone in conservation of organisms.
Ecotone is a zone of junction between two or more diverse If we have to conserve species in its native habitat we
ecosystems. For e.g. the mangrove forests represent an should have knowledge about the niche requirements of
ecotone between marine and terrestrial ecosystem. Other the species and should ensure that all requirements of its
examples are – grassland, estuary and river bank niche are fulfilled.
Types of Niche
1. Habitat niche – where it lives
2. Food niche – what is eats or decomposes & what species
it competes with
3. Reproductive niche – how and when it reproduces.
4. Physical & chemical niche – temperature, land shape,
land slope, humidity & other requirement.
Do you know?
Two Schemes namely Nagar VanaUdyanYojana and
School Nursery Yojana have been launched. Nagar
VanaUdyanYojana aims to create at least one city for-
Ecotone est in each city with a minimum area of 25 ha. The
scheme aims at creation of a City Forest in forest areas
Characteristics of Ecotone within their jurisdiction up to a maximum of 100 ha
• It may be very narrow or quite wide. and minimum area of 20 ha. The objective of the Yo-
• It has the conditions intermediate to the adjacent eco- jana is to create 200 City Forests in the country. The
systems. Hence it is a zone of tension. School Nursery Yojana aims to build a lasting bond of
students with nature.
• It is linear as it shows progressive increase in species
composition of one in coming community and a simul-
taneous decrease in species of the other out going ad-
joining community.
1�3�5� Biome
• A well developed ecotones contain some organisms
which are entirely different from that of the adjoining
communities.
• Sometimes the number of species and the population
density of some of the species is much greater in this
zone than either community. This is called edge effect.
The organisms which occur primarily or most abundantly
in this zone are known as edge species. In the terrestrial
ecosystems edge effect is especially applicable to birds.
For example the density of birds is greater in the mixed
habitat of the ecotone between the forest and the desert.
Niche
BIOME Distribution based on Temperature
A niche is the unique functional role or place of a species and Precipitation
in an ecosystem. It is a description of all the biological,
The terrestrial part of the biosphere is divisible into enormous regions called biomes, which are characterized, by climate,
vegetation, animal life and general soil type.
No two biomes are alike. The climate determines the boundaries of a biome and abundance of plants and animals found
in each one of them. The most important climatic factors are temperature and precipitation.
S�No� Name of Biome Region Flora and Fauna

1 Tundra Northern and Southern most Devoid of trees except stunted shrubs in the southern
region of world adjoining the part of tundra biome, ground flora includes lichen,
ice bound poles mosses and sedges.
The typical animals are reindeer, arctic fox, polar
bear, snowy owl, lemming, arctic hare, ptarmigan.
Reptiles and amphibians are almost absent.
2 Taiga Northern Europe, Asia and The dominating vegetation is coniferous evergreen
North America. Moderate mostly spruce, with some pine and firs.
temperature than tundra. Also The fauna consists of birds, hawks, fur bearing
known as boreal forest. carnivores, little mink, elks, puma, Siberian tiger,
wolverine, wolves etc.
3 Temperate Extends over Central and The flora includes trees like beech, oak, maple and
Deciduous Southern Europe, Eastern cherry.
Forest North America, Western Most animals are the familiar vertebrates and
China, Japan, New Zealand etc. invertebrates.
Moderate average temperature These are generally the most productive agricultural
and abundant rainfall. areas of the earth
4 Tropical rain forest Tropical areas in the equatorial Tropical rainforest covers about 7% of the earth’s
regions, which is abound with surface & 40% of the world’s plant and animal
life. Temperature and rainfall species. Multiple storey of broad-leafed evergreen
high. tree species are in abundance. Most animals and
epiphytic plants are concentrated in the canopy or
tree top zones.
5 Savannah Tropical region: Savannah is Grasses with scattered trees and fire resisting thorny
most extensive in Africa. shrubs.
The fauna include a great diversity of grazers and
browsers such as antelopes, buffaloes, zebras,
elephants and rhinoceros; the carnivores include lion,
cheetah, hyena; and mongoose, and many rodents.
6 Grassland North America, Ukraine, etc. Grasses dominate the vegetation. The fauna include
Temperate conditions with low large herbivores like bison, antelope, cattle, rodents,
rainfall. prairie dog, wolves, and a rich and diverse array of
ground nesting bird.
7 Desert Continental interiors with very The flora is drought resistance such as cactus,
low and sporadic rainfall with euphorbias, sagebrush. Fauna: Reptiles, Small
low humidity. The days are Mammals and birds.
very hot but nights are cold.
Aquatic Zones
Aquatic systems are not called biomes, however they are divided into distinct life zones, with regions of relatively distinct
plant and animal life. The major differences between the various aquatic zones are due to salinity, levels of dissolved
nutrients, water temperature, depth of sunlight penetration.
S�No Aquatic ecosystem Characteristics

1. Fresh Water Ecosystem Fresh water ecosystem are classified as lotic (moving water) or lentic (still or
stagnant water). Lotic water system includes freshwater streams, springs,
rivulets, creeks, brooks, and rivers. Lentic water bodies include pools, ponds,
some swamps, bogs and lakes. They vary considerably in physical, chemical
and biological characteristics.
2. Marine Ecosystem Nearly three – quarter of earth’s surface is covered by ocean with an average
depth of 3,750 m and with salinity 35 ppt, (parts per thousand), about 90 per
cent of which is sodium chloride.
3. Estuaries Coastal bays, river mouths and tidal marshes form the estuaries. In estuaries,
fresh water from rivers meet ocean water and the two are mixed by action of
tides. Estuaries are highly productive as compared to the adjacent river or sea.
4. Coral reef
5. Mangrove
1�3�6� Biosphere Biosphere is absent at extremes of the North and South

Biosphere is a part of the earth where life can exist. Bio- poles, the highest mountains and the deepest oceans, since
sphere represents a highly integrated and interacting zone existing hostile conditions there do not support life. Oc-
comprising of atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water) and casionally spores of fungi and bacteria do occur at great
lithosphere (land). height beyond 8,000 metres, but they are not metabolically
active, and hence represent only dormant life.
The energy required for the life within the biosphere comes
from the sun. The nutrients necessary for living organisms
L it
e come from air, water and soil. The same chemicals are
ho
h er
sp
sp recycled over and over again for life to continue.

he
o
m
re
At
Living organisms are not uniformly distributed throughout
Biosphere the biosphere. Only a few organisms live in the polar regions,
while the tropical rain forests have an exceedingly rich di-
versity of plants and animals (50% of Global Biodiversity).
Hydrosphere
Do you know?
Environmental Information System (ENVIS), a Cen-
tral Sector Scheme of the Ministry has been imple-
Biosphere mented since 1982. The purpose of the scheme is to
integrate country-wide efforts in environmental in-
formation collection, collation, storage, retrieval and
It is a narrow layer around the surface of the earth. If we dissemination through ENVIS websites, which are
visualise the earth to be the size of an apple the biosphere dedicated to different interesting themes.
would be as thick as its skin.
Life in the biosphere is abundant between 200 metres (660
feet) below the surface of the ocean and about 6,000 me-   
tres (20,000 feet) above sea level.
CHAPTER - 2
FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
T
•
he function of an ecosystem is a broad, vast and
complete dynamic system. It can be studied under
the following three heads.
Energy flow
at each trophic level so that energy level decreases from
the first trophic level upwards.
As a result there are usually four or five trophic levels and
seldom more than six as beyond that very little energy is
• Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles) left to support any organism. Trophic levels are numbered
according to the steps an organism is away from the source
• Ecological succession or ecosystem development
of food or energy, that is the producer.
2.1 ENERGY FLOW The trophic level interaction involves three concepts
namely:-
Energy is the basic force responsible for all metabolic ac-
tivities. The flow of energy from producer to top consum- 1. Food Chain
ers is called energy flow which is unidirectional. 2. Food Web
The study of Trophic level interaction in an ecosystem gives 3. Ecological Pyramids
an idea about the energy flow through the ecosystem.
2.2. FOOD CHAIN
2�1�1� Trophic level interaction Organisms in the ecosystem are related to each other
Trophic level interaction deals with how the members of through feeding mechanism or trophic levels, i.e. one or-
an ecosystem are connected based on nutritional needs. ganism becomes food for the other. A sequence of organ-
isms that feed on one another, form a food chain. A food
Trophic levels (Trophe = nourishment) chain starts with producers and ends with top carnivores.
I Autotrophs Green plants (producers)
II Heterotrophs Herbivore Do you know?
(primary consumers) Bear hibernation is different than most hibernating
III Heterotrophs Carnivores animals. True hibernation (like we see in ground squir-
(secondary consumers) rels) involves a drastic drop in body temperature but
IV Heterotrophs Carnivore the hibernating animal will awaken occasionally to eat
(tertiary consumers) and defecate before resuming hibernation. When a bear
V Heterotrophs Top carnivores ‘hibernates’ it is really in a deep sleep. It’s body tem-
(Quarternary consumers) perature drops but not drastically and it does not wake
up. The one exception is that a mother bear will wake
Energy flows through the trophic levels: from producers up to give birth in January or February. Since food is
to subsequent trophic levels. This energy always flows from scarce in the winter bears figure that if you can’t eat
lower (producer) to higher (herbivore, carnivore etc.) you might as well sleep. Bears like the Asiatic Bear live
trophic level. It never flows in the reverse direction that is in warmer climates where food is readily available all
from carnivores to herbivores to producers. year long and there is no need to hibernate.
There is a loss of some energy in the form of unusable heat
The sequence of eaten and being eaten, produces transfer plant bodies consumed by the micro-organisms and then
of food energy and it is known as food chain. The plant to detritus feeding organism called detrivores or decom-
converts solar energy into chemical energy by poser and to other predators.
photosynthesis.
Litter Earthworms Chicken Hawk
Small herbivores consume the plant matter and convert
them into animal matter. These herbivores are eaten by Detritus food chain
large carnivores.
The distinction between these two food chains is the
2�2�1� Types of Food Chains source of energy for the first level consumers. In the graz-
ing food chain the primary source of energy is living plant
In nature, two main types of food chains have been distin-
biomass while in the detritus food chain the source of
guished: energy is dead organic matter or detritus. The two food
i) Grazing food chain chains are linked. The initial energy source for detritus
The consumers which start the food chain, utilising the food chain is the waste materials and dead organic matter
plant or plant part as their food, constitute the grazing from the grazing food chain.
food chain. This food chain begins from green plants at
the base and the primary consumer is herbivore. 2.3. FOOD WEB
A food chain represents only one part of the food or energy
flow through an ecosystem and implies a simple, isolated
relationship, which seldom occurs in the ecosystems.
An ecosystem may consist of several interrelated food
chains. More typically, the same food resource is part of
more than one chain, especially when that resource is at
the lower trophic levels.
“A food web illustrates, all possible transfers of energy and
nutrients among the organisms in an ecosystem, whereas
a food chain traces only one pathway of the food”.
Grazing Food Chain
For example, In terestrial ecosystem, grass is eaten up by

caterpillar, which is eaten by lizard and lizard is eaten by
If any of the intermediate food chain is removed, the suc-
snake.
ceeding links of the chain will be affected largely. The food
In Aquatic ecosystem phytoplanktons (primary producers) web provides more than one alternative for food to most
is eaten by zoo planktons which is eaten by fishes and of the organisms in an ecosystem and therefore increases
fishes are eaten by pelicans. their chance of survival.
ii) Detritus food chain For example, grasses may serve food for rabbit or grass-
It starts from dead organic matter of decaying animals and hopper or goat or cow. Similarly a herbivore may be food
source for many carnivorous species.
Also food availability and preferences of food of the organ-
isms may shift seasonally e.g. we eat watermelon in sum-
mer and peaches in the winter. Thus there are
interconnected networks of feeding relationships that take
the form of food webs.
Do you know?
Dolphins, Porpoises and whales are called cetaceans.
A cetacean is a creature belonging to a group of water
living mammals that have no hind limbs and a blow-
hole for breathing. They are not fish!
2.4. ECOLOGICAL PYR AMIDS • The grasses occupy the lowest trophic level (base) be-
cause of their abundance.
The steps of trophic levels expressed in a diagrammatic
way are referred as ecological pyramids. The food producer • The next higher trophic level is primary consumer -
forms the base of the pyramid and the top carnivore forms herbivore (example – grasshopper).
the tip. Other consumer trophic levels are in between. • The individual number of grasshopper is less than that
The pyramid consists of a number of horizontal bars de- of grass. The next energy level is primary carnivore
picting specific trophic levels which are arranged sequen- (example – rat).
tially from primary producer level through herbivore, • The number of rats are less than grasshopper, because,
carnivore onwards. The length of each bar represents the they feed on grasshopper. The next higher trophic level
total number of individuals at each trophic level in an eco- is secondary carnivore (example – snakes). They feed
system. on rats.
The number, biomass and energy of organisms gradually • The next higher trophic level is the top carnivore. (Ex.
decrease with each step from the producer level to the Hawk).
consumer level and the diagrammatic representation as- • With each higher trophic level, the number of individual
sumes a pyramid shape. decreases.
The ecological pyramids are of three categories. (b) Pyramid of numbers - inverted
1. Pyramid of numbers,
2. Pyramid of biomass, and
3. Pyramid of energy or productivity.
2�4�1� Pyramid of Numbers

This deals with the relationship between the numbers of
primary producers and consumers of different levels. It is
a graphic representation of the total number of individuals
of different species, belonging to each trophic level in an
ecosystem.
Depending upon the size and biomass, the pyramid of
numbers may not always be upright, and may even be
completely inverted.
(a) Pyramid of numbers - upright
• In this pyramid, the number of individuals is decreased
from lower level to higher trophic level.
• This type of pyramid can be seen in grassland eco-
system.
• In this pyramid, the number of individuals is increased For most ecosystems on land, the pyramid of biomass has
from lower level to higher trophic level. a large base of primary producers with a smaller trophic
• A count in a forest would have a small number of large level perched on top.
producers, for e.g. few number of big trees. The biomass of producers (autotrophs) is at the maximum.
• This is because the tree (primary producer) being few The biomass of next trophic level i.e primary consumers is
in number and would represent the base of the pyramid less than the producers. The biomass of next higher trophic
and the dependent herbivores (Example - Birds) in the level i.e secondary consumers is less than the primary
next higher trophic level and it is followed by parasites consumers. The top, high trophic level has very less amount
in the next trophic level. Hyper parasites being at higher of biomass.
trophic level represents higher in number. (b) Inverted pyramid
• And the resulting pyramid is in inverted shape. A pyra- In contrast, in many aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of
mid of numbers does not take into account the fact that biomass may assume an inverted form.
the size of organisms being counted in each trophic level
can vary.
• It is very difficult to count all the organisms, in a pyra-
mid of numbers and so the pyramid of number does not
completely define the trophic structure for an ecosystem.
2�4�2� Pyramid of Biomass

In order to overcome the shortcomings of pyramid of num-
bers, the pyramid of biomass is used. In this approach
individuals in each trophic level are weighed instead of
being counted. This gives us a pyramid of biomass, i.e., the
total dry weight of all organisms at each trophic level at a
particular time.
Pyramid of biomass is usually determined by collecting all
organisms occupying each trophic level separately and
measuring their dry weight. This overcomes the size dif-
ference problem because all kinds of organisms at a trophic
level are weighed. Biomass is measured in g/m2. This is because the producers are tiny phytoplanktons that
(a) Upward pyramid grow and reproduce rapidly. Here, the pyramid of biomass
has a small base, with the consumer biomass at any instant
actually exceeding the producer biomass and the pyramid
assumes inverted shape.
2�4�3� Pyramid of Energy

To compare the functional roles of the trophic levels in an
ecosystem, an energy pyramid is most suitable. An energy
pyramid, reflects the laws of thermodynamics, with con-
version of solar energy to chemical energy and heat energy
at each trophic level and with loss of energy being depicted
at each transfer to another trophic level. Hence the pyra-
mid is always upward, with a large energy base at the
bottom.
Let us explain this with an example. Suppose an ecosys-
tem receives 1000 calories of light energy in a given day.
Upright Pyramid of Biomass Most of the energy is not absorbed; some is reflected back
to space; of the energy absorbed only a small portion is
Do you know?
All snakes smell with their tongues. When a snake sticks out its tongue it smells its surroundings. The moist tongue
collects scents and small organisms from whatever it touches and from the air around it. When the tongue goes back
into the mouth the forks touch a special sensory spot called the Jacobson’s organ on the roof of the mouth and tells
the snake what it smells. Snakes have a small notch in their lips that they can stick their tongues through so they
don’t need to open their mouths. Some snakes can smell with their noses.
utilised by green plants, out of which the plant uses up We are concerned about these phenomena because, to-
some for respiration and of the 1000 calories, therefore gether they enable even small concentrations of chemicals
only 100 calories are stored as energy rich materials. in the environment to find their way into organisms in
high enough dosages to cause problems.
Movement of these pollutants involves two main processes:
i) Bioaccumulation
ii) Biomagnification.
2�5�1� Bioaccumulation
• It refers to how pollutants enter a food chain.
• In bioaccumulation there is an increase in concentration
of a pollutant from the environment to the first organ-
ism in a food chain.
2.5.2. Biomagnification
Pyramid of energy
Now suppose an animal, say a deer, eats the plant contain-

ing 100 cal of food energy. The deer uses some of it for its
own metabolism and stores only 10 cal as food energy. A
lion that eats the deer gets an even smaller amount of
energy. Thus usable energy decreases from sunlight to
producer to herbivore to carnivore. Therefore, the energy
pyramid will always be upright.
Energy pyramid concept helps to explain the phenomenon
of biological magnification-the tendency for toxic sub-
stances to increase in concentration progressively at higher
levels of the food chain.
2.5 POLLUTANTS AND TROPHIC LEVEL

Pollutants especially nondegradable ones move through the
various trophic levels in an ecosystem.
Nondegradable pollutants mean materials, which cannot
be metabolized by the living organisms.
Biomagnification
Example: chlorinated hydrocarbons.
• Biomagnification refers to the tendency of pollutants to • Commensalism: one species benefits, the other is unaf-
concentrate as they move from one trophic level to the fected.
next. Example: cow dung provides food and shelter to dung
• Thus in biomagnification there is an increase in con- beetles. The beetles have no effect on the cows.
centration of a pollutant from one link in a food chain
to another.
• Competition: both species are harmed by the in-
teraction.
In order for biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must Example: if two species eat the same food, and there
be: long-lived, mobile, soluble in fats, biologically active. isn’t enough for both, both may have access to less food
If a pollutant is short-lived, it will be broken down before than they would if alone. They both suffer a shortage
it can become dangerous. If it is not mobile, it will stay in of food
one place and is unlikely to be taken up by organisms. If
the pollutant is soluble in water, it will be excreted by the
• Predation and parasitism: one species benefits, the
other is harmed.
organism. Pollutants that dissolve in fats, however, may be
retained for a long time. Example: predation—one fish kills and eats parasitism:
tick gains benefit by sucking blood; host is harmed by
It is traditional to measure the amount of pollutants in
losing blood.
fatty tissues of organisms such as fish. In mammals, we
often test the milk produced by females, since the milk has • Amensalism: One species is harmed, the other is un-
a lot of fat in it are often more susceptible to damage from affected.
toxins (poisons). If a pollutant is not active biologically, it Example: A large tree shades a small plant, retarding
may biomagnify, but we really don’t worry about it much, the growth of the small plant. The small plant has no
since it probably won’t cause any problems Examples: DDT. effect on the large tree.
2.6. BIOTIC INTER ACTION

• Neutralism: There is no net benefit or harm to either
species. Perhaps in some interspecific interactions, the
• Organisms living in this earth are interlinked to each costs and benefits experienced by each partner are
other in one way or other. The interaction between the exactly the same so that they sum to zero. It is not
organisms is fundamental for its survival and function- clear how often this happens in nature. Neutralism is
ing of ecosystem as a whole. also sometimes described as the relationship between
two species inhabiting the same space and using the
Biotic Interaction same resources, but that have no effect on each other.
S�No� Type Spices 1 Species 2 In this case, one could argue that they aren’t interact-
ing at all.
1. Mutualism (+) (+)
2. Commensalism (+) (0)
2.7. BIO-GEO-CHEMICAL CYCLE
3. Amensalism (–) (0)
The living world depends upon the energy flow and the
4. Competition (–) (–) nutrients circulation that occurs through ecosystem.
5. Predation (+) (–) Both influence the abundance of organisms, the meta-
6. Parasitism (+) (–) bolic rate at which they live, and the complexity of the
ecosystem.
(+) Benefited (–) Harmed
Energy flows through ecosystems enabling the organisms
(0) Neither Benefited nor harmed. to perform various kinds of work and this energy is ulti-
mately lost as heat forever in terms of the usefulness of
2�6�1� Types of biotic interaction the system. On the other hand, nutrients of food matter
never get used up. They can be recycled again and again
• Mutualism: both species benefit.
indefinitely.
Example: in pollination mutualisms, the pollinator gets
food (pollen, nectar), and the plant has its pollen trans- For e.g. when we breathe we may be inhaling several mil-
ferred to other flowers for cross-fertilization (repro- lion atoms of elements that may have been inhaled by our
duction). ancestors or other organisms.
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus as Types of Nutrient Cycle
elements and compounds make up 97% of the mass of our • Based on the replacement period a nutrient cycle is re-
bodies and are more than 95% of the mass of all living ferred to as Perfect or Imperfect cycle.
organisms. In addition to these about 15 to 25 other ele-
ments are needed in some form for the survival and good
• A perfect nutrient cycle is one in which nutrients are
replaced as fast as they are utilised. Most gaseous cycles
health of plants and animals. are generally considered as perfect cycles.
These elements or mineral nutrients are always in cir- • In contrast sedimentary cycles are considered relatively
culation moving from non-living to living and then back imperfect, as some nutrients are lost from the cycle and
to the non-living components of the ecosystem in a more get locked into sediments and so become unavailable
or less circular fashion. This circular fashion is known for immediate cycling.
as biogeochemical cycling (bio for living; geo for atmos-
• Based on the nature of the reservoir, there are two
phere). types of cycles namely Gaseous and sedimentary cycle
2�7�1� Nutrient Cycling • Gaseous Cycle – where the reservoir is the atmosphere
or the hydrosphere, and
The nutrient cycle is a concept that describes how nutrients
move from the physical environment to the living organ-
• Sedimentary Cycle – where the reservoir is the earth’s
crust.
isms, and subsequently recycled back to the physical envi-
ronment.
Do you know?
This movement of nutrients from the environment into
plants and animals and again back to the environment is Spiders can’t chew or swallow inject their prey with
essential for life and it is the vital function of the ecology poison using their fangs. The poison turns the insides
of any region. In any particular environment, to maintain of insect to a watery goop and the spider just sucks
its organism in a sustained manner, the nutrient cycle must it up.
be kept balanced and stable.
Nutrient cycling is typically studied in terms of specific
nutrients, with each nutrient in an environment having 2�7�2� Gaseous Cycles
its own particular pattern of cycling. Among the most Let us first study some of the most important gaseous
important nutrient cycles are the carbon nutrient cycle cycles; namely – water, carbon and nitrogen.
and the nitrogen nutrient cycle. Both of these cycles make (a) Water Cycle (Hydrologic)
up an essential part of the overall soil nutrient cycle. There
are many other nutrient cycles that are important in ecol-
Water as an important ecological factor de-
ogy, including a large number of trace mineral nutrient
termines the structure and function of the
cycles.
ecosystem. Cycling of all other nutrients is
also dependent upon water as it provides
their transportation during the various steps.
It acts as a solvent medium for their uptake
of nutrients by organisms.
The hydrologic cycle is the continuous circulation of water

in the Earth-atmosphere system which is driven by solar
energy. Water on our planet is stored in major reservoirs
like atmosphere, oceans, lakes, rivers, soils, glaciers, snow-
fields, and groundwater. Water moves from one reservoir
to another by the processes of evaporation, transpiration,
condensation, precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration,
and groundwater flow.
Nutrient cycling
Carbon is present in the atmosphere, mainly in the form
of carbon dioxide (CO2). Carbon cycle involves a continuous
exchange of carbon between the atmosphere and organ-
isms. Carbon from the atmosphere moves to green plants
by the process of photosynthesis, and then to animals. By
process of respiration and decomposition of dead organic
matter it returns back to atmosphere. It is usually a short
term cycle.
Some carbon also enters a long term cycle. It accumulates
as un-decomposed organic matter in the peaty layers of
marshy soil or as insoluble carbonates in bottom sediments
of aquatic systems which take a long time to be released.
In deep oceans such carbon can remained buried for mil-
lions of years till geological movement may lift these rocks
above sea level. These rocks may be exposed to erosion,
releasing their carbon dioxide, carbonates and bicarbonates
Water Cycle into streams and rivers.
Fossil fuels such as coals, oil and natural gas etc. are or-
(b) The Carbon Cycle ganic compounds that were buried before they could be
decomposed and were subsequently transformed by time
Carbon is a minor constituent of the atmosphere as and geological processes into fossil fuels. When they are
compared to oxygen and nitrogen. However, without burned the carbon stored in them is released back into the
carbon dioxide life could not exist, because it is vital atmosphere as carbon-dioxide.
for the production of carbohydrates through photo-
(c) The Nitrogen Cycle
synthesis by plants. It is the element that anchors all
organic substances from coal and oil to DNA (deoxy- Nitrogen is an essential constituent of protein and is a basic
ribonucleic acid: the compound that carries genetic building block of all living tissue. It constitutes nearly 16%
information). by weight of all the proteins.
Nitrogen Cycle
There is an inexhaustible supply of nitrogen in the atmos-

Carbon Cycle phere but the elemental form cannot be used directly by
most of the living organisms. Nitrogen needs to be ‘fixed’,
that is, converted to ammonia, nitrites or nitrates, before ally reach the earth’s surface through precipitation and
it can be taken up by plants. then into the soil to be utilized by plants.
Nitrogen fixation on earth is accomplished in three differ-
ent ways: Do you know?
(i) By microorganisms (bacteria and blue-green algae) Pythons are constrictors, which mean that they will
(ii) By man using industrial processes (fertilizer factories) ‘squeeze’ the life out of their prey. They coil themselves
and around their prey and with each breathe the creature
(iii) To a limited extent by atmospheric phenomenon such takes the snake will squeeze a little tighter until they
as thunder and lighting stop breathing completely. Once the heart stops the
prey is swallowed whole. The entire animal is digested
in the snake’s stomach except for fur or feathers.
The amount of Nitrogen fixed by man
through industrial process has far exceeded
the amount fixed by the Natural Cycle. As a 2�7�3� Sedimentary Cycle
result Nitrogen has become a pollutant which
Phosphorus, calcium and magnesium circulate by means
can disrupt the balance of nitrogen. It may
of the sedimentary cycle. The element involved in the
lead to Acid rain, Eutrophication and Harmful
sedimentary cycle normally does not cycle through the
Algal Blooms.
atmosphere but follows a basic pattern of flow through
erosion, sedimentation, mountain building, volcanic activ-
Certain microorganisms are capable of fixing atmospheric ity and biological transport through the excreta of marine
nitrogen into ammonium ions. These include free living birds.
nitrifying bacteria (e.g. aerobic Azotobacter and anaerobic
(a) Phosphorus Cycle
Clostridium) and symbiotic nitrifying bacteria living in
association with leguminous plants and symbiotic bacte- Phosphorus plays a central role in aquatic ecosystems and
ria living in non leguminous root nodule plants (e.g. water quality. Unlike carbon and nitrogen, which come
Rhizobium) as well as blue green algae (e.g. Anabaena, primarily from the atmosphere, phosphorus occurs in
Spirulina). large amounts as a mineral in phosphate rocks and enters
the cycle from erosion and mining activities. This is the
Ammonium ions can be directly taken up as a source of
nutrient considered to be the main cause of excessive
nitrogen by some plants, or are oxidized to nitrites or ni-
growth of rooted and free-floating microscopic plants in
trates by two groups of specialised bacteria: Nitrosomonas
lakes.
bacteria promote transformation of ammonia into nitrite.
Nitrite is then further transformed into nitrate by the bac-
teria Nitrobacter.
The nitrates synthesised by bacteria in the soil are taken
up by plants and converted into amino acids, which are the
building blocks of proteins. These then go through higher
trophic levels of the ecosystem. During excretion and upon
the death of all organisms nitrogen is returned to the soil
in the form of ammonia.
Certain quantity of soil nitrates, being highly soluble in
water, is lost to the system by being transported away by
surface run-off or ground water. In the soil as well as
oceans there are special denitrifying bacteria (e.g. Pseu-
domonas), which convert the nitrates/nitrites to elemental
nitrogen. This nitrogen escapes into the atmosphere, thus
completing the cycle.
The periodic thunderstorms convert the gaseous nitrogen
in the atmosphere to ammonia and nitrates which eventu- Phosphorous cycle
The main storage for phosphorus is in the earth’s crust. Whatever the source, sulphur in the form of sulphates is
On land phosphorus is usually found in the form of phos- take up by plants and incorporated through a series of
phates. By the process of weathering and erosion phos- metabolic processes into sulphur bearing amino acid which
phates enter rivers and streams that transport them to the is incorporated in the proteins of autotroph tissues. It then
ocean. passes through the grazing food chain.
In the ocean once the phosphorus accumulates on conti- Sulphur bound in living organism is carried back to the
nental shelves in the form of insoluble deposits. After mil- soil, to the bottom of ponds and lakes and seas through
lions of years, the crustal plates rise from the sea floor and excretion and decomposition of dead organic material.
expose the phosphates on land. After more time, weather- The Bio-geochemical cycles discussed here are only a few
ing will release them from rock and the cycle’s geochemi- of the many cycles present in the ecosystem. These cycles
cal phase begins again. usually do not operate independently but interact with each
(b) Sulphur Cycle other at some point or the other.
The sulphur reservoir is in the soil and sediments where
it is locked in organic (coal, oil and peat) and inorganic Do you know?
deposits (pyrite rock and sulphur rock) in the form of sul- Fur-picking’, the universal habit among the apes and
phates, sulphides and organic sulphur. monkeys is not a hunt for lice or fleas. They are naturally
It is released by weathering of rocks, erosional runoff and remarkably free from these vermin. On the contrary it is
decomposition of organic matter and is carried to terres- a means of social communication between members of
trial and aquatic ecosystems in salt solution. the troop (a group of monkeys) and to develop strong
The sulphur cycle is mostly sedimentary except two of its social bond.
compounds hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and sulphur dioxide
(SO2) add a gaseous component to its normal sedimentary
cycle. 2.8. ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Sulphur enters the atmosphere from several sources like Succession is a universal process of directional change in
volcanic eruptions, combustion of fossil fuels, from surface vegetation, on an ecological time scale.
of ocean and from gases released by decomposition. At- Succession occurs when a series of communities replace
mospheric hydrogen sulphide also gets oxidised into sul- one another due to large scale destruction either natural
phur dioxide. Atmospheric sulphur dioxide is carried back or manmade. This process continues - one community
to the earth after being dissolved in rainwater as weak replacing another community, until a stable, mature com-
sulphuric acid. munity develops.
Succession is a progressive series of changes which leads
to the establishment of a relatively stable climax com-
munity.
Sulphur Cycle Ecological Succession

The first plant to colonise an area is called the pioneer otic communities after the complete or partial destruction
community. The final stage of succession is called the cli- of the existing community. A mature or intermediate com-
max community. The stage leading to the climax commu- munity may be destroyed by natural events such as floods,
nity are called successional stages or seres. droughts, fires, or storms or by human interventions such
Succession is characterised by the following: increased as deforestation, agriculture, overgrazing, etc
productivity, the shift of nutrients from’ the reservoirs, This abandoned farmland is first invaded by hardy species
increased diversity of organisms with increased niche de- of grasses that can survive in bare, sun-baked soil. These
velopment, and a gradual increase in the complexity of food grasses may be soon joined by tall grasses and herbaceous
webs. plants. These dominate the ecosystem for some years along
with mice, rabbits, insects and seed-eating birds.
2�8�1� Primary Succession Eventually, some trees come up in this area, seeds of which
In primary succession on a terrestrial site the new site is may be brought by wind or animals. And over the years, a
first colonized by a few hardy pioneer species that are often forest community develops. Thus an abandoned farmland
microbes, lichens and mosses. The pioneers over a few over a period becomes dominated by trees and is trans-
generations alter the habitat conditions by their growth formed into a forest
and development. The differences between primary and secondary succes-
These new conditions may be conducive to the establish- sion, the secondary succession starts on a well developed
ment of additional organisms that may subsequently arrive soil already formed at the site. Thus secondary succession
at the site. The pioneers through their death any decay is relatively faster as compared to primary succession
leave patches of organic matter in which small animals which may often require hundreds of years.
can live.
The organic matter produced by these pioneer species pro- 2�8�2� Autogenic and Allogenic Succession
duce organic acids during decomposition that dissolve and When succession is brought about by living inhabitants of
etch the substratum releasing nutrients to the substratum. that community itself, the process is called autogenic suc-
Organic debris accumulates in pockets and crevices, pro- cession, while change brought about by outside forces is
viding soil in which seeds can become lodged and grow. known as allogenic succession.
As the community of organisms continues to develop, it
becomes more diverse and competition increases, but at 2�8�3� Autotrophic and Heterotrophic succession
the same time new niche opportunities develops. Succession in which, initially the green plants are much
The pioneer species disappear as the habitat conditions greater is quantity is known as autotrophic succession; and
change and invasion of new species progresses, leading to the ones in which the heterotrophs are greater in quantity
the replacement of the preceding community. is known as heterotrophic succession.
Succession would occur faster in area existing in the mid-
2�8�1� Secondary Succession dle of the large continent. This is because, here all prop-
Secondary succession occurs when plants recognize an agules or seeds of plants belonging to the different seres
area in which the climax community has been disturbed. would reach much faster, establish and ultimately result in
climax community.
Secondary succession is the sequential development of bi-
 
CHAPTER - 3
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
T he interrelations between organisms and environ-

ment on the land constitute “Terrestrial Ecology”.
Due to variation in the topographic features of val-
leys, mountains and slopes, certain differences occur.
body is covered with fur for insulation. Insects have short
life cycles which are completed during favourable period
of the year.
These differences are reflected in both the material and 3.2. FOREST ECOSYSTEM
biotic diversities. Altitudinal and latitudinal variations The forest ecosystem includes a complex assemblage of
cause shifts and differences in the climatic patterns. Due
different kinds of biotic communities. Optimum conditions
to varied climate, the plant and animal life existing in dif-
such as temperature and ground moisture are responsible
ferent terrestrial areas vary which result in differentiation
for the establishment of forest communities.
of ecosystem as segments within the large biosphere. The
most important limiting factors of the terrestrial ecosys- The nature of soil, climate and local topography determine
tems are moisture and temperature. the distribution of trees and their abundance in the forest
vegetation. Forests may be evergreen or deciduous. They
3.1. TUNDR A are distinguished on the basis of leaf into broad-leafed or
Tundra means a “barren land” since they are found where needle leafed coniferous forests in the case of temperate
environmental conditions are very severe. There are two areas.
types of tundra- arctic and alpine. The forest ecosystems have been classified into three major
• Distribution: Arctic tundra extends as a continuous belt categories: coniferous forest, temperate forest and tropical
below the polar ice cap and above the tree line in the forest. All these forest biomes are generally arranged on a
northern hemisphere. It occupies the northern fringe of gradient from north to south latitude or from high to lower
Canada, Alaska, European Russia, Siberia and island altitude.
group of Arctic Ocean. On the south pole, tundra is very
small since most of it is covered by ocean .
Do you know?
Alpine tundra occurs at high mountains above the with
respect to Arctic mountains are found at all latitudes there- Dart Frogs got their name because hunters would tip
fore alpine tundra shows day and night temperature vari- their arrows in the frog’s poisons. Sadly, because peo-
ations. ple are cutting down rainforests for farming and
ranching, Poison Dart Frogs are at risk. The Blue Poi-
• Flora and fauna: Typical vegetation of arctic tundra is son Dart Frog is the most endangered due to the pet-
cotton grass, sedges, dwarf heath, willows, birches and shop market.
lichens. Animals of tundra are reindeer, musk ox, arctic
hare, caribous, lemmings and squirrel.
Most of them have long life e.g. arctic willow has a life span 3�2�1� Coniferous forest (boreal forest):
of 150 to 300 years. They are protected from chillness by
the presence of thick cuticle and epidermal hair. Mammals • Cold regions with high rainfall, strong seasonal cli-
of the tundra region have large body size, small tail and mates with long winters and short summers are char-
small ear to avoid the loss of heat from the surface. The acterised by boreal coniferous forest
• This is characterised by evergreen plant species such as 3�2�4� Temperate rain forests:
Spruce, fir and pine trees, etc and by animals such as
the lynx, wolf, bear, red fox, porcupine, squirrel, and
• The temperate rain forests exhibit a marked seasonality
with regard to temperature and rainfall.
amphibians like Hyla, Rana, etc
• Boreal forest soils are characterized by thin podzols and • Rainfall is high, and fog may be very heavy. It is the
important source of water than rainfall itself.
are rather poor. Both because, the weathering of rocks
proceeds slowly in cold environments and because the • The biotic diversity of temperate rain forests is high as
litter derived from conifer needle (leaf ) is decomposed compared to other temperate forest. However, the di-
very slowly and is not rich in nutrients. versity of plants and animals is much low as compared
• These soils are acidic and are mineral deficient. This is to the tropical rainforest.
due to movement of large amount of water through the
soil, without a significant counter-upward movement of
Do you know?
evaporation, essential soluble nutrients like calcium,
nitrogen and potassium which are leached sometimes Frog’s tongues are attached to the front of their
beyond the reach of roots. This process leaves no alka- mouths rather than at the back like humans. When a
line oriented cations to encounter the organic acids of frog catches an insect it throws its sticky tongue out
the accumulating litter. of it’s mouth and wraps it around its prey. The frog’s
tongue then snaps back and throws the food down its
• The productivity and community stability of a boreal
throat.
forest are lower than those of any other forest ecosystem.
3�2�2� Temperate deciduous forest:

3�2�5� Tropical rain forests:
• The temperate forests are characterised by a moderate
climate and broad-leafed deciduous trees, which shed • Tropical rain forests occur near the equator.
their leaves in fall, are bare over winter and grow new • Tropical rain forests are among the most diverse and
foliage in the spring. rich communities on the earth.
• The precipitation is fairly uniform throughout. • Both temperature and humidity remain high and more
• Soils of temperate forests are podzolic and fairly deep. or less uniform.
3�2�3� Temperate evergreen forest: • The annual rainfall exceeds 200 cm and is generally
distributed throughout the year.
• Parts of the world that have Mediterranean type of cli-
mate are characterised by warm, dry summers and • The flora is highly diversified
cool, moist winters. • The extreme dense vegetation of the tropical rain for-
• These are commonly inhabitated by low broad leafed ests remains vertically stratified with tall trees often
evergreen trees. covered with vines, creepers, lianas, epiphytic orchids
• Fire is an important hazardous factor in this ecosystem and bromeliads.
and the adaptation of the plants enable them to regener- • The lowest layer is an understory of trees, shrubs,
ate quickly after being burnt. herbs, like ferns and palms.
• Soil of tropical rainforests are red latosols, and they are
Do you know? very thick.
Penguins are warm blooded, Just like whales, penguins have • The high rate of leaching makes these soils virtually
a layer of fat under their skin called “blubber”. Overtop of useless for agricultural purposes, but when left undis-
this they are covered with fluffy “down” feathers and over- turbed, the rapid cycling of nutrients within the litter
top of those they have their outer feathers which overlap to layer, formed due to decomposition can compensate for
seal in warmth. Penguins rub oil from a gland onto their the natural poverty of the soil.
feathers to help make them waterproof and wind proof.
• Undergrowth is restricted in many areas by the lack of
sunlight at ground level.
3�2�6� Tropical seasonal forests:
Do you know?
• Tropical seasonal forests also known as monsoon forest
occur in regions where total annual rainfall is very high Elephants’ ears act as cooling devices. They can meas-
but segregated into pronounced wet and dry periods. ure up to 2 square metres and they are equipped with
an intricate web of blood vessels. When the animal
• This kind of forest is found in South East Asia, central
flaps its ears, the blood temperature lowers by as
and south America, northern Australia, western Africa
much as 5°C.
and tropical islands of the pacific as well as in India.
3�2�7� Subtropical rain forests: 3�3�3� Tropical Moist deciduous forests

• Broad-leaved evergreen subtropical rain forests are Moist deciduous forests are found throughout India except
found in regions of fairly high rainfall but less tem- in the western and the north-western regions. The trees
perature differences between winter and summer are tall, have broad trunks, branching trunks and roots to
• Epiphytes are common here. hold them firmly to the ground. Some of the taller trees
• Animal life of subtropical forest is very similar to that shed their leaves in the dry season. There is a layer of
of tropical rainforests. shorter trees and evergreen shrubs in the undergrowth.
These forests are dominated by sal and teak, along with
3.3. INDIAN FOREST TYPES mango, bamboo, and rosewood.
India has a diverse range of forests from the rainforest of
3�3�4� Littoral and swamp
Kerala in the south to the alpine pastures of Ladakh in
the north, from the deserts of Rajasthan in the west to Littoral and swamp forests are found along the Andaman
the evergreen forests in the north-east. Climate, soil type, and Nicobar Islands and the delta area of the Ganga and
topography, and elevation are the main factors that de- the Brahmaputra. They have roots that consist of soft tis-
termine the type of forest. Forests varied according to sue so that the plant can breathe in the water.
their nature and composition, the type of climate in which
they thrive, and its relationship with the surrounding 3�3�5� Tropical Dry deciduous forest
environment. Dry deciduous forests are found throughout the northern
part of the country except in the North-East. It is also
Champion and Seth Classification of Forest found in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Kar-
Forest types in India are classified by Champion and Seth nataka, and Tamil Nadu. The canopy of the trees does not
into sixteen types. normally exceed 25 metres. The common trees are the sal,
a variety of acacia, and bamboo.
3�3�1� Tropical Wet evergreen forests
3�3�6� Tropical Thorn forests
Wet evergreen forests are found along the Western Ghats,
the Nicobar and Andaman Islands and all along the north- This type is found in areas with black soil: North, West,
eastern region. It is characterized by tall, straight ever- Central, and South India. The trees do not grow beyond 10
green trees. The more common trees that are found here metres. Spurge, caper, and cactus are typical of this region.
are the jackfruit, betel nut palm, jamun, mango, and hol-
lock. The trees in this forest form a tier pattern: shrubs
3�3�7� Tropical Dry evergreen forest
cover the layer closer to the ground, followed by the short Dry evergreens are found along Tamil Nadu, Andhra
structured trees and then the tall variety. Beautiful fern of Pradesh and Karnataka coast. It is mainly hard-leaved ev-
various colours and different varieties of orchids grow on ergreen trees with fragrant flowers, along with a few de-
the trunks of the trees. ciduous trees.
3�3�2� Tropical Semi-evergreen forests 3�3�8� Sub tropical Broad-leaved forests

Semi-evergreen forests are found in the Western Ghats, Broad-leaved forests are found in the Eastern Himalayas
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the Eastern Himalayas. and the Western Ghats, along the Silent Valley. There is a
Such forests have a mixture of the wet evergreen trees and marked difference in the form of vegetation in the two
the moist deciduous trees. The forest is dense and is filled areas. In the Silent Valley, the poonspar, cinnamon, rho-
with a large variety of trees of both types.
dodendron, and fragrant grass are predominant. In the therefore the vegetation is also more lush and dense. There
Eastern Himalayas, the flora has been badly affected by are a large variety of broad-leaved trees, ferns, and bam-
the shifting cultivation and forest fires. These wet forests boo. Coniferous trees are also found here, some of the
consist mainly of evergreen trees with a sprinkling of de- varieties being different from the ones found in the South.
ciduous here and there. There are oak, alder, chestnut,
birch, and cherry trees. There are a large variety of or- 3�3�13� Himalayan Dry temperate Forest
chids, bamboo and creepers. This type is found in Lahul, Kinnaur, Sikkim, and other
parts of the Himalayas. There are predominantly conifer-
3�3�9� Sub tropical Pine forests ous trees, along with broad-leaved trees such as the oak,
Pine forests are found in the steep dry slopes of the Shiva- maple, and ash. At higher elevation, fir, juniper, deodar,
lik Hills, Western and Central Himalayas, Khasi, Naga, and and chilgoza are found.
Manipur Hills. The trees predominantly found in these
areas are the chir, oak, rhododendron, and pine as well as 3�3�14� Sub alpine forest
sal, amla, and laburnum are found in the lower regions.
Sub alpine forests extend from Kashmir to Arunachal
Pradesh between 2900 to 3500 metres. In the Western
3�3�10� Sub tropical Dry evergreen forests
Himalayas, the vegetation consists mainly of juniper, rho-
Dry evergreen forests normally have a prolonged hot and dodendron, willow, and black currant. In the eastern parts,
dry season and a cold winter. It generally has evergreen red fir, black juniper, birch, and larch are the common
trees with shining leaves that have a varnished look. These trees. Due to heavy rainfall and high humidity the timber-
forests are found in the Shivalik Hills and foothills of the line in this part is higher than that in the West. Rhododen-
Himalayas up to a height of 1000 metres. dron of many species covers the hills in these parts.
3�3�11� Montane Wet temperate forests
3�3�15� Moist Alpine scrub
In the North, Montane wet temperate forests are found in
Moist alpines are found all along the Himalayas and on the
the region to the east of Nepal into Arunachal Pradesh,
higher hills near the Myanmar border. It has a low scrub,
receiving a minimum rainfall of 2000 mm. In the North,
dense evergreen forest, consisting mainly of rhododendron
there are three layers of forests: the higher layer has
and birch. Mosses and ferns cover the ground in patches.
mainly coniferous, the middle layer has deciduous trees
This region receives heavy snowfall.
such as the oak and the lowest layer is covered by rhodo-
dendron and champa.
3�3�16� Dry alpine scrub
In the South, it is found in parts of the Niligiri Hills, the
Dry alpines are found from about 3000 metres to about
higher reaches of Kerala. The forests in the northern region
4900 metres. Dwarf plants predominate, mainly the black
are denser than in the South. Rhododendrons and a variety
juniper, the drooping juniper, honeysuckle, and willow.
of ground flora can be found here.
Importance of Forest
3�3�12� Himalayan Moist temperate Forest From air we breathe, the food we eat to the paper and
wood we use; we depend on forest directly or indirectly.
Do you know? Without forests most of the areas would have been deserts
All birds have feathers and feathers do many jobs for • Forests keep up the natural balance.
birds. It keeps them warm, wing feathers allow flight • Forests purify the air
and tail feathers are used for steering. The color of the • Forests provide micro climate
feathers can be used to hide the bird or to help the bird
find a mate. • Forests indirectly play a role in precipitation
• Forests prevent floods
This type spreads from the Western Himalayas to the East-
• Forests prevent soil erosion
ern Himalayas. The trees found in the western section are • Forests provide medicinal properties
broad-leaved oak, brown oak, walnut, rhododendron, etc. • Forests provide us fuel and timber
In the Eastern Himalayas, the rainfall is much heavier and • Forests provide raw materials for industries
3.4. DEFORESTATION • Development projects like the hydroelectric projects,
Indiscriminate felling of trees as a result of urbanization, large dams and reservoirs, laying down of railway lines
industrialization, mining operations, and use of wood for and roads are not only extremely beneficial, but they
domestic and other purposes, have caused heavy depletion are also linked with several environmental problems.
of forests. • Many of these projects require immense deforestation.
3) Fuel Requirements
• The increasing demand for firewood with ever growing
population increases greater pressure on the forests,
which results in increased intensity of deforestation.
4) Raw Material Requirements
• Wood is used as a raw material by various industries
for making paper, plywood, furniture, match sticks,
boxes, crates, packing cases, etc.
• Industries also obtain their raw materials from plants
such as drugs, scents and perfumes, resin, gums, waxes,
turpentine, latex and rubber, tannis, alkaloids, bees wax.
• This exerted tremendous pressure on forest ecosystem
and their unrestricted exploitation for various other raw
materials is the main cause of degradation of the forest
ecosystem.
Causes of Deforestation 5) Other Causes
• Deforestation also results from overgrazing, agricul-
3�4�1� Causes ture, mining, urbanization, flood, fire, pest, diseases,
defence and communication activites.
1) Shifting cultivation
• In this practice a patch of land is cleared, vegetation is 3.4.2. How it affects?
burned and the ash is mixed with the soil thus adding • Closed forests (based on canopy level) have being di-
nutrients to the soil. minished due to deforestation leading to increase in
• This patch of land is used for raising crops for two to degraded forests.
three years, and the yield is modest. • Forests recycle moisture from soil into their immediate
• Then this area is abandoned and is left to recover its atmosphere by transpiration where it again precipitates
fertility, and the same practice is repeated elsewhere on as rain.
a fresh piece of land. • Deforestation results in an immediate lowering of
• All that is required for this method of cultivation is a ground water level and in long-term reduction of pre-
set of simple tools, not high level of mechanisation. cipitation.
2) development project
• Due to deforestation, this natural reuse cycle is broken
and water is lost through rapid run off.
• The human population have increased considerably, so • Much of the mining activity in India is being carried out
with their requirements. in forest regions. The obvious result is deforestation and
soil erosion.
Do you know? • Underground mining has also significantly denuded
Reptiles are cold-blooded animals that raise their body forests, as timber is used for supporting the roofs of
temperature by lying in the sun or lower it by crawling mine galleries.
into the shade. Their body temperature changes to the • A large number of abandoned mines are lying in bad
temperature of its surroundings. shape and are under extensive gully erosion leading to
degradation of the habitat.
• Deforestation affects the biota and neighbouring eco-
systems, soil erosion, land degradation, alteration of
ground water channels, pollution and scarce.
3.5. GR ASSLAND ECOSYTEM

The grasslands are found where rainfall is about 25-75 cm
per year, not enough to support a forest, but more than
that of a true desert.
Typical grasslands are vegetation formations that are gen-
erally found in temperate climates.
In India, they are found mainly in the high Himalayas. The
rest of India’s grasslands are mainly composed of steppes
and savannas.
The major difference between steppes and savannas is that
all the forage in the steppe is provided only during the brief
wet season whereas in the savannas forage is largely from
grasses that not only grow during the wet season but also
from the smaller amount of regrowth in the dry season.
Steppe formations occupy large areas of sandy and saline
soil; in western Rajasthan, where the climate is semi-arid,
average rainfall is less than 200 mm a year with a dry Grassland types of India
season of 10 to 11 months, and a large variation in rainfall.
The soil is always exposed, sometimes rocky but more 1) semi-arid zone
often sandy with fixed or mobile dunes. Forage is available • It covers the northern portion of Gujarat, Rajasthan
only during the brief wet season. The grass layer is sparse (excluding Aravallis), western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and
and consists mainly of annual grass species. Punjab.
In the central and eastern parts of Rajasthan, where the • The topography is broken up by hill spurs and sand
rainfall is about 500 mm per year and the dry season is of dunes.
six to eight months, dry savanna grazing ecosystems have
developed. The light shade cast by the sparse population of 2) dry sub humid zone
trees like khetri favours the growth of the grasses. • It covers the whole of peninsular India (except Nilgiri).
3) moist sub humid zone
3�5�1� Types of Grasslands
Based on climatic conditions there are six types of grass-
• It covers the Ganga alluvial plain in Northern India.
lands found in the different regions of the Indian subcon- • The topography is level, low lying and ill-drained.
tinent. Four major types of grasslands are discussed here. 4) Humid montane regions
• This extends to the humid montane regions and moist
sub-humid areas of Assam, Manipur, West Bengal, Uttar
Do you know?
Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and
The elephant’s trunk combines both nose and upper Kashmir.
lip and transforms them into a single powerful organ
that is able to touch, grasp and smell. It is strong
• The savanna is derived from the humid forests on ac-
count of shifting cultivation and sheep grazing.
enough to uproot a tree, sensitive enough to pick up a
pea-sized fruit from the ground, and long enough to
3�5�2� Economic importance of grasslands
reach foliage high in the trees. The trunk is also used
to drink by sucking up water and squirting it into the • India teems with animals of all shapes and sizes from
mouth. the buffaloes to sheep’s and there are millions of
them.
• The livestock wealth plays a crucial role in Indian life. • The climate of these biomes is modified by altitude and
It is a major source of fuel, draught power, nutrition and latitude. At high altitudes and at greater distance from
raw material for village industries. the equator the deserts are cold and hot near equator
• But only about 13 million hectares in the country are and tropics.
classified as permanent grazing lands. On top of it, they • The perennial plant like creosote bush, cactus are scat-
exist in a highly degraded state. tered throughout the desert biomes.
• Grassland biomes are important to maintain the popu- • In shallow depressed areas with salt deposits geese-
lation of many domesticated and wild herbivores. wood, seepwood and salt grasses are common.
• Indian Grasslands and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi
and Central Arid Zone Research institute, Jodhpur.
Do you know?
3�5�3� Impact of grazing Sri Venkateshwara Zoological Park located in Tirupati
city in Andhra Pradesh is the largest zoo in the
• Due to heavy grazing pressure, the quality of grasslands
country.
deteriorates rapidly, the mulch cover of the soil reduces,
microclimate becomes more dry and is readily invaded
by xerophytic plants and borrowing animals. • Because water is the dominant limiting factor, the
• Due to absence of humus cover, mineral soil surface is productivity of a given desert is almost directly de-
heavily trampled, when wet it produces puddling of the pendent on the rainfall. Where soils are suitable, ir-
surface layer. In turn it reduces the infiltration of water rigation can convert deserts into productive
into the soil and accelerates run off, resulting in soft agricultural land.
erosion. • As the large volume of water passes through the ir-
• These changes contribute to the reduction of energy rigation system, salts may be left behind that will
flow, and the disruption of the stratification and perio- gradually accumulate over the years until they become
dicity of the primary producers. It results in a break- limiting, unless means of avoiding this difficulty are
down of the biogeochemical cycles of water, carbon and devised.
nitrogen.
• Water and wind erosion completely deteriorates dry Do you know?
grassland microclimate. Polar bears are very well adapted to swimming, with a
water-repellent coat and partially webbed feet.
3.5.4. Role of fire
• Fire plays an important role in the management of
grasslands. 3�6�1� Adaptations
• Under moist conditions fire favours grass over trees, Desert plants are under hot and dry conditions.
whereas in dry conditions fire is often necessary to (i) These plants conserve water by following
maintain grasslands against the invasion of desert methods:
shrubs.
• They are mostly shrubs.
• Burning increases the forage yields.
• Leaves are absent or reduced in size.
3.6. DESERT ECOSYSTEM • Leaves and stem are succulent and water storing.
• Deserts are formed in regions with less than 25 cm of • In some plants even the stem contains chlorophyll for
annual rainfall, or sometimes in hot regions where photosynthesis.
there is more rainfall, but unevenly distributed in the • Root system is well developed and spread over large
annual cycle. area.
• Lack of rain in the mid latitude is often due to stable The annuals wherever present germinate, bloom and
high pressure zones; deserts in temperate regions often reproduce only during the short rainy season, and not
lie in “rain shadows”, that is, where high mountains in summer and winter. This is an adaption to desert con-
block off moisture from the seas. dition.
(ii) The animals are physiologically and and root-systems and often large flowers. They appear
behaviorally adapted to desert conditions� almost immediately after rain, develop flowers and
• They are fast runners. fruits in an incredibly short time, and die as soon as the
surface layer of the soil dries up.
• They are nocturnal in habit to avoid the sun’s heat dur-
ing day time. • The rain perennials are visible above the ground only
during the rainy season, but have a perennial under-
• They conserve water by excreting concentrated urine. ground stem.
• Animals and birds usually have long legs to keep the • The second group - depending on the presence of sub-
body away from the hot ground.
terranean water
• Lizards are mostly insectivorous and can live without • By far the largest number of indigenous plants are ca-
drinking water for several days.
pable of absorbing water from deep below the surface
• Herbivorous animals get sufficient water from the seeds of the ground by means of a well-developed root system,
which they eat. the main part of which generally consists of a slender,
• Camel is known as the ship of the desert as it can travel woody tap root of extraordinary length.
long distances without drinking water for several days. • Generally, various other xerophilous adaptations are
• Mammals as a group are poorly adapted to deserts but resorted to such as reduced leaves, thick hairy growth,
some species have become secondarily adapted. A few succulence, coatings of wax, thick cuticle, protected sto-
species of nocturnal rodents can live in the desert with- mata, etc., all having for their object of reduction of
out drinking water. transpiration.
(b) Fauna
3�6�2� Indian Desert – Thar desert (hot)
• It is home to some of India’s most magnificent grass-
• The climate of this region is characterised by excessive lands and sanctuary for the Great Indian Bustard.
drought, the rainfall being scanty and irregular.
• Among the mammal, the blackbuck, wild ass, chinkara,
• The winter rains of northern India rarely penetrate into caracal, Sandgrouse and desert fox inhabit the open
the region. plains, grasslands, and saline depressions.
• November to March is characterized by extreme varia- • The nesting ground of Flamingoes and the only known
tions of temperature and the temperature is frequently population of Asiatic wild Ass lies in the remote part of
below freezing point at night. Great Rann, Gujarat.
• During April to June the heat are intense, frequent • It is the migration flyway used by cranes and flamingos.
scorching winds prevail with great desiccating.
• The relative humidity of the atmosphere is always low.
Do you know?
• The climate is hostile to all vegetation, only plants and
animals possessing special adaptations being able to According to Global Forest Resource Assessment Re-
establish themselves. port (Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) 2005),
India ranks among the top ten countries in terms of
(a) Flora forest area. India has 1.8 % of the global forest area
The proper desert plants may be divided into two main with per capita forests of 0.08 ha.
groups.
i) depending directly upon on rain and
3.6.3. Cold Desert/ Temperate Desert
ii) those depending on the presence of subterranean
water. Cold desert of India include areas of ladak, leh and kargil
of kashmir and spiti valley of Himachal Pradesh and some
The first group consists of two types: parts of northern Uttaranchal and Sikkim. These arid
• depending directly upon on the rain are of two types - areas are not affected by the Indian monsoons because they
the ‘ephernerals’ and the rain perennials’. lie in the rain-shadow of the Himalayan mountain systems.
• The ephernerals are delicate annuals, apparently free Characterised by extreme cold weather and denuded ter-
from any xerophilous adaptations, having slender stems rain they are not suitable for plant growth. Isolated, scat-
tered and over grazed herbaceous shrubs are found. The cause of this process is not climatic changes, droughts,
Grazing period is less than 3-4 months. etc. but human actions.
Causes
3�6�4� Characters
• Severe arid conditions - Dry Atmosphere
• Population pressure
• Temperature less than 0°C for most of the period, drops • Increase in cattle population, over grazing
to –50°C during winter. • Increased agriculture
• insignificant monsoon - Mean annual rainfall less than • Development activities
400mm • Deforestation
• Heavy snowfall occurs between November and march.
3.7.1. Status of Indian desertification
• Soil type - sandy to sandy loam
As per the Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of
• Soil pH - neutral to slight alkaline. India, 2007, the percentage of country under dry lands is
• Soil nutrient - Poor organic matter content 69.6%. The total area undergoing the process of land deg-
• Soil has low water retention capacity. radation in India is 105.48 million hectares, which consti-
tutes 32.07 percentage of India’s total land area.
• Wind erosion is more common.
81.45 million hectares area of the country is under deser-
• Narrow growing period, mostly during the summer.
tification (land degradation within drylands).
• Due to aforesaid extreme cold conditions, growth of
vegetation is slow and of slunted nature. Control measures
Bio-diversity India is a signatory to United Nations Convention to Com-
bat Desertification (UNCCD). The National Action Pro-
• Cold desert is the home of highly adaptive, rare endan- gramme for combating desertification was prepared in
gered fauna, such as Asiatic Ibex, Tibetan Argali,
2001 to take appropriate action in addressing the problems
Ladakh Uriyal, Bharal, Tibetan Antelope (chiru), Ti-
of desertification.
betan Gazelle, Wild Yak, Snow Leopard, Brown Bear,
Tibetan Wolf, Wild Dog and Tibetan Wild Ass (‘Kiang’ Some of the major programmes currently implemented
a close relative of the Indian wild ass) , Woolly hare, that address issues related to land degradation and deser-
Black Necked Crane, etc. tification are
• Cold desert comprises of alpine mesophytes and desert • Integrated Watershed Management Programme
vegetation. • National Afforestation Programme
• Dry temperature zone: Betula, Salix, Juniperus. • National Mission for Green India
• Alphine zone: Junipers, Birch, Rhododendron with • The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
grasses. Guarantee Scheme
• Perpetual snow zone: No vegetation due to permanently • Soil Conservation in the Catchment of River Valley Pro-
frozen soil. ject and Flood Prone River
• Oak, pine, deodar, birch and rhododendron are the im- • National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed
portant trees. Areas
• Desert Development Programme
3.7. DESERTIFICATION • Fodder and Feed Development Scheme-component of
It is the destruction of biological potential of the land which Grassland Development including Grass Reserves, Com-
can ultimately lead to desert like conditions. In arid and mand Area Development and Water Management pro-
semiarid regions, the restoration of the fragile ecosystem gramme etc.
is very slow, and issues like deforestation, mining enhances
the desertification. Desertification is a main problem faced 3.7.2. Afforestation
by desert adjoining areas, which stretches across parts of • The desert regions of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Pun-
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana. jab and Trans-Himalayan regions are in scarce of veg-
etation.
• People require fire wood, timber and fodder for their • Mizoram, with 88.93 percentage of forest cover has the
domestic consumptions and livestock. highest forest cover in percentage terms, followed by
• Presence of vegetation prevents the soil erosion and Lakshadweep with 84.56 per cent. The ISFR 2015 states
modifies the hostile climate. that 15 States/Union Territories have above 33 per cent
of the geographical area under forest cover.
• Thus desert Afforestation is inevitable in order to mod-
ify the climate, desertification and to meet the demands • Out of these, 7 States/Union Territories – Mizoram, Lak-
of people living in that region. shadweep, Andaman & Nicobar Island, Arunachal
Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya and Manipur have more
3.8 INDIAN STATE OF FOREST REPORT, 2017 than 75 per cent forest cover, while 8 states – Tripura,
Goa, Sikkim, Kerala, Uttarakhand, Dadra & Nagar
• State of Forests Report is published by the Forest Survey
Haveli, Chhattisgarh and Assam have forest cover is
of India (FSI) on a biennial basis since 1987.
between 33 percent to 75 percent.
• The India State of Forest Report 2017 is the 15th report
• “India is ranked 10th in the world in forest cover, with
in the series. It is based on interpretation of LISS III
24.39% of land area under forest and tree cover.
sensor data of indigenous Resourcesat – II satellite. The
satellite data interpretation is followed by extensive and • As per the FAO report, India is placed 8th in the list of
rigorous ground truthing. Top Ten nations reporting the greatest annual net gain
in the forest area.
• The total forest and tree cover is 24.39 percent of the
total geographical area. Forest and Tree Cover of the
country has increased by 8,021 sq km (1 %) as com- Do you know?
pared to the assessment of 2015. The very dense forest
(VDF) has increased by 1.36 % as compared to the last Spider silk is possibly the strongest material in the
assessment. VDF absorbs maximum carbon dioxide world! Scientists believe that if they gathered the same
from the atmosphere. weight of spider web as a piece of steel, the web would
be much stronger than the steel! As hard as scientists
• Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover in the try, they cannot match or copy the silk.
country, followed by Arunachal Pradesh and Chhattis-
garh.
 
CHAPTER - 4
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
E cosystems consisting of water as the main habitat

are known as aquatic ecosystems. Aquatic ecosys-
tems are classified based on their salt content.
i) Fresh water ecosystems- The salt content of fresh
iii) Plankton:
• This group includes both microscopic plants like algae
(phytoplankton) and animals like crustaceans and pro-
tozoans (zooplankton) found in all aquatic ecosystems,
bodies is very low, always less than 5 ppt (parts per except certain swift moving waters.
thousand). E.g lakes, ponds, pools, springs, streams, • The locomotory power of the planktons is limited so
and rivers that their distribution is controlled, largely, by currents
ii) Marine ecosystems - the water bodies containing salt in the aquatic ecosystems.
concentration equal to or above that of sea water (i.e.,
iv) Nekton:
35 ppt or above). E.g shallow seas and open ocean
iii) Brackish water ecosystems – these water bodies have • This group contains animals which are swimmers.
salt content in between 5 to 35 ppt. e.g. estuaries, salt • The nektons are relatively large and powerful as they
marshes, mangrove swamps and forests. have to overcome the water currents.
• The animals range in size from the swimming insects
4.1. AQUATIC ORGANISMS (about 2 mm long) to the largest animals, the blue
The aquatic organisms are classified on the basis of their whale.
zone of occurrence and their ability to cross these zones. v) Benthos:
The organisms (both flora and fauna) in the aquatic eco- • The benthic organisms are those found living in the
system are unevenly distributed but can be classified on bottom of the water mass.
the basis of their life form or location into five groups • Practically every aquatic ecosystem contains well devel-
i) Neuston: oped benthos.
• These are unattached organisms which live at the air- 4�1�1� Factors Limiting the Productivity of
water interface such as floating plants, etc.
Aquatic Habitats
• Some organisms spend most of their lives on top of the
air-water interface such as water striders, while others
Sunlight and oxygen are most important limiting fac-
spend most of their time just beneath the air-water
tors of the aquatic ecosystems whereas moisture and
interface and obtain most of their food within the water.
temperature are the main limiting factors of terres-
• E.g., beetles and back-swimmers. trial ecosystem.
ii) Periphyton:
• These are organisms which remain attached to stems Sunlight:
and leaves of rooted plants or substances emerging • Sunlight penetration rapidly diminishes as it passes
above the bottom mud such as sessile algae and their down the column of water. The depth to which light pen-
associated group of animals. etrates a lake determines the extent of plant distribution.
• Based on light penetration and plant distribution they • Therefore, the quantity of dissolved oxygen present in
are classified as photic and aphotic zones an ecosystem depends on the rate at which the aforesaid
two processes occur.
Photic zone:
• It is the upper layer of the aquatic ecosystems, up to • Dissolved oxygen escapes the water body through air-
water interface and through respiration of organisms
which light penetrates and within which photosynthetic
(fish, decomposers, zooplanktons, etc).
activity is confined.
• The depth of this zone depends on the transparency of • The amount of dissolved oxygen retained in water is
also influenced by temperature. Oxygen is less soluble
water.
in warm water. Warm water also enhances decomposer
• Both photosynthesis and respiration activity takes activity. Therefore, increasing the temperature of a wa-
place. terbody increases the rate at which oxygen is depleted
• photic (or “euphotic”) zone is the lighted and usually from water.
well-mixed portion that extends from the lake sur- • When the dissolved oxygen level falls below 3-5 ppm,
face down to where the light level is 1% of that at the many aquatic organisms are likely to die.
surface.
Other limiting factors which influence on aquatic produc-
Aphotic zone: tivity are
• The lower layers of the aquatic ecosystems, where light Transparency:
penetration and plant growth are restricted forms the
aphotic zone.
• Transparency affects the extent of light penetration.
• Only respiration activity takes place. • Suspended particulate matters such as clay, silt, phyto-
plankton, etc make the water turbid.
• aphotic zone is positioned below the littoral and photic • Consequently it limits the extent of light penetration
zones to bottom of the lake where light levels are too low
and the photosynthetic activity in a significant way.
for photosynthesis. Respiration occurs at all depths so the
aphotic zone is a region of oxygen consumption. This deep, Temperature:
unlit region is also known as the profundal zone. • The water temperature changes less rapidly than the
temperature of air because water has a considerably
higher specific heat than air, i.e. larger amounts of heat
Winterkill energy must be added to or taken away from water to
Snow cover of ice on water body can effectively cut off raise or lower its temperature.
light, plunging the waters into darkness. Hence pho- • Since water temperatures are less subject to change, the
tosynthesis stops but respiration continues. Thus in aquatic organisms have narrow temperature tolerance
shallow lakes, the oxygen get depleted. Fish die, but limit.
we won’t know it until the ice melts and we find float-
ing fish. This condition is known as winterkill. • As a result, even small changes in water temperature are
a great threat to the survival of aquatic organisms when
compared to the changes in air temperatures in the ter-
Dissolved oxygen: restrial organisms.
• In aquatic ecosystems oxygen is dissolved in water, The classification of organisms and limiting factors dis-
where its concentration varies constantly depending on cussed here apply in general to all aquatic ecosystems -
factors that influence the input and output of oxygen in lakes,Ponds, Rivers, Streams, Estuaries, oceans and seas.
water.
• In fresh water the average concentration of dissolved oxygen Do you know?
is 0.0010 per cent (also expressed as 10 parts per million or
Bats are social animals. They hang UPSIDE DOWN
10 ppm) by weight, which is 150 times lower than the con-
when they sleep. They feed at night (they are “noctur-
centration of oxygen in an equivalent volume of air.
nal”) and spend the day sleeping in caves or in tree
• Oxygen enters the aquatic ecosystem through the air tops. They are the second largest group of mammals
water interface and by the photosynthetic activities of after rodents.
aquatic plants.
4.2. LAKE ECOLOGY known as Freshwater, Brackish or Saline lakes (similar
Any - body of standing water, generally large enough in to that of classification of aquatic ecosystem).
area and depth, irrespective of its hydrology , ecology, and • On the basis of their nutrient content, they are catego-
other characteristics is generally known as lake. rized as Oligotrophic (very low nutrients), Mesotrophic
(moderate nutrients) and Eutrophic (highly nutrient rich).
4�2�1� Ageing of Lakes
• Vast majority of lakes in India are either eutrophic or
• Like any organism, lakes are born as they originate by mesotrophic because of the nutrients derived from their
various geological and geomorphic events, and ‘grow’ surroundings or organic wastes entering them.
with time to change in their various morphological and
functional characteristics and eventually die. 4�2�3� General Characteristics of Oligotrophic
• They receive their water from surface runoff (some- and eutrophic Lakes
times also groundwater discharge) and along with it Type of lake
various chemical substances and mineral matter eroded
from the land. Sl�no Parameter Oligotrophic Eutrophic
• Over periods spanning millennia, ‘ageing’ occurs as the 1. Aquatic plant Low Eliminated
lakes accumulate mineral and organic matter and grad- production due to
ually, get filled up. Eutrophication
2. Aquatic Low Eliminated
The nutrient-enrichment of the lakes promotes the growth animal due to
of algae, aquatic plants and various fauna. This process is production Eutrophication
known as natural eutrophication. 3. Aquatic plant Low High
Similar nutrient enrichment of lakes at an accelerated nutrient flux
rate is caused by human activities (discharge of waste-
4. Oxygen in the Present Absent
waters or agricultural runoff) and the consequent age-
hypolimnion
ing phenomenon is known as ‘cultural eutrophication’.
(bottom layer)
5. Depth Tend to be Tend to be
Do you know? deeper shallower
Poison Dart frogs live in rainforest habitats in Central 6. Water quality Good Poor
and South America. They can be found in trees, as well for domestic &
as under leaves and logs and rocks on the floor of the industrial uses
forest. Because of their size, from ½ to 2 inches long, they
7. Total salts or Usually lower Sometimes
are hard to see. Poison frogs warn predators with bril-
liant colors and patterns. There are many species of poi- conductance higher
son frogs that can be found in every color under the sun! 8. Number of Many Fewer
They prey on invertebrates, especially certain ant species, plant and
which build up really strong poisons in the frog. animal species
4�2�2� In India 4�2�4� Removal of the nutrients from a lake
• In India, natural lakes (relatively few) mostly lie in the • Flushing with nutrient-poor waters.
Himalayan region , the floodplains of Indus, Ganga and • Deep water abstraction.
Brahmaputra.
• On-site P-elimination by flocculation/flotation with water
• In the semi-arid and arid regions of western and pen- backflow, or floating Plant NESSIE with adsorbents.
insular India, tens of thousands of water bodies have
been constructed over millennia. • On-site algae removal by filters and P-adsorbers.
• Lake ‘Sudarshan’ in Gujarat’s Girnar area was perhaps • On-site algae skimming and separator thickening.
the oldest man-made lake in India, dating back to • Artificial mixing / Destratification (permanent or inter-
300 BC. mittent).
• Lakes are also classified on the basis of their water • Harvest of fishes and macrophytes.
chemistry. Based on the levels of salinity, they are • Sludge removal.
Ameenpur Lake - First Biodiversity Heritage Site • The growth of green algae which we see in the lake
Ameenpur Lake gets the status of the first Biodiversity surface layer is the physical identification of an Eu-
Heritage Site in the country under the biodiversity act, trophication.
2002. it is an ancient man-made lake in a western part of • Some algae and blue-green bacteria thrive on the excess
Telangana. Biodiversity Heritage Site is areas of biodiver- ions and a population explosion covers almost entire
sity importance, which harbor rich biodiversity, wild rela- surface layer is known as algal bloom. This growth is
tives of crops, or areas, which lie outside the protected area unsustainable, however.
network. Biodiversity Heritage sites are managed by a lo-
cally constituted Biodiversity Management Committee and
• As Algal Bloom covers the surface layer, it restricts the
penetration of sunlight. Diffusion of gas from atom
get funding for its protection.
• Oxygen is required by all respiring animals in the water
Do you know? and it is replenished by diffusion and photosynthesis of
green plants.
Under Green India Mission (GIM), perspective plans and
annual plans of operations of six States have been ap- • The oxygen level is already low because of the popula-
proved in the first sitting of the National Executive Coun- tion explosion and further oxygen is taken up by micro-
cil held in May 2015. organisms which feed off the dead algae during
decomposition process.
4.3. EUTROPHICATION • Due to reduced oxygen level, fishes and other aquatic
organism suffocate and they die.
• Greek word – Eutrophia means adequate & healthy nu-
trition. • The anaerobic conditions can promote growth of bac-
teria which produces toxins deadly to aquatic organ-
• Eutrophication is a syndrome of ecosystem, response to isms, birds and mammals.
the addition of artificial or natural nutrients such as
nitrates and phosphates through fertilizer, sewage, etc • All this eventually leads to degradation of aquatic eco-
that fertilize the aquatic ecosystem. system and death of its organisms.
• It is primarily caused by the leaching of phosphate and • It often leads to change in animal and plant population
- or nitrate containing fertilisers from agricultural & degradation of water & habitat quality.
lands into lakes or rivers.
Process of Eutrophication
4�3�1� Types 2� Non-point source
1� Natural • Is from various ill-defined and diffuse sources
• Deposition of nutrients [such as depositional environ- • Vary spatially and temporarily and are difficult to
ments. When the nutrients flow into the system on tem- regulate.
poral basics.
• It Occurs over centuries FLOW CHART
• Eg. Seasonally inundated tropical flood plains Agricultural runoff, untreated sewage, etc
2� Manmade
Transportation to the aquatic ecosystem
• Occurs in decades
• These inputs may come from untreated sewage dis- Nutrient accumulation and enrichment
charges, runoff of fertilizer from farm fields, golf
courses, park , etc. & from animal wastes. Overgrowth of Algae
• Combustion of fossil fuel [produces gases – nitrogen
oxides Algal Bloom
• Growing urban population in the coastal areas
Algae covering the aquatic surface layer
4�3�2� Sources
Restricts the sunlight penetration,
1� Point sources Diffusion of D.O.
• Directly attributable to one influence
Underground aquatic Algae, plant’s die
• In point source nutrient waste travels directly from
source to water.
Bacterial Decomposition consumes the available
• Point sources are easy to regulate. oxygen in the aquatic ecosystem
Anoxia condition (Devoid of oxygen)

Trees
T - Timber, the first and the foremost use of trees All aquatic organism die due to lack of D.O
R - Restoration, reclamation and rejuvenation of denuded Degradation of aquatic ecosystem

and disturbed soils by using trees to control soil ero-
sion and desertification, protect watersheds, improve
soil nutrient status (by growing nitrogen-fixing trees) 4.3.2. Effects
and retain moisture in the soil Change in ecosystem:
E - Ecological, eco-developmental and environmental use • Eutrophication eventually create detritus layer in the
of trees for effective and efficient purification of the ponds & lakes and produces successively shallower
environment because trees act as oxygen banks and depth of surface water.
eliminate air pollutants; for abating or moderating • Eventually the water body is reduced into marsh whose
temperature, noise and wind by planting trees as plant community is transformed from an aquatic envi-
environmental screens, thus affecting the microcli- ronment to recognizable terrestrial ecosystem.
mate; for harboring wildlife; for maintaining biodi-
Decreased biodiversity
versity; and for conserving energy
E - Educational and recreational value in gardening,
• Algal blooms restrict the sunlight to penetrate & affects
the photosynthesizing plants. It causes death of plants.
landscaping, art, culture and religion
• Bacteria consumes all the oxygen on decomposition &
S - Source of sustenance; i.e., food, fuel, fodder, fertilizer, results in devoid of oxygen. Eventually it leads to death
fiber, medicine, tannin, dyes, oils, etc. of all living organism in aquatic ecosystem.
New species invasion • Treatment of runoff from street & storm drains
• Eutrophication may cause the ecosystem competitive by • Reduction in nitrogen emission from vehicles and power
transforming the normal limiting nutrient to abundant plants
level. This cause shifting in species composition of eco- • Increase in efficiency of nitrogen & phosphorous re-
system moval from municipal waste water
Toxicity Policies
• Some algal blooms when die or eaten, release neuro & • Multi dimensional in Nature should include
hepatotoxins which can kill aquatic organism & pose
threat to humans. (e.g) Shellfish poisoning.
• Education & awareness
• Depletion of dissolved oxygen level. • Research, monitoring & evaluation
• Increased incidences of fish kills & loss of desirable fish • Regulations.
species & reduction in harvesting • Fiscal & economic incentives
• Loss of coral reefs. • Ecosystem preservation & restoration
• Decrease in water transparency and increased turbidity. 4.4. HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS
• Affects navigation due to increased turbidity. • Algae or phytoplankton are microscopic organisms that
• Colour (yellow, green, red), smell and water treatment can be found naturally in coastal waters. They are
problems. major producers of oxygen and food for many of the
• Increased biomass of inedible toxic phytoplankton animals that live in these waters.
• Increase in bloom of gelatinous zooplankton • When environmental conditions are favorable for their
• Increased biomass of benthic and epiphytic algae development, these cells may multiply rapidly and form
high numbers of cells and this is called an algal bloom.
• Unsuitable for aesthetic recreation, and reduction in
value of water body • A bloom often results in a color change in the water.
Algal blooms can be any color, but the most common
ones are red or brown. These blooms are commonly
Do you know? referred to as red or brown tides.
The world’s tallest tree is a coast redwood in Califor- • Most algal blooms are not harmful but some produce
nia, measuring more than 360 ft or 110 m. toxins and do affect fish, birds, marine mammals and
humans. The toxins may also make the surrounding air
difficult to breathe. These are known as Harmful Algal
Mitigation
Blooms (HABs).
• Riparian buffer
• Interfaces between a flowing body of water and land 4.4.2. Why Red Tide is a misnomer?
created near the waterways, farms, roads, etc. in an • “Red Tide” is a common name for such a phenomenon
attempt to filter pollution. where certain phytoplankton species contain pigments
• Sediments and nutrients are deposited in the buffer and “bloom” such that the human eye perceives the
zones instead of deposition in water. water to be discolored.
• Minimizing the non-point pollution. • Blooms can appear greenish, brown, and even reddish
• Nitrogen testing & modeling orange depending upon the type of organism, the type
of water, and the concentration of the organisms.
• N-Testing is a technique to find the optimum amount of
fertilizer required for crop plants. It will reduce the • The term “red tide” is thus a misnomer because blooms
amount of nitrogen lost to the surrounding area. are not always red, they are not associated with tides,
they are usually not harmful, and some species can be
• Treatment of Industrial effluents harmful or dangerous at low cell concentrations that do
• Organic farming & Integrated Farming System. not discolor the water.
• Reduction in livestock densities • They are scientifically referred as Harmful Algal Blooms
• Improving the efficiency of use of fertilizer (HABs).
4.4.3. What are the causes of these blooms? habitats, creating a significant impact on local econo-
• Blooms occur when several colonies start combining mies and the livelihood of coastal residents.
rapidly when conditions such as nutrient concentra-
tions, salinity and temperature are optimal. 4.4.6. How do we get exposed to HAB toxins?
• Blooms can be due to a number of reasons. Two com- • Most illness associated with HAB exposure is the result
mon causes are nutrient enrichment and warm waters. of consuming toxins that are present in shellfish or
finfish.
• Nutrient enrichment of water, especially phosphates and
nitrogen, is often the result of pollution and can cause • Some HAB toxins can become airborne during a bloom
algal blooms. and people can become ill by inhaling toxins.
• Water temperature has also been related to the occur-
4.4.7. Is it safe to eat seafood?
rence of algal blooms, with unusually warm water being
conducive to blooms. • In general, it is safe to eat seafood.
• However, consuming shellfish that have been harvested
4.4.4. How are HABs dangerous to fish and from waters with high levels of harmful algae and con-
humans? suming fish that have lesions or that were caught in an
• HABs can deplete oxygen in water and lead to low dis- area during an algal bloom can result in illness.
solved oxygen levels.
4�4�8� HABs and Climate Change
• How it depletes oxygen? When masses of algae die and
decompose, the decaying process can deplete oxygen • Because the growth, toxicity, and distribution of harm-
in the water, causing the water to become so low in ful algal bloom (HAB) species are all tied to the environ-
oxygen. ment, changes in climate can change the occurrence,
severity, and impacts of HAB events.
• When oxygen levels become too low, fish suffocate
and die.
4.5. WET LAND ECOSYSTEM
• Some algae species in blooms produce potent neurotox-
• Wetlands are areas intermediate in character between
ins that can be transferred through the food web where
deepwater and terrestrial habitats, also transitional in
they affect and even kill the higher forms of life such as
nature, and often located between them.
zooplankton, shellfish, fish, birds, marine mammals,
and even humans that feed either directly or indirectly • These habitats experience periodic flooding from adja-
on them. cent deepwater habitats and therefore supports plants
and animals specifically adapted to such shallow flood-
ing or water logging of the substrate, were designated
Do you know? as wetlands.
Elephants live in a social hierarchy dominated by older • They included lake littorals (marginal areas between
females. Females travel in long-lasting social units of highest and lowest water level of the lakes), flood-
about half a dozen adult females and their offspring, plains (areas lying adjacent to the river channels be-
with the unit being led by a single older female, the yond the natural levees and periodically flooded
matriarch. during high discharge in the river) and other marshy
or swampy areas where water gets stagnated due to
poor drainage or relatively impervious substrata &
4.4.5. Is HAB’s an environmental hazard? Bogs, fens and mangroves due to similar ecological
• Yes, it is because these events can make people sick characteristics
when contaminated shellfish are eaten, or when people
breathe aerosolized HAB toxins near the beach. 4.5.1. Definition
• In addition, HAB events can result in the closure of • Areas of marsh, fen, peatland/water, whether natural
shellfish beds, massive fish kills, death of marine mam- (or) artificial, permanent (or) temporary with water that
mals and seabirds, and alteration of marine habitats. is static (or) flowing, fresh, brackish (or) salt, including
• As a consequence, HAB events adversely affect com- areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide
mercial and recreational fishing, tourism, and valued does not exceed 6 mtrs.
4�5�2� Characteristics
• Covered by water (or) has waterlogged soil for atleast seven days during the growing season.
• Adopted plant life (hydrophytes)
• Hydric soils (not enough O2 available for some plants)
4.5.3. Wetlands Classification
WETLAND
INLAND COASTAL
WETLAND WETLAND
Natural Man made Natural Man made
• Lakes / Ponds • Reservoirs • Estuary • Salt pans

• Ox-bow Lakes • Tanks • Lagoon • Aquculture
• Waterlogged • Waterlogged • Creek
• Seasonal • Ash pond • Backwater
• Swamp/marsh • Bay
• Coral reef
• Tidal flat
• Mangroves
• Salt marsh
4�5�4� Functions of Wetlands • Comprise an important resource for sustainable tour-

• Habitat to aquatic flora and fauna, as well as numerous ism, recreation and cultural heritage
species of birds, including migratory species. • Stabilization of local climate
• Filtration of sediments and nutrients from surface • Source of livelihood to local people
water • Genetic reservoir for various species of plants (espe-
• Nutrients recycling cially rice)
• Water purification • Supporting specific diversity
• Floods mitigation
4�5�5� Reasons for depletion
• Maintenance of stream flow
• Conversion of lands for agriculture
• Ground water recharging
• Overgrazing
• Provide drinking water, fish, fodder, fuel, etc • Removal of sand from beds
• Control rate of runoff in urban areas • Aqua culture
• Buffer shorelines against erosion • Habitat Destruction and Deforestation
• Pollution • lakes are generally less important when compared to
• Domestic waste wetland from the viewpoint of ecosystem and biodiver-
sity conservation.
• Agricultural runoff
• Industrial effluents 4�5�8� Comparison between Lake and Wetlands
• Climate change
Sl � Characteristic Lake Wetland
4�5�6� Mitigation no (shallow lake)
• Survey and demarcation 1. Origin various process Fluvial/
• Protection of natural regeneration Geomorphic
processes
• Artificial regeneration
2. Water turnover Permanent Permanent or
• Protective measures
Temporary
• Afforestation (percentage survival to be indicated)
3. Water level relatively small Relatively Large
• Weed control
changes
• Soil conservation measures & afforestation
4. Littoral: Small Large
• Wildlife conservation
Pelagial ratio
• Removal of encroachments
5. Thermal Yes No
• Eutrophication abatement stratification
• Environmental awareness
6. Vertical mixing Thermally Wind regulated
4�5�7� Distinction from Lakes regulated
• Although the Ministry of Environment and Forests has 7. Dominant Phyto plankton Macrophytes
not adopted a clear distinction between lakes and wet- Producer
lands, the National Lake Conservation Programme 8. Food chain Grazing Detritus
(NLCP) considers lakes as standing water bodies which Pathway Pathway
have a minimum water depth of 3 m, generally cover a
9. Nutrient Cycles Microbial loops Microbial loop
water spread of more than ten hectares, and have no or
less important dominant
very little aquatic vegetation (macrophytes).
• These water bodies are used primarily for drinking
10. Productivity Low High
water supplies, irrigation and/or recreation.
• Excessive growth of macrophytes (both submerged and
11. Trophic status Oligo trophic Mostly Eutrophic
free-floating) generally present in wetland, affects the
(Except desirable
water quality adversely and interfere with the utiliza-
in bogs)
tion of the water body.
12. Biodiversity Generally low Generally high
• However, marginal aquatic vegetation (wetlands), par-
ticularly comprising of emergent plants and those in-
habiting waterlogged soils, is not only desirable but is 13. Functions- Less Significant
to be promoted because it checks erosion, serves habitat Flood control Significant
for wildlife and helps improve water quality. 14. Groundwater Negligible/low Low-high
• Wetlands (generally less than 3 m deep over most of recharge
their area) are usually rich in nutrients (derived from 15. Waste No Yes
surroundings and their sediments) and have abundant treatment
growth of aquatic macrophytes.
16. Management Control of Biodiversity
• They support high densities and diversity of fauna, par- objectives eutrophication conservation
ticularly birds, fish and macro invertebrates, and there- High Specific
fore, have high value for biodiversity conservation. These Water quality Functions
shallow lakes are rightfully categorized as wetlands.
4�5�9� India’s Wetlands • to monitor implementation of the programme; and to
• Wetlands are areas of critical ecological significance: as prepare an inventory of Indian wetlands.
they support biodiversity, support millions of people • The Central Government is responsible for overall co-
directly and indirectly, protect from storms, flood con- ordination of wetland conservation programmes and
trol, improve water quality, supply food, fiber and raw initiatives at the international and national levels. It also
materials. provides guidelines, financial & technical assistance to
• India has totally 27,403 wetlands, of which 23,444 are state govt.
inland wetlands and 3,959 are coastal wetlands. Wet- • Since the land resources belong to them, the State Gov-
lands occupy 18.4% of the country’s area of which 70% ernments/UT Administration are responsible for man-
are under paddy cultivation. agement of wetlands and implementation of the NWCP
• Natural wetlands in India range from high altitude wet- for ensuring their wise-use.
lands in Himalayas; flood plains of the major river sys-
tems; saline and temporary wetlands of the arid and 4.5.11. Criteria for Identification of Wetlands of
semi-arid regions; coastal wetlands such as lagoons, National Importance
backwaters, estuaries, mangroves, swamps and coral • Criteria for identification of wetlands of national impor-
reefs, and so on. tance under NWCP are same as those prescribed under
the ‘Ramsar Convention on Wetlands’ and are as given
below:
Do you know?
• Sites containing representative, rare or unique wetland
Kannimara teak is one of the largest living teak tree types
in the world. It has an amazing girth of 6.48m and a
(i) If it contains a representative, rare, or unique example
crown height of 48.75m It is believed to be around 400
of a natural or near-natural wetland type found within
years old.
the appropriate biogeographic region.
According to the local tribal belief here when this tree
was tried to cut down, the blood spurted out from the
• Criteria based on species and ecological communities
place of cut. This tree was being since then wor- (ii) If it supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically en-
shipped by the local tribes in Parambikulam as “Vir- dangered species; or threatened ecological communities.
gin tree”. Kannimara - ‘ Kanni’ means ‘Virgin’. This (iii) If it supports populations of plant and/or animal spe-
tree has been awarded ‘Mahavriksha Puraskar’ by the cies important for maintaining the biological diversity
Government of India. of a particular biogeographic region.
(iv) If it supports plant and/or animal species at a critical
stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge during
4�5�10� National Wetlands Conservation adverse conditions.
Programme (NWCP)
• Specific criteria based on water birds
• NWCP was implemented in the year 1985-86.
(v) If it regularly supports 20,000 or more water birds.
• Under the programme, 115 wetlands (Annexure) have
(vi) If it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a pop-
been identified by the Ministry which require urgent
ulation of one species or subspecies of waterbirds.
conservation and management interventions.
Aim
• Specific criteria based on fish
(vii) If it supports a significant proportion of indigenous
• Conservation of wetlands to prevent their further deg- fish subspecies, species or families, life-history stages,
radation and ensuring their wise use for the benefit species interactions and/or populations that are rep-
of local communities and overall conservation of bio- resentative of wetland benefits and/or values and
diversity. thereby contributes to global biological diversity.
Objectives (viii) If it is an important source of food for fishes, spawn-
• to lay down policy guidelines for conservation and man- ing ground, nursery and/or migration path on which
agement of wetlands in the country. fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere,
• to provide financial assistance for undertaking intensive depend. Specific criteria based on water/life and
conservation measures in the identified wetlands. culture
(ix) If it is an important source of food and water resource, of sunlight (no need of soil). A floating island unit is es-
increased possibilities for recreation and eco-tourism, sentially a platform designed using styrofoam, bamboo,
improved scenic values, educational opportunities, con- gunny bags and coirand it performs the function of a wet-
servation of cultural heritage (historic or religious sites). land.
4�5�12� Montreux Record 4.6. ESTUARY ECOSYSTEM

Montreux Record is the principal tool under the Ramsar • Estuaries are located where river meets the sea. Estu-
Convention, is a register of wetland sites on the List of aries are water bodies where the flow of freshwater
Wetlands of International Importance from river mixes with salt water transported, by tide,
It highlights those sites where adverse changes in ecologi- from the ocean. Estuaries are the most productive
cal character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to water bodies in the world. They are located at the lower
occur as a result of technological developments, pollution end of a river and are subject to tidal fluctuations.
or other human interference and which are therefore in • Estuaries are either once or twice, daily washed by the
need of priority conservation attention. It is maintained as seawater.
part of the Ramsar List.
Montreux Record are employed to identify priority sites 4�6�1� Characters
for positive national and international conservation atten- • An Estuary is a semi enclosed coastal body of water
tion. Sites may be added to and removed from the Record with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it.
only with the approval of the Contracting Parties in which • It has a free connection with open sea.
they lie.
• The complete salinity range from 0-35 ppt is seen
Montreux Record sites in India from the head (river end) to the mouth (sea end) of an
Chilika lake, Orissa was placed on the Montreux Record in estuary.
1993 due to siltation, which was choking the mouth of the • An estuary has very little wave action, so it provides a
lake. Following the rehabilitation efforts of the government, calm refuge from the open sea. It provides the shelter
it was removed from the Record in 2002. For this achieve- for some of the animals.
ment, the Chilika Development Authority received the • It is the most productive region as it receives the high
Ramsar Wetland Conservation Award for 2002. amount of nutrients from fresh and marine water.
Loktak lake, Manipur was included on the Montreux Re- • Estuaries are most heavily populated areas throughout
cord in 1993 (signifying habitat degradation), as a result of the world, with about 60% of the world’s population
ecological problems such as deforestation in the catchment living along estuaries and the coast.
area, infestation of water hyacinth and pollution. The con-
struction a hydroelectric power plant has caused the local Coastal lakes which have their connection with the sea
extinction of several native fish species. through small openings are better known as lagoons or
Keoladeo national park, Rajasthan was placed on the backwaters. They exhibit a gradient in salinity from
Montreux Record in 1990 due to water shortage and un- freshwater to marine depending upon the extent of in-
balanced grazing regime around it. The invasive growth fluence of the sea water.
of the grass Paspalum distichum has changed the eco-
logical character of large areas of the site, reducing its Estuary Formation:
suitability for certain waterbird species, notably the Sibe- Most estuaries can be grouped into four geomorphic
rian crane. categories based on the physical processes responsible
Loktak lake and keoladeo national park are the two Mon- for their formation:
treux Record sites in India (1) rising sea level; (2) movement of sand and sandbars;
(3) glacial processes; and (4) tectonic processes.
Neknampur Lake - First FTW Lake
The Neknampur Lake, Hyderabad is the largest floating • Estuaries are typically classified by their geomorpho-
treatment wetland in the country. Floating treatment wet- logical features or by water circulation patterns and can
land workson the basis of hydroponics technique. Hydro- be referred to by many different names, such as bays,
ponics permits plants to grow on the water with the help harbors, lagoons, inlets, etc.
• The banks of estuarine channels form a favoured loca- • Community values
tion for human settlements, which use the estuaries for • Indigenous values
fishing and commerce, but nowadays also for dumping
civic and industrial waste.
• Recreation values
• Estuaries are usually biologically highly productive

• Knowledge/Research values
zones. • Economic Benefits
• They also act as a filter for some dissolved constituents • Commercial fishing
in river water; these precipitate in the zone where river • Ports and harbours
water meets seawater. • Navigation
• More important is the trapping of suspended mud and • Tourism
sand carried by rivers which leads to delta formations
around estuaries.
• Agriculture, aquaculture and industry
• Storm and erosion protection
4�6�2� A Healthy Estuary 4�6�5� India Estuarine Ecosystem
• A healthy estuary supports a host of plants and animals. • The Country has 14 major, 44 medium and 162 minor
It stores and recycles Nutrients, traps sediment and rivers drains into the sea through various estuaries.
forms a buffer between coastal catchments and the ma-
rine environment. It also absorbs traps and detoxifies • Estuaries are an important and distinct component of
the coastal landscape with highly complex ecosystems,
pollutants, acting as a natural water filter. When all
varying physical – chemical properties and having
such processes remain functional an estuary is consid-
highly diverse flora and fauna.
ered to be healthy state.
• Estuaries support diverse habitats, such as mangroves,
• Major estuaries occur in the Bay of Bengal. Many estu-
aries are locations of some of the major seaports.
salt marshes, sea-grass, mudflats etc.
• Most of the India’s major estuaries occur on the east
coast. In contrast, the estuaries on the west coast are
4�6�3� Life in Estuary
smaller.
• Only certain types of plants and animals specially
adapted to the “brackish” estuarine waters flourish in 4�6�6� Issues of Indian Estuarine Ecosystem
the estuaries. Factors influencing the growth and dis-
tribution of organism in an estuary are its salinity and
• The specific issues which have affected the estuarine
environment in the country are:
the amount of flooding.
1. Water flow
• Estuaries are homes to all kind of terrestrial or land-
based plants and animals, such as wood storks, peli- • Changes in water flow in various estuaries, either far
cans, coniferous and deciduous trees and butterflies. in excess or much lower than required (e.g., Hooghly,
Estuaries are also homes to unique aquatic plants and Narmada, Krishna, Godavari, Pulicat etc.)
animals, such as sea turtles and sea lions, sea catfish, • Modifications of the estuarine catchments (e.g Most of
saltworts, eelgrass, saltgrasses, cordgrasses, sea grass, the Indian estuaries)
sedge and bulrush.
2� Pollution & Water Quality
• Predators are important to the estuary because of their
end position in most consumer food chains. • Pollution through industries and combined city sewage
(e.g., all the Indian estuaries)
4.6.4. Benefits of Estuarine Ecosystem 3� Recreation And Tourism
Environmental Benefits • Recreational boating (e g., Hooghly WB; Chilika, Orissa)
• Water quality regulation and groundwater recharge • Recreational fishing kg., Chilika)
• Habitat, breeding and nursery grounds for plants and • Navigation (e g., Hooghly)
animals
4� Ports & Shipping
• Biological productivity
• Social Benefits • Dredging (e.g., Hooghly)
• Shipping (r g., Hooghly)
Do you know?
5� Land-use Snakes generally lay eggs, some snakes, such as boas,
• Expansion of urban and rural settlements (e.g, Hooghly, rattlesnakes and garter snakes, give birth to live
Krishna, Cauvery, Pulicat) young.
• Marinas, groynes, land reclamation and other struc-
tures (e.g., Hooghly, Pulicat)
4.7. MANGROVES
• Mining & Industries (e.g., Hooghly, Zuari, Goa)
• Mangroves are the characteristic littoral plant forma-
• Agriculture (e.g., all the Estuaries) tion of tropical and subtropical sheltered coastlines.
• Dumping of solid wastes (eg. all the Indian estuaries) Mangroves are trees and bushes growing below the
high water level of spring tides which exhibits remark-
6� Commercial Fishing & Aquaculture able capacity for salt water tolerance. - FAO .
• Over exploitation of target fish stock due to increased
demand (e.g., all the Indian estuaries) 4�7�1� Characteristics of mangroves
• Reclaiming the fringed areas for intensive aquaculture • They are basically evergreen land plants growing on
in pens , sheltered shores, typically on tidal flats, deltas, estuar-
ies, bays, creeks and the barrier islands.
• obstructing the migratory routes of fish and prawn re-
cruitment (e.g., Chilika, Pulicat) • The best locations are where abundant silt is brought
down by rivers or on the backshore of accreting sandy
• Polluting the environment through feeding of stocked beaches.
fish and prawn in pens (Chilika)
• Their physiological adaptation to salinity stress and to
• Destruction of biodiversity through prawn seed collec- water logged anaerobic mud is high.
tion and operation of small-meshed nets (e.g., Hooghly,
Chilika, Pulicat) • They require high solar radiation and have the ability
to absorb fresh water from saline/brackish water.
7� Climate Change • It produces pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome
respiration problem in the anaerobic soil conditions.
• Submergence of catchment areas due to rise in water
level (e.g., all the major Indian estuaries)
• Change in biodiversity profile, affecting the production
and productivity (e.g., all the major Indian estuary)
Pneumatophores
• Mangroves occur in variety of configurations. Some

species (e.g. Rhizophora) send arching prop roots down
into the water. While other (e.g. Avicennia) send vertical
“Pneumatophores” or air roots up from the mud.
Mangrove tree
• Most mangrove vegetation has lenticellated bank which
facilitates more water loss, produces coppices. Leaves
are thick and contain salt secreting glands.
• Mangroves exhibit Viviparity mode of reproduction. i.e. concentration of typical mangrove species and high ge-
seeds germinate in the tree itself (before falling to the netic diversity.
ground). This is an adaptative mechanism to overcome
the problem of germination in saline water.
• Mangrove swamps occur in profusion in the intertidal
mudflats on both side of the creeks in the Godavari-
• Some secrete excess salt through their leaves as if you Krishna deltaic regions of Andhra Pradesh.
look closely, you can see crystals of salt on the back of
the leaves; others block absorption of salt at their roots.
• Mangroves of Pichavaram and Vedaranyam are de-
graded mainly due to construction of aquaculture ponds
• Adventitious roots which emerged from the main trunk and salt pans.
of a tree above ground level are called stilt roots.
Stilt Roots
Do you know?
The word amphibian means two-lives. Amphibians
spend their lives in the water and on land. All amphib-
ians begin their life in water with gills and tails. As Indian Mangrove Profile
they grow, they develop lungs and legs for their life on
land. Members of this animal class are frogs, toads, • On the west coast of India, mangroves, mostly scrubby
salamanders, newts, and caecilians or blindworms. and degraded occur along the intertidal region of estu-
Amphibians shed their skin as they grow. Usually the aries and creeks in Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka.
shed skin is eaten.
• The mangrove vegetation in the coastal zone of Kerala
is very sparse and thin.
4.7.2. Mangrove profile in India • In Gujarat (north-west coast) mangroves Avicennia ma-
• The mangroves of Sundarbans are the largest single rine, Avicennia officinalis and Rhizophora mucronata
block of tidal holophytic mangroves of the world. The are found mainly in Gulf of Kachchh and the Kori
major species of this dense mangrove forest include creek.
Herritiera fames, Rhizophora spp., Bruguiera spp., Ce- • Mangroves are of scrubby type with stunted growth,
riops decandra, Sonneratia spp. and Avicennia spp., forming narrow, discontinuous patches on soft clayey
Nypa fruticans are found along the creeks. This man- mud.
grove forest is famous for the Royal Bengal Tiger and
crocodiles. Mangrove areas are being cleared for agri- • The condition of the mangroves is improving especially
in the Kori creek region, which is a paleodelta of the
cultural use.
Indus river.
• The mangroves of Bhitarkanika (Orissa), which is the
second largest in the Indian sub continent, harbour high • In size, mangroves range from bushy stands of dwarf
mangroves found in Gulf of Kuchchh, to taller stands spills, aquacultural (shrimp farming), use of chemical
found in the Sunderbans. pesticides & fertilizers, industrial purposes.
• On the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, the small tidal
4.8. COR AL REEFS
estuaries, neritic inlets and the lagoons support a dense
and diverse undisturbed mangrove flora. • Coral is actually a living animal. Coral has a symbiotic
relationship (each gives something to the other and gets
4�7�3� Role of mangroves something back in return) with ‘zooxanthellae’ micro-
scopic algae which live on coral [i.e. instead of living on
• Mangrove plants have (additional) special roots such as
the sea floor, the algae lives up on the coral which is
prop roots, pneumatophores which help to impede
water flow and thereby enhance the deposition of sedi- closer to the ocean surface and so that the algae gets
adequate light].
ment in areas (where it is already occurring), stabilize
the coastal shores, provide breeding ground for fishes.
• Mangroves moderate monsoonal tidal floods and re-
duce inundation of coastal lowlands.
• It prevents coastal soil erosion.
• It protects coastal lands from tsunami, hurricanes and
floods.
• Mangroves enhance natural recycling of nutrients.
• Mangrove supports numerous flora, avifauna and wild
life.
• Provide a safe and favorable environment for breeding,
spawning, rearing of several fishes.
• It protects coastal inland from adverse climatic ele- Coral
ments.
• It supplies woods, fire wood, medicinal plants and ed- • Zooxanthellae assist the coral in nutrient production
ible plants to local people. through its photosynthetic activities. These activities
provide the coral with fixed carbon compounds for en-
• It provides numerous employment opportunities to local
ergy, enhance calcification ,and mediate elemental nu-
communities and augments their livelihood.
trient flux.
Do you know? • The tissues of corals themselves are actually not the
The King Cobra is not only an excellent climber but a beautiful colors of the coral reef, but are instead clear
super swimmer as well. They live in forests near (white). The corals receive their coloration from the
streams. zooxanthellae living within their tissues.
• The host coral polyp in return provides its zooxanthel-
lae with a protected environment to live within, and a
Fine, anoxic sediments deposited under mangroves act steady supply of carbon dioxide for its photosynthetic
as sinks for a variety of heavy (trace) metals which are processes.
scavenged from the overlying seawater by colloidal
particles in the sediments. By cleaning our air, they • There are two types of corals: hard corals and soft cor-
taking in carbon dioxide, storing the carbon in their als, such as sea fans and gorgonians. Only hard corals
roots, leaves, branches and in its surrounding silt, and build reefs.
release oxygen back to the atmosphere, along with a • The builders of coral reefs are tiny animals called pol-
little methane gas. yps. As these polyps thrive, grow, then die, they leave
their limestone (calcium carbonate) skeletons behind.
The limestone is colonized by new polyps. Therefore, a
4�7�4� Threat coral reef is built up of layers of these skeletons covered
• They are destroyed for conversion of area for agricul- ultimately by living polyps.
tural purpose, fuel, fodder and, salinization, minig, oil
• The reef-building, or hermatypic corals can form a wide • Patch reefs are isolated and discontinuous patches, lying
range of shapes. Coral reefs may be branched, table-like, shoreward of offshore reef structures as seen in the Palk
or look like massive cups, boulders or knobs. bay, Gulf of Mannar and Gulf of Katchchh.
• While the majority of coral reefs are found in tropical • Barrier reefs are linear offshore reef structures that run
and sub-tropical water, there are also deep water corals parallel to coastlines and arise from submerged shelf
in colder regions. platforms. The water body between the reef and the
shore is termed as lagoon. Barrier reefs are seen in
Nicobar and Lakshadweep.
4.8.1. Cold Water Corals:
• Cold-water corals inhabit deep, cold (39-55 degrees • Atolls are circular or semi circular reefs that arise from
subsiding sea floor platforms as coral reef building
F), water. The United Nations Environment Pro-
keeps ahead of subsidence. The examples are the atolls
gramme reports that there are more cold-water coral
of Lakshadweep and Nicobar.
reefs worldwide than tropical reefs.
• There are only about 6 different coral species associ- • When the reef building do not keep pace with subsid-
ence, reefs become submerged banks as seen in Lak-
ated in building with these reefs. The largest cold-
shadweep.
water coral reef is the Rost Reef off Norway.
• Sea grasses grow on Kavaratti atoll, mangroves are
4�8�2� Features prevalent on Andaman and Nicobar coral reefs.
• They occur in shallow tropical areas where the sea • Among the four major reef areas of India, Andaman and
water is clean, clear and warm. Nicobar Islands are found to be very rich in species
diversity followed by the Lakshadweep Islands, the Gulf
• The coral reef cover in Indian waters is roughly esti-
of Mannar and finally the Gulf of Kachchh.
mated upto 19,000 sq. Km.
• Coral reefs are one of the most productive and complex 4�8�4� Functions of Coral Reefs
coastal ecosystems with high biological diversity.
• Coral reefs are natural protective barriers against ero-
• The high productivity is owing to the combination of its sion and storm surge.
own primary production and support from its sur-
rounding habitat. • The coral animals are highly adapted for capturing
plankton from the water, thereby capturing nutrients
• Reef building corals are a symbolic association of polyps
(coral animals) and ‘zooxanthellae’ (the microscopic • Largest biogenic calcium carbonate producer
algae) • They provide substrate for mangroves
• The corals are generally slow growing colonies of ani- • Coral reefs provide habitat for a large variety of animals
mals while zooxanthellae are fast growing plants. and plants including avifauna.
• Even though corals live in nutrient poor waters, their
4�8�5� Threat
capability to recycle the scarce nutrients (by the whole
nutrient community) is enormous. 1. Natural causes may be due to the outbreak of reef de-
stroying mechanisms, “bleaching” and depletion of es-
• In coral reef ecosystem, many invertebrates, verte-
sential symbiotants.
brates, and plants live in close association to the corals,
with tight resource coupling and recycling, allowing 2. Anthrogenic causes – may be due to chemical pollution
coral reefs to have extremely high productivity and (pesticides, cosmetics, etc), industrial pollution, me-
biodiversity, such that they are referred to as ‘the Trop- chanical damage, nutrient loading or sediment loading,
ical Rainforests of the Oceans’. Dredging, shipping, tourism, mining or collection, ther-
mal pollution, intensive fishimg,etc.
4.8.3. Classification and their location • Coral reef ecosystems world-wide have been subject to
• The coral reefs are classified depending on their loca- unprecedented degradation over the past few decades.
tions into fringing, patch, barrier and atoll. Disturbances affecting coral reefs include anthropogenic
• The fringing reefs are contiguous with the shore and and natural events. Recent accelerated coral reef decline
they are the most common - by occurring reef form, seems to be related mostly to anthropogenic impacts
found in Andamans. (overexploitation, overfishing, increased sedimentation
and nutrient overloading. Natural disturbances which 4�8�7� Ecological causes of coral bleaching
cause damage to coral reefs include violent storms, • As coral reef bleaching is a general response to stress,
flooding, high and low temperature extremes, El Nino it can be induced by a variety of factors, alone or in
Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, subaerial expo- combination. It is therefore difficult to unequivocally
sures, predatory outbreaks and epizootics. identify the causes for bleaching events. The following
• Coral reef bleaching is a common stress response of stressors have been implicated in coral reef bleaching
corals to many of the various disturbances mentioned events.
above.
Temperature (Major Cause)
4�8�6� Coral Bleaching • Coral species live within a relatively narrow tempera-
• Bleaching, or the paling of coral colour occurs when ture margin, and anomalously low and high sea tem-
peratures can induce coral bleaching. Bleaching is much
(i) the densities of zooxanthellae decline and / or
more frequently reported from elevated sea water tem-
(ii) the concentration of photosynthetic pigments within perature. Bleaching events also occur during sudden
the zooxanthellae fall. temperature drops accompanying intense upwelling
episodes, seasonal cold-air outbreaks.
Do you know?
All spiders produce silk but not all spiders spin webs.
Silk is used for climbing, to create webs, to build
smooth walls in burrows, build egg sacs, and wrap
prey.
Solar Irradiance
Coral Bleaching • Bleaching during the summer months, during seasonal

temperature and irradiance maxima often occurs dis-
proportionately in shallow-living corals and on the ex-
• When corals bleach they commonly lose 60-90% of
posed summits of colonies. Solar radiation has been
their zooxanthellae and each zooxanthella may lose 50-
80% of its photosynthetic pigments. suspected to play a role in coral bleaching. Both photo-
syntheticaly active radiation (PAR, 400-700nm) and
• If the stress-causing bleaching is not too severe and if it ultraviolet radiation (UVR, 280-400nm) have been im-
decreases in time, the affected corals usually regain their plicated in bleaching.
symbiotic algae within several weeks or a few months.
• If zooxanthellae loss is prolonged, i.e. if the stress con- Subaerial Exposure
tinues and depleted zooxanthellae populations do not • Sudden exposure of reef flat corals to the atmosphere
recover, the coral host eventually dies. during events such as extreme low tides, ENSO-related
• High temperature and irradiance stressors have sea level drops or tectonic uplift can potentially induce
been implicated in the disruption of enzyme systems bleaching.
in zooxanthellae that offer protection against oxygen Sedimentation
toxicity.
• Relatively few instances of coral bleaching have been
• Photosynthesis pathways in zooxanthallae are impaired linked solely to sediment. It is possible, but has not been
at temperatures above 30 degrees C, this effect could demonstrated, that sediment loading could make zoox-
activate the disassociation of coral / algal symbiosis. anthellate species more likely to bleach.
• Low- or high-temperature shocks results in zooxanthel-
lae low as a result of cell adhesion dysfunction. Fresh Water Dilution
• This involves the detachment of cnidarian endodermal • Rapid dilution of reef waters from storm-generated pre-
cells with their zooxanthellae and the eventual expul- cipitation and runoff has been demonstrated to cause
sion of both cell types. coral reef bleaching. Generally, such bleaching events
are rare and confined to relatively small, nearshore • The mangroves and coral reefs areas are categorized as
areas. ecological sensitive areas (CRZ-I) where no new con-
structions are permitted except projects relating to De-
Inorganic Nutrients
partment of Atomic Energy; pipelines, conveying
• Rather than causing coral reef bleaching, an increase systems including transmission lines; installation of
in ambient elemental nutrient concentrations (e.g. am- weather radar for monitoring of cyclones movement and
monia and nitrate) actually increases zooxanthellae prediction by Indian Meteorological Department and
densities 2-3 times. Although eutrophication is not di- construction of trans harbour sea link and without af-
rectly involved in zooxanthellae loss, it could cause sec- fecting the tidal flow of water.
ondary adverse affects such as lowering of coral • To enforce and implement the CRZ and IPZ Notifica-
resistance and greater susceptibility to diseases. tions, the Ministry of Environment and Forests has
Xenobiotics constituted the National and State/UT level Coastal
Zone Management Authorities.
• Zooxanthellae loss occurs during exposure of coral to
elevated concentrations of various chemical contami-
nants, such as Cu, herbicides and oil. Because high con- Do you know?
centrations of xenobiotics are required to induce The Ministry has partnered with the United Nations
zooxanthellae loss, bleaching from such sources is usu- Development Programme (UNDP) in a global project
ally extremely localized and / or transitory . on Biodiversity Finance Initiative (BIOFIN).
Epizootics
• Pathogen induced bleaching is different from other sorts The Ministry of Environment & Forests also provides
of bleaching. Most coral diseases cause patchy or whole financial assistance to Coastal States/Union Territories,
colony death and sloughing of soft tissues, resulting in who so request, under its Centrally Sponsored Scheme
a white skeleton (not to be confused with bleached cor- for conservation and management of mangroves and
als). A few pathogens have been identified the cause coral reef.
translucent white tissues, a protozoan. • In addition Coral reef is included in Schedule I of the
Wild Life Protection Act, 1972 which affords it the high-
est degree of protection.
Do you know?
India updated its National Biodiversity Action Plan • Further Protected Areas, viz.4 National Parks, 96 Sanc-
(NBAP) and also developed 12 National Biodiversity tuaries and 3 Marine Biosphere Reserve have been cre-
Targets in 2014in line with 20 global Aichi biodiversity ated all over the country under the provisions of the
targets. Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 to conserve marine life
including coral reef.
4.9 GOVERNMENT MEASURES TO

• The Wildlife Crime Control Bureau has also been set up
to strengthen the enforcement of law for control of
PROTECT MANGROVE FOREST poaching and illegal trade in wildlife and its products.
AND COR AL REEFS (OR COASTAL
ECOSYSTEM) 4.10. KEY INITIATIVES TO PROTECT
• The Government seeks to protect, sustain and augment MARINE AND COASTAL
mangroves and coral reef in the country by both regu- ENVIRONMENTS
latory and promotional measures.
• Under the regulatory measures, the Coastal Regulation 4�10�1� Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Prediction
Zone (CRZ) Notification (2011) and the Island Protection System (COMAPS)
Zone (IPZ) Notification 2011 regulates the development • Being implemented from 1991.
activities along the Sea coast and tidal influenced water • Assesses the health of coastal waters and facilitates
bodies. management of pollution-related issues
• Programme was restructured and modified in 2000– to take various measures for protecting and improving
2001 to include pollution monitoring; liaison, regulation the quality of the coastal environment and preventing,
and legislation; and consultancy services. abating and controlling environmental pollution in
coastal areas.
4�10�2� Land Ocean Interactions in the Coastal
Zone (LOICZ) 4.11. GANGA ACTION PLAN
• Launched in 1995 The Ganga Action Plan was launched on 14th January 1986
• Investigates the effects of global change on the coastal with the main objective of pollution abatement, to improve
zone water quality by interception, diversion and treatment of
• Aims to develop, on a scientific basis, the integrated domestic sewage and toxic and industrial chemical wastes
management of coastal environments present, from identified grossly polluting units entering in
to the river.
Do you know? After reviewing the effectiveness of the “Ganga Action
Male snakes will try to attract a female by doing a type Plan”, the Government announced the “Mission Clean
of ‘play fighting’ with other males to gain female atten- Ganga” project on 31st December, 2009 with the objective
tion. They do not try to kill each other. just win the fight! that by 2020, no municipal sewage and industrial waste
would be released in the river without treatment, with the
4�10�3� Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Man- total budget of around Rs.15,000 crore.
agement (ICMAM) The Government also established the National Ganga River
• Launched in 1998 Basin Authority (NGRBA), chaired by the Prime Minister,
with the objective to ensure effective abatement of pollu-
• Aims at integrated management of coastal and marine
tion and conservation of the river Ganga, by adopting a
areas.
river basin approach for comprehensive planning and man-
• Model plans for Chennai, Goa and Gulf of Kutch being agement.
prepared
4.12. NAMAMI GANGA PROGR AM
4�10�4� Society of Integrated Coastal
Accordingly, an Integrated Ganga Conservation Mission
Management (SICOM)
called “NamamiGange” has been proposed to be set up and
• Launched in 2010 a sum of Rs. 2,037 crores has been set aside for the purpose
• Major national initiative to protect coastal ecosystems of conservation and improvement of the Ganga.
• A professional body with experts in various aspects of In addition a sum of Rs. 100 crores has been allocated for
coastal science and management developments of Ghats and beautification of River Fronts
at Kedarnath, Haridwar, Kanpur, Varanasi, Allahabad,
4�10�5� Institutions for Coastal Management Patna and Delhi in the current financial year.
• The Notification on Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ), 1991 Accordingly, NamamiGange approaches Ganga Rejuvena-
(as amended from time to time) aims at protecting tion by consolidating the existing ongoing efforts and plan-
coastal stretches in India. ning for a concrete action plan for future.
• India has created institutional mechanisms such as The interventions at Ghats and River fronts will facilitate
National Coastal Zone Management Authority (NCZMA) better citizen connect and set the tone for river centric
and State Coastal Zone Management Authority urban planning process.
(SCZMA) for enforcement and monitoring of the CRZ
Notification.
Following are proposed to be taken up under
NamamiGange program:
• These authorities have been delegated powers under
(i) Nirmal Dhara- ensuring sustainable municipal sewage
Section 5 of the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986
management
• Project prioritization in coordination with Ministry Affairs or Ministry of Finance with focus on funds sourcing
of Urban Development. and corpus management.
• Incentive for states to take up projects on Ganga
Main-stem by providing an additional share of cen- 4.13 CLEAN GANGA FUND
tral grants for sewerage infrastructure. The main features of “Clean Ganga Fund (CGF)” are:
• Uniform standards for both MoUD scheme and Considering that there is a need to increase people’s par-
NamamiGangeprogramme, 10 years mandatory ticipation from across the country and abroad, it is pro-
O&M by the same service provider at par with posed to set up a “Clean Ganga Fund (CGF)” with voluntary
NGRBA programme and PPP, Mandatory reuse of contributions.
treated water
• CGF will have the objective of contributing to the na-
• Expanding coverage of sewerage infrastructure in tional effort of improving the cleanliness of the river
118 urban habitations on banks of Ganga- estimated Ganga with the contributions received from the resi-
cost by MoUD is Rs 51000 Crores
dents of the country, NRIs/ PIO and others.
(ii) Nirmal Dhara- managing sewage from Rural Areas
• CGF will be operated through a bank account by a Trust
• Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation scheme to be headed by the finance minister. The secretariat of
for all Ganga bank Gram Panchayts (1632) free from
the Trust will be set up in Ministry of Water Resources,
open defecation by 2022, at a cost of Rs 1700 Crores
River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation under the
as central share
Mission Director, Clean Ganga.
(iii) NirmalDhara- managing Industrial discharge
• Domestic donors to the fund shall be eligible for tax
• Making Zero Liquid Discharge mandatory
benefits as in the case of “Swachch Bharat Kosh”. For-
• Rationalized water tariff to encourage reuse eign donors could get suitable tax exemptions in domes-
• Real time water quality monitoring tic law, wherever permissible.
(iv) AviralDhara • CGF will explore the possibility of setting up daugh-
• Enforcing River Regulatory Zones on Ganga Banks ter funds in other jurisdictions/countries of high
• Rational agricultural practices, efficient irrigation donor interest such as USA, UK, Singapore, UAE, etc.
methods to enable tax benefits to donors in their respective
• Restoration and conservation of wetlands jurisdictions.
(v) Ensuring ecological rejuvenation by conservation of • CGF will be catalytic in nature and will identify and
aquatic life and biodiversity fund specific projects which could be pilot projects,
(vi) Promotion of Tourism and Shipping in a rational and R&D projects, innovative projects or other focused pro-
sustainable manner jects. The Fund will define specific and measurable
objectives to form the basis for planning, funding, and
(vii) Knowledge Management on Ganga through Ganga
evaluation.
Knowledge Centre leading to a Ganga University of
River Sciences Broad activities that will be financed from the
Clean Ganga Fund (CGF) Fund are:
NRI Ganga Fund
• Activities outlined under the ‘NamamiGange’ pro-
NRIs have been a very important contributor to the devel- gramme for cleaning of river Ganga.
opment process in India, in areas such as education, health
and preservation of culture. In this context, to harness
• Control of non-point pollution from agricultural runoff,
human defecation, cattle wallowing, etc.
their enthusiasm to contribute towards the conservation
of the river Ganga, NRI Fund for Ganga will be set up • Setting up of waste treatment and disposal plants along
which will finance special projects. NRI Ganga Fund could the river around the cities.
be setup under the aegis of Ministry of Overseas Indian • Conservation of the biotic diversity of the river.
• Community based activities to reduce polluting human Recent Measures
interface with the river. • Union Environment Ministry has taken up a new strat-
• Development of public amenities including activities egy for conservation and rejuvenation of major river
such as Ghat redevelopment. water systems. The new strategy takes into account the
entire river basin, which is contributing its flow to the
• Research and Development and innovative projects.
particular river stretch for conservation.
• Research and Development projects and innovative pro- • The present strategy for conservation of rivers is limited
jects for new technology and processes for cleaning the only to tackling pollution load from domestic wastewa-
river. ter and regulation of industrial pollution. The new ap-
proach is a holistic one for rejuvenation of rivers,
• Independent oversight through intensive monitoring
wherein water management and environment manage-
and real time reporting. ment are taken together for implementation to restore
• Any other activity as approved by the Trust. the lost ecology of the polluted stretches of the rivers.
 
CHAPTER - 5
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
P ollution is defined as ‘an addition or excessive addi-

tion of certain materials to the physical environ-
ment (water, air and lands), making it less fit or
unfit for life’.
(iv) According to origin
• Natural
• Anthropogenic
5.1. POLLUTANTS 5�1�2� Causes of pollution

• Pollutants are the materials or factors, which cause ad- • Uncontrolled growth in human population
verse effect on the natural quality of any component of • Rapid industrialization
the environment. • Urbanization
• For example, smoke from industries and automobiles,
• Uncontrolled exploitation of nature.
chemicals from factories, radioactive substances from
nuclear plants, sewage of houses and discarded house- • Forest fires, radioactivity, volcanic eruptions, strong
winds etc.,
hold articles are the common pollutants.
5.1.1. Classifications 5.2. AIR POLLUTION

(i) According to the form in which they persist after re- • Air pollution is aggravated because of four develop-
lease into the environment. ments: increasing traffic, growing cities, rapid economic
development, and industrialization.
• Primary pollutants: These persist in the form in which
they are added to the environment e.g. DDT, plastic. • ‘The presence in the atmosphere of one or more con-
• Secondary Pollutants: These are formed by interaction taminants in such quality and for such duration as it is
among the primary pollutants. injurious, or tends to be injurious, to human health or
welfare, animal or plant life.’
• For example, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) is formed by
the interaction of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons. • It is the contamination of air by the discharge of harm-
ful substances.
(ii) According to their existence in nature.
• Quantitative Pollutants: These occur in nature and be- • Air pollution can cause health problems, damage the
environment, property and climate change.
come pollutant when their concentration reaches beyond
a threshold level. E.g. carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide.
5�2�1� Major air pollutants and their sources
• Qualitative Pollutants: These do not occur in nature and
are man-made. E.g. fungicides, herbicides, DDT etc. Carbon monoxide (CO)
(iii) According to their nature of disposal. • It is a colourless, odourless gas that is produced by the
incomplete burning of carbon-based fuels including pet-
• Biodegradable Pollutants: Waste products, which are rol, diesel, and wood.
degraded by microbial action. E.g. sewage.
• Non-biodegradable Pollutants: Pollutants, which are not • It is also produced from the combustion of natural and
decomposed by microbial action. E.g. plastics, glass, synthetic products such as cigarettes.
DDT, salts of heavy metals, radioactive substances etc.,) • It lowers the amount of oxygen that enters our blood.
• It can slow our reflexes and make us confused and Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
sleepy. • It is a gas produced from burning coal, mainly in ther-
Carbon dioxide (CO2) mal power plants.
• It is the principle greenhouse gas emitted as a result of • Some industrial processes, such as production of paper
human activities such as the burning of coal, oil, and and smelting of metals, produce sulphur dioxide.
natural gases. • It is a major contributor to smog and acid rain. Sulfur
dioxide can lead to lung diseases.
Chloroflorocarbons (CFC)
• These are gases that are released mainly from air-con- 5�2�2� Smog
ditioning systems and refrigeration. • The term smog was first used (1905) by Dr H A Des Voeux
• When released into the air, CFCs rise to the strato- • Smog has been coined from a combination of the words
sphere, where they come in contact with few other fog and smoke. Smog is a condition of fog that had soot
gases, which lead to a reduction of the ozone layer that or smoke in it.
protects the earth from the harmful ultraviolet rays of
the sun.
The Formation of Smog
• Photochemical smog (smog) is a term used to describe
Lead air pollution that is a result of the interaction of sunlight
• It is present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair with certain chemicals in the atmosphere.
dye products, etc. Lead affects children in particular. • One of the primary components of photochemical smog
• It can cause nervous system damage and digestive prob- is ozone.
lems and, in some cases, cause cancer. • While ozone in the stratosphere protects earth from
Ozone harmful UV radiation, ozone on the ground is hazard-
ous to human health.
• It occurs naturally in the upper layers of the atmos-
phere. • Ground-level ozone is formed when vehicle emissions
containing nitrogen oxides (primarily from vehicle ex-
• This important gas shields the earth from the harmful haust) and volatile organic compounds (from paints,
ultraviolet rays of the sun. solvents, printing inks, petroleum products, vehicles,
• However, at the ground level, it is a pollutant with etc.) interact in the presence of sunlight.
highly toxic effects.
• Vehicles and industries are the major source of ground-
level ozone emissions.
• Ozone makes our eyes itch, burn, and water. It lowers
our resistance to cold and pneumonia.
• Nitrogen oxide (Nox)
• It causes smog and acid rain. It is produced from burn-
ing fuels including petrol, diesel, and coal.
• Nitrogen oxide can make children susceptible to res-
piratory diseases in winters.
Suspended particulate matter (SPM)
• It consists of solids in the air in the form of smoke, dust,
and vapour that can remain suspended for extended
periods and is also the main source of haze which re- • Smog refers to hazy air that causes difficult breathing
duces visibility. conditions. It is a combination of various gases with
water vapour and dust.
• The finer of these particles, when breathed in can lodge
in our lungs and cause lung damage and respiratory • Its occurrences are often linked to heavy traffic, high
problems. temperatures, and calm winds. During the winter, wind
speeds are low and cause the smoke and fog to stagnate most serious pollutants are particulates, carbon mon-
near the ground; hence pollution levels can increase oxide, polycyclic organic matter, and formaldehyde.
near ground level.
(b) Urban
• Smoke particles trapped in the fog gives it a yellow/
• In urban areas, exposure to indoor air pollution has
black colour and this smog often settled over cities for
increased due to a variety of reasons, such as
many days.
• construction of more tightly sealed buildings,
• reduced ventilation,
Ground-level ozone is formed through a com-
plex reaction involving hydrocarbons, nitro-
• the use of synthetic materials for building and furnish-
ing and
gen oxides, and sunlight. It is formed when
pollutants released from gasoline, diesel- • the use of chemical products, pesticides, and household
powered vehicles and oil-based solvents react care products.
with heat and sunlight. • Indoor air pollution can begin within the building or
drawn in from outdoors.
• Other than nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and
The effects of smog lead, there are a number of other pollutants that affect
• It hampers visibility and harms the environment. the air quality.
• respiratory problems Pollutants
• deaths relating to bronchial diseases.
i) Volatile organic compounds
• Heavy smog greatly decreases ultraviolet radiation.
• Heavy smog results in the decrease of natural vitamin • The main indoor sources are perfumes, hair sprays,
furniture polish, glues, air fresheners, moth repellents,
D production leading to a rise in the cases of rickets.
wood preservatives, and other products.
5�2�3� Indoor air pollution • Health effect - irritation of the eye, nose and throat,
headaches, nausea and loss of coordination.
• It refers to the physical, chemical, and biological char-
acteristics of air in the indoor environment within a • long term - suspected to damage the liver and other
home, or an institution or commercial facility. parts of the body.
ii) Tobacco
• Indoor air pollution is a concern where energy efficiency
improvements sometimes make houses relatively air- • Smoke generates a wide range of harmful chemicals and
tight, reducing ventilation and raising pollutant levels. is carcinogenic.
• Indoor air problems can be subtle and do not always • Health effect - burning eyes, nose, and throat irritation
produce easily recognized impacts on health. to cancer, bronchitis, severe asthma, and a decrease in
lung function.
• Different conditions are responsible for indoor air pol-
lution in the rural areas and the urban areas. iii) Biological pollutants
(a) Rural • It includes pollen from plants, mite, and hair from pets,
fungi, parasites, and some bacteria. Most of them are
• It is the rural areas that face the greatest threat from allergens and can cause asthma, hay fever, and other
indoor pollution, where people rely on traditional fuels
allergic diseases.
such as firewood, charcoal, and cowdung for cooking
and heating. iv) Formaldehyde
• Burning such fuels produces large amount of smoke and • Mainly from carpets, particle boards, and insulation
other air pollutants in the confined space of the home, foam. It causes irritation to the eyes and nose and al-
resulting in high exposure. Women and children are the lergies.
groups most vulnerable as they spend more time in- v) Radon
doors and are exposed to the smoke. • It is a gas that is emitted naturally by the soil. Due to
• Although many hundreds of separate chemical agents modern houses having poor ventilation, it is confined
have been identified in the smoke from biofuels, the four inside the house and causes lung cancers.
Do you know?
• Trees are an important part of our world. They provide wood for building and pulp for making paper. They pro-
vide habitats (homes) for all sorts of insects, birds and other animals. Many types of fruits and nuts come from
trees -- including apples, oranges, walnuts, pears and peaches. Even the sap of trees is useful as food for insects
and for making maple syrup -- yum!
• Trees also help to keep our air clean and our ecosystems healthy. We breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon
dioxide. Trees breathe in carbon dioxide and breathe out oxygen. We’re perfect partners!
• Trees do lots for us, our environment and other plants and animals in nature but we don’t just love trees for
practical reasons.
vi) Asbestos Environmental effects?

vii) Pesticides • If fly ash is not captured and disposed off properly, it
can pollute air and water considerably.
5�2�4� Fly Ash • It causes respiratory problems.
• Ash is produced whenever combustion of solid material • Fly ash in the air slowly settles on leaves and crops in
takes place. fields in areas near to thermal power plants and lowers
• Fly ash is one such residue which rises with the gases the plant yield.
into the atmosphere. Fly ash is a very fine powder and Advantages:
tends to travel far in the air. The ash which does not
rise is termed as bottom ash. • Cement can be replaced by fly ash upto 35%, thus re-
ducing the cost of construction, making roads, etc.
• Nearly 73% of India’s total installed power generation
capacity is thermal, of which 90% is coal-based gen- • Fly ash bricks are light in weight and offer high strength
eration, with diesel, wind, gas, and steam making up and durability.
the rest. • Fly ash is a better fill material for road embankments
and in concrete roads.
Composition
• Fly ash can be used in reclamation of wastelands.
1. Aluminium silicate (in large amounts)
• Abandoned mines can be filled up with fly ash.
2. Silicon dioxide (SiO2) and
• Fly ash can increase the crop yield and it also enhances
3. Calcium oxide (CaO). water holding capacity of the land .
• Fly ash particles are oxide rich and consist of silica, Policy measures of MoEF:
alumina, oxides of iron, calcium, and magnesium and
toxic heavy metals like lead, arsenic, cobalt, and copper. • The Ministry of Environment and Forests vide its noti-
fication in 2009, has made it mandatory to use Fly Ash
How it is collected? based products in all construction projects, road em-
• Fly ash is generally captured by electrostatic precipita- bankment works and low lying land filling works within
tors or other particle filtration equipments before the 100 kms radius of Thermal Power Station.
flue gases reach the chimneys of coal-fired power • To use Fly Ash in mine filling activities within 50 kms
plants. radius of Thermal Power Stations.
5.2.5. Effects of air pollution
1. Health effect
Name Of Pollutant Sources Health Effects

Sulphur Oxides Thermal power plants and Eye and throat irritation, cough, allergies, impairs enzyme
industries function in respiratory system. Reduces exchange of gases
from lung surface.
Nitrogen Oxides Thermal power plant, Irritation and inflammation of lungs, breathlessness,
industries and vehicles impairs enzyme function in respiratory system and causes
bronchitis and asthma.
Suspended Particulate Vehicular emissions and Lung irritation reduces development of RBC and cause
Matter (SOM) burning of fossil fuels pulmonary malfunctioning.
Carbon Monoxide Vehicular emissions and Difficulty in breathing, severe headaches, irritation to
burning of fossil fuels mucous membrane, unconsciousness and death
Carbon Dioxide Burning of fossil fuels Impairs reflexes, judgment and vision, severe headaches
and heart strain.
Smog Industries and vehicular Respiratory problems and intense irritation to the eyes.
pollution
Ozone Automobile emissions Breathlessness, asthma, wheezing, chest pain, emphysema
and chronic bronchitis.
Chlorofluorocarbons Refrigerators, sprays, Depletion of stratospheric ozone layer, global warming.
emissions from jets
Hydrocarbons Burning of fossil fuels Carcinogenic effect on lungs, kidney damage,
hypertension, respiratory distress, irritation of eyes, nose
and throat, asthma, bronchitis and impairs enzyme
function in respiratory system.
Tobacco Smoke Cigarettes, cigars etc. Chronic bronchitis, asthma and lung cancer, irritation of
eyes, nose and throat.
Mercury Industries Nervous disorders, insomnia, memory loss, excitability,
irritation, tremor, gingivitis and minamata disease.
Lead Leaded petrol emissions Damage to brain and central nervous system, kidneys and
brains, impaired intelligence and interference with
development of RBCs.
Cadmium Industries Affects the heart
Silica dust Silicon quarries Silicosis affects the lungs
Cotton dust Cotton textile factories Byssinosis involves destruction of lung tissues, chronic
cough, bronchitis and emphysema.
Asbestos dust Asbestos mining, asbestos Asbestosis which involves severe respiratory problems and
sheet manufacturing may lead to cancer.
Radioactive pollutants Cosmic rays, x-rays, beta rays, Destroy living tissues and blood cells; affect cell membrane
radon and radium and cell enzyme functions, leukemia, and permanent
genetic changes.
Coal dust and particles Coal mines Black lung cancer, pulmonary fibrosis which lead to
respiratory failure.
II. Effects on Vegetation ii. Catalytic converter filters in the vehicles can convert
• retard photosynthesis. nitrogen oxide to nitrogen and reduce the potential
hazards of NOx.
• Sulphur dioxide causes chlorosis, plasmolysis, mem- iii. use of good quality automobile fuels
brane damage and metabolic inhibition.
iv. use of lead free petrol.
• Hydrocarbons such as ethylene cause premature leaf
fall, fruit drop, shedding of floral buds, curling of petals v. Use of compressed natural gas (CNG).
and discoloration of sepals.
5�2�7� Government Initiatives
• Ozone damage chlorenchyma and thus destructs the
foliage in large number of plants. (1) National Air Quality Monitoring Programme
III. Effects on Animals • In India, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has
been executing a nationwide programme of ambient air
IV. Detoriation of materials quality monitoring known as National Air Quality Mon-
V. Aesthetic Loss itoring Programme (NAMP).
• The National Air Quality Monitoring Programme
5�2�6� Control Measures (NAMP) is undertaken in India
1. Policy measures (i) to determine status and trends of ambient air quality;
2. Preventive measures: (ii) to ascertain the compliance of NAAQS;
• Selection of suitable fuel (e.g.fuel with low sulphur con- (iii) to identify non-attainment cities;
tent) and its efficient utilization (iv) to understand the natural process of cleaning in the
• Modifications in industrial processes and/or equipments atmosphere; and
to reduce emission. (v) to undertake preventive and corrective measures.
• Selection of suitable manufacturing site and zoning. e.g. • Annual average concentration of SOx levels are within
setting of industries at a distance of residential areas, the prescribed National Ambient Air Quality Standards
installation of tall chimneys. (NAAQS).
Control measures: • This reduction from earlier levels is due to various
measures taken, including the use of CNG in public
(i) destroying the pollutants by thermal or catalytic com-
transport in Delhi, the reduction of sulphur in diesel
bustion
and use of LPG instead of coal as a domestic fuel.
(ii) conversion of the pollutants to a less toxic form
• A mixed trend is observed in NO2 levels due to various
(iii) collection of the pollutant measures taken for vehicular pollution control, such as
• Different types of air pollutants can be eliminated / stricter vehicular emission norms being partially offset
minimised by following methods: by increased NOx levels due to the use of CNG in urban
transport.
a) Control of particulate matter: Two types of devices -
arresters and scrubbers are used to remove particulate • Total suspended particulates, however, are still a matter
pollutants from air. These are arresters and scrubbers. of concern in several urban and semi urban areas.
i. Arresters: These are used to separate particulate mat- (b) National Ambient Air Quality Standards
ters from contaminated air. (NAAQS)
ii. Scrubbers: These are used to clean air for both dusts • National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) were
and gases by passing it through a dry or wet packing notified in the year 1982, duly revised in 1994 based on
material. health criteria and land uses.
b) Control of Gaseous Pollutants: • The NAAQS have been revisited and revised in Novem-
The gaseous pollutants can be controlled through the tech- ber 2009 for 12 pollutants, which include
niques of Combustion, absorption and adsorption. 1. sulphur dioxide (SO2),
c) Control of Automobile Exhaust 2. nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
i. use of efficient engines (e.g. multipoint fuel injection 3. particulate matter having size less than 10 micron
engine). (PM10),
4. particulate matter having size less than 2.5 micron belts. Booming real estate and demand for housing
(PM2.5), units is leading to change of land use and shrinkage of
5. ozone, natural conservation zones such as forests, water bod-
ies, wastelands, sanctuaries, groundwater rechargeable
6. lead,
areas.
7. carbon monoxide (CO),
• Mindless concretisation of ground and green belts and
8. arsenic, booming real estate has led to heat island effect - short-
9. nickel, wave radiations emanate from concrete surfaces at
10. benzene, night time. Concretisation prevents ground water re-
charge thus depleting green cover. Tall buildings also
11. ammonia, and
block winds thereby reducing their cooling effect. Ex-
12. benzopyrene. cessive concretisation also leads to weakening of trees.
(c) National Air Quality Index • The environmental crisis in India is many-sided and
• National Air Quality Index was launched by the Prime multi-faceted which has to be addressed on different
Minister in April, 2015 starting with 14 cities to dis- fronts and by a variety of different actors. We need to
seminate air quality information. The AQI has six cat- harness scientific and social-scientific expertise to de-
egories of air quality, viz Good, Satisfactory, Moderately velop and promote eco-friendly technologies in con-
Polluted, Poor, Very Poor and Severe with distinct colour struction, energy, water management, industrial
scheme. Each of these categories is associated with production and transportation. Scientific innovation
likely health impacts. AQI considers eight pollutants needs to be complemented by legislative change as well
(PM10, PM 2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3 and Pb) for as by changes in social behaviour.
which (up to 24-hourly averaging period) National Am-
bient Air Quality Standards are prescribed. 5.2.9. Measures to control/ mitigate Delhi Air
pollution
5�2�8� Air Pollution in India • The city needs an implementation strategy to
• India’s air pollution, ranked among the worst in the • Reduce traffic and vehicles,
world is adversely impacting the lifespan of its citizens,
reducing most Indian lives by over three years - WHO.
• Cut dieselization,
• Over half of India’s population – 660 million people –

• Scale up integrated public transport,
live in areas where fine particulate matter pollution is • Facilitate walking and cycling,
above India’s standards for what is considered safe - • Tax polluting modes,
‘Economic & Political Weekly’ • Decide to implement Bharat Stage IV nationwide in 2015
• Of the world’s top 20 polluted cities, 13 are in India. Air and
pollution slashes life expectancy by 3.2 years for the 660 • Euro VI in 2020 and
million Indians who live in cities.
• Put controls on other pollution sources.
• 2014 global analysis of how nations tackle environmen-
tal challenges has ranked India 155 among 177 nations
and labelled the country’s air quality among the worst Do you know?
in the world. Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) was established on 1st
• India is placed as the “bottom performer” on several July 1916 to promote the survey, exploration, research
indicators such as environmental health impact, air and documentation leading to the advancement in our
quality, water and sanitation and india’s environment knowledge on various aspects of animal taxonomy of
health severly lags behind the BRICS nations - Environ- the Indian subcontinent.ZSI is a premier institution
mental Performance Index 2014. on animal taxonomy in India under the Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change. ZSI has
• The Ganga and Yamuna are ranked among the world’s
been declared as the designated repository for the
10 most polluted rivers.
National Zoological Collection as per Section 39 of the
• Despite the directives of the National Green Tribunal, National Biodiversity Act, 2002.
civic agencies continue to allow concretisation in green
5.3. WATER POLLUTION
Putrescibility is the process of decomposition
• ‘Addition of certain substances to the water such as of organic matter present in water by micro-
organic, inorganic, biological, radiological, heat, which organisms using oxygen.
degrades the quality of water so that it becomes unfit
for use’. Water pollution is not only confined to surface
water, but it has also spread to ground water, sea and 2) Industrial Wastes: The industries discharge several
ocean. inorganic and organic pollutants, which may prove
highly toxic to the living beings.
5�3�1� Sources
3) Agricultural sources:
Types of sources
• Fertilizers contain major plant nutrients such as nitro-
1� Point Sources gen, phosphorus and potassium.
• It is directly attributable to one influence. Here pollutant • Excess fertilizers may reach the ground water by leach-
travels directly from source to water. Point sources are ing or may be mixed with surface water of rivers, lakes
easy to regulate. and ponds by runoff and drainage.
2. Diffuse or non-point source. • Pesticides include insecticides, fungicides, herbicides,
nematicides, rodenticides and soil fumigants.
• It is from various ill defined and diffuse sources. They
vary spatially and temporally and are difficult to regulate. • They contain a wide range of chemicals such as chlorin-
ated hydrocarbons, organophosphates, metallic salts,
• The main sources of water pollution are as follows: carbonates, thiocarbonates, derivatives of acetic acid etc.
1) Community waste water: Include discharges from Many of the pesticides are non-degradable and their
houses, commercial and industrial establishments con- residues have long life.
nected to public sewerage system. The sewage contains
human and animal excreta, food residues, cleaning • The animal excreta such as dung, wastes from poultry
farms, piggeries and slaughter houses etc. reach the
agents, detergents and other wastes.
Type of Industry Inorganic pollutants Organic pollutant

Mining Mine Wastes: Chlorides, various metals,
ferrous sulphate, sulphuric acid, hydrogen
sulphide, ferric hydroxide, surface wash offs,
suspended solids, chlorides and heavy metals.
Iron and Steel Suspended solids, iron cyanide, thiocyanate, Oil, phenol and neptha
sulphides, oxides of copper, chromium,
cadmium, and mercury.
Chemical Plants Various acids and alkalies, chlorides, Aromatic compounds solvents, organic acids,
sulphates, nitrates of metals, phosphorus, nitro compound dyes, etc.
fluorine, silica and suspended particles.
Pharmaceutical - Proteins, carbohydrates, organic solvent
intermediate products, drugs and antibiotics
Soap and Detergent Tertiary ammonium compounds alkalies Flats and fatty acids, glycerol,
polyphosphates, sulphonated hydrocarbons.
Food processing - Highly putrescible organic matter and
pathogens
Paper and Pulp Sulphides, bleaching liquors. Cellulose fibres, bark, woods sugars organic
acids.
water though run off and surface leaching during rainy
season. However a few tolerant species like Tubifex (annelid
worm) and some insect larvae may survive in highly
4) Thermal Pollution: polluted water with low DO content. Such species are
• The main sources are the thermal and nuclear power recognised as indicator species for polluted water.
plants. The power plants use water as coolant and re-
lease hot waters to the original source. Sudden rise in
temperature kills fishes and other aquatic animals. ii) Biocides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and heavy
metals directly eliminate sensitive aquatic organisms.
5) Underground water pollution: iii) Hot waters discharged from industries, when added to
• In India at many places, the ground water is threatened water bodies, lowers its DO content.
with contamination due to seepage from industrial and
municipal wastes and effluents, sewage channels and
agricultural runoff. DO , BOD, COD
6) Marine pollution:
• Presence of organic and inorganic wastes in water
decreases the dissolved Oxygen (DO) content of
• Oceans are the ultimate sink of all natural and man- the water. Water having DO content below 8.0 mg
made pollutants. Rivers discharge their pollutants into L-1 may be considered as contaminated. Water
the sea. The sewerage and garbage of coastal cities are having DO content below. 4.0 mg L-1 is considered
also dumped into the sea. The other sources of oceanic to be highly polluted. DO content of water is im-
pollution are navigational discharge of oil, grease, de- portant for the survival of aquatic organisms. A
tergents, sewage, garbage and radioactive wastes, off number of factors like surface turbulence, photo-
shore oil mining, oil spills. synthetic activity, O2 consumption by organisms
and decomposition of organic matter are the fac-
Oil Spills tors which determine the amount of DO present
in water.
• Oil spills is one of the most dangerous of all water
pollutants. • The higher amounts of waste increases the rates of
decomposition and O2 consumption, thereby de-
• Oil spills from tankers at sea or leaks from under- creases the DO content of water. The demand for
ground storage tanks on land are very difficult to O2 is directly related to increasing input of organic
control as oil tends to spread very fast, affecting a wastes and is empressed as biological oxygen de-
large area in a very short time. mand (BOD) of water.
• On land crude is transported through pipelines or • Water pollution by organic wastes is measured in
tankers which can get damaged and spew out terms of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). BOD
crude oil over the land, thereby contaminating it. is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by bac-
• Since crude oil is lighter than water, it floats on the teria in decomposing the organic wastes present in
surface and poses the threat of swift-spreading fire. water. It is expressed in milligrams of oxygen per
• Oil spills at sea decrease the oxygen level in the litre of water.
water and cause harm to the organisms. • The higher value of BOD indicates low DO content
• Oil spills are also a source of air and groundwater of water. Since BOD is limited to biodegradable
pollution. materials only. Therefore, it is not a reliable method
of measuring pollution load in water.
• Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a slightly better
5.3.2. Effects of Water Pollution mode used to measure pollution load in water. It is
1. Effects on aquatic ecosystem: the measure of oxygen equivalent of the require-
ment of oxidation of total organic matter (i.e. bio-
i) Polluted water reduces Dissolved Oxygen (DO) content,
degradable and non-biodegradable) present in
thereby, eliminates sensitive organisms like plankton,
water.
molluscs and fish etc.
2. Effects on human health:
• The polluted water usually contains pathogens like • High concentration of fluoride ions is present in
virus, bacteria, parasitic protozoa and worms, therefore, drinking water in 13 states of India. The maximum
it is a source of water borne diseases like jaundice, chol- level of fluoride, which the human body can toler-
era, typhoid, amoebiasis etc. ate is 1.5 parts per million (mg/1 of water). Long
term ingestion of fluoride ions causes fluorosis.
Do you know?
iii. Over exploitation of ground water may lead to leach-
The Environmental Performance Index, is conducted ing of arsenic from soil and rock sources and con-
and written by environmental research centers at Yale taminate ground water. Chronic exposure to arsenic
and Columbia universities with assistance from out- causes black foot disease. It also causes diarrhoea,
side scientists. peripheral neuritis, hyperkerotosis and also lung and
Different parts of the tree grow at different times of skin cancer.
the year. A typical pattern is for most of the foliage
growth to occur in the spring, followed by trunk
growth in the summer and root growth in the fall and • Arsenic contamination is a serious problem (in
winter. Not all the trees follow the same pattern. tube well dug areas) in the Ganges Delta, west ben-
gal causing serious arsenic poisoning to large num-
bers of people. A 2007 study found that over 137
• Mercury compounds in waste water are converted by million people in more than 70 countries are prob-
bacterial action into extremely toxic methyl mercury, ably affected by arsenic poisoning of drinking
which can cause numbness of limbs, lips and tongue, water.
deafness, blurring of vision and mental derangement.
4. Biological Magnification
A cripling deformity called Minamata disease due to 5. Eutrophicaiton
consumption of fish captured from mercury contam-
inated Minamata Bay in Japan was detected in 1952. 5�3�3� Control Measures
1) Riparian buffers
• Water contaminated with cadmium can cause itai itai 2) Treatment of sewage water and the industrial effluents
disease also called ouch-ouch disease (a painful disease should be done before releasing it into water bodies.
of bones and joints) and cancer of lungs and liver.
3) Hot water should be cooled before release from the
• The compounds of lead cause anaemia, headache, loss power plants
of muscle power and bluish line around the gum.
4) Domestic cleaning in tanks, streams and rivers, which
3� Hazards of ground water pollution: supply drinking water, should be prohibited.
i. Presence of excess nitrate in drinking water is danger- 5) Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides should be
ous for human health and may be fatal for infants. avoided.
6) Organic farming and efficient use of animal residues
• Excess nitrate in drinking water reacts with as fertilizers.
hemoglobin to form non-functional methaemo- 7) Water hyacinth (an aquatic weed) can purify water by
globin, and impairs oxygen transport. This condi- taking some toxic materials and a number of heavy
tion is called methaemoglobinemia or blue baby metals from water.
syndrome.
8) Oil spills in water can be cleaned with the help of
ii. Excess fluoride in drinking water causes neuro-mus- bregoli – a by-product of paper industry resembling
cular disorders, gastro-intestinal problems, teeth de- saw dust, oil zapper, micro-organisms.
formity, hardening of bones and stiff and painful joints The steps taken by the Government to address the issues
(skeletal fluorosis). of water pollution include the following:-
i. Preparation of action plan for sewage management and 5�4�1� Causes
restoration of water quality in aquatic resources by • Indiscriminate use of fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides
State Governments; and herbicides
ii. Installation of Online Effluent Monitoring System to • Dumping of large quantities of solid waste
check the discharge of effluent directly into the rivers
and water bodies; • Deforestation and soil erosion.
iii. Setting up of monitoring network for assessment of • Pollution Due to Urbanisation

water quality;
5�4�2� Source
iv. Action to comply with effluent standards is taken
by SPCBs / PCCs to improve the water quality of the i� Industrial Wastes:
rivers; • Industrial waste includes chemicals such as mercury,
v. Financial assistance for installation of Common Efflu- lead, copper, zinc, cadmium, cynides, thiocynates, chro-
ent Treatment Plants for cluster of Small Scale Indus- mates, acids, alkalies, organic substances etc.
trial units; ii� Pesticides:
vi. Issuance of directions for implementation of Zero • Pesticides are chemicals that include insecticides, fun-
Liquid Discharge; gicides, algicides, rodenticides, weedicides sprayed in
vii. Issuance of directions under Section 5 of Environment order to improve productivity of agriculture, forestry
(Protection) Act, 1986 to industries and under Section and horticulture.
18(1)(b) of Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) iii� Fertilizers and manures:
Act, 1974; • Chemical fertilizers are added to the soil for increasing
viii. Implementation of National Lake Conservation Plan crop yield. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers reduces
(NLCP) and National Wetland Conservation Pro- the population of soil borne organism and the crumb
gramme (NWCP) for conservation and management structure of the soil, productivity of the soil and in-
of identified lakes and wetlands in the country which creases salt content of the soil.
have been merged in February, 2013 into an inte- iv� Discarded materials:
grated scheme of National Plan for Conservation of
Aquatic Eco-systems (NPCA) to undertake various
• It includes concrete, asphalt, rungs, leather, cans, plas-
tics, glass, discarded food, paper and carcasses.
conservation activities including interception, diver-
sion and treatment of waste water, pollution abate- v� Radioactive wastes:
ment, lake beautification, biodiversity conservation, • Radioactive elements from mining and nuclear power
education and awareness creation, community par- plants, find their way into water and then into the soil.
ticipation etc. vi� Other pollutants:
5.4. SOIL POLLUTION

• Many air pollutants (acid rain) and water pollutants
ultimately become part of the soil and the soil also re-
• Soil is a thin layer of organic and inorganic materials ceives some toxic chemicals during weathering of cer-
that covers the Earth’s rocky surface. Soil pollution is tain rocks. [in box]
defined as the ‘addition of substances to the soil, which
adversely affect physical, chemical and biological prop- 5�4�3� Types of Soil Pollution
erties of soil and reduces its productivity.’ I. Agricultural Soil Pollution
• It is build-up of persistent toxic compounds, chemicals, II. Pollution due to industrial effluents and solid wastes
salts, radioactive materials, or disease causing agents
in soil which have adverse effects on plant growth, III. Pollution due to urban activities
human and animal health.
5.4.4. Effects of soil pollution on
• A soil pollutant is any factor which deteriorates the
i) Agriculture
quality, texture and mineral content of the soil or which
disturbs the biological balance of the organisms in the • Reduced soil fertility
soil. • Reduced nitrogen fixation
• Increased erosion
• Loss of soil and nutrients Four R’s
• Reduced crop yield 1� Refuse
• Increased salinity • Instead of buying new containers from the market,
• Deposition of silt in tanks and reservoirs use the ones that are in the house. Refuse to buy
ii) Health new items though you may think they are prettier
than the ones you already have.
• Dangerous chemicals entering underground water
2� Reuse
• Bio magnification
• Do not throw away the soft drink cans or the bot-
• Release of pollutant gases
tles; cover them with homemade paper or paint on
• Release of radioactive rays causing health problems them and use them as pencil stands or small vases.
iii) Environment 3� Recycle
• Reduced vegetation • Use shopping bags made of cloth or jute, which can
• Ecological imbalance be used over and over again. Segregate your waste
• Imbalance in soil fauna and flora to make sure that it is collected and taken for re-
cycling.
iv) Urban areas
4� Reduce
• Clogging of drains
• Inundation of areas
• Reduce the generation of unnecessary waste, e.g.
carry your own shopping bag when you go to the
• Foul smell and release of gases market and put all your purchases directly into it.
• Waste management problems
• Control measures
5.5. NOISE POLLUTION
• Reducing chemical fertilizer and pesticide use
• Use of bio pesticides, bio fertilizers.
• Noise pollution is an unpleasant noise created by people
or machines that can be annoying, distracting, intru-
• Organic farming sive, and/or physically painful.
• Four R’s: Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle • Noise pollution comes from sources such as “road traf-
• Afforestation and Reforestation fic, jet planes, garbage trucks, construction equipment,
manufacturing processes, leaf blowers, and boom
• Solid waste treatment
boxes.”
• Reduction of waste from construction areas
• Sound is measured in decibels (dB). An increase of
about 10 dB is approximately double the increase in
Do you know? loudness.
Amur Falcons, which come to roost every year at Doy- • A person’s hearing can be damaged if exposed to noise
anglake during their flight from Mongolia to South levels over 75 dB over a prolonged period of time. The
Africa. Amur falcons are the longest travelling raptors World Health Organization recommends that the sound
in the world. World has recognized Pangti village in level indoors should be less than 30 dB.
Nagaland as the world’s Amur Falcon capital, as more
than one million birds can be seen in just 30 minutes.
Do you know?
Until recently, Naga tribesmen used to hunt thousands
of Amur falcons for meat. But last year, after a vigor- The Indian Resource Panel shall prepare a strategic
ous campaign by wildlife activists, they pledged to roadmap for utilisation of secondary resources for
protect the bird and since then, not a single bird has meeting the developmental needs. India is the first
been hunted in the area. country to constitute a National Resource Panel.
5�5�1� Ambient Noise Level Monitoring • Nervous system: It causes pain, ringing in the ears,
• Noise Pollution (Control and Regulation) Rules, 2000 feeling of tiredness, thereby effecting the functioning of
define ambient noise levels for various areas as follows: human system.
• Sleeplessness: It affects the sleeping there by inducing
Category of Limits in people to become restless and loose concentration and
Area/Zone dB(A) Leq presence of mind during their activities
Day Time Night Time • Damage to material: The buildings and materials may
6 a.m. to 10 10 p.m to 6 get damaged by exposure to infrasonic / ultrasonic
p.m. a.m waves and even get collapsed.
A. Industrial Area 75 70
5�5�3� Control
B. Commercial Area 65 55 • The techniques employed for noise control can be
C. Residential Area 55 45 broadly classified as
D. Silence Zone 50 40 1� Control at source
• Reducing the noise levels from domestic sectors
• The Government of India on Mar 2011 launched a Real • Maintenance of automobiles
time Ambient Noise Monitoring Network. Under this
network, in phase- I, five Remote Noise Monitoring Ter- • Control over vibration
minals each have been installed in different noise zones • Prohibition on usage of loud speakers
in seven metros (Delhi, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Mumbai, • Selection and maintenance of machinery
Bangalore, Chennai and Lucknow).
2� Control in the transmission path
• In Phase II another 35 monitoring stations will be in-
• Installation of barriers
stalled in the same seven cities. Phase III will cover
installing 90 stations in 18 other cities. • Design of building
• Phase-III cities are Kanpur, Pune, Surat, Ahmedabad, • Green belt development (planting of trees)
Nagpur, Jaipur, Indore, Bhopal, Ludhiana, Guwahati, 3� Using protective equipment�
Dehradun, Thiruvananthpuram, Bhubaneswar, Patna,
Gandhinagar, Ranchi, Amritsar and Raipur. • Job rotation
• Silence Zone is an area comprising not less than 100 • Reduced Exposure time
metres around hospitals, educational institutions, • Hearing protection
courts, religious places or any other area declared as • Documentation of noise measurements, continuous
such by a competent authority. monitoring and awareness are the need of the hour.
5�5�2� Impacts of noise

Do you know?
• Annoyance: It creates annoyance to the receptors due
to sound level fluctuations. The a-periodic sound due to The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
its irregular occurrences causes displeasure to hearing Change has urged Chief Secretaries of Haryana, Uttar
and causes annoyance. Pradesh and National Capital Territory of Delhi to take
effective steps to enforce the ban on burning of all
• Physiological effects: The physiological features like
types of waste in urban areas.
breathing amplitude, blood pressure, heart-beat rate,
pulse rate, blood cholesterol are affected.
• Loss of hearing: Long exposure to high sound levels 5.6. R ADIO ACTIVE POLLUTION
cause loss of hearing. This is mostly unnoticed, but has
an adverse impact on hearing function. 5�6�1� Radioactive Pollution
• Human performance: The working performance of • Radioactivity is a phenomenon of spontaneous emission
workers/human will be affected as it distracts the con- of proton (a-particles), electrons (ß-particles) and
centration. gamma rays (short wave electromagnetic waves) due to
disintegration of atomic nuclei of some elements. These • Nuclear power plants
cause radioactive pollution. • Nuclear weapon
• Transportation of nuclear material
Radioactivity: • Disposal of nuclear waste
Radioactivity is a property of certain elements (ra- • Uranium mining
dium, thorium, uranium etc.) to spontaneously emit • Radiation therapy
protons (alpha particles) electrons (beta particles) and
gamma rays (short-wave electromagnetic wave) by 5.6.5. Effects
disintegration of their atomic nuclei (nuclides). • The effects of radioactive pollutants depend upon
i. half-life
5�6�2� Types of Radiations ii. energy releasing capacity
1. Non-ionising radiations affect only those components iii. rate of diffusion and
which absorb them and have low penetrability. iv. rate of deposition of the pollutant.
2. Ionising radiations have high penetration power and v. Various environmental factors such as wind, tempera-
cause breakage of macro molecules. ture, rainfall also influence their effects.
5�6�3� Types of radiation particles Period of Radioactivity

1. Alpha particles, can be blocked by a piece of paper and • Each radioactive nuclide has a constant decay rate.
human skin. Half-life is the time needed for half of its atoms to
2. Beta particles can penetrate through skin, while can be decay. Half-life of a radio nuclide refers to its period
blocked by some pieces of glass and metal. of radioactivity. The half-life may vary from a frac-
3. Gamma rays can penetrate easily to human skin and tion of a second to thousands of years. The radio
damage cells on its way through, reaching far, and can nuclides with long half-time are the chief source of
only be blocked by a very thick, strong, massive piece environmental radioactive pollution.
of concrete.
• Radiations are of two types with regard to the mode of
5�6�4� Sources their action on cells.
Natural 1� Non-ionising radiations:
• They include cosmic rays from space and terrestrial • They include short-wave radiations such as ultraviolet
radiations from radio-nuclides present in earth’s crust rays, which forms a part of solar radiation.
such as radium-224, uranium-238, thorium-232, potas- • They have low penetrating power and affect the cells
sium-40, carbon-14, etc. and molecules which absorb them.
Man – made • They damage eyes which may be caused by reflections
from coastal sand, snow (snow blindness) directly look-
Atomic explosion (Nuclear fallout): ing towards sun during eclipse.
• The nuclear arms use uranium-235 and pluto- • They injure the cells of skin and blood capillaries pro-
nium-239 for fission and hydrogen or lithium as ducing blisters and reddening called sunburns.
fusion material. Atomic explosions produce radio- 2� Ionising radiations�
active particles that are thrown high up into the
air as huge clouds. These particles are carried to
• They include X-rays, cosmic rays and atomic radiations
(radiations emitted by radioactive elements).
long distances by wind and gradually settle over
the earth as fall out or are brought down by rain. • Ionising radiations have high penetration power and
The fall out contains radioactive substances such cause breakage of macro molecules.
as strontium-90, cesium-137, iodine – 131, etc. • The molecular damage may produce short range (im-
mediate) or long range (delayed) effects.
i. Short range effects include burns, impaired metabo-
lism, dead tissues and death of the organisms. Do you know?
ii. Long range effects are mutations increased incidence solar power panels installed overhead of arail coach
of tumors and cancer, shortening of life-span and de- will save 1700 litres of diesel per year and if these
velopmental changes. techniques are adopted, 100 million litres of diesel can
iii. The mutated gene can persist in living organisms and be saved by the Railways every year.
may affect their progeny.
• The actively dividing cells such as Embryo, foetus, cells
5.7. E – WASTE
of skin, intestinal lining, bone marrow and gamete
forming cells are more sensitive to radiations. • The discarded and end-of-life electronic products rang-
ing from computers, equipment used in Information
• Some species of animals and plants preferentially ac-
and Communication Technology (ICT), home appli-
cumulate specific radioactive materials. For example,
ances, audio and video products and all of their periph-
oysters deposit 65Zn, fish accumulate 55Fe, marine
erals are popularly known as Electronic waste
animals selectively deposit 90Sr.
(E-waste).
5�6�6� Control Measures • E-waste is not hazardous if it is stocked in safe storage
or recycled by scientific methods or transported from
• Prevention is the best control measure as there is no
one place to the other in parts or in totality in the for-
cure available for radiation damage.
mal sector. The e-waste can, however, be considered
i. All safety measures should be strictly enforced. Leak- hazardous if recycled by primitive methods.
age of radioactive elements should be totally checked.
ii. Safe disposal of radioactive waste.
Do you know?
iii. Regular monitoring through frequent sampling and
quantitative analysis. The sex of crocodilians is determined by the incubation
conditions, particularly the temperature. Incubation at
iv. Safety measures against nuclear accidents. 30°C or less gives exclusively females, incubation at
v. Nuclear explosions and use of nuclear weapons should around 31°C gives both sexes, whereas incubation be-
be completely banned. tween 32°C and 33°C gives mostly males. Incubation
vi. Appropriate steps should be taken to protect from oc- at temperatures above 33°C gives males in some spe-
cupational exposure. cies, whereas in others, the sex reverts to females
5.7.1. Source and its health effects

S�NO PARTICULARS SOURCE HEALTH EFFECTS
1. Lead Used in glass panels and gaskets in Lead causes damage to the central and
computer monitors peripheral nervous systems, blood systems,
Solder in printed circuit boards and kidney and reproductive system in humans. It
other Components also effects the endocrine system, and
impedes brain development among children.
Lead tends to accumulate in the environment
and has high acute and chronic effects on
plants, animals and microorganisms.
2. Cadmium Occurs in SMD chip resistors, Toxic cadmium compounds accumulate in the
infra-red detectors, and human body, especially the kidneys.
semiconductor chips
Some older cathode ray tubes
contain cadmium
3. Mercury It is estimated that 22 % of the Mercury can cause damage to organs
yearly world consumption of including the brain and kidneys, as well as the
mercury is used in electrical and foetus. The developing foetus is highly
electronic equipment vulnerable to mercury exposure. When
Mercury is used in thermostats, inorganic mercury spreads out in the water, it
sensors, relays, switches, medical is transformed to methylated mercury which
equipment, lamps, mobile phones bio-accumulates in living organisms and
and in batteries concentrates through the food chain,
particularly via fish.
Mercury, used in flat panel displays,
will likely increase as their use
replaces cathode ray tubes
4. Hexavalent Chromium VI is used as corrosion Chromium VI can cause damage to DNA and
Chromium/ protector of untreated and is extremely toxic in the environment.
Chromium VI 29 galvanized steel plates and as a
decorative or hardener for steel
housings Plastics (including PVC):
Dioxin is released when PVC is
burned.
The largest volume of plastics
(26%) used in electronics has been
PVC. PVC elements are found in
cabling and computer housings.
Many computer moldings are now
made with the somewhat more
benign ABS plastics
5. Brominated flame BFRs are used in the plastic
retardants (BFRs): housings of electronic equipment
and in circuit boards to prevent
flammability
6. Barium Barium is a soft silvery-white metal Studies have shown that short-term exposure
that is used in computers in the to barium causes brain swelling, muscle
front panel of a CRT, to protect weakness, damage to the heart, liver, and
users from radiation spleen.
7. Beryllium Beryllium is commonly found on Exposure to beryllium can cause lung cancer.
motherboards and finger clips Beryllium also causes a skin disease that is
It is used as a copper-beryllium characterised by poor wound healing and
alloy to strengthen connectors and wartlike bumps. Studies have shown that
tinyplugs while maintaining people can develop beryllium disease many
electrical conductivity years following the last exposure.
8. Toners Found in the plastic printer Inhalation is the primary exposure pathway,
cartridge containing black and color and acute exposure may lead to respiratory
toners. tract irritation. Carbon black has been
classified as a class 2B carcinogen, possibly
carcinogenic to humans. Reports indicate that
colour toners (cyan, magenta and yellow)
contain heavy metals.
9. Phosphor and Phosphor is an inorganic chemical The phosphor coating on cathode ray tubes
additives compound that is applied as a coat contains heavy metals, such as cadmium, and
on the interior of the CRT faceplate. other rare earth metals, for example, zinc,
vanadium as additives. These metals and their
compounds are very toxic. This is a serious
hazard posed for those who dismantle CRTs
by hand.
5�7�2� E – Waste in India commercial, mining and agricultural operations, and

• “The Global E-Waste Monitor 2014”, 17 lakh tonnes of from community activities. But it does not include solid
e-waste generation was reported in the country in 2014. or dissolved materials in domestic sewage, or solid or
No comprehensive State-wise inventorization of e-waste dissolved materials in irrigation return flows or indus-
generation in the country has been done. trial discharges.
• In India, among top ten cities, Mumbai ranks first in
5�8�1� Plastic Waste
generating e-waste followed by Delhi, Bangalore, Chen-
nai, Kolkata, Ahmadabad, Hyderabad, Pune, Surat and • Plastics are considered to be one of the wonderful inven-
Nagpur. tions of 20th Century. They are widely used as packing
and carry bags because of cost and convenience. But
• The 65 cities generate more than 60% of the total gen-
plastics are now considered as environmental hazard
erated e-waste, whereas, 10 states generate 70% of the
due to the “Throw away culture”.
total e-waste.
• Most of the e-waste is recycled in India in unorganized 5�8�2� Source of generation of waste plastics
units, which engage significant number of manpower.
Recovery of metals by primitive means is a most haz-
• Household
ardous act. • Health and medicare
• The recycling process, if not carried out properly, can • Hotel and catering
cause damage to human being through inhalation of • Air/rail travel
gases during recycling, contact of the skin with hazard-
ous substances and contact during acid treatment used 5.8.3. Effects
in recovery process. • The land gets littered by plastic bag garbage and be-
• Proper education, awareness and most importantly al- comes ugly and unhygienic.
ternative cost effective technology need to be provided • Conventional plastics have been associated with repro-
so that better means can be provided to those who earn ductive problems in both humans and wildlife.
the livelihood from this.
• Dioxin (highly carcinogenic and toxic) by-product of the
• A holistic approach is needed to address the challenges manufacturing process is one of the chemicals believed
faced by India in e-waste management. A suitable mech- to be passed on through breast milk to the nursing
anism needs to be evolved to include small units in infant.
unorganized sector and large units in organized sector
into a single value chain.
• Burning of plastics, especially PVC releases this dioxin
and also furan into the atmosphere. Thus, conventional
plastics, right from their manufacture to their disposal
5.8. SOLID WASTE are a major problem to the environment.
• Solid wastes are the discarded (abandoned or consid-
• Plastic bags can also contaminate foodstuffs due to
ered waste-like) materials. Solid waste means any gar-
leaching of toxic dyes and transfer of pathogens.
bage, refuse, sludge from a wastewater treatment plant,
or air pollution control facility and other discarded • Careless disposal of plastic bags chokes drains, blocks
materials including solid, liquid, semi-solid, or con- the porosity of the soil and causes problems for ground-
tained gaseous material, resulting from industrial, water recharge.
• Plastic disturbs the soil microbe activity. The terrestrial states: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Tamil
and aquatic animals misunderstand plastic garbage as Nadu.
food items, swallow them and die. • Household waste that can be categorized as hazardous
• Plastic bags deteriorates soil fertility as it forms part of waste include old batteries, shoe polish, paint tins, old
manure and remains in the soil for years. medicines, and medicine bottles.
• These bags finding their way in to the city drainage • In the industrial sector, the major generators of hazard-
system results in blockage causing inconvenience, dif- ous waste are the metal, chemical, paper, pesticide, dye,
ficult in maintenance, creates unhygienic environment refining, and rubber goods industries.
resulting in health hazard and spreading of water borne • Direct exposure to chemicals in hazardous waste such
diseases. as mercury and cyanide can be fatal.
• Designing eco-friendly, biodegradable plastics are the
c� Hospital waste
need of the hour.
• Hospital waste is generated during the diagnosis, treat-
5�8�4� Types ment, or immunization of human beings or animals or
• Solid wastes are classified depending on their source: in research activities or in the production or testing of
biologicals.
a) Municipal waste,
b) Hazardous waste and
• These chemicals include formaldehyde and phenols,
which are used as disinfectants, and mercury, which is
c) Biomedical waste or hospital waste. used in thermometers or equipment that measure blood
a) Municipal solid waste pressure.
• Municipal solid waste consists of household waste, con- • It may include wastes like soiled waste, disposables,
struction and demolition debris, sanitation residue, and anatomical waste, cultures, discarded medicines, chem-
waste from streets. ical wastes, disposable syringes, swabs, bandages, body
fluids, human excreta, etc.
• With rising urbanization and change in lifestyle and
food habits, the amount of municipal solid waste has • These are highly infectious and can be a serious threat
been increasing rapidly and its composition changing. to human health if not managed in a scientific and dis-
criminate manner.
• In 1947 cities and towns in India generated an estimated
6 million tonnes of solid waste, in 1997 it was about 48 • Surveys carried out by various agencies show that the
million tonnes. More than 25% of the municipal solid health care establishments in India are not giving due
waste is not collected at all. attention to their waste management.
• 70% of the Indian cities lack adequate capacity to trans- • After the notification of the Bio-medical Waste (Han-
port it and there are no sanitary landfills to dispose of dling and Management) Rules, 1998, these establish-
the waste. The existing landfills are neither well ments are slowly streamlining the process of waste
equipped and are not lined properly to protect against segregation, collection, treatment, and disposal.
contamination of soil and groundwater.
5�8�5� Treatment and disposal of solid waste
• Over the last few years, the consumer market has
grown rapidly leading to products being packed in cans, i) Open dumps
aluminium foils, plastics, and other such nonbiode- • Open dumps refer to uncovered areas that are used to
gradable items that cause incalculable harm to the en- dump solid waste of all kinds. The waste is untreated,
vironment. uncovered, and not segregated. It is the breeding ground
b) Hazardous waste for flies, rats, and other insects that spread disease. The
rainwater run-off from these dumps contaminates
• Industrial and hospital waste is considered hazardous nearby land and water thereby spreading disease. Treat-
as they contain toxic substances. Hazardous wastes
ment by open dumps is to be phased out.
could be highly toxic to humans, animals, and plants
and are corrosive, highly inflammable, or explosive. ii) Landfills
• India generates around 7 million tonnes of hazardous • Landfills are generally located in urban areas. It is a pit
wastes every year, most of which is concentrated in four that is dug in the ground. The garbage is dumped and
the pit is covered with soil everyday thus preventing the • It recycles the nutrients and returns them back to soil
breeding of flies and rats. Thus, every day, garbage is as nutrients.
dumped and sealed. After the landfill is full, the area is • Apart from being clean, cheap, and safe, composting
covered with a thick layer of mud and the site can there- can significantly reduce the amount of disposable
after be developed as a parking lot or a park. garbage.
• Problems - All types of waste are dumped in landfills
vii) Vermiculture
and when water seeps through them it gets contami-
nated and in turn pollutes the surrounding area. This • It is also known as earthworm farming. In this method,
contamination of groundwater and soil through land- Earth worms are added to the compost. These worms
fills is known as leaching. break the waste and the added excreta of the worms
makes the compost very rich in nutrients.
iii) Sanitary landfills
viii) Four R’s
• Sanitary landfill is more hygienic and built in a me-
thodical manner to solve the problem of leaching. These
5�8�6� Waste Minimization Circles (WMC)
are lined with materials that are impermeable such as
plastics and clay, and are also built over impermeable WMC helps Small and Medium Industrial Clusters in waste
soil. Constructing sanitary landfills is very costly minimization in their industrial plants.
iv) Incineration plants • This is assisted by the World Bank with the Ministry of
Environment and Forests acting as the nodal ministry.
• The process of burning waste in large furnaces at high The project is being implemented with the assistance of
temperature is known as incineration. In these plants National Productivity Council (NPC), New Delhi.
the recyclable material is segregated and the rest of the
material is burnt and ash is produced. • The initiative also aims to realize the objectives of the
Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution (1992),
• Burning garbage is not a clean process as it produces which states that the government should educate citi-
tonnes of toxic ash and pollutes the air and water. A
zens about environmental risks, the economic and
large amount of the waste that is burnt here can be
health dangers of resource degradation and the real
recovered and recycled. In fact, at present, incineration economic cost of natural resources.
is kept as the last resort and is used mainly for treating
the infectious waste. • The policy also recognizes that citizens and non-gov-
ernmental organizations play a role in environmental
v) Pyrolysis monitoring, therefore, enabling them to supplement the
• It is a process of combustion in absence of oxygen or the regulatory system and recognizing their expertise
material burnt under controlled atmosphere of oxygen. where such exists and where their commitments and
It is an alternative to incineration. The gas and liquid vigilance would be cost effective.
thus obtained can be used as fuels. Pyrolysis of carbo-
naceous wastes like firewood, coconut, palm waste, 5.9 THERMAL POLLUTION
corn combs, cashew shell, rice husk paddy straw and Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of
saw dust, yields charcoal along with products like tar, a natural aquatic environment caused by human influence.
methyl alcohol, acetic acid, acetone and a fuel gas. This has become an increasing and the most current pol-
vi) Composting lution, owing to the increasing call of globalization every-
• Composting is a biological process in which micro-or- where.
ganisms, mainly fungi and bacteria, decompose degra- Thermal pollution is caused by either dumping hot water
dable organic waste into humus like substance in the from factories and power plants or removing trees and
presence of oxygen. vegetation that shade streams, permitting sunlight to raise
• This finished product, which looks like soil, is high in the temperature of these waters, release of cold water
carbon and nitrogen and is an excellent medium for which lowers the temperature. Like other forms of water
growing plants. pollution, thermal pollution is widespread, affecting many
lakes and vast numbers of streams and rivers in various
• It increases the soil’s ability to hold water and makes parts of the world.
the soil easier to cultivate. It helps the soil retain more
plant nutrients.
Major sources the enzymes. Decreased enzyme activity in aquatic organ-
• power plants creating electricity from fossil fuel isms can cause problems such as the inability to break
down lipids, which leads to malnutrition.
• water as a cooling agent in industrial facilities
• deforestation of the shoreline Ecological Effects — Cold Water
• soil erosion Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very
cold water from the base of reservoirs into warmer rivers.
Ecological Effects — Warm Water This affects fish (particularly their eggs and larvae), mac-
The change in temperature impacts organisms by roinvertebrates and river productivity.
(a) decreasing oxygen supply, and Control Measures
(b) affecting ecosystem composition. Instead of discharging heated water into lakes and streams,
Warm water contains less oxygen. Elevated temperature power plants and factories can pass the heated water
typically decreases the level of dissolved oxygen (DO) in through cooling towers or cooling ponds, where evapora-
water. So there is decrease in rate of decomposition of tion cools the water before it is discharged.
organic matter. Green algae are replaced by less desirable Alternatively, power plants can be designed or refitted to
blue green algae. Many animals fail to multiply. be more efficient and to produce less waste heat in the first
It also increases the metabolic rate of aquatic animals replace.
sults in consumption of more food in a shorter time than Cogeneration - process through which, the excess heat
if their environment were not changed. An increased met- energy from generating electricity can be used in another
abolic rate may result in food source shortages, causing a manufacturing process that needs such energy. Where
sharp decrease in a population. homes or other buildings are located near industrial plants,
Changes in the environment may also result in a migration waste hot water can be used for heating—an arrangement
of organisms to another, more suitable environment and often found in Scandinavian towns and cities, and pro-
to in-migration of fishes that normally only live in warmer posed for use in China.
waters elsewhere. This leads to competition for fewer re- To prevent thermal pollution due to devegetation, the pre-
sources; the more adapted organisms moving in may have scription is simple: do not devegetate and leave strips of
an advantage over organisms that are not used to the trees and vegetation along streams and shorelines.
warmer temperature. As a result one has the problem of All efforts to control erosion also have the effect of keeping
compromising food chains of the old and new environ- water clearer and, thus, cooler.
ments. Biodiversity can be decreased as a result.
Temperature changes of even one to two degrees Celsius
can cause significant changes in organism metabolism and Do you know?
other adverse cellular biology effects. Principal adverse The Wildlife Week is celebrated in the first week of
changes can include rendering cell walls less permeable to October, with an aim to create awareness and sympa-
necessary osmosis, coagulation of cell proteins, and al- thy for wildlife. Wildlife Week is being celebrated since
teration of enzyme metabolism. These cellular level effects the inception of National Zoological Park in 1957.
can adversely affect mortality and reproduction.
Primary producers are affected by warm water because
higher water temperature increases plant growth rates, 5.10 PLASTIC POLLUTION
resulting in a shorter life span and species overpopulation. The marine resource covering 70 percent of the earth’s
This can cause an algae bloom which reduces the oxygen surface is a key asset in the biosphere. Of the nearly 1.5
levels in the water. The higher plant density results in re- million species known, nearly a quarter million live in the
duced light intensity, decreases photosynthesis and leads world’s oceans. More importantly, nearly 50 percent of the
to an increased plant respiration rate. This is similar to the global primary production takes place in the upper stratum
eutrophication. of sea water. Seafood presently represents 20% of the pro-
A large increase in temperature can lead to the denaturing tein in global diet.
of life-supporting enzymes by breaking down hydrogen- The health of the marine food web and the fisheries re-
and disulphide bonds within the quaternary structure of sources invariably depend upon the long-term viability of
the autotrophic algae (phytoplankton – primary producer) The plastic waste that has been introduced into the world’s
and the zooplankton (primary consumers) in the marine oceans must accumulate for the most part intact and un-
food pyramid. mineralized in the marine environment. While the fate of
Plastics represent the latest contaminant in the marine such plastics is not clear, it is reasonable to expect at least
environment; the increased use of plastics has lead to some of it to continue disintegrating into microparticulate
negative environmental impacts. debris. Recent reports even indicate an increase in their
counts over the last two decades.
Plastics pollution can interfere with the plankton species
that form the foundation of the food web, and other organ-
Impact of Microparticles
isms adversely affecting the delicate balance in the marine
ecosystem. Challenging the Antarctic krill and other zooplankton with
plastic beads that are about 20 microns or so in size has
demonstrated that these microparticulates are readily in-
Do you know? gested by these organisms. They appear to ingest the par-
“Science Express” is an innovative mobile science ex- ticles unselectively, and the ingestion rates depend on the
hibition mounted on a 16-coach AC train, which has concentration of particles in the environment.
been custom-built for Department of Science & Tech- Plastics are bio-inert and are not expected to be toxic to
nology (DST) by Indian Railway. The Express is a the animal in the conventional sense. While physical ob-
unique collaborative initiative of Department of Science struction or indirect interference with physiology is always
and Technology, Ministry of Environment, Forest and possible (as with sea birds showing satiation on ingesting
Climate Change (MoEFCC) and Ministry of Railway. plastics) the material will pass through the animal virtu-
The unique mobile expo was launched in October 2007 ally unchanged.
by DST. The 2012, 2013 and 2014, three phases/runs of The concern, however, is that plastics exposed to sea water
“Science Express” were rolled out as a joint initiative tends to concentrate toxic and non-toxic organic com-
of DST and MoEFCC as Biodiversity Special and show- pounds present in the sea water at low concentrations.
cased the myriad “Biodiversity of India”. 2015 run with These, including PCBs, DDT, and nonylphenols, have very
the focus to the theme “Climate Change” and run it as high partition coefficients and are very efficiently concen-
“”Science Express Climate Action Special (SECAS). trated in the plastic material.
Plastic-related distress to over 250 species has been docu-
mented worldwide. The focus has very much been on larger
Plastics as a Waste Material- in Marine species in surface waters or beaches, despite the fact that
Environment 99 percent of marine species live in the benthos. The im-
The amount of plastic waste estimation annually intro- pact of negatively buoyant plastic waste (such as nylon net
duced into the marine environment is not available. But, fragments) on benthic species has remained virtually un-
plastic waste is well known to result primarily from fish- addressed.
ing-related activities, and from non-point source influx
Despite years of interest on the topic little research has
from beaches. been carried out by the government agencies or the plastics
There are two clear differences between the fate of plastics industry to address the key issues relating to plastics in the
debris in the ocean environment as opposed to on land marine environment.
environments.
Plastics as a Waste Material- in Land Environment
a) The rate of UV-induced photo-oxidative degradation of
plastics floating or submerged at sea is very much Problems with the uncollected plastic waste, include
slower than that exposed to the same solar radiation (i) Choking of drains by plastic carry bags which may lead
on land. to unhygienic environment and water borne diseases,
b) Unlike on land there is no easy means of retrieval, (ii) Causing of illness and possible death of animals that
sorting and recycling of plastic waste that enters into may feed on plastics from garbage bins,
the ocean environment. (iii) Non-biodegradable and impervious nature of plastics
These two factors generally result in extended lifetimes for disposed on soil which may arrest recharge of ground
plastics at sea. water aquifers,
(iv) presence of additives and plasticizers, fillers, flame (b) Ex situ bioremediation techniques
retardants and pigments used in the plastic products • Ex situ -involves the removal of the contaminated mate-
which have potential to cause adverse health impact rial to be treated elsewhere.
and ground water pollution.
• Landfarming - contaminated soil is excavated and
spread over a prepared bed and periodically tilled []
5.11. BIOREMEDIATION until pollutants are degraded.The goal is to stimulate
• Bioremediation is the use of microorganisms (bacteria indigenous biodegradative microorganisms and fa-
and fungi) to degrade the environmental contaminants cilitate their aerobic degradation of contaminants.
into less toxic forms. • Biopiles - it is a hybrid of landfarming and compost-
• The microorganisms may be indigenous to a contami- ing. Essentially, engineered cells are constructed as
nated area or they may be isolated from elsewhere and aerated composted piles. Typically used for treat-
brought to the contaminated site. ment of surface contamination with petroleum hy-
drocarbons.
The process of bioremediation can be monitored in- • Bioreactors – it involves the processing of contami-
directly by measuring the Oxidation Reduction Poten- nated solid material (soil, sediment, sludge) or water
tial or redox in soil and groundwater, together with through an engineered containment system.
pH, temperature, oxygen content, electron acceptor/ • Composting – dealt earlier in solid waste management
donor concentrations, and concentration of break-
down products (e.g. carbon dioxide)
Using bioremediation techniques, TERI has devel-
oped a mixture of bacteria called ‘oilzapper’ which
5�11�1� Bioremediation Strategies degrades the pollutants of oil-contaminated sites,
leaving behind no harmful residues. This technique
(a) In situ bioremediation techniques is not only environment friendly, but also highly cost-
• It involves treatment of the contaminated material at effective.
the site.
• Bioventing – supply of air and nutrients through 5�11�2� Genetic engineering approaches
wells to contaminated soil to stimulate the growth
of indigenous bacteria. It is used for simple hydro- Phytoremediation
carbons and can be used where the contamination • Phytoremediation is use of plants to remove contami-
is deep under the surface. nants from soil and water .
• Biosparging - Injection of air under pressure below Types
the water table to increase groundwater oxygen con-
centrations and enhance the rate of biological deg-
• Phytoextraction / phytoaccumulation is the process
by which plants accumulate contaminants into the roots
radation of contaminants by naturally occurring and above ground shoots or leaves.
bacteria
• Phytotransformation or phytodegradation refers to
• Bioaugmentation - Microorganisms are imported the uptake of organic contaminants from soil, sedi-
to a contaminated site to enhance degradation ments, or water and their transformation to more sta-
process. ble, less toxic, less mobile form.
• Phytostabilization is a technique in which plants re-
Do you know? duce the mobility and migration of contaminated soil.
The jaws of the snakes are not fused together. That Leachable constituents are adsorbed and bound into
means that unlike our jaws, snakes jaws are not the plant structure so that they form unstable mass of
hooked up at the back of their mouths. This makes it plant from which the contaminants will not re-enter
possible for them to eat very big meals, bigger than the environment.
their own heads! • Phytodegradation or rhizodegradation is the break-
down of contaminants through the activity existing in
the rhizosphere. This activity is due to the presence of • It is difficult to extrapolate from bench and pilot-scale
proteins and enzymes produced by the plants or by soil studies to full-scale field operations.
organisms such as bacteria, yeast, and fungi. • Bioremediation often takes longer time than other treat-
• Rhizofiltration is a water remediation technique that ment process.
involves the uptake of contaminants by plant roots.
Rhizofiltration is used to reduce contamination in nat- 5.12. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND
ural wetlands and estuary areas. HEALTH
First
The bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans has been
used to de toxify toluene and ionic mercury which are • Pollution inventory and apportionment studies that as-
released from radioactive nuclear waste. sess relative contribution of different sources are looked
at in isolation and not within a coherent framework of
health protection.
Mycoremediation • What ultimately should drive policy is not just what
• is a form of bioremediation in which fungi are used to source is emitting more but which source is likely to lead
decontaminate the area. to a greater exposure to health damaging pollutants.
Mycofiltration • Globally, studies show vehicles contribute from a quar-
ter to close to half of the particulates in cities.
• is a similar process, using fungal mycelia to filter toxic
waste and microorganisms from water in soil. Second
Advantages of bioremediation • Our scientists do not say that people are exposed to
• Useful for the complete destruction of a wide variety of much higher health damaging pollutants than what
contaminants. occurs in ambient conditions.
• The complete destruction of target pollutants is possible. • With each breath we inhale three-four times more pol-
lutants than the ambient air concentration.
• Less expensive.
• Environment friendly • Exposure to vehicular fumes is highest on road and up
to 500 metres from there. The majority in our cities
Disadvantages of bioremediation lives in that zone.
Do you know? Third

Rattlesnakes are easily recognized by, their rattle. The • People are exposed to a mixture of pollutants whose
rattlesnake babies are born with what is called a pre- combined effect has serious health impact. The benefits
button. The baby snake loses this piece when it sheds are greater when pollution sources are regulated for
its skin for the first time. With the shedding a new multi-pollutants.
button appears. With every shedding after that an- • Delhi’s air is thick with particulate matter, nitrogen
other button, or rattle, will be added. These buttons oxides, ozone and air toxins.
are made up of a material called Keratin. The rattles • There is merit in NGT’s focus on diesel emissions which
are empty. The noise comes from each segment is a multi-pollutant mixture classified as a class one
knocking together, so until a rattlesnake has two or carcinogen for its strong link with lung cancer. Expo-
more pieces it isn’t going to make a sound! But when sure to toxins should be eliminated.
it does…you WILL hear it…and you WILL RUN!
Fourth
• Our air quality policies are cut off from the reported
• Bioremediation is limited to those compounds that are reality in the health sector.
biodegradable. Not all compounds are susceptible to
rapid and complete degradation. • India is experiencing a rapid health transition, with a
large and rising burden of chronic diseases, estimated to
• Biological processes are often highly specific. be more than half of all deaths and years lost to illness.
• Cancer, stroke, and chronic lung diseases are now major • Dry deposited gases and particles can be washed from
public health problems that are strongly influenced by these surfaces by rainstorms, through runoff.
air pollution. • This runoff water makes the resulting mixture more
acidic.
5.13 ACID R AIN
• About half of the acidity in the atmosphere falls back to
Acid rain is the rainfall that has been acidified. It is formed earth through dry deposition.
when oxides of sulfur and nitrogen react with the moisture
in the atmosphere. It is rain with a pH of less than 5.6. Acid
rain is particularly damaging to lakes, streams, and forests The pH scale
and the plants and animals that live in these ecosystems. • The pH scale is a measure of how acidic or basic
(alkaline) a solution is.
5.14. TYPES OF ACID DEPOSITION • It ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral.
“Acid rain” is a broad term referring to a mixture of wet • A pH less than 7 is acidic, and a pH greater than 7
and dry deposition (form of deposition material) from the is basic.
atmosphere
• It was devised in 1909 and it is a logarithmic index
for the hydrogen ion concentration in an aqueous
(a) Wet Deposition
solution.
• If the acid chemicals in the air are blown into areas
• pH values decreases as hydrogen ion levels in-
where the weather is wet, the acids can fall to the
creases.
ground in the form of rain, snow, fog, or mist.
• As this acidic water flows over and through the ground, • A solution with pH 4 is ten times more acidic than
solution with pH 5, and a hundred times more
it affects a variety of plants and animals.
acidic than solution with pH 6.
• The strength of the effects depends on several factors, • Whilst the pH range is usually given as 0 to 14,
including how acidic the water is; the chemistry and
lower and higher values are theoretically possible.
buffering capacity of the soils involved; and the types of
fish, trees, and other living things that rely on the water.
• Precipitation removes gases and particles from the at- 5�14�1� Sources of compounds causing acid rain
mosphere by two processes:
(a) Sulphur
(i) rain-out which is the incorporation of particles into
(i) Natural sources:
cloud drops which fall to the ground, and
(ii) washout which occurs when materials below the cloud
• seas and oceans,
is swept down by rain or snow it falls. • volcanic eruptions,
• Biological processes in the soil e.g., Decomposition
of organic matter.
Do you know?
(ii) Man-made sources:
Gharial crocodile counts amongst the largest crocodile
species in the world. It is also one of two surviving • burning of coal (60% of SO2) and
members of the Gavialidae family. Gharial Crocodiles • petroleum products (30% of SO2), and
of India have an elongated and narrow snout. It is • The smelting of metal sulfide ores to obtain the pure
mainly found in the river systems of Indus, Brahma- metals.
putra, Ganges, Mahanadi, Kaladan and Ayeyarwady • Industrial production of Sulfuric acid in metallurgi-
cal, chemical and fertilizer industries.
(b) Dry Deposition (b) Nitrogen
Natural sources:
• In areas where the weather is dry, the acid chemicals
may become incorporated into dust or smoke and fall • lightening,
to the ground through dry deposition, sticking to the • volcanic eruption, and
ground, buildings, vegetation, cars, etc. • Biological activity.
Anthropogenic sources: • Due to the abundance of water, they possess numerous
• Forest fires lakes and streams and also have more land covered
with vegetation.
• Combustion of oil, coal, and gas
(c) Formic acid • Being upland, they often have thin soils and glaciated
bedrock.
• Biomass burning due to forest fires causes emission
of formic acid (HCOOH) and formaldehyde (HCHO) World scenario
into the atmosphere. Many parts of Scandinavia, Canada, the North and North-
• Large fraction formaldehyde gets photo – oxidation east United States and Northern Europe (particularly West
and forms formic acid in the atmosphere. Germany and upland Britain) share these features. Across
the Atlantic there are number of acid rain hot spots includ-
These are three main compounds that cause acidification
ing Nova Scotia, Southern Ontario and Quebec in Canada,
of rain in the atmosphere.
the Adirondack Mountains in New York, Great Smoky
(d) Other Acids: mountains, parts of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the Colo-
• Chlorine rado Rockies of the US.
• Phosphoric acid In India
• Hydrochloric acid (smokestacks). In India, the first report of acid rain came from Bombay in
• Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide (automobiles). 1974. Instances of acid rain are being reported from met-
These become carbonic acid. ropolitan cities.
In India, the annual SO2 emission has almost doubled in
the last decade due to increased fossil fuel consumption.
Does it occurs only in industrial areas alone? Lowering of soil pH is reported from north-eastern India,
SOX and NOX that create Acid Rain are often trans- coastal Karnataka and Kerala, parts of Orissa, West Bengal
ported to distances far away from their points of ori- and Bihar.
gin by the wind so that the adverse effects of pollution
are also experienced at place remote from the place of
genesis. The problem is further compounded as the Indicators
environmental damage caused by acid rain is not uni- Lichens serve as good bio-indicators for air pollution.
form, but is area-specific. In the variety of pH around 6.0, several animals, those
are important food items for fish decline. These in-
clude the freshwater shrimp, crayfish, snails and some
5�14�2� Common characteristics of acid rain small mussels.
areas:
Areas which are prone to acid-rain attacks have some com-
mon characteristics: 5�14�3� Chemistry of Acid Rain
Six basic steps are involved in the formation of acid rain:
Do you know? 1. The atmosphere receives oxides of sulfur and nitrogen
The banana tree (plant) has only a thick false stem from natural and man-made sources.
(pseudostem), which is not woody but made up of a 2. Some of these oxides fall back directly to the ground as
central core of soft tissues concealed by the fibrous dry deposition, either close to the place of origin or
and sheathing bases of large leaves. Strictly speaking, some distance away.
the banana plant is a giant herb.
3. Sunlight stimulates the formation of photo-oxidants
(such as ozone) in the atmosphere.
• They are concentrated in the industrialized belt of the 4. These photo-oxidants interact with the oxides of sulfur
northern hemisphere. and nitrogen to produce H2SO4 and HNO3 by oxidation.
• They are often upland and / or mountainous areas, 5. The oxides are of sulfur and nitrogen, photo-oxidants,
which are well-watered by rain and snow. and other gases (like NH3)
6. Acid rain containing ions of sulfate, nitrate, ammonium • The impact of acid rain on soil is less in India; be-
and hydrogen falls as wet deposition. cause Indian soils are mostly alkaline, with good
buffering ability.
Difference between normally and (b) Vegetation
anthropogenically acidified lakes
Acid rains affect trees and undergrowth in forest in several
Naturally acidic lakes Anthropogenically ways, causing reduced growth or abnormal growth:
acidified lakes • The typical growth-decreasing symptoms are:
Brown to yellow colour Very clear water caused • Discoloration and loss of foliar biomass
caused by humic by reduced primary • Loss of feeder-root biomass, especially in conifers
substances productivity • Premature senescence (aging) of older needles in
Concentrations of Dissolved organic carbon conifers
dissolved organic carbon concentrations are low. • Increase in susceptibility of damage to secondary
are high while Whereas the transparency root and foliar pathogens
transparency is low is high.
• Death of herbaceous vegetation beneath affected
Low pH but well buffered. Poorly buffered trees
Abound with aquatic life. Some of the more • Prodigious production of lichens on affected trees.
sensitive taxa, such as
blue-green algae, some
• Death of affected trees.
bacteria, snails, mussels (c) Micro organisms
crustaceans, mayflies and • pH determines the proliferation of any microbial
fish either decrease or / species in a particular environment and the rate at
are eliminated. which it can produce.
• The optimum pH of most bacteria and protozoa is
near neutrality; most fungi prefer an acidic environ-
ment, most blue-green bacteria prefer an alkaline
Do you know?
environment.
The Indian giant squirrel is a large-bodied diurnal,
arboreal, and herbivorous squirrel. The species is en-
• So after a long run of acid rain, microbial species in
the soil and water shift from bacteria-bound to
demic to deciduous, mixed deciduous, and moist ev-
fungi-bound and cause an imbalance in the micro-
ergreen forests of peninsular India, reaching as far
flora.
north as the Satpura hill range of Madhya Pradesh.
IUCN Status – least concern. • This causes a delay in the decomposition of soil or-
ganic material, and an increase in fungal disease in
aquatic life and forests.
(d) Wild life
5�14�4� Impact Of Acid Rain
The effects of acid rain on wild life are not very obvious
(a) Soil
and are therefore, difficult to document. Nevertheless, sev-
• The exchange between hydrogen ions and the nutri- eral direct and indirect effects of acid rain on the produc-
ent cations like potassium and magnesium in the soil tivity and survival of wildlife populations have been
cause leaching of the nutrients, making the soil in- reported.
fertile.
• Acid rain can directly affect the eggs and tadpoles of
• This is accompanied by a decrease in the respiration frogs and salamanders that breed in small forest
of soil organisms. ponds.
• An increase in ammonia in the soil due to a decrease • It has been postulated that acid rain can indirectly
in other nutrients decreases the rate of decomposi- affect wildlife by allowing metals bound on soils
tion. and sediments to be released into the aquatic en-
• The nitrate level of the soil is also found to decrease. vironment, where toxic substances may be ingested
by animals, like birds, that feed in such an en- (f) Acid rain damage on Materials
vironment.
Material Type of Impact Principal Air
• Other indirect effects of acid rain on wildlife are loss Pollutants
or alteration of food and habitat resources.
Metals Corrosion, Sulphur Oxides
(e) Humans tarnishing and other acid
Acid rain affects human health is a number of ways. gases
• The obvious ones are bad smells, reduced visibility; Building stone Surface erosion Sulphur Oxides
irritation of the skin, eyes and the respiratory tract. soiling, black and other acid
• Some direct effects include chronic bronchitis, pul- crust formation gases
monary emphysema and cancer. Ceramics and Surface erosion, Acid gases,
• Some indirect effects include food poisoning vis a vis glass surface crust especially
drinking water and food. formation fluoride-
containing
• An increase in the levels of toxic heavy-metals like
manganese, copper, cadmium and aluminium also Paints and Surface erosion, Sulphur dioxides,
contribute to the detrimental effects on human organic discolouration, hydrogen sulphide
health. coatings soiling
Paper Embrittlement, Sulphur Oxides
discolouration
Do you know?
Photographic Micro-blemishes Sulphur Oxides
• Bonsai—i.e., tailored or human-made miniature or Materials
dwarfed living trees that have been prevented from Textiles Fading, colour Nitrogen oxides,
reaching their normal size—are grown in pots and change ozone
kept in greenhouses, drawing rooms, etc. This
Leather Weakening, Sulphur oxides
technique was first perfected by the Japanese. powdered
• Bamboos are trees without a main trunk but with surface
a cluster of culms arising from the underground Rubber Cracking Ozone
rhizome. These culms are unbranched, with dis-
tinct nodes and internodes that give them a jointed (g) Socio-economic impacts of acid rain:
appearance. The adverse impact of acid rain on farming and fishing
leads to the deterioration of life quality indices like GNP
• Trees reduce oxides of carbon in the air, can also
and per capita income, especially in the predominantly
fix atmospheric nitrogen, disintegrate waste and
agricultural and developing countries like India
act as sinks of pollution
• Sometimes seeds of a plant are formed without 5.14.5. Trigger Effect of Acid Rain on Pollutants:
fertilization. This phenomenon is called “agamos- A low pH of the rainwater and subsequent increased acid-
permy,” a kind of parthenogenesis. A fruit that ity in the environment can trigger off or aggravate the
matures without seed formation is called “parthe- effects of certain harmful pollutants.
nocarpic fruit.” (i) Mercury:
• Beverage plants are those plants which yield bever- • Methyl mercury and related short chain alkyl mercu-
ages or drinks—nonalcoholic or alcoholic—that are rial compounds are most dangerous to humans, as
palatable and refreshing. Nonalcoholic beverages they accumulate in edible fish tissue.
usually contain caffeine, an alkaloid, which has • Although acid deposition may not increase the pro-
stimulating and refreshing qualities. Alcoholic bev- duction of methyl mercury, it may increase the par-
erages are those that contain one or more hydroxyl titioning of methyl mercury into the water column.
(–OH) groups; e.g., ethanol • The use of lime has helped in reducing the mercury
levels in fish.
(ii) Aluminium: • Reducing the emission of SO2 from power stations by
• Acidified waters are known to leach substantial burning less fossil fuel, using alternate energy sources
amounts of aluminium from watersheds. like tidal, wind, hydropower etc.,
• Even at relatively low levels, aluminium has been • using low sulphur fuel;
implicated in dialysis dementia, a disorder of the
central nervous system, which may be toxic to indi- • desulphurization
viduals with impaired kidney function. • decreasing emission of NOx from power stations and
(iii) Cadmium: • Modification of engines.
• Cadmium can enter the drinking water supply • Emissions of SOx can be controlled by
through corrosion of galvanized pipe or from the
copper-zinc through corrosion of galvanized piper or
• Converting to sulphuric acid.
from the copper-zinc solder used in the distribution • Converting it to elemental sulphur.
systems. • Neutralizing it and using it in the manufacture of
• A decrease in water pH from 6.5 to 4.5 can result in other products.
a fivefold increase in cadmium and could cause renal
tubular damage. 5.15 CATEGORIZATION OF INDUSTRIAL
(iv) Lead: SECTORS
• Foetuses and infants are highly susceptible to drink- • The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
ing water lead contamination. Change (MoEFCC) has developed the criteria of catego-
• High blood lead levels in children (>30 mug/Ml) are rization of industrial sectors, Red, Orange, Green and
believed to induce biochemical and neurophysiolog- White categories based on the Pollution Index which is
ical dysfunction. a function of the emissions (air pollutants), effluents
• However, lower than normal blood levels of lead can (water pollutants), hazardous wastes generated and
cause mental deficiencies and behavioural problems.
consumption of resources. The Pollution Index PI of any
(v) Asbestos: industrial sector is a number from 0 to 100 and the
Asbestos in natural rock can be released by acidic waters. increasing value of PI denotes the increasing degree of
pollution load from the industrial sector.
Do you know? • “Re-categorization of industries based on their pollu-
Tree ferns like Cyathaea and Alsophila have erect rhi- tion load is a scientific exercise. The old system of cat-
zomes with generally unbranched trunks, topped by egorization was creating problems for many industries
a crown of graceful, feathery fronds that form a ro- and was not reflecting the pollution of the industries.
sette at the apex. The new categories will remove this lacuna and will
give clear picture to everyone. “The new category of
White industries which is practically non-polluting
5�14�5� Control Measures:
will not require Environmental Clearance (EC) and
Reducing or eliminating the sources of pollution by
Consent and will help in getting finance from lending
• Buffering- the practice of adding a neutralizing agent to institutions. No Red category of industries shall nor-
the acidified water to increase the pH is one of the im- mally be permitted in the ecologically fragile area /
portant control measures. Usually lime in the form of
protected area.
calcium oxide and calcium carbonate is used.
 
CHAPTER - 6
RENEWABLE ENERGY
C onsumption of non-renewable sources of energy has

caused more environmental damage than any other
human activity. Electricity generated from fossil
fuels has led to high concentrations of harmful gases in the
atmosphere. This has in turn led to many environmental
Electricity is the flow of energy or current and is one of the
most widely used forms of energy throughout the world.
Source
Primary source - renewable energy like solar, wind, geo-
and health problems being faced today. thermal
Therefore, alternative sources of energy have become very Secondary source - non-renewable energy generated
important and relevant. through the conversion of coal, oil, natural gas etc.
Renewable energy is energy that is generated from natural The Government has up-scaled the target of renewable
resources that are continuously replenished. This includes energy capacity to 175 GW by the year 2022 which includes
sunlight, geothermal heat, wind, tides, water, and various 100 GW from solar, 60 GW from wind, 10 GW from bio-
forms of biomass. This energy cannot be exhausted and is power and 5 GW from small hydro-power.
constantly renewed.
Installed power generation capacity in India
They are viable source of clean limitless energy, cause less
The total installed capacity in India from renewable energy
emission, and are available locally. The use of renewable
on April, 2016 is 42,800 MW. Majority of the total capacity
energy greatly reduces all sort of pollutions vis-a-vis non- is developed by the State sector accounting for about 39
renewable energy. Most of the renewable sources of energy per cent (app.) followed by Private sector for about 31 per
are fairly non-polluting and considered clean. But biomass cent (app.) and Centre hold about 29 per cent (app.) each.
though a renewable source, is a major contributor of indoor
pollution. 6.1 SOLAR ENERGY
India is one of the few countries naturally blessed with long
days and plenty of sunshine.
Renewable energy comprises of
There are two ways we can produce electricity from the
• Solar energy - energy generated from the sun sun light:
• Hydel energy - energy derived from water
• Biomass – energy from firewood, animal dung, bio- • Photovoltaic Electricity – uses photovoltaic cells that
absorb the direct sunlight to generate electricity
degradable waste and crop residues, when it is burnt.
• Geothermal energy- energy from hot dry rocks, • Solar-Thermal Electricity – uses a solar collector that
has a mirrored surface which reflects the sunlight onto
magma, hot water springs, natural geysers, etc.
a receiver that heats up a liquid. This heated up liquid
• Ocean thermal - energy from waves and also from is used to make steam that produces electricity.
tidal waves.
• Co-generation - producing two forms of energy 6�1�3 Photovoltaic Electricity
from one fuel. Solar panels are attached to an aluminium mounting sys-
• Fuel cells are also being used as cleaner energy tem. Photovoltaic (PV) cells are made up of at least 2 semi-
source. conductor layers - a positive charge, and a negative charge.
As a PV cell is exposed to sunlight, photons are reflected,
pass right through, or absorbed by the solar cell. When One of the main features of the Mission is to make India
enough photons are absorbed by the negative layer of the a global leader in solar energy and the mission envisages
photovoltaic cell, electrons are freed from the negative an installed solar generation capacity of 100 GW (revised
semiconductor material. These freed electrons migrate to target) by 2022.
the positive layer creating a voltage differential. When the
two layers are connected to an external load, the electrons 6�16 International Solar Alliance
flow through the circuit creating electricity. The power
International Solar Alliance (ISA) is launched at the CoP21
generated - Direct Current (DC) is converted to Alternate
Climate Conference in Paris on 30th November as a special
Current (AC) with the use of inverters.
platform for mutual cooperation among 121 solar resource
rich countries lying fully or partially between Tropic of
Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) or solar thermal
technology Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.
It utilises focused sunlight and convert it into high- The alliance is dedicated to address special energy needs
temperature heat. That heat is then channelled through a of ISA member countries.
conventional generator to produce electricity. International Agency for Solar Policy and Application
Solar collectors capture and concentrate sunlight to heat (IASPA) will be the formal name of International Solar
a fluid which in turn generates electricity. There are sev- Alliance. The ISA secretariat will be set up in National
eral variations in the shape of the collectors. The most Institute of Solar Energy, Gurgaon.
commonly used are the parabolic troughs. Parabolic
trough power plants use a curved, mirrored trough which Objectives
reflects the direct solar radiation onto a glass tube contain- 1. to force down prices by driving demand;
ing a fluid and the fluid gets heated owing to the concen-
2. to bring standardization in solar technologies
trated solar radiation and the hot steam generated is used
to rotate the turbine to generate electricity. Commonly 3. to foster research and development.
used fluids are synthetic oil, molten salt and pressurised Prime Minister coined the new term “Surya Putra” for all
steam. the nations which fall between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic
The power generated - Direct Current (DC) is converted to of Capricorn, and which have been invited to join the alli-
Alternate Current (AC) with the use of inverters. ance. The other term used for these countries is “Sunshine
Countries”.
6�1�4 Potential of solar energy in India IESS 2047 stands for India Energy Security Scenarios 2047
• India has the potential to generate 35 MW/km2 using calculator which has been launched by India to explore the
solar photovoltaic and solar thermal energy. potential of future energy scenarios for India.
• Solar energy of about 5,000 trillion kWh per year is
incident over India’s land area with most parts receiving 6.2. LUMINESCENT SOLAR
4-7 kWh per sq. m per day. Hence both technology CONCENTR ATORS
routes (solar thermal and solar photovoltaic) for conver-
A luminescent solar concentrator (LSC) is a device that
sion of solar radiation into heat and electricity can ef-
fectively be harnessed providing huge scalability for uses a thin sheet of material to trap solar radiation over a
solar power in India. large area, before directing the energy (through lumines-
• The states with very high solar radiation are Rajasthan, cent emission) to cells mounted on the thin edges of the
northern Gujarat and parts of Ladakh region, Andhra material layer.
Pradesh, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. The thin sheet of material typically consists of a polymer
(such as polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)), doped with
6�1�5 Installed capacity – India
luminescent species such as organic dyes, quantum dots or
The current installed capacity of solar in grid connected rare earth complexes.
power crossed 10,000 MW, as on 2017, as per MNRE esti-
mates.
What is the need for LSCs?
A major initiative called ‘The National Solar Mission’ was
formulated by Government of India and its state govern- • The main motivation for implementing LSCs is to
ments. replace a large area of expensive solar cells in a stand-
ard flat-plate PV panel, with a cheaper alternative. nations – Germany, USA, Denmark, Spain and India –
Therefore there is both a reduction in both the cost account for 80% of the world’s installed wind energy
of the module (£/W) and the solar power produced capacity.
(£/kWh).
• A key advantage of over typical concentrating sys- 6�3�1 Wind farm
tems is that LSCs can collect both direct and diffuse A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same loca-
solar radiation. Therefore tracking of the sun is not tion used for production of electricity. A wind farm can be
required. located onshore and offshore.
• LSCs are excellent candidates for building integrated • Onshore wind farms: operate on land, where the wind
photovoltaics (BIPV) and for the cloudier northern tends to be the strongest. The turbines of a Onshore
climates. wind farms are less expensive and easier to set up,
maintain and operate than offshore turbines.
Ideal LSC • Offshore wind farms: Construction of wind farms in
• A broad absorption range to utilize the solar spectrum large bodies of water to generate electricity. Offshore
efficiently. wind farms are more expensive than onshore wind
• 100% emission of light from the absorbing luminescent farms of the same nominal power.
species.
6�3�2 Working of wind turbines
• A large shift between the absorption and emission spec-
tra to reduce absorption losses. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into
mechanical energy. This mechanical power can be used
• Long term stability.
for specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping
water) or a generator can convert this mechanical power
Challenges for LSC
into electricity. Most turbines have three aerodynamically
• The development of LSCs aims to create a working designed blades. The energy in the wind turns two or
structure that performs close to the theoretical maxi- three propeller-like blades around a rotor that is con-
mum efficiency. nected to the main shaft, which spins a generator to create
electricity. Wind turbines are mounted on a tower to cap-
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) ture the most energy. At 100 feet (30 meters) or more
IRENA has 150 member nations with Headquarters in Abu above ground, they can take advantage of faster and less
Dhabi. turbulent wind.
The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) is Three main variables determine how much electricity a
an intergovernmental organisation that supports countries turbine can produce:
in their transition to a sustainable energy future, and 1. Wind speed- stronger winds produce more energy.
serves as the principal platform for international coop- Wind turbine generates energy at a speed of 4-25 me-
eration, a centre of excellence, and a repository of policy, tres per second
technology, resource and financial knowledge on renew- 2. Blade radius- the larger the radius of blades, the more
able energy. the energy produced. Doubling the blade radius can
IRENA promotes the widespread adoption and sustainable result in four times more power.
use of all forms of renewable energy, including bioenergy, 3. Air density- Heavier air exerts more lift on a rotor. Air
geothermal, hydropower, ocean, solar and wind energy in density is a function of altitude, temperature and pres-
the pursuit of sustainable development, energy access, sure. High altitude locations have low air pressure and
energy security and low-carbon economic growth and lighter air so they are less productive turbine locations.
prosperity. The dense heavy air near sea level drives rotors faster
and thus relatively more effectively.
6.3 WIND ENERGY
Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the 6�3�3 Two types of wind turbines
movement of atmospheric air. Wind turbines transform the 1) Horizontal-axis design has two or three blades that spin
energy in the wind into mechanical power, further con- upwind of the tower. A horizontal axis machine has its
verting to electric power to generate electricity. Five blades rotating on an axis parallel to the ground.
2) Vertical-axis turbines has vertical blades that rotate in The policy will provide a level playing field to all investors/
and out of the wind. The vertical axis turbine has its beneficiaries, domestic and international.
blades rotating on an axis perpendicular to the ground.
National Wind Energy Mission (Proposed):
This drag-type turbine turns relatively slowly but yields
a high torque. It is useful for grinding grain, pumping Initiated the process of establishing National Wind Energy
water and many other tasks, but its slow rotational Mission.
speeds are not optimal for generating electricity. Ver- The setting up of a Mission would help in
tical-axis turbines do not take advantage of the higher (a) achieving the targets of 12th Plan and energy generation
wind speeds at higher elevations (100 feet and so) above from renewable energy as set under NAPCC, and
the ground vis-a-vis horizontal axis turbines.
(b) addressing the issues and challenges which the wind
sector is faced with, such as precise resource assessment,
6�3�4 Potential of wind energy in India effective grid integration, improvement in technology and
The National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) has recently manufacturing base, to maintain its comparative advan-
launched Wind Energy Resource Map of India at 100 meter tage in the wind sector.
above ground level (AGL) on online Geographic Informa-
tion System platform. 6.4. HYDRO POWER
The wind energy potential in the country at 100 m AGL is Hydraulic power can be captured when water flows down-
over 302 GW. Gujarat has the maximum potential followed ward from a higher level to a lower level which is then used
by Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andra Pradesh according to to turn the turbine, thereby converting the kinetic energy
the resource map. of water into mechanical energy to drive the generator.
Wind energy target Hydro power is cheapest, and cleanest source of energy but
• 60000 MW (60 GW) by 2022 there are many environmental and social issues associated
• 200000 MW (200 GW) by 2022 with big dams as seen in projects like Tehri, Narmada, etc.
Small hydro power are free from these problems
6�3�5 Capacity installed
6�4�1 Types of hydro power stations
• Tamil Nadu – 7200 MW
There are three types of hydropower facilities: impound-
• Maharastra – 4000 MW
ment, diversion, and pumped storage. Some hydropower
• Karnataka – 2700 MW plants use dams and some do not.
• Rajasthan – 2700 MW
(1) Impoundment
Andra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, kerala are minor players
with installed capacity of less than 1000 MW The most common type of hydroelectric power plant is an
impoundment facility. An impoundment facility, typically
National Offshore Wind Energy Policy, 2015: a large hydropower system, uses a dam to store river water
Under this Policy, the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy in a reservoir. Water released from the reservoir flows
(MNRE) has been authorized as the Nodal Ministry for use through a turbine, spinning it, which in turn activates a
of offshore areas within the Exclusive Economic Zone generator to produce electricity.
(EEZ) of the country and the National Institute of Wind
(2) Diversion
Energy (NIWE) has been authorized as the Nodal Agency
for development of offshore wind energy in the country A diversion, sometimes called run-of-river facility, channels
and to carry out allocation of offshore wind energy blocks, a portion of a river through a canal or penstock and then
coordination and allied functions with related ministries to flow through a turbine, spinning it, which in turn acti-
and agencies. vates a generator to produce electricity.It may not require
It would pave the way for offshore wind energy develop- the use of a dam.
ment including, setting up of offshore wind power projects (3) Pumped storage
and research and development activities, in waters, in or
adjacent to the country, up to the seaward distance of 200 It works like a battery, storing the electricity generated by
Nautical Miles (EEZ of the country) from the base line. other power sources like solar, wind, and nuclear for later
use. When the demand for electricity is low, a pumped Wave energy
storage facility stores energy by pumping water from a Waves result from the interaction of the wind with the
lower reservoir to an upper reservoir. During periods of surface of the sea and represent a transfer of energy from
high electrical demand, the water is released back to the the wind to the sea.
lower reservoir and turns a turbine, generating electricity. The first wave energy, project with a capacity of 150MW,
has been set up at Vizhinjam near Trivandrum.
6�4�2 Small Hydro Power (SHP)
Small hydro is defined as any hydro power project which Tidal energy
has an installed capacity of less than 25 MW. It is in most Energy can be extracted from tides by creating a reservoir
cases run-of-river, where a dam or barrage is quite small, or basin behind a barrage and then passing tidal waters
usually just a weir with little or no water is stored. There- through turbines in the barrage to generate electricity.
fore run-of-river installations do not have the same kind A major tidal wave power project costing of Rs.5000 crores,
of adverse effect on the local environment as large-scale is proposed to be set up in the Hanthal Creek in the Gulf
hydro projects. Small hydropower plants can serve the of Kutch in Gujarat.
energy needs of remote rural areas independently.
Biomass
India and China are the major players of the SHP sector,
Biomass is a renewable energy resource derived from the
holding the highest number of installed projects. carbonaceous waste of various human and natural activi-
ties. It is derived from numerous sources, including the
6�4�3 Small Hydro Potential in India by-products from the timber industry, agricultural crops,
• An estimated 5,415 sites of small hydro have been iden- grassy and woody plants, residues from agriculture or for-
tified with a potential of around 19,750 MW. estry, oil-rich algae, and the organic component of mu-
nicipal and industrial wastes. Biomass is a good substitute
• River based projects in the Himalayan states and irriga-
for the conventional fossil fuels for heating and energy
tion canals in other states have massive potential for
generation purposes.
development of Small Hydro Projects.
Burning biomass releases about the same amount of car-
• According to the XIIth five year plan targets, capacity
bon dioxide as burning fossil fuels. However, fossil fuels
addition from Small Hydro Projects is targeted at 2.1
release carbon dioxide captured by photosynthesis over its
GW in 2011-17 period. formative years. Biomass, on the other hand, releases car-
• The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy is encour- bon dioxide that is largely balanced by the carbon dioxide
aging development of Small Hydro Projects in both the captured in its own growth (depending how much energy
public and private sector and aims to exploit at least was used to grow, harvest, and process the fuel). Hence,
50% of the current potential in the next 10 years. Biomass does not add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere as
it absorbs the same amount of carbon in growing as it
6�4�4 Installed capacity releases when consumed as a fuel.
The cumulative installed capacity of Small Hydro Projects Chemical processes like gasification, combustion and py-
amount to 3726 MW. rolysis convert biomass to useful products, combustion
being the most common of them. Each of the technologies
6.5 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY mentioned produces a major calorific end product and a
mixture of by-products. The processing method is selected
Large amounts of solar energy is stored in the oceans and
on the basis of nature and origin of feed stocks, their phys-
seas. On an average, the 60 million square kilometre of the
iochemical state and application spectrum of fuel products
tropical seas absorb solar radiation equivalent to the heat
derived from it.
content of 245 billion barrels of oil.
The process of harnessing this energy is called OTEC Anaerobic Digestion/Biomethanation
(ocean thermal energy conversion). It uses the temperature
Biomethanation, or methanogenesis, is a scientific process
differences between the surface of the ocean and the
whereby anaerobic microorganisms in an anaerobic envi-
depths of about 1000m to operate a heat engine, which
ronment decompose biodegradable matter producing
produces electric power
methane-rich biogas and effluent. The three functions that cost savings for the plant and reduction in emissions of
take place sequentially are hydrolysis, acidogenosis and pollutants due to reduced fuel consumption.
methanogenesis. Even at conservative estimates, the potential of power gen-
eration from co-generation in India is more than 20,000
Combustion/Incineration MW. Since India is the largest producer of sugar in the
In this process, waste is directly burned in the presence of world, bagasse-based cogeneration is being promoted. The
excess air (oxygen) at high temperatures (about 800°C), potential for cogeneration thus lies in facilities with joint
liberating heat energy, inert gases and ash. Combustion requirement of heat and electricity, primarily sugar and
results in transfer of 65–80% of heat content of the organic rice mills, distilleries, petrochemical sector and industries
matter to hot air, steam and hot water. The steam gener- such as fertilizers, steel, chemical, cement, pulp and paper,
ated, in turn, can be used in steam turbines to generate and aluminium.
power.
Potential in India
Pyrolysis/Gasification • Biomass energy is one of the most important sources of
Pyrolysis is a process of chemical decomposition of organic energy forming 32% of the total primary energy usage
matter brought about by heat. In this process, the organic in the country with more than 70% of the Indian pop-
material is heated in the absence of air until the molecules ulation dependent on it for its energy needs.
thermally break down to become a gas comprising smaller • The current availability of biomass is estimated at about
molecules (known collectively as syngas). 450-500 million tonnes annually translating to a poten-
Gasification can also take place as a result of partial tial of around 18000 MW.
combustion of organic matter in the presence of a re- • In addition, about 5000 MW additional power could be
stricted quantity of oxygen or air. The gas so produced generated through bagasse based cogeneration in the
is known as producer gas. The gases produced by py- country’s 550 Sugar mills
rolysis mainly comprise carbon monoxide (25%), hydro-
gen and hydrocarbons (15%), and carbon dioxide and
• It attracts over Rs 600 crore in investments annually
creating rural employment of more than 10 million man
nitrogen (60%). The next step is to ‘clean’ the syngas or days whilst generating more than 5000 million units of
producer gas. Thereafter, the gas is burned in internal electricity.
combustion (IC) engine generator sets or turbines to pro-
duce electricity. Installed capacity in India
6.6 COGENER ATION

• Approximately over 300 biomass power and cogenera-
tion projects aggregating 3700 MW have been installed
Co-generation is producing two forms of energy from one in the country for feeding power to the grid. Also, 30
fuel. One of the forms of energy must always be heat and biomass power projects aggregating about 350MW are
the other may be electricity or mechanical energy. In a under different stages of implementation.
conventional power plant, fuel is burnt in a boiler to gener-
ate high-pressure steam. This steam is used to drive a
• Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra
and Uttar Pradesh are the leading states in the imple-
turbine, which in turn drives an alternator through a mentation of bagasse cogeneration projects.
steam turbine to produce electric power. The exhaust
steam is generally condensed to water which goes back to • In the biomass power projects, Andhra Pradesh, Chhat-
tisgarh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and
the boiler.
Tamil Nadu have taken leadership position.
As the low-pressure steam has a large quantum of heat
which is lost in the process of condensing, the efficiency of • The Government plans to meet 20% of the countries
diesel requirements by 2020 using biodiesel. Potential
conventional power plants is only around 35%. In a cogen-
eration plant, the low-pressure exhaust steam coming out sources of biodiesel production have been identified in
of the turbine is not condensed, but used for heating pur- wild plants such as jatropha curcas, neem, mahua,
poses in factories or houses and thus very high efficiency karanj, Simarouba (exotic tree) etc.
levels, in the range of 75%–90%, can be reached. • Several incentive schemes have been introduced
Since co-generation can meet both power and heat needs, to rehabilitate waste lands through the cultivation of
it has other advantages as well in the form of significant Jatropha.
• Central Finance Assistance (CFA) is provided by the Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Rules 2000 by the Mu-
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) in the nicipal Corporations/ Urban Local Bodies. The organic
form of capital subsidy and financial incentives to bio- waste is mixed with the other types of waste. Hence the
mass energy projects in India. operations of the waste to energy techniques are hin-
dered and a lack of smoothness causes the attempts to
6.7 WASTE TO ENERGY be short lived.
In today’s era, there are increasing quantities of waste due • Lack of policy support - Lack of conducive policy
to urbanization, industrialization and changes in life pat- guidelines from State Governments in respect of allot-
terns which are harmful to the environment. In the recent ment of land, supply of garbage and power purchase /
past, development of technology has helped to reduce the evacuation facilities.
amount of waste for its safe disposal and to generate elec-
tricity from it. 6.8 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Waste-to-energy has the potential to divert waste from Geothermal generation refers to harnessing of the geother-
landfills and generate clean power without the emission of mal energy or the vast reservoir of heat stored in the
harmful greenhouse gas. This significantly reduces the earth’s inner core. Below the earth’s crust, there is a layer
volume of waste that needs to be disposed of and can gen- of hot and molten rock called ‘magma’. Heat is continually
erate power Pyrolysis and gasification are emerging tech- produced there, mostly from the decay of naturally radio-
nologies apart from the common incineration and active materials such as uranium and potassium.
biomethanation.
How is it captured
Geothermal systems can be found in regions with a normal
6�7�1 Potential of waste-to-energy
or slightly above normal geothermal gradient (gradual
• There is an estimated potential of about 225 MW from change in temperature is known as the geothermal gradi-
all sewage and about 1460 MW from Municipal Solid ent, which expresses the increase in temperature with
Waste (MSW) in India totaling around 1700 MW of depth in the earth’s crust. The average geothermal gradient
power. is about 2.5-3 °C/100 m.) and especially in regions around
• There is current potential to recover 1,300 MW of power plate margins where the geothermal gradients may be sig-
from industrial wastes, which is projected to increase nificantly higher than the average value.
to 2,000 MW by 2017. The most common current way of capturing the energy
• The total installed capacity of grid interactive power from geothermal sources is to tap into naturally occurring
from Waste to energy is 99.08 MW of grid power and “hydrothermal convection” systems where cooler water
about 115.07 MW of off-grid power. seeps into the earth’s crust, is heated up and then rises to
• MNRE is actively promoting the generation of energy the surface. When heated water is forced to the surface, it
from waste by providing incentives and subsidies on is a relatively easy to capture that steam and use it to drive
projects electric generators.
6�7�2� Major Constraints Faced by the Indian Potential in India

Waste to Energy Sector India has a potential for producing around 10,600 MW of
power from geothermal resources. Although India was
• Choice of technology - Waste-to-Energy is still a new
amongthe earliest countries to begin geothermal projects
concept in India. Most of the proven and commercial
since the 1970’s, at present there are no operational geo-
technologies in respect of urban wastes are required to
thermal plants in India. 340 hot springs were identified
be imported;
across India.These have been grouped together and termed
• High costs - The costs of the projects especially based as different geothermal provinces based on their occur-
on biomethanation technology are high as critical rence in specific geotectonic regions, geological and struc-
equipment for a project is required to be imported. tural regions such as occurrence in orogenic belt regions,
• Improper segregation - India lacks a source separated structural grabens, deep fault zones, active volcanic re-
waste stream, owing to the low level of compliance of gions etc.
Orogenic regions: port steam or hot water over distances greater than two
1. Himalayan geothermal province miles. Since many of the best geothermal resources are
located in rural areas, developers may be limited by their
2. Naga-Lushai geothermal province ability to supply electricity to the grid. New power lines are
3. Andaman-Nicobar Islands geothermal province expensive to construct and difficult to site. Many existing
transmission lines are operating near capacity and may
Non-orogenic regions: not be able to transmit electricity without significant up-
1. Cambay graben, grades. Consequently, any significant increase in the num-
ber of geothermal power plants will be limited by the
2. Son-Narmada-Tapigraben,
plants ability to connect, upgrade or build new lines to
3. West coast, access the power grid and whether the grid is able to de-
4. Damodar valley, liver additional power to the market.
5. Mahanadi valley, Accessibility
6. Godavari valley etc Some areas may have sufficient hot rocks to supply hot
water to a power station, but many of these areas are lo-
Potential Sites: cated in harsh areas or high up in mountains. This curbs
1. Puga Valley (J&K) the accessibility of geothermal resources adding on to the
costs of development.
2. Tattapani (Chhattisgarh)
3. Godavari Basin Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh) Execution challenges
Harmful radioactive gases can escape from deep within
4. Bakreshwar (West Bengal)
the earth through the holes drilled by the constructors.
5. Tuwa (Gujarat) The plant must be able to contain any leaked gases and
6. Unai (Maharashtra) ensure safe disposal of the same.
7. Jalgaon (Maharashtra)
6.9 FUEL CELLS
Recent Developments: Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert the
In 2013,India’s first geothermal power plant was an- chemical energy of a fuel directly and very efficiently into
nounced to be set up in Chhattisgarh. The plant would be electricity (DC) and heat, thus doing away with combus-
set up at Tattapani in the Balrampur district. tion. The most suitable fuel for such cells is hydrogen or a
mixture of compounds containing hydrogen. A fuel cell
Satellites like the IRS-1 have played an important role,
consists of an electrolyte sandwiched between two elec-
through infrared photographs, in locating geothermal
trodes. Oxygen passes over one electrode and hydrogen
areas.
over the other, and they react electrochemically to generate
Challenges electricity, water, and heat.
High generation costs
Fuel cells for automobile transport
Most costs relating to geothermal power plants are in-
curred due to resource exploration and plant construction. Compared to vehicles powered by the internal combustion
engine, fuel-cell powered vehicles have very high energy
Drilling costs conversion efficiency, and near-zero pollution, CO2 and
Although the cost of generating geothermal electricity has water vapour being the only emissions. Fuel-cell-powered
decreased by 25 percent during the last two decades, ex- EV’s (electric vehicles) score over battery operated EV’s
ploration and drilling remain expensive and risky. It is in terms of increased efficiency and easier and faster
because rocks in geothermal areas are extremely hard and refuelling.
hot, developers must frequently replace drilling equipment.
In India, diesel run buses are a major means of transport
Transmission barrier and these emit significant quantities of SPM and SO2.Thus,
Geothermal power plants must be located near specific fuel-cell powered buses and electric vehicles could be in-
areas near a reservoir because it is not practical to trans- troduced with relative ease to dramatically reduce urban
air pollution and to make a positive impact on urban air • Industry associations
quality. • Science and academia as well as civil society
To facilitate knowledge exchange, policy development and
Fuel cells for power generation joint action towards a rapid global transition to renewable
Conventional large-scale power plants use non-renewable energy. REN21 promotes renewable energy to meet the
fuels with significant adverse ecological and environmen- needs of both industrialized and developing countries that
tal impacts. Fuel cell systems are excellent candidates for are driven by climate change, energy security, development
small-scale decentralized power generation. and poverty alleviation.
Fuel cells can supply combined heat and power to com- REN21 is an international non-profit association
mercial buildings, hospitals, airports and military instal- and committed to the following objectives:
lation at remote locations. Fuel cells have efficiency levels • Providing policy-relevant information and research-
up to 55% as compared to 35% of conventional power based analysis on renewable energy to decision makers,
plants. The emissions are significantly lower (CO2 and multipliers and the public to catalyse policy change
water vapour being the only emissions). Fuel cell systems
• Offering a platform for interconnection between multi-
are modular (i.e. additional capacity can be added when- stakeholder actors working in the renewable energy
ever required with relative ease) and can be set up wher- field worldwide and identifying barriers as well as
ever power is required. working to bridge existing gaps to increase the large-
scale deployment of renewable energy worldwide.
Constraint
High initial cost is the biggest hurdle in the widespread Conclusion
commercialization of fuel cells. Efficient use of renewable energy would reduce our depend-
ence on non-renewable sources of energy, make us energy
REN21
self-sufficient and make our environment cleaner.As more
REN21 is the global renewable energy policy multi-stake- green power sources are developed - displacing conven-
holder network that connects a wide range of key actors tional generation - the overall environmental impacts as-
from:
sociated with electricity generation will be significantly
• Governments reduced.
• International organisations
 
CHAPTER - 7
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
7.1. INDIAN HIMALAYAN REGION landscapes, but also for ensuring the ecological security of
(IHR) – ENVIRONMENTAL the entire Indian sub-continent.
CHALLENGES
(A) URBANIZATION IN THE HIMALAYAS – IS IT
The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), which occupies a
SUSTAINABLE?
strategic position along the entire northern and north-
eastern boundary of the country and administratively cov- IMPACT - SOLID WASTE
ers 10 states in their entirety (Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal The continued expansion in urban settlements, influx of
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Naga- visitors, trekkers and mountaineers in the Himalayan re-
land, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya) and two gion has started to pose high biotic pressure and concom-
states partially (the hill districts of Assam and West Ben- itant indiscriminate solid waste dumping. As a result, the
gal), has wide ranging ecological and socio-economic sig- IHR is getting adversely affected.
nificance.
In the absence of proper management practices and inad-
IHR Services equate infrastructural facilities, human induced pollution,
such as solid waste, untreated sewage and local air pollution
• Besides innumerable goods, IHR generates a plethora of
due to vehicles has been continuously increasing in the IHR.
services not only for Himalayan inhabitants but also
influences the lives of people living well beyond its IMPACT - TOWN PLANNING
boundaries. Rapid unplanned growth of hill towns, construction ac-
• Among other services, the region, with its large area tivities without a proper plan, general non-compliance with
under permanent snow cover and glaciers, forms a prescribed norms and guidelines, and indiscriminate use
unique water reservoir that feeds several important of land for commercial outfits/tourist resorts have severely
perennial rivers. and adversely affected the fragile ecosystem of the Hima-
• With its vast green cover, IHR also acts as a giant car- layas.
bon ‘sink’. Large scale land instabilities, drying up of natural water
• IHR also forms a considerably large part of identified sources, waste disposal problems and changing socio-
Himalayan Biodiversity global hotspot. cultural values are known impacts of unplanned construc-
tion activities.
Role in Indian climate� Deforestation activities - cutting in an area causes eco-
The region, however, is facing environmental problems on logical damage and slope instability in adjacent areas.
account of various factors including the stress caused by INITIATIVES
anthropogenic activities. Even geologically, the Himalayan
ecosystem falls under the most vulnerable category. There- Ban on Plastic in HP
fore the environmental issues being faced by the IHR are • State government enacted the Himachal Pradesh Non-
of critical importance. Biodegradable Garbage (Control) Act, 1995 in order to
Managing the Himalayan ecosystem sustainably is critical prevent throwing or depositing non- biodegradable gar-
not only for preserving its pristine beauty and spectacular bage in public drains, roads.
• It has then increased the minimum thickness of plastic Urban Development through JNNURM
carry bags to 70 microns of virgin material, which ex- • “The aim is to encourage reforms and fast track planned
ceeded the 20 micron thickness recommended by Cen- development of identified cities. Focus is to be on
tral Rules. efficiency in urban infrastructure and service delivery
• Further, the state Government has taken a Cabinet de- mechanisms, community participation, and accounta-
cision to ban plastics altogether in the entire state since bility of ULBs/ Parastatal agencies towards citizens”.
2009. • The duration of the mission is seven years starting from
Participatory Conservation of Lakes in the Region 2005-06with initially 13 towns.
• The Naini Lake is the sole source of drinking water for Recommendations / solutions for Solid Waste
Nainital town, an important tourist destination in Ut- Management in IHR
tarakhand state. The “development” in the present context has become un-
• Increasing inflow of tourists, urban waste making its sustainable. An integrated approach is, therefore, neces-
way into the lake is adversely affecting water quality. sary to protect the environment and achieve required
• To conserve the water body, the residents have switched economic development at the same time. Advance planning
on to a scientific garbage disposal system – under the based on timely and reliable data has become crucial for
project name ‘Mission Butterfly’ by Nainital Lake Con- sustainable growth of hill towns.
servation Project. 1. Guidelines prohibiting indiscriminate disposal of gar-
• The sweepers, on a small monthly charge, collect waste bage, particularly the non-degradable waste.
from each household and directly transfer it to the com- 2. Preventive and management steps for solid waste man-
post pits. Apart from the residents, schools and hotel agement at the point of origin itself.
owners have extended full cooperation to the authori- 3. Documentation about the varying composition of waste
ties, to save its precious eco-system. from the hill towns to expedition tops.
• In addition, they are able to generate income and em- 4. Promotion of techniques such as conversion of biode-
ployment by converting it to manure. gradable waste into biocompost, or vermicompost in
place of land filling, open dumping or burning.
Conservation of Dal lake
5. The four `R’s principle’ - Refuse waste prone commod-
• Dal Lake a favorite tourist destination attracting thou- ities, Reuse discarded commodities for other uses, Re-
sands of tourists in Jammu & Kashmir state, is also spe-
duce through segregation into categories—biodegradable
cial for settlement of about 60,000 people within the lake.
and non-biodegradable at household/ individual level,
• The lake is in peril due to anthropogenic pressure and and Re-cycling once fully used or completely unusable
overall deterioration of surrounding environment. commodities/items.
• The lake has been included in the lake conservation 6. Good quality potable water, available at various loca-
programme of the MoEF, GOI. tions in hill towns so that people can fill their bottles,
• The Lake and Waterways Development Authority on payment basis.
(LAWDA), Srinagar, in collaboration with Centre for 7. Awareness and capacity building of the stakeholders.
Environment Education (CEE) and other NGOs has 8. Best international experiences & practices followed in
taken up the initiative for lake conservation through regard to preservation of surroundings and prevention
education and mass awareness. Use of polythene carry of littering in eco-sensitive places, [e.g., Alaska, Gan-
bags has also been banned in the lake area. gotri/Leh region, Nepal and China] should be examined
Assam Hill Land and Ecological Sites Act, 2006 and appropriately adopted.
• The Assam Hill Land and Ecological Sites (Protection 9. Need support and innovative thinking on different as-
and Management) Act, 2006 to prevent indiscriminate pects, ranging from traditional architectural practices,
cutting of hills and filling up of water bodies in urban local water management and diverse systems of sewage
areas, which had led to serious ecological problems in and garbage management.
places like Guwahati. 10. There is a need to motivate residents to switch over to
• Under the Act, the state government can bring any hill a more scientific waste disposal system in a participa-
under its purview for protection. tory manner.
Recommendations / solutions - Hill Town Planning Impact - of Commercial Tourism
and Architectural Norms • The impacts of tourism on mountain ecosystems and
1. Fragmentation of habitats in hill areas should be pre- biological resources are of great concern because of the
vented. high biodiversity and environmental sensitivity of the
2. Specific areas for rural/urban development should be Himalayas.
designated. • Cultural identities and diversity in mountain regions
are also under threat by the economic, social and envi-
3. No construction should be undertaken which fall in
ronmental forces associated with mountain tourism.
hazard zones or areas falling on the spring lines and
first order streams. • In this context, community based ecotourism emerges
as one of the sustainable alternatives to the presently
4. Architectural and aesthetic norms for construction of
practiced commercial tourism in already over saturated
buildings in mountain/hill areas should be enforced.
hill towns like Nainital, Mussoorrie, Shimla, Kullu-
5. Deforestation activities shall not be undertaken un- Manali, Gangtok, etc.
less appropriate measures are taken to avoid such
damages. INITIATIVES
6. An integrated development plan may be prepared tak- Harnessing Religious Sentiments for Conservation
ing into consideration environmental and other rele- There is immense scope of harnessing the religious senti-
vant factors ments of tourists in the right perspectives of conservation
7. In highly seismic areas like Himalaya, all construction and sustainable management of natural resources in the
should incorporate earthquake resistant features eco-sensitive Himalayan areas.
8. Location-specific technologies should be deployed for This can be done through:
construction of buildings (i) Encouraging them to undertake participatory planta-
9. “Green roads” having channels for collection of water tion for rehabilitation of degraded areas (e.g., Badrivan
for irrigation purposes should be made a part of the initiative of GBPIHED in Uttarakhand).
construction norm. (ii) Promoting the concept of eco-cultural landscapes (e.g.,
Demazong – Buddhist landscape, Sikkim, and Apatani
(B) TOURISM – WILL IT BE REGULATED? eco-cultural landscape, Arunachal Pradesh). Both land-
scapes are highly evolved with high level of economic
Pilgrimage Tourism in Sensitive Areas
and ecological efficiencies.
• The Himalayas is known to be a home of saints, destina- (iii) Involving them in maintenance and strengthening of
tion of pilgrimage since time immemorial.
sacred groves/landscape (e.g., Sacred Groves of Megha-
• For example, Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri- Yamu- laya: The tribal communities – Khasis, Garos, and
notri and Hemkund Sahib in Uttarakhand, Manima- Jaintias, have a tradition of environmental conserva-
hesh, Jwala Devi, Chintpurni, Naina Devi in Himachal tion based on religious beliefs and customary law and
Pradesh and Vaishnav Devi and Amarnath in Jammu & are protected from any product extraction.
Kashmir, Khecheopalri and other sacred lakes in Sikkim
are particularly important destinations. Ladakh Himalayan Homestays- Transforming
Local Mindsets towards Snow Leopards
• Unfortunately, most of these places lack adequate fa-
cilities of transport, accommodation, waste disposal and • The Himalayan Homestays programme fosters conser-
other amenities for the ever growing number of pil- vation-based community managed tourism develop-
grims that visit them every year. ment in remote settlements, by gradually building local
capacity and ownership.
• Also, there is a gross lack of regulatory mechanism for
infrastructure creation, management, and for control- • It stands out as an example that aims to be sensitive
ling the tourist inflow in such sites. to both host and visitor expectations without compro-
mising the aspirations of host communities, and at
• As a result the sensitive ecosystems and cultural values the same time seeks to balance these aspects with
of these areas are facing pressures far beyond their conservation of the area’s unique cultural and natural
carrying capacities. heritage.
Highlights of Sikkim’s Ecotourism Policy 2. The accommodation and road transport infrastructure
• “Sikkim - the Ultimate Tourist Destination” is the policy needs to be developed in pilgrimage sites.
motto of the state. The state is employing a system of 3. The pilgrimage tourism is a kind of “economy class”
environmental fees, and permits for entries, and stay tourism in the Indian Himalayan Region. Suitable ac-
time restrictions in some environmentally sensitive commodation and other facilities need to be made
high altitude/ pristine areas. available accordingly.
• Operationalization of tourism in various modes, such 4. All existing sites should have adequate provision of
as village tourism, nature tourism, wildlife tourism, garbage disposal and management.
trekking/adventure tourism, and cultural tourism in 5. An inventory of historical, sensitive and sacred sites
the state and institutionalization of tourism manage- including sacred groves should be prepared and their
ment at the community level. vulnerability should be assessed.
• Promotion and use of local art & craft, cuisines, etc., 6. The access to such sites of incomparable value through
along with organizing tourism fairs and festivals. vehicles needs to be restricted beyond a certain zone.
• Imparting training in tourism related service in- Recommendations / solutions – Promoting
dustries.
Ecotourism and Regulation of Commercial Tourism
The efforts made by Sikkim can be a basis of responsible
1. Eco-tourism villages, parks, sanctuaries and other
tourism in other Himalayan states.
areas should be identified to establish a primary base
Adventure tourism for ecotourism.
Immense opportunities for adventure cum ecotourism in 2. Village communities, especially youths, and rural
the Himalayan region (e.g., Annapurna Conservation Area women should be involved in Ecotourism.
project, Nepal; Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve ecotourism 3. Restrictions on the entry of vehicles and visitors per
approach, Uttarakhand) could be harnessed through com- day/ per group should be imposed in sensitive ecologi-
munity involvement. cal sites.
Tourism + art and culture 4. Local art, crafts, cuisines, and dishes should be pro-
Linking of tourism with initiatives like Rural Business moted and made an integral part of tourist experience
Hubs (RBH), as introduced in North East region, which in order to ensure economic benefits to the locals and
envisages promotion of quality rural products like hand- their cultural integrity/ entity is not lost.
loom, handicrafts, agro products, herbal products, bio-fuel, 5. Best practices on commercial trekking should be im-
etc., may be considered as yet another aspect of promoting posed on a mandatory basis
eco-tourism in the IHR. 6. Creation of log/bamboo huts should be promoted in
Regulated entry busy mountain areas.
The Government of Uttarakhand has restricted the number Recommendations / solutions for related segments
of tourists visiting the origin of the river Ganga – Gangotri
Rejuvenation of Springs and Degraded Sites
area to 150 per day.
• Special attention should be paid to recharge of ground
Recommendations / solutions water and quality of mountain lakes/wetlands through
However, considering the sensitivity (both cultural and restoration of forests.
natural) of this region, strict operational guidelines are • Detailed geological mapping should be conducted to
required to be enforced across IHR with region specific identify the spring recharge zone and locate geological
provisions for facilitating and promoting community based structures.
ecotourism.
• Nuclear water prospecting technologies should be used
Recommendations / solutions – Regulating Tourism and to map the water sources and prevent the construction
Pilgrimage to Sensitive Areas activities in such locations that could damage or ad-
1. Pilgrimage tourism in the Himalaya requires both de- versely affect such sources.
velopment and regulation so as to reduce congestion • Engineering measures to protect recharge zone from
and resultant pollution. biotic interferences.
• Social fencing measures, e.g. identified locations so as not to affect the ecology of the
(i) digging shallow infiltration trenches, mulching. area adversely.
(ii) construction of stone-mud check dams in gullies Further, the dumped material should be treated using bio-
to store rainwater and check soil erosion; and engineering and other appropriate techniques.
(iii) land levelling, maintenance of crop field bunds to • No stone quarrying should be carried out without
allow stagnation of rainwater should be en- proper management and treatment plan including re-
hanced. habilitation plan.
• Vegetative measures with the aim to enhance rainwater • All hill roads should be provided with adequate number
infiltration and reduce rainwater runoff. of road side drains and these drains shall be kept free
from blockage for runoff disposal; further, the cross
• Involvement of stakeholder community should be en-
drains shall be treated suitably using bio-engineering
sured at every step of the Spring Sanctuary Develop-
and other appropriate technologies so as to minimise
ment. The maintenance and aftercare of the interven-
slope instability.
tions have to be ensured through their involvement.
Rain Water Harvesting
• The runoff from the road side drains should be con-
nected with the natural drainage system in the area.
• All buildings to be constructed in future in urban • Fault zones and historically land slide prone zones
areas should have provision for roof-top rain water
should be avoided during alignment of a road, where
harvesting for any reason it is not possible to do so, the construc-
• The institutional and commercial buildings should not tion should be carried out only after sufficient measures
draw water from existing water supply schemes which have been taken to minimize the associated risks.
adversely affect water supply to local villages or settle-
ments.
• Ridge alignment should be preferred to valley align-
ment.
• In rural areas rain water harvesting should be under- • Alignment should be selected so as to minimise loss of
taken through such structures as percolation tanks,
vegetal cover.
storage tanks and any other means.
• Spring sanctuary development should be undertaken • Encouragement should be provided for use of debris
material for local development.
in the spring recharge zones to augment spring water
discharge.
7.2 SAND MINING IN INDIA -
• Rain water collected through storm water drains should ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
be used to clean the waste disposal drains and sewers.
Sand is an important mineral for our society in protecting
• Ground water aquifer recharge structures should be the environment, buffer against strong tidal waves and
constructed wherever such structures do not lead to storm, habitat for crustacean species and marine organ-
slope instabilities. isms, used for making concrete, filling roads, building sites,
Ecologically Safer Roads brick making, making glass, sandpapers, reclamations, and
• For construction of any road in the Himalayan region in our tourism industry in beach attractions.
of more than 5 km length where the same may not be Sand mining is the process of removal of sand and gravel
tarred roads and environmental impact assessment is where this practice is becoming an environmental issue as
otherwise not required, environmental impact assess- the demand for sand increases in industry and construction.
ment should be carried out in accordance with the in- Despite a Supreme Court order that prohibits sand mining
structions to be issued for this purpose by the State without the requisite clearance from the required author-
Governments. ities and places limits on the quantities that can be mined,
• Provision should be made in the design of the road for thousands of tonnes of sand is being illegally mined to
treatment of hill slope instabilities resulting from road meet the rising demand of construction industry and for
cutting, cross drainage works and culverts using bio- extraction of minerals. Let’s discuss about the scenario of
engineering and other appropriate techniques. sand mining in India
• Provisions should be made for disposal of debris from The environmental reasons for this ban and others across
construction sites in appropriate manner at suitable and India are numerous. Sand acts as an aquifer, and as a nat-
ural carpet on the bottom of the river. Stripping this layer way using heavy machines, the erosion capacity of the
leads to downstream erosion, causing changes in channel river increases.
bed and habitat type, as well as the deepening of rivers and 6. Damage to roads and bridges
estuaries, and the enlargement of river mouths. As the For e.g.: In Vishnuprayag the boulders that came down
river system lowers, local groundwater is affected, which with the river water damaged a side of the dam and the
leads to water scarcities aggravating agriculture and local waters spread out across causing heavy damage.
livelihoods.
7. Threat to agriculture
In terms of legal measures, ground water shortages have
For e.g.: Despite numerous prohibitions and regula-
been noted as the patent problem with river sand mining.
tions, sand mining continues rapidly on the riverbed of
Less considered in legal action, but centrally relevant, ex-
the Bharathapuzha in kerala. Water tables have dropped
perts also note substantial habitat and ecological problems,
dramatically and a land once known for its plentiful
which include “direct loss of stream reserve habitat, dis-
rice harvest now faces scarcity of water. In the villages
turbances of species attached to streambed deposits, re-
and towns around the river, groundwater levels have
duced light penetration, reduced primary production, and
fallen drastically and wells are almost perennially dry.
reduced feeding opportunities”.
8. Damage to coastal ecosystem
Economic consequences of sand mining This destructive illegal practice in beaches, creeks leads
1. Revenue loss to the exchequer to erosion along the shoreline. Eg: Kihim Beach off
Alibaug, Shore levels have reduced, forcing residents to
For e.g.: It is estimated that in Noida and Greater Noida
build walls to protect themselves from the sea.
alone the loss to the exchequer is about Rs.1,000 crore,
but the impact that sand mining, which is simply put It wrecks the intertidal area and creates the imminent
theft on environment and ecology, cannot even be cal- danger of saline water ingress into fresh water.
culated. Coastal sand mining destroys fisheries, disturbs coral,
mangroves, wetlands and has led to the near extinction
Environmental consequences of sand mining of ghariyals, a crocodile species unique to India.
1. Forcing the river to change its course A major impact of beach sand mining is the loss of
Sand and boulders prevent the river from changing the protection from storm surges associated with tropical
course and act as a buffer for the riverbed. cyclones and tsunamis.
2. Illegally dredged sand is equivalent to robbing water. 9. Lesser availability of water for industrial, agricultural
and drinking purposes.
Sand holds a lot of water, and when it is mindlessly
mined and laden on to trucks, large quantities of water 10. Loss of employment to farm workers.
is lost in transit. 11. Threat to livelihoods.
3. Depletion of groundwater tables Current rules and policies in operation relation to
sand mining
Sand, on a riverbed it acts as a link between the flowing
river and the water table and is part of the aquifer. Kerala: Kerala Protection of River Banks and Regulation
of Removal of Sand Act, 2001
For e.g.: Illegal and excessive sand mining in the river-
Key features: To permit sand mining in select areas and
bed of the Papagani catchment area in Karnataka has
each selected area or Kadavu will be managed by a Kadavu
led to the depletion of groundwater levels and environ-
mental degradation in the villages on the banks of the Committee which will decide on matters such as quantum
of mining to be permitted, and to mobilise local people to
river in both Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
oversee these operations and ensure protection of rivers
4. Adversely impacting the habitat of micro-organisms and riverbanks.
There are a lot of micro-organisms that are not visible Key rivers affected: Bharatapuzha, Kuttiyadi river,
and widely known, but are critical to soil structure and Achankovil, Pampa and Manimala, Periyar, Bhavani, Siru-
fertility. When sand is dredged, literally it takes away vani, Thuthapuzha, and Chitturpuzha, rivers in the catch-
their habitat. ments of Ashtamudi and Vembanad lakes
5. Increased river erosion Tamil Nadu: Policy that ensures that quarrying of sand in
When sand and boulders are removed in an unimpeded Government poramboke lands and private patta lands will
only be undertaken by the Government. Mechanised sand Suggestions
mining is prohibited. In 2008, this policy was counter- 1. The most viable alternative is ‘manufactured sand’. It
manded by the government and private parties were given is produced in a stone crushing plant. M-sand is pro-
permits for mining. duced from stones which is used for aggregates, and
Rivers affected: Cauvery, Vaigai, Palar, Cheyyar, Araniyar the quality is consistent and even better than river
and Kosathalaiyar, Bhavani, Vellar , Vaigai Thamiraparani, sand. M-sand is relatively cheaper too.
Kollidam. coastal districts of Nagapattinam, Tuticorin, 2. Use of fly ash from industries as alternative should be
Ramanatha-puram and Kanyakumari. hill regions of promoted for construction purposes.
Salem and Erode districts. 3. The government should exercise prudence when it
Karnataka: The Uniform Sand Mining Policy does not comes to leasing out the riverbed for mining activities
allow sand mining in Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) area and also demarcate areas clearly and monitor mining
and prohibits the use of machineries to mine sand from through a suitable institutional mechanism.
river. High Court of Karnataka banned mechanised boats 4. Periodic assessment of how much sand can be sustain-
for sand mining in the state from April 2011. ably mined, as the quantity can vary from a river to
From September 2011, according to Karnataka Minor river and within a river from stretch to stretch has to
Mineral Concession (Amendment) Rules 2011,the respon- be done.
sibility of oversight of sand mining has been transferred 5. The use of intrusive techniques such as the use of ex-
to the Public Works, Ports and Inland Water Transport plosives and heavy excavator machines in sand mining
Department. are largely destructive.
Rivers affected: Cauvery, Lakshmanateerta, Harangi, He- 6. In the mountain areas especially sand mining should
mavathi, Nethravatai, Papagani be carried out manually and sustainably.
Andhra Pradesh: In 2006, a new policy that allows only 7. A high level lobbying committee must be formed and
manual labour and bullocks to mine sand in riverbeds. Laws has to be enforced in an efficient and unbiased
Bullock carts, mules and other animals would be exempted way and decisive steps are to be taken for environmen-
from any mining tax. Contractors will be allotted sand tal solution.
through open bidding by a committee headed by district Guidelines for Sustainable Sand & Minor Mineral
joint collectors. Sand can be sold only if it has a maximum Mining
retail price tag, otherwise there will be a penalty. Use of
1. Where to mine and where to prohibit mining: District
poclaines has been banned entirely, and mining will be
Survey Report for each district in the country, taking
disallowed below three metres.
the river in that district as one ecological system. Use
Rivers affected: Godavari, Tungabhadra, Vamsadhara, of ISRO, remote sensing data and ground truthing.
Nagavali, Bahuda and Mahendratanaya 2. Sustainable mining: Mining out material only that
Maharashtra: New policy, 2010, under which it is compul- much which is deposited annually.
sory for contractors to obtain permission from the 3. Involvement of District authorities in the process: The
Gramsabha, for sand mining. Ban on use of suction pumps District-level Environment Impact Assessment Authority
in dredging and sand mining licences can be given only (DEIAA) headed by District Collector. The District Col-
through a bidding process. Also sand mining projects have lector is to be assisted by the District Level Expert Ap-
to obtain environmental clearances. praisal Committee (DEAC) headed by Executive
Rivers affected: creeks at Thane, Navi Mumbai, Raigad Engineer (Irrigation Department) being assigned the
and Ratnagiri responsibility of granting environment clearance up to
5 hectare of mine lease area for minor minerals , mainly
Uttar-Pradesh: the Noida administration established a
sand. So district administration, which is the key in
“Special Mining Squad,” charged with the specific task of
assessing the requirement of sand in a district and pro-
impeding and ultimately extricating Greater Noida from
hibiting illegal sand mining in district is being involved
the sand mafia’s degradation.
directly in environmental clearance.
Rivers affected: Chhoti Gandak, Gurra, Rapti and Gha- 4. Monitoring using scientific tools: Stringent monitoring
ghara. of movement of mined out material from source to
destination using information technology tools, bar 7.3 PALM OIL – ENVIRONMENTAL
coding, SMS etc. Till date, there is no authentic data on ISSUES AND INDIA’S ROLE IN IT
how much sand is being mined, this system will gener-
ate real-time data on mined out sand. The movement When forest shrink, so does the home of
of sand is controlled through Transit Permit. endangered species
The monitoring of mined out mineral, Environmental Palm oil has emerged as the main global source of vegeta-
Clearance, EC conditions and enforcement of Environ- ble oil due to adequate availability, versatility in usage,
ment Management Plan (EMP) will be ensured by the higher yield and lower cost, as compared to other vegetable
District Collector and the State Pollution Control oils. Palm oil is generally sold in the name of vegetable oil.
Board. The monitoring of enforcement of EC condi- Palm oil forms 33% of the world vegetable oil production
tions can be done by the Central Pollution Control mix. Indonesia and Malaysia contribute almost 87% of
Board, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate production of palm oil, whereas China and India constitute
Change and the agency nominated by Ministry for the 34% of imports.
purpose. Global edible oil consumption has grown from 123 Million
5. Exemptions: Proposal to exempt certain category from Metric tonnes in 2007 to 158 Mn MT in 2012. This growth
mining for the purpose of environmental clearance, has been fuelled by increased population, incomes and per
like: capita consumption especially in developing countries like
i. Extraction of ordinary clay or ordinary sand manu- India, Indonesia and China, etc. Palm oil, at 48.7 Mn MT is
ally by hereditary Kumhars (potters) who prepare the largest consumed edible oil in the world.
earthen pots on a cottage industry basis. As demand for palm oil increases, substantial tracts of
ii. Extraction of ordinary clay or ordinary sand manu- tropical forests are often cleared to make room for large
ally by earthen tile makers who prepare earthen tiles plantations. As per WWF’s estimates, the expansion of oil
on a cottage industry basis. palm plantations is likely to cause four million hectares
(more than twice the size of Kerala) of forest loss by 2020.
iii. Removal of sand deposited on agricultural field after
flood by owner farmers. Deforestation would most likely occur in high biodiversity
areas, such as Borneo, Papua New Guinea, Sumatra and the
iv. Customary extraction of sand and ordinary earth Congo Basin in Africa. The felling and burning of forests
from sources situated in Gram Panchayat for per- impact populations of endangered wildlife such as Suma-
sonal use or community work in a village. tran Tigers, Rhinos and Orangutans. It also has adverse
v. Community works like desilting of village ponds/ impacts on people’s health and disrupts local livelihoods.
tanks, construction of village/rural roads, bunds At the global level, the impacts of forest loss are even more
undertaken in MGNREGS and other Government- dramatic, including the release of greenhouse gases into
sponsored schemes. the atmosphere that contribute to global warming.
vi. Dredging and desilting of dam, reservoirs, weirs,
barrages, river and canals for the purpose of main- Applications of Palm Oil
tenance and upkeep, and the dredged material is 1) Food based applications
used departmentally. If the dredging activities are Cooking oil, substitute for butter, vanaspati/vegetable
undertaken for the purpose of winning of mineral ghee, margarine, confectionary and bakery fats, ice
and selling it commercially, it will be considered cream, coffee creamers, emulsifiers, vitamin E supple-
mining and prior EC will be required. ments among others.
6. Guideline on handling cluster issues: The original EIA 2) Non-food applications
notification does not provide for the procedure to han- Cosmetics, toiletries, soaps and detergents. Oleo chem-
dle cluster situation, which has been proposed in this ical industry, as a base material for laundry detergents,
guideline and will become part of the Notification. One household cleaners and cosmetics.
EIA/EMP will be prepared for one cluster irrespective
of number and size of mining leases in that cluster, if According to USDA estimates, 75% of the global palm oil
the area is more than 5 hectares. Area less than 5 hec- consumption is for food purposes, while 22% is for indus-
tare will be B2. trial/non-food purposes. The remaining, though currently,
of marginal quantity, is used for biodiesel
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF PALM OIL INDIA and OIL PALM
PRODUCTION Indonesian palm oil companies produce palm oil by de-
1. Deforestation – Substantial tracts of tropical forests are stroying virgin rainforests and tiger habitat in Indonesia.
cleared to make room for large plantations to service Indian huge palm oil imports from Indonesia is been ac-
an ever increasing demand for palm oil. Studies show celerating the destroyal of rainforest. India’s palm oil de-
that the forest cover on the island of Borneo had demand destroying Indonesia’s rainforests.
clined from 73.7 percent in 1985 to 50.4 percent in The expansion of palm oil plantations to meet the global
2005, while the projected cover in 2020 was 32.6 per- demand for vegetable oils (palm oil usually used in this
cent. Loss of forest cover in Sumatra, Indonesia, has name) happens at the expense of forest, wildlife and com-
also been very alarming. munities.
2. Loss of biodiversity – Concerns about biodiversity loss
Consumption of palm oil in India
are directly related to the loss of natural forests. In
particular, orangutan habitats have been threatened by Palm oil has dominated Indian imports since the last two
palm oil production. In 1900, there were around decades, for its logistical advantages, contractual flexibility,
315,000 orangutans in Indonesia and Malaysia. Today, and consumer acceptance change in consumption patterns,
fewer than 50,000 exist in the wild, split into small availability, pricing, and policy changes. India is the largest
groups. The palm oil industry is the biggest threat to importer of palm oil which is also the lowest priced oil.
orangutans, with the species like to be driven to extinc- Palm oil contributes to around 74% (as of 2012) of the total
tion within 12 years unless the devastation of their edible oils that are imported into the country.
natural habitat is halted. A related problem has been Almost 90% of the palm oil imported and produced domes-
that fragmentation of natural forest habitats and en- tically is used for edible/ food purposes, while the remain-
croachment by palm oil development which has been ing is used for industrial/non-edible purposes. Palm oil is
resulted in serious human- wildlife (elephant, etc) now the single largest consumed vegetable oil in India.
conflicts.
Palm oil in India – Production
3. Climate change – 15% of all human induced greenhouse
Despite being the world’s fourth largest oilseed producing
gas emissions are caused by deforestation, forest deg-
country, India’s share of palm oil production is small, ac-
radation and peat land emissions. As land on mineral
counting for 0.2% share in the total world produce
soil becomes less readily available, the expansion of oil
palm is increasing on peat lands. . As these areas are Palm oil production in India has grown at 22.7% CAGR
drained, the peat is exposed to oxidation, resulting in over the past five years in 2011. However, India would con-
significant CO2 release over an extended period. Other tinue to be a net importer of palm oil.
significant sources of GHG emissions associated with State-wise Palm Oil Production in India
oil palm are the use of fires for land clearing and the
Andhra Pradesh is the leading palm oil producing state in
emissions of methane from the effluent treatment
India contributing approximately 86 % of country’s pro-
ponds of palm oil mills. Forests are felled, peat swamps
duction, followed by Kerala (10%) and Karnataka (2%).
drained and burnt, creating a haze that covers large
Other palm oil producing states include Orissa, Tamil
areas, affecting people’s health and disrupting eco-
Nadu, Goa and Gujarat.
nomic activities.
4. Use of pesticides and fertilizers – Misuse of pesticides Major constraints in domestic cultivation of oil palm
and fertilizers is frequently cited as a negative impact • Geographical location: The ideal locations for oil palm
of oil palm cultivation. In general, pesticide use is low trees are within eight degrees latitude north and south
compared to many other crops, but some chemicals of the Equator.
used, pose significant risks to operators and smallhold- • Irrigation: Palms need regular rainfall throughout the
ers and the environment. Among these hazardous year. However, they can withstand dry periods of 3-4
chemicals, the herbicide paraquat gives the most cause months depending on soils type without irrigation. Oil
for concern, as it poses serious health hazards to the palm can be grown in Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karna-
spray operators. The Pesticides Action Network-Asia & taka, Goa and a few other areas, but only with irriga-
the Pacific has called for a ban on paraquat production tion. This places significant pressure on the hydrological
and use on numerous occasions, but to no avail. system of the region.
• Long gestation periods: Oil palm has very high pro- RSPO is a membership based organisation with oil palm
ductivity when compared to other oilseeds like mustard, growers, palm oil processers and traders, consumer good
however, the farmers would have to wait for four years manufactures, NGOs and retailers.
for the trees in India to obtain yield.
8 principles for growers to be RSPO certified
• Small farm holdings with Indian farmers generally are
• commitment to transparency
challenging.
• Limited investments by corporate sector compared with • compliance with applicable laws and regulations
Malaysia and Indonesia. • commitment to long term economic and financial
viability
Policies Related to Production and Distribution of
Palm Oil • use of appropriate best practices by growers and millers
• environmental responibility and conservation of natural
Subsidies for distribution of imported palm oil: resources and biodiversity
The Ministry of Food has been subsiding imported edible • responsible consideration of employees, and of indi-
oil distribution under the public distribution system viduals and communities affected by growers and mills
(PDS):
• responsible development of new plantings
• To provide relief, in particular BPL households, from the • commitent to continous improvement in key areas of
rising prices of edible oils, the Central Government in-
activity
troduced a scheme for distribution of upto 10 lakh tons
of imported edible oils in 2008-09 at a subsidy of rs RSPO impact
15/- per kg through State Governments/UTs. • Presently 14 % of palm oil globally is certified by RSPO
• The scheme was extended during 2009-10, 2010-2011 It is however important to understand that palm oil itself
and in 2011-12. After the implementation of the scheme, is not the problem, but rather how palm oil is produced.
edible oil prices have substantially declined and poorer When done right, palm oil can be a catalyst for develop-
sections were provided edible oils at subsidized rates. ment and to improve livelihoods. It can also enhance bio-
Oil Palm Development Programme in India: diversity and sequestrate carbon di oxide when planted on
degraded lands.
• OPDP was launched during 1991- 92 under the “Technol-
ogy Mission on Oilseeds and Pulses” (TMOP), with a To ensure an uninterrupted supply of ‘clean‘ palm oil that
focus on expansion of area under oil palm cultivation. does not involve sacrificing the remaining tropical forests
• From 2004-05, the scheme is being implemented as part or contributing to global warming and other social prob-
of the “Integrated Scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil Palm lems, all companies that produce, trade or use palm oil
& Maize” (ISOPOM) and provides support for oil palm need to move towards sustainable palm oil.
cultivation in 12 states: Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, When forest shrink, so does the home of endangered
Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Mizoram, Orissa, species
Tamil Nadu, Tripura & West Bengal.
7.4. COLONY COLLAPSE DISORDER
For the year 2011-12, the government rolled out the Oil
Palm Area Expansion (OPAE) Programme in order to Bees are one of a myriad of other animals, including birds,
bring an additional 60,000 hectares area under oil palm bats, beetles, and butterflies, a called pollinators. Pollina-
cultivation. tors transfer pollen and seeds from one flower to another,
fertilizing the plant so it can grow and produce food. Cross-
• The government has also announced various subsidies pollination helps at least 30 percent of the world’s crops
for oil palm growers for planting, buying pump set and
and 90 percent of our wild plants to thrive. Without bees
drip-irrigation systems, partial compensation in case of to spread seeds, many plants – including food crops –
loss during the gestation period and support for pro- would die off.
cessing units.
Bees are not summertime nuisance, they are small and
Roundtable on Sustainable Oil (RSPO) hard-working insects actually make it possible for many of
The RSPO was established in 2004 to promote the produc- your favorite foods to reach your table. From apples to
tion and use of sustainable palm oil for people, planet and almonds to the pumpkin in our pumpkin pies, we have
prosperity bees to thank. Now, a condition known as Colony Collapse
Disorder is causing bee populations to plummet, which place it with high-fructose corn syrup, leaving the bees
means these foods are also at risk. malnourished and weakening their immune systems.
Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) is a new tagname presently Researchers have identified some specific nutrients that
being given to a condition that is characterized by an un- bees need, get from honey, and don’t get from corn syrup.
explained rapid loss of a Bee colony’s adult population. When honeybees collect nectar from flowers, they also
Sudden loss of a colony’s worker bee population with very gather pollen and a substance called propolis, which they
few dead bees found near the colony. The queen and brood use to make waxy honeycombs. The pollen and propolis
(young) remained, and the colonies had relatively abun- are loaded with three types of compounds that can help
dant honey and pollen reserves. But hives cannot sustain the bees detoxify their cells and protect themselves from
themselves without worker bees and would eventually die. pesticides and microbes.
This combination of events resulting in the loss of a bee
colony has been called Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD).
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Reduction or loss of bee population has been seen in the Change is implementing various Schemes for Envi-
history and known by the name such as disappearing dis- ronmental Conservation. The funding under the Cen-
ease, spring dwindle, May disease, autumn collapse, and tral Sector Schemes is 100 percent from the
fall dwindle disease Government of India. Under the Centrally Sponsored
Symptoms Schemes, as per the revised funding pattern from
2015- 16 onwards, the Government of India’s share is
• Contain no adult bees, with few to no dead bees around 50 percent for rest of India and 80 percent for the
the colony
North Eastern States and 3 Himalayan States i.e
• Contain capped brood Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttara-
• Contain food stores that are not robbed by neighboring khand in environment sector. The share of the Gov-
bees or colony pest ernment of India is 60 percent for rest of India in the
• Worker bees failed to return to colony from flight schemes related to forestry and wildlife and 90 per-
cent in respect of North Eastern States and 3 Himala-
CAUSES yan States.
The problem is that there doesn’t seem to be a single
smoking gun behind CCD but a range of possible causes,
including: Metal Pollution
Bees absorbing metal pollution from flowers that absorbed
Global warming
it from the soil that absorbed it from modern machines
Global warming causes flowers to bloom earlier or later and vehicles
than usual. When pollinators come out of hibernation, the
flowers that provide the food they need to start to start the Stress
season has already bloomed. The stress of shipping bees back and forth across the coun-
Pesticide (neonicotinoids, a neuroactive chemical) try, increasingly common in commercial beekeeping, may
be amplifying the stress on the insects and leaving them
It’s not that the pesticides which are aimed at other insects
more vulnerable to CCD.
are killing the bees outright. Rather that sublethal expo-
sure of pesticides in nectar and pollen may be interfering Habitat loss
with the honeybees internal radar, preventing them from Habitat loss brought by development, abandoned farms,
gathering pollen and returning safely to the hive. growing crops without leaving habitat for wildlife and
Varroa mite - parasites growing gardens with flowers that are not friendly to
farmers.
European foulbrood (A bacterial disease that is increas-
ingly being detected in U.S. bee colonies) microsporidian How can we Protect Bees?
fungus Nosema. • Policy makers must take action to protect the bees and
Malnutrition other pollinators.
Beekeepers collect (steal) bees honey so humans can con- • Farmers must be rewarded for practices that help wild
sume it, they are taking away the insects’ food. They re- bee populations thrive.
• Assistance should be provided to farmers who plan to agriculture. Although the low level exposures do not nor-
support a wider variety of pollinators beyond just bees. mally kill bees directly, they may impact some bee’s ability
• Bee research must be strengthened, and must also be to foraging for nectar, learn and remember where flowers
broadened to include research on pollinators besides are located, and possibly impair their ability to find their
honey bees. way home to the nest or hive.
• Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques should In April 2013, the European Commission decided to intro-
be used to minimize pesticide us and risk to bees. duce a 2-year moratorium in EU on the 3 neonicotinod
compounds—clothianidin, imidacloprid, and thiameth-
• City dwellers can also practice IPM where they live,
oxam—following reports by the European Food Safety Au-
work, and play to protect our health, water quality, and
thority (EFSA) saying the substances pose an “acute risk”
pollinators.
to honey bees essential to farming and natural ecosystems.
And if CCD continues, the consequences for the agricul-
tural economy — and even for our ability to feed ourselves
7.5 WILDLIFE (ELEPHANT, LEOPARD,
— could be dire.
ETC) DEATHS DUE TO COLLISION
“No more Bees, No more Pollination, No more Plants, No WITH TR AINS
more Animals, No more Man”.
Such accidents pose a grave danger to wildlife, and to the
Neonicotinoids conservation of our national biodiversity.
Neonicotinoids are a new class of insecticides chemically Article 48A (DPSP) of the Indian Constitution, it is stated
related to nicotine. The name literally means “new nico- that the State shall endeavor to protect and improve the
tine-like insecticides”. Like nicotine, the neonicotinoids act environment and to safeguard the forests and wild life of
on certain kinds of receptors in the nerve synapse. They the country.
are much more toxic to invertebrates, like insects, than Article 51A (Fundamental Duties) to protect and improve
they are to mammals, birds and other higher organisms. the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and
Neonicotinoids share a common mode of action that affect wild life and to have compassion for living creatures
the central nervous system of insects, resulting in paraly- It is the duty of every citizen to preserve, protect and nour-
sis and death. ish our wildlife heritage, particularly since these animals
One thing that has made neonicotinoid insecticides popu- are helpless in facing the challenge of biotic pressure.
lar in pest control is their water solubility, which allows
them to be applied to soil and be taken up by plants. Soil What has to be done?
insecticide applications reduce the risks for insecticide drift • Coordination between MoEF and Railways has to be
from the target site, and for at least some beneficial insects enhanced to ensure the safety of wildlife.
on plants. • Vulnerable patches for wildlife to be identified as wild
They include imidacloprid, acetamiprid, clothianidin, di- life crossing spots, and signage put up to warn train
notefuran, nithiazine, thiacloprid and thiamethoxam. drivers and other railway personnel, to enable them to
Uncertainties prevail since their initial registration regard- give directions for trains to slow down their speed in
ing the potential environmental fate and effects of neoni- these patches in the normal course.
cotinoid pesticides, particularly as they relate to pollinators. • Update the list of well known vulnerable patches for
Studies conducted in the late 1990s suggest that neonico- wild life, and conveying them to the Railways.
tinic residues can accumulate in pollen and nectar of • Electronically tag prominent wildlife like elephants,
treated plants and represent a potential risk to pollinators. leopards, etc particularly in high traffic areas, so that
There is major concern that neonicotinic pesticides play a wildlife and forest personnel could keep track of their
role in recent pollinator declines. movements, and warn railway officials well in time to
Neonicotinods can also be persistent in the environment, enable them to avoid accident. Once they are electroni-
and when used as seed treatments, translocate to residues cally tagged, forest personnel could track their move-
in pollen and nectar of treated plants. ments, and keep them from harm.
New research points out potential toxicity to bees and • Improvement in infrastructure for forest and Railway
other beneficial insects through low level contamination of staff, such as, equipped with walkie talkies, constant
nectar and pollen with neonicotinoid insecticides used in connection with the control room, etc.
• In prominent wildlife areas, or wherever considered • Such exposure is known to be responsible for fatigue,
necessary, forest officials should be posted at Railway nausea, irritability, headaches, loss of appetite and other
control rooms to coordinate with railway staff, in- psychological disorders.
formed regarding the movement of elephants, to enable • The current exposure safety standards are purely based
railway authorities to take preventive action, well in on the thermal effects considering few evidences from
advance. exposure to non thermal effects.
• Strict instructions to all railway and forest field person-
nel, emphasizing the importance of the protection and What are the responsibilities of Stakeholders?
conservation of wild life.
MoEF:
7.6. IMPACT OF R ADIATION FROM • The MoEF has to notify the impacts of communication
MOBILE PHONE TOWERS ON towers on wildlife and human health to the concerned
HUMAN BEINGS AND WILDLIFE agencies for regulating the norms for notification of
standards for safe limit of EMR.
The remarkable increase in mobile phones users in the
country and mushrooming of mobile tower installations in State/Local Bodies:
every nook and corner of cities and towns have raised con- • Regular monitoring and auditing in urban localities/
cerns on its probable impact on wildlife and human health. educational/hospital/ industrial/ residential/ recrea-
tional premises including the Protected Areas and eco-
Health Impacts logically sensitive areas.
Every antenna on cell phone tower radiates electro-mag- • Carry out an ‘Ecological Impact Assessment’ before giv-
netic power. One cell phone tower is being used by a num- ing permission for construction of towers in wildlife
ber of operators, more the number of antennas more is the and ecologically important areas.
power intensity in the nearby area. The power level near
towers is higher and reduces as we move away. State Environment and Forest Department:
How the cell phone tower’s radiation affects the birds and • State Environment and Forest Department are en-
bees? trusted with the task of providing regular awareness
among the people about the norms on cell phone towers
• The surface area of bird is relatively larger than their and dangers of EMR from them.
body weight in comparison to human body so they ab-
sorb more radiation. Department of Telecommunications:
• Also the fluid content in the body of the bird is less due • Avoid overlapping of high radiation fields. New towers
to small body weight so it gets heated up very fast. should not be permitted within a radius of one kilom-
• Magnetic field from the towers disturbs birds’ naviga- eter of the existing tower.
tion skills hence when birds are exposed to EMR they • The location and frequencies of cell phone towers and
disorient and begin to fly in all directions. other towers emitting EMR should be made available in
• A large number of birds die each year from collisions the public domain
with telecommunication masts. • GIS mapping of all the cell phone towers to be main-
tained to monitor the population of bird and bees in and
How the cell phone tower’s radiation affects human?
around the wildlife protected area and the mobile towers.
• EMR may cause cellular and psychological changes in • Need to refine the Indian standard on safe limits of
human beings due to thermal effects that are generated
exposure to EMR, keeping in view the available litera-
due to absorption of microwave radiation.
ture on impacts on various life forms
• The exposure can lead to genetic defects, effects on re- • To undertake Precautionary approaches to minimize
production and development, Central Nervous System
the exposure levels and adopt stricter norms
behaviour etc.
• EMR can also cause non thermal effects which are Other agencies
caused by radio frequency fields at levels too low to • Any study conducted on impact of EMF radiation on
produce significant heating and are due to movement wildlife needs to be shared to facilitate appropriate
of calcium and other ions across cell membranes. policy formulations.
7.7 GENETICALLY ENGINEERED (GE) Who are behind developing GE trees and why?
TREES It is ArborGen a subsidiary of Monsanto, oil companies like
The proponents of biotechnology industry claim that trees British Petroleum and Chevron that are investing in this
that are genetically altered grow faster and yield better technology. For these companies GE trees offer a viable
quality of wood in extreme temperatures. Thus they are a alternate to fossil fuels as GE trees could produce ethanol,
boon to forestry in dealing with climate change. a green fuel. As the ethanol produced from food stocks
came under attack, the companies see bright future in
Historical background non-food cellulose feedstock like GE trees.
The first field trials of GE trees were started in Belgium in In INDIA
1988, when researchers began to develop poplar trees that The first experiment with genetically engineered tree was
were herbicide resistant and that could grow faster. In with rubber tree developed by the Rubber Research Insti-
2002, China established commercial GE poplar trees plan- tute in Kerala. The GE rubber are better adapted to drought
tation as a strategy to address the issue of deforestation. resistance and increased environment stress tolerance.
Initially GE trees were established in 300 hectares, and This will help to establish rubber in non traditional areas
now China has embraced the GE technology on a large where the conditions are not favourable. Ironically the field
scale, integrating this into forestry sector. Latin American trials for GE rubber trees were approved by the then envi-
countries like Brazil and Argentina, the forerunners in GM ronmental minister (Mr. Jairam Ramesh). Ministry as-
food crops are also working on GE trees to enhance the serted that the genetically modified trees posed lesser
production of pulp and paper. threat in comparison to the food crops.
Is GE trees safer than GM crops? This assumption is baseless as the seeds of rubber tree are
used as cattle feed, that gets into the food chain through
For: milk. Similarly, Kerala is one of those regions that produce
The proponents of the technology claim that GE trees are large quantity of rubber honey from rubber plantations.
safer and there is no need to fear about negative conse- Kerala, a GM free state worried about the implications of
quences. Already the United Nations has approved planta- GE rubber on biodiversity, has voiced its concern about bio
tions of GE trees as carbon sinks under Kyoto Protocol’s safety issues. Now the rubber trees are being experimented
clean development mechanism. With this stamp of ap- in Maharashtra.
proval, many countries would like to adopt the technology These developments show the predominance of the west-
and establish GE plantations. ern forestry science that lays emphasis on forests as a com-
Against: mercial entity to produce wood and pulp. Diverse forests
Environmentalists state that this technology poses as seri- were simplified by removal of multiple species and estab-
ous a threat as GM crops. The trees are perennial, that live lishing monocultures that had commercial value. Already
longer than agricultural crops. The changes in the me- the country’s landscape is scarred with millions of hectares
tabolism of trees may occur many years after they are of teak and eucalypts mono culture plantations. This ap-
planted, and trees are wild, undomesticated. This makes proach has had negative consequences for the environ-
it difficult to decipher as to how the introduced gene will ment, biodiversity and the local indigenous people. The
behave in natural environment. This fact implies that the same trend will be reinforced with the establishment of GE
ecological risks associated with GE trees are far greater tree plantations, leading to further devastation of the nat-
than the agricultural crops. ural environment and forests.
It has also been documented that the tree pollen travels a
distance of more than 600 km. The probability that the
7.8 MOEF BANNED DOLPHIN CAPTIVITY
GE tree pollen is likely to contaminate vast expanses of Ministry of Environment and Forests has banned dolphin
native forests with a wide variety of destructive traits may captivity within India. This opens up a whole new discourse
be a threat to ecological balance and the existing biodi- of ethics in the animal protection movement in India.
versity of the tropical forests in global south. The con- The unprecedented decision is particularly significant be-
taminated pollen might pose threat to honey bees, cause it reflects an increasing global understanding that
adversely impacting pollination in the wild and on agri- dolphins deserve better protections based on who – rather
culture crops. than what – they are.
Dolphinariums in India MoEF has asked all states to reject proposals for dolphi-
India’s only experience of keeping dolphins was in the late nariums either by private parties or by government agen-
1990s. Four dolphins were imported from Bulgaria to cies, asking them not to allow import or capture of cetacean
Chennai’s Dolphin City, a substandard marine-themed species and their use for commercial entertainment, and
amusement show, where they died within 6 months of private or public exhibition.
arrival. In India, the Gangetic Dolphin and Snubfin Dolphin are
protected species as per the Indian Wildlife (Protection)
New proposals
Act, 1972. The government has also declared Gangetic Dol-
Several state governments had recently announced plans phin as the national aquatic animal
for the state tourism development corporations to estab-
Various animal protection organisation under the banner
lish dolphinariums for commercial dolphin shows. Dol-
of Federation of Indian Animal Protection Organisations
phins are a major tourist attraction at amusement parks
(FIAPO), has campaigned in the country to ban the estab-
abroad.
lishment of dolphinariums.
The major proposals that were made for similar establish-
ments were by the Maharashtra Tourism Development 7.9 PROHIBITION OF REMOVAL OF
Corporation, the Kerala fisheries department in Kochi and SHARK FINS IN THE SEA
a few private hoteliers in Noida in the National Capital
With a view to stop the inhuman hunting of sharks and to
Region.
enable the enforcement agencies to monitor the illegal
Why ban? hunting/poaching of the species of Sharks, Rays and Skates
Cetaceans, including whales, dolphins and porpoises, are (Elasmobranchs) listed in Schedule I of the Wild Life (Pro-
known to be highly intelligent animals. However, they do tection) Act, 1972, Minister of for Environment and Forests
not adjust well to living in captivity. Confinement alters has approved a policy for prohibiting the removal of shark
their behaviour and causes extreme distress. fins on board a vessel in the sea.
The captivity industry exploit the lives of dolphins by deny- The policy prescribes that any possession of shark fins that
ing them freedom and being allowed to cause them harm are not naturally attached to the body of the shark, would
and the captivity industry has become adept at hiding the amount to “hunting” of a Schedule I species. The Policy
harm they cause to dolphins in their care. calls for concerted action and implementation by the con-
cerned State Governments through appropriate legislative,
Despite the fact that some humane laws exist to prevent
enforcement and other measures.
unnecessary cruelty, animals are still considered property
and are usually denied the basic rights of life, liberty or They play an important the role in maintenance of the
freedom from harm. marine ecosystem like tigers and leopards in the forests.
India is known to be home to about 40-60 species of
The rights include not to be captured, confined, or killed,
sharks. However, the population of some of these have
in order to prevent the suffering that they most likely ex-
declined over the years due to several reasons including
perience when these rights are violated.
over exploitation and unsustainable fishing practices.
Several countries, including Brazil, the United Kingdom
Due to high demand of shark fines in the shark fin-soup
and Chile, have banned dolphins in captivity.
industry, it has been reported that the fins of the sharks
The move by MoEF came after months of protests against captured in the mid sea are removed on the vessel and
a proposed dolphin park in the southern state of Kerala the de finned sharks are thrown back in the sea to die.
and plans for several other marine mammal parks in other This has resulted in in-human killing of large number of
parts of the country. sharks and further decimated the population of Schedule
MoEF order I species.
According to the circular released by the Central Zoo Au- This practice prevailing on board the shipping vessels has
thority, states that because dolphins are by nature “highly led to difficulties in enforcement of provisions of Wild
intelligent and sensitive,” they ought to be seen as “nonhu- Life (Protection) Act, 1972 as it becomes difficult to iden-
man persons” and should have “their own specific rights.” tify the species of sharks from the fins alone, without the
It says that it is “morally unacceptable to keep them captive corresponding carcass, from which the fins have been
for entertainment purposes.” detached.
7.10 COST OF ENVIRONMENTAL A significant portion of diseases caused by poor water sup-
DEGR ADATION IN INDIA ply, sanitation and hygiene affect children younger than
The annual cost of environmental degradation in India is five, the report said. It attributed 23% of child mortality
about Rs. 3.75 trillion, or 5.7% of India’s 2009 gross do- in the country to environmental degradation.
mestic product (GDP), according to a report released by the Following the concept of growing economically now and
World Bank. cleaning up later will not be environmentally sustainable for
The impact of outdoor air pollution on GDP is the highest the country in the long run, said the lead author of the report.
and accounts for 1.7% of the GDP loss, said the report. The possible policy options to reduce particulate matter
Indoor air pollution is the second-biggest offender and pollution could be incentivizing technology upgradation,
costs India 1.3% of GDP. securing efficiency improvements, strengthening enforce-
“The higher costs for outdoor/indoor air pollution are pri- ment and enhancing technology and efficiency standards.
marily driven by an elevated exposure of the young and Steps taken by the Indian Government for control
productive urban population to particulate matter pollu- air pollution
tion that results in a substantial cardiopulmonary and
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (heart ailments)
• formulation of a Comprehensive Policy for Abatement
of Pollution,
mortality load among adults,” the report said.
• supply of improved auto–fuel,
The study, titled Diagnostic Assessment of Select Environ-
mental Challenges in India, has taken into account envi- • tightening of vehicular and industrial emission norms,
ronmental damage in India from urban air pollution, • mandatory environmental clearance for specified indus-
including particulate matter and lead; inadequate water tries,
supply; poor sanitation and hygiene; and indoor air pollu- • management of municipal, hazardous and bio-medical
tion. Other factors that contribute to the loss include dam- wastes,
age to natural resources because of worsening agricultural • promotion of cleaner technologies,
output because of an increase in soil salinity, water logging
and soil erosion; rangeland degradation; deforestation and
• strengthening the network of air quality monitoring
stations,
natural disasters.
• assessment of pollution load,
“Environmental pollution, degradation of natural re-
sources, natural disasters and inadequate environmental • source apportionment studies,
services, such as improved water supply and sanitation, • preparation and implementation of action plans for
impose costs to society in the form of ill health, lost income, major cities & critically polluted areas,
and increased poverty and vulnerability,” the report said. • Public awareness.
 
CHAPTER - 8
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
E nvironmental Protection and Sustainable Develop-

ment has been the cornerstones of the policies and
procedures governing the industrial and other de-
velopmental activities in India.
The Need for EIA
• Every anthropogenic activity has some impact on the
environment. More often it is harmful to the environ-
ment than benign. However, mankind as it is developed
Project Initiation
Present Status
(without project)
Adverse
Environment
Impact
With project
Time
(a) Anticipated environment impact of development project�

Environmental components
Environmental status without project
Project with EIA
EIA bridges the gap
Project done without EIA
Time
(b) Environent impact rectification after EIA

today cannot live without taking up these activities for India enacted the Environment (Protection) Act on 1986.
his food, security and other needs. Consequently, there To achieve the objectives of the Act, one of the decisions
is a need to harmonise developmental activities with that were taken is to make environmental impact as-
the environmental concerns. It is desirable to ensure sessment statutory.
that the development options under consideration are
sustainable. In doing so, environmental consequences
must be characterised early in the project cycle and Besides EIA, the Government of India under Environ-
accounted for in the project design. ment (Protection) Act 1986 issued a number of other
notifications, which are related to environmental im-
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) pact assessment. These are limited to specific geo-
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is one of the tools graphical areas. They are
available with the planners to achieve the goal of harmo- • Prohibiting location of industries except those re-
nising development activities with the environmental con- lated to Tourism in a belt of 1 km from high tide
cerns. mark from the Revdanda Creek up to Devgarh
EIA integrates the environmental concerns in the devel- Point (near Shrivardhan) as well as in 1 km belt
opmental activities right at the time of initiating for pre- along the banks of Rajpuri Creek in Murud Janjira
paring the feasibility report. In doing so it can enable the area in the Raigarh district of Maharashtra (1989)
integration of environmental concerns and mitigation • Restricting location of industries, mining opera-
measures in project development. EIA can often pre- tions and regulating other activities in Doon Valley
vent future liabilities or expensive alterations in project (1989)
design. • Regulating activities in the coastal stretches of the
The objective of EIA is to foresee the potential environmen- country by classifying them as coastal regulation
tal problems that would arise out of a proposed develop- zone and prohibiting certain activities (1991)
ment and address them in the project’s planning and • Restricting location of industries and regulating
design stage. EIA/ Environment Management Plan (EMP) other activities in Dahanu Taluka in Maharashtra
should assist planners and government authorities in the (1991)
decision making process by identifying the key impacts/
issues and formulating the mitigation measures. • Restricting certain activities in specified areas of
Aravalli Range in the Gurgaon district of Haryana
EIA is a planning tool which is accepted as an integral and Alwar district of Rajasthan (1992)
component of sound decision-making.
• Regulating industrial and other activities, which
Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoE&F) has taken could lead to pollution and congestion in an area
several policy initiatives and enacted environmental and north west of Numaligarh in Assam (1996)
pollution control legislations to prevent indiscriminate ex-
ploitation of natural resources and to promote integration
of environmental concerns in developmental projects.
One such initiative is the Notification on Environmental Do you know?
Impact Assessment (EIA) of developmental projects 1994 Khangchendzonga National Park (KNP), Sikkim has
under the provisions of Environment (Protection) Act, been inscribed as India’s first “Mixed World Heritage
1986. Site” on UNESCO World Heritage List, by fulfilling the
nomination criteria under both natural and cultural
8.1. INDIAN POLICIES REQUIRING EIA heritage.
• The environmental impact assessment in India was
started in 1976-77 when the Planning Commission
asked the then Department of Science and Technology 8.2 THE EIA CYCLE AND PROCEDURES
to examine the river-valley projects from environmen-
The EIA process in India is made up of the
tal angle. This was subsequently extended to cover
following phases:
those projects, which required approval of the Public
Investment Board. These were administrative decisions, • Screening
and lacked the legislative support. The Government of • Scoping
• Baseline data collection
• Impact prediction Do you know?
• Assessment of alternatives, delineation of mitigation India has the worst air pollution in the entire world, ac-
measures and environmental impact statement cording to a study released by World Economic Forum. Of
132 countries, India ranks dead last in the ‘Air (effects on
• Public hearing
human health)’ ranking.
• Environment Management Plan
• Decision making
8�2�4 Impact Prediction
• Monitoring the clearance conditions
• Impact prediction is a way of mapping the environmen-
8�2�1 Screening tal consequences of the significant aspects of the project
and its alternatives. Environmental impact can never
• Screening is done to see whether a project requires
be predicted with absolute certainty and this is all the
environmental clearance as per the statutory notifica-
tions. Screening Criteria are based upon: more reason to consider all possible factors and take all
possible precautions for reducing the degree of uncer-
• Scales of investment; tainty.
• Type of development; and, The following impacts of the project should be
• Location of development. assessed:
• A Project requires statutory environmental clearance
Air
only if the provisions of EIA notification and/or one or
more statutory notification mentioned in Box 1 cover it • changes in ambient levels and ground level concentra-
tions due to total emissions from point, line and area
8�2�2 Scoping sources
• Scoping is a process of detailing the terms of reference • effects on soils, materials, vegetation, and human health
of EIA. It has to be done by the consultant in consulta-
tion with the project proponent and guidance, if need Noise
be, from Impact Assessment Agency. • changes in ambient levels due to noise generated from
• The Ministry of Environment and Forests has published equipment and movement of vehicles
sector-wise guidelines (Comprehensive terms of refer- • effect on fauna and human health
ence) which outline the significant issues which has to
be addressed in the EIA studies. Water
• Quantifiable impacts are to be assessed on the basis of • availability to competing users
magnitude, prevalence, frequency and duration and • changes in quality
non-quantifiable impacts (such as aesthetic or recrea- • sediment transport
tional value), significance is commonly determined
through the socio-economic criteria. • ingress of saline water
• After the areas, where the project could have significant Land
impact, are identified, the baseline status of these
should be monitored. And then the likely changes in
• changes in land use and drainage pattern
these on account of the construction and operation of • changes in land quality including effects of waste dis-
the proposed project should be predicted. posal
• changes in shoreline/riverbank and their stability
8�2�3 Baseline Data
Biological
• Baseline data describes the existing environmental sta-
tus of the identified study area. The site-specific pri- • deforestation/tree-cutting and shrinkage of animal
mary data should be monitored for the identified habitat.
parameters and supplemented by secondary data if • impact on fauna and flora (including aquatic species if
available. any) due to contaminants/pollutants
• impact on rare and endangered species, endemic spe- • They are to be given an opportunity to make oral/
cies, and migratory path/route of animals. written suggestions to the State Pollution Control
Board.
Impact on breeding and nesting grounds
Socio-Economic Do you know?
• impact on the local community including demographic Hon’ble Supreme Court has directed all manufactur-
changes. ers/dealers of Delhi-NCR, selling diesel cars with en-
gine capacity of 2000 cc and above, to pay 1%
Impact on economic status Environment Protection Charge (1% of Ex-Showroom
• impact on human health. price of the vehicle).
• impact of increased traffic
8�2�5 Assessment of Alternatives, Delineation of 8�2�7� Environment Management Plan

Mitigation Measures and Environmental Impact Environment Management Plan should include:
Assessment Report
• Delineation of mitigation and compensation measures
• For every project, possible alternatives should be identi- for all the identified significant impacts
fied and environmental attributes compared. Alterna-
tives should cover both project location and process • Delineation of unmitigated impacts
technologies. Alternatives should consider no project • Physical planning including work programme, time
option also. Alternatives should then be ranked for se- schedule and locations for putting mitigation and com-
lection of the best environmental option for optimum pensation systems in place
economic benefits to the community at large.
• Delineation of financial plan for implementing the mit-
• Once alternatives have been reviewed, a mitigation plan igation measures in the form of budgetary estimates
should be drawn up for the selected option and is sup- and demonstration of its inclusion in the project budget
plemented with an Environmental Management Plan estimates.
(EMP) to guide the proponent towards environmental
improvements. The EMP is a crucial input to monitoring 8�2�8 Decision Making
the clearance conditions and therefore details of moni-
tor should be included in the EMP. • Decision making process involve consultation between
the project proponent (assisted by a consultant) and the
• An EIA report should provide clear information to the
impact assessment authority (assisted by an expert
decision-maker on the different environmental scenar-
ios without the project, with the project and with pro- group if necessary)
ject alternatives. Uncertainties should be clearly • The decision on environmental clearance is arrived
reflected in the EIA report. through a number of steps including evaluation of EIA
and EMP.
8�2�6 Public Hearing
• Law requires that the public must be informed and con- 8�2�9 Monitoring the Clearance Conditions
sulted on a proposed development after the completion
of EIA report.
• Monitoring should be done during both construction
and operation phases of a project. This is not only to
• Any one likely to be affected by the proposed project is ensure that the commitments made are complied with
entitled to have access to the Executive Summary of the but also to observe whether the predictions made in
EIA. The affected persons may include: the EIA reports were correct or not. Where the impacts
• bonafide local residents; exceed the predicted levels, corrective action should be
• local associations; taken. Monitoring will enable the regulatory agency to
• environmental groups: active in the area review the validity of predictions and the conditions of
implementation of the Environmental Management
• any other person located at the project site / sites of
displacement Plan (EMP).
Salient Features of 2006 Amendment would generally be the more efficient approach. De-
Environment Impact Assessment Notification of 2006 has pending on nature, location and scale of the project EIA
decentralised the environmental clearance projects by cat- report should contain all or some of the following com-
egorizing the developmental projects in two categories, i.e., ponents.
Category A and Category B.
Air Environment
‘Category A’ projects are appraised at national level by Im-
pact Assessment Agency (IAA) and the Expert Appraisal • Determination of impact zone (through a screening
model) and developing a monitoring network
Committee (EAC) and Category B projects are apprised at
state level. • Monitoring the existing status of ambient air quality
within the impacted region (7-10 km from the periph-
State Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority
ery) of the proposed project site
(SEIAA) and State Level Expert Appraisal Committee
(SEAC) are constituted to provide clearance to Category B • Monitoring the site-specific meteorological data, viz.
process. wind speed and direction, humidity, ambient tempera-
ture and environmental lapse rate
After 2006 Amendment the EIA cycle comprises of four
stages • Estimation of quantities of air emissions including fugi-
tive emissions from the proposed project
1. Screening
2. Scoping • Identification, quantification and evaluation of other
potential emissions (including those of vehicular traffic)
3. Public hearing within the impact zone and estimation of cumulative of
4. Appraisal all the emissions/impacts
Category A projects require mandatory environmen- • Prediction of changes in the ambient air quality due to
tal clearance and thus we do not undergo the screening point, line and areas source emissions through appro-
process. priate air quality models
Category B projects undergoes screening process and they • Evaluation of the adequacy of the proposed pollution
are classified into two types. control devices to meet gaseous emission and ambient
1. Category B1 projects (Mandatory requires EIA). air quality standards
2. Category B2 projects (Do not require EIA). • Delineation of mitigation measures at source, path ways
and receptor
Thus Category A projects and Category B1 projects undergo
the complete EIA process whereas Category B2 projects are Noise Environment
excluded from complete EIA process.
• Monitoring the present status of noise levels within the
8.3 COMPONENTS OF EIA impact zone, and prediction of future noise levels result-
ing from the proposed project and related activities
• The difference between Comprehensive EIA and Rapid including increase in vehicular movement
EIA is in the time-scale of the data supplied. Rapid EIA
is for speedier appraisal process. While both types of • Identification of impacts due to any anticipated rise in
EIA require inclusion/ coverage of all significant envi- noise levels on the surrounding environment
ronmental impacts and their mitigation, Rapid EIA • Recommendations on mitigation measures for noise
achieves this through the collection of one season (other pollution
than monsoon) data only to reduce the time required
where comprehensive EIA collects data from all four Water Environment
seasons. • Study of existing ground and surface water resources
• Rapid EIA is acceptable if it does not compromise on the with respect to quantity and quality within the impact
quality of decision-making. The review of Rapid EIA zone of the proposed project
submissions will show whether a comprehensive EIA is • Prediction of impacts on water resources due to the
warranted or not. proposed water use/pumping on account of the project
• It is, therefore, clear that the submission of a profession- • Quantification and characterisation of waste water in-
ally prepared Comprehensive EIA in the first instance cluding toxic organic, from the proposed activity
• Evaluation of the proposed pollution prevention and • Projection of anticipated changes in the socio-economic
wastewater treatment system and suggestions on mod- and health due to the project and related activities in-
ification, if required cluding traffic congestion and delineation of measures
• Prediction of impacts of effluent discharge on the qual- to minimise adverse impacts
ity of the receiving water body using appropriate math- • Assessment of impact on significant historical, cultural
ematical/simulation models and archaeological sites/places in the area
• Assessment of the feasibility of water recycling and • Assessment of economic benefits arising out of the
reuse and delineation of detailed plan in this regard project
• Assessment of rehabilitation requirements with special
Biological Environment emphasis on scheduled areas, if any.
Survey of flora and fauna clearly delineating season and
duration. Risk Assessment
• Assessment of flora and fauna present within the impact • Hazard identification taking recourse to hazard indices,
zone of the project inventory analysis, dam break probability, Natural Haz-
ard Probability etc.
• Assessment of potential damage to terrestrial and
aquatic flora and fauna due to discharge of effluents and • Maximum Credible Accident (MCA) analysis to identify
gaseous emissions from the project potential hazardous scenarios
• Assessment of damage to terrestrial flora and fauna due • Consequence analysis of failures and accidents result-
to air pollution, and land use and landscape changes ing in fire, explosion, hazardous releases and dam
breaks etc.
• Assessment of damage to aquatic and marine flora and
fauna (including commercial fishing) due to physical • Hazard & Operability (HAZOP) studies
disturbances and alterations • Assessment of risk on the basis of the above evaluations
• Prediction of biological stresses within the impact zone • Preparation of an onsite and off site (project affected
of the proposed project area) Disaster Management Plan
• Delineation of mitigation measures to prevent and / or
Environment Management Plan
reduce the damage.
• Delineation of mitigation measures including preven-
Land Environment tion and control for each environmental component and
rehabilitation and resettlement plan.
• Studies on soil characteristics, existing land use and
topography, landscape and drainage patterns within the • Delineation of monitoring scheme for compliance of
impact zone conditions
• Estimation on impacts of project on land use, landscape, • Delineation of implementation plan including schedul-
topography, drainage and hydrology ing and resource allocation
• Identification on potential utility of treated effluent in
land application and subsequent impacts Do you know?
• Estimation and Characterisation of solid wastes and Environment Ministry to create ‘urban forests’ in 200
delineation of management options for minimisation of cities to increase green cover. ‘Urban Forestry Scheme’
waste and environmentally compatible disposal launched in Pune, to create an ‘urban jungle’ on about
80 acres of land.
Socio-economic and Health Environment
• Collection of demographic and related socio-economic
data 8.4. KEY ELEMENTS OF AN INITIAL
• Collection of epidemiological data, including studies on PROJECT DESCRIPTION AND SCOPING
prominent endemic diseases (e.g. fluorosis, malaria, • The key environmental issues to be considered in rela-
fileria, malnutrition) and morbidity rates among the tion to a project characteristics are discussed in Secto-
population within the impact zone ral Guidelines published by MoEF from time to time.
• An Initial Project Description (IPD) should at the very III. Enough space may be provided for storing solid wastes.
least, provide the reviewer with all the information nec- The space and the waste can be made available for pos-
essary to enable project screening and scoping. sible reuse in future
Specific information that must be covered by the IPD in- IV. Layout and form of the project must conform to the
cludes: landscape of the area without unduly affecting the sce-
nic features of that place
• Location/current land use along with contours and
whether it conforms to the development plans pro- V. Associated township of the project if any to be created
posed for that area must provide for space for phyto- graphic barrier be-
• Details of proposed project activity including the tween the project and the township and should take
project cost into account predominant wind direction.
In addition the following distances should be maintained:
• Outlining the key project elements during the pre-
construction, the construction and the operation • Coastal Areas: at least 1/2 km from the high tide line
phases etc. as per the list of documents to be at- (within 0.5 km of High Tide Line (HTL), specified ac-
tached with the questionnaire tivities as per CRZ notification, 1991 are permitted)
(The HTL is to be delineated by the authorised agency
• The IPD may also include.
only.)
• Off-site activities
• Estuaries: At least 200 metres from the estuary bound-
• Associated activities aries
• Expected project induced activities
• Flood Plains of the Riverine systems: at least 500
• Project activities as PERT chart and process as a metres from flood plain or modified flood plain or by
flow chart delineating unit processes with input- flood control systems
output.
• Transport/Communication System: at least 500 me-
• This would facilitate the reviewers task. The project tres from highway and railway
proponent after suitable scoping should provide envi-
ronmental information for consideration in detailed
• Major Settlements (3,00,000 population) at least
25 km from the projected growth boundary of the
EIA. The reviewer while assessing the report should
settlement
focus on the crucial aspects involving project location
and characteristics. In addition to the siting criteria listed above, the proposed
project location should be reviewed in relation to the fol-
8�4�1 Project Location(s) lowing salient issues:
• The site(s) selection can be an effective approach in • Ambient air, water and noise quality standards
minimising the requirement of mitigation measures. • Critically polluted areas
• Proposed project locations should be reviewed based • Natural disaster prone areas
upon regulatory and non-regulatory criteria. • Ecologically sensitive areas
• Project siting restrictions depend on the sensitivity of • Availability of water and other critical infrastruc-
the surrounding environment. Sensitivity should be tures like electricity, roads with adequate width and
assessed in relation to proximity of the project to the capacity
places/sites listed in the identified ecologically sensitive
zones (ESZ) notified by MOEF.
Do you know?
The siting criteria delineated by MoEF include:
Government of India has established the National
I. As far as possible prime agricultural land/forest land Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC) with
may not be converted into an industrial site a budget provision of Rs 350 crore for 2015-16 and
II. Land acquired should be minimum but sufficient to 2016-17 to assist States and Union Territories to un-
provide for a green belt wherein the treated wastewa- dertake projects and actions for adaptation to climate
ter, if possible/suitable, could be utilised from waste- change.
water treatment systems
PROCEDURE FOR PUBLIC HEARING vi. Not more than three senior citizens of the area nom-
inated by the District Collector.
(1) Process of Public Hearing: -
Whoever apply for environmental clearance of projects, 8.5 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
shall submit to the concerned State Pollution Control Board. ASSESSMENT IN THE INDIAN
SYSTEM – DR AWBACKS AND
(2) Notice of Public Hearing: - RECOMMENDATIONS
i. The State Pollution Control Board shall cause a notice
for environmental public hearing which shall be pub- DRAW BACKS
lished in at least two newspapers widely circulated in Applicability:
the region around the project, one of which shall be in 1. There are several projects with significant environmen-
the vernacular language of the locality concerned. State tal impacts that are exempted from the notification
Pollution Control Board shall mention the date, time either because they are not listed in schedule1, or their
and place of public hearing. Suggestions, views, com- investments are less than what is provided for in the
ments and objections of the public shall be invited notification.
within thirty days from the date of publication of the
notification. Composition of expert committees and standards:
ii. All persons including bona fide residents, environmen- 1. It is being found that the team formed for conducting
tal groups and others located at the project site/sites of EIA studies is lacking the expertise in various fields
displacement/sites likely to be affected can participate such as environmentalists, wild life experts, Anthro-
in the public hearing. They can also make oral/written pologists and Social Scientists (to study the social im-
suggestions to the State Pollution Control Board. pact of the project).
2. There is a lack of exhaustive ecological and socio-eco-
nomic indicators for impact assessment.
Do you know?
Public hearing:
Human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG)
including those from the agriculture sector are con- 1. Public comments are not taken into account at the early
sidered to be the drivers of observed climate change. stage, which often leads to conflict at the later stage of
While annual total GHG emissions from agriculture project clearance.
in 2010 are estimated to be of the order of 10-12% of 2. A number of projects with significant environmental
global anthropogenic emission, the research con- and social impacts have been excluded from the man-
ducted by the government indicates that agriculture datory public hearing process.
in India contributed to 18% of the total emissions of 3. The documents which the public are entitled to are
India in 2010. The gases emitted from this sector are seldom available on time.
mainly methane (CH4) and Nitrous Oxide (N2O).
4. The data collectors do not pay respect to the indigenous
knowledge of local people.
(3) Composition of public hearing panel: - Quality:
The composition of Public Hearing Panel may consist of the 1. One of the biggest concerns with the environmental
following, namely: - clearance process is related to the quality of EIA report
i. Representative of State Pollution Control Board; that are being carried out. The reports are generally
incomplete and provided with false data.
ii. District Collector or his nominee;
2. EIA reports ignore several aspects while carrying out
iii. Representative of State Government dealing with the
assessments and significant information is found to
subject;
omitted.
iv. Representative of Department of the State Govern-
3. Many EIA report are based on single season data and
ment dealing with Environment;
are not adequate to determine whether environmental
v. Not more than three representatives of the local bod- clearance should be granted. All this makes the entire
ies such as Municipalities or panchayats; exercise contrary to its very intent.
4. As things stand today, it is the responsibility of the 2. Details regarding the effectiveness and implementation
project proponent to commission the preparation of the of mitigation measures are often not provided.
EIA for its project. The EIA is actually funded by an 3. Emergency preparedness plans are not discussed in
agency or individual whose primary interest is to pro- sufficient details and the information not disseminated
cure clearance for the project proposed. There is little to the communities.
chance that the final assessment presented is un biased,
even if the consultant may provide an unbiased assess- RECOMMENDATIONS
ment that is critical of the proposed project. Some
1. Independent EIA Authority
times it is found that a consultancy which is working
in the project area has no specialization in the con- 2. Sector wide EIA s needed
cerned subject. For example for the preparation of EIA 3. Creation of an information desk
report of the proposed oil exploration in coast of Orissa 4. Creation of a centralized baseline data bank
by the reliance group has been given to the life science
5. Dissemination of all information related to projects
Dept of Berhampur university which has no expertise
from notification to clearance to local communities and
on the study of turtles and its life cycle.
general public
5. The EIA document in itself is so bulky and technical,
which makes it very difficult to decipher so as to aid in Applicability:
the decision making process. 1. All those projects where there is likely to be a signifi-
6. There are so many cases of fraudulent EIA studies cant alternation of ecosystems need to go through the
where erroneous data has been used, same facts used process of environmental clearance, without exception.
for two totally different places etc. This is due to the 2. No industrial developmental activity should be permit-
lack of a centralized baseline data bank, where such ted in ecologically sensitive areas.
data can be crosschecked.
Public hearing:
7. There is no accreditation of EIA consultants, therefore
1. Public hearings should be applicable to all hitherto ex-
any such consultant with a track record of fraudulent
empt categories of projects which have environmental
cases cannot be held liable for discrepancies. It is hard
impacts.
to imagine any consultant after being paid lakh of ru-
pees, preparing a report for the project proponents, Quality:
indicating that the project is not viable. 1. The focus of EIA needs to shift from utilization and
8. In nearly every case, the consultants try to interpret exploitation of natural resources to conservation of
and tailor the information looking for ways and means natural resources.
to provide their clients with a report that gives them 2. At present EIA reports are extremely weak when it
their moneys worth. comes to assessment of biological diversity of a project
Monitoring, compliance and institutional area and the consequent impacts on it. This gap needs
arrangements: to be plugged through a specific guidelines and through
necessary amendments.
Do you know? 3. The checklist needs to include impacts on agricultural
biodiversity, biodiversity related traditional knowledge
India has also set up a National Adaptation Fund with
and live hoods.
an initial allocation of INR 3,500 million (USD 55.6
million) to combat the adaptation needs in key sectors. 4. All EIA reports should clearly state what are the ad-
This fund will assist national and state level activities verse impacts that a proposed projects will have. This
to meet the cost of adaptation measures in areas that should be a separate chapter and not hidden within
are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of technical details.
climate change. 5. The sub components or subsidiary reports of EIA re-
ports (e.g. Assessments of Biodiversity impacts done by
1. Often, and more so for strategic industries such as a sub consultant) should be made publicly accessible as
nuclear energy projected, the EMPs are kept confiden- stand alone reports with the EIA. This should be avail-
tial for political and administrative reasons able on the websites of the MOEF.
6. EIAs should be based on full studies carried out over punishment for non- compliance. At present the EIA
at least one year. Single season data on environmental notification limits itself to the stage when environmen-
parameters like biodiversity, as is being done for sev- tal clearance is granted.
eral rapid assessments is not adequate to gain under- 2. The MOEF should set up more regional offices with
standing of the full impact of the proposed project. advisory Expert committees, each with smaller areas
7. It is critical that the preparation of an EIA is completely of jurisdiction, to effectively monitor the compliance of
independent of the project proponent. One option for this clearance conditions.
could be the creation of a central fund for the EIAs which 3. A robust monitoring mechanism should be established
contains fees deposited by project proponents while seek- by the state department to address compliance of both
ing that an EIA be done for their proposed project. sets of clearance conditions together and to take puni-
8. State and central governments should maintain a list tive action against the project proponent in case of non-
of credible, independent and competent agencies that compliance.
can carry out EIAs. similarly the EIA consultant those
4. Local communities should be brought in to the formal
are making false reports should be black listed.
monitoring and reporting process of the compliance of
9. A national level accreditation to environment consul- conditions presently done by the regional offices of the
tancy should be adopted MOEF.
Redressal:
Do you know?
1. The composition of the NGT needs to be changed to
National Clean Development Mechanism Authority include more judicials from the field of environment.
(NCDMA) was established in December 2003 for ac-
2. Citizen should be able to access the authority for re-
cording Host Country Approval (HCA) to the CDM
dressal of all violation of the EIA notification as well as
projects.
issues relating to non-compliance.
Grant of clearance: Capacity building:
1. The notification needs to make it clear that the provi- NGOs, civil society groups and local communities need to
sion for site clearance does not imply any commitment build their capacities to use the EIA notification towards
on the part of the impact Assessment agency to grant better decision making on projects that can impact their
full environmental clearance. local environments and live hoods. Capacities can be built
2. The prior informed consent of local communities and to proactively and effectively use the notification rather
urban wards or residents association needs to be made than respond in a manner that is seen as negative or un-
mandatory before the grant of environmental clear- productive.
ance. The consent should be from the full general body.
3. The language used for specifying conditions of clear- List of Environmentally Sensitive Places
ance must be clear and specific. • Religious and historic places
Composition of expert committees: • Archaeological monuments/sites
1. The present executive committees should be replaced • Scenic areas
by expert’s people from various stakeholder groups, • Hill resorts/mountains/ hills
who are reputed in environmental and other relevant • Beach resorts
fields.
• Health resorts
2. The process of selection of those committees should be
open and transparent. The minutes, decisions and ad-
• Coastal areas rich in corals, mangroves, breeding
grounds of specific species
vice by these committee should be open to public.
• Estuaries rich in mangroves, breeding ground of spe-
Monitoring, compliance and institutional cific species
arrangements:
• Gulf areas
1. The EIA notification needs to build within it an auto-
matic withdrawal of clearance if the conditions of clear-
• Biosphere reserves
ance are being violated, and introduce more stringent • National park and wildlife sanctuaries
• Natural lakes, swamps Seismic zones tribal Settlements • The “Bad Loans” issue currently plaguing the Banking
• Areas of scientific and geological interests sector can be substantially resolved through reviving
the stalled projects.
• Defense installations, specially those of security impor-
tance and sensitive to pollution Negatives:
• Border areas (international) • ESP is a clever attempt to legalize EIA violation and gain
• Airport corporate confidence, thereby allowing violator to dam-
• Tiger reserves/elephant reserve/turtle nestling grounds age the environment and circumvent the EIA process.
• Habitat for migratory birds • Among all cases filed in the National Green Tribunal
• Lakes, reservoirs, dams (NGT), around 41% are cases where the NGT found
faults with an EIA assessment. Thus, EIA violation is a
• Streams/rivers/estuary/seas
major in developmental projects. Allowing such viola-
• Railway lines tors to carry on, defeats the ultimate purpose of EIA.
• Highways
• Many experts argue that this indirectly allows pardon-
• Urban agglomeration ing of violations. Rather than building upon the “Pol-
luters Pay Principle”, the ESP looks like an attempt to
Do you know? promote corporate development by using a contradic-
tory “Pay and Pollute” principle.
The criteria followed for specification of a community
as a Scheduled Tribe are (i) indications of primitive • MoEFCC stated the notification has legal basis in
traits, (ii) distinctive culture, (iii) geographical isola- two judgments, one by the NGT and the other by
tion, (iv) shyness of contact with the community at the Jharkhand High Court. But neither of the two
large, and (v) backwardness. judgments condones EIA violations to be regularized
post facto nor does it prescribe a way out of these for
violators.
ENVIRONMENT SUPPLEMENT PLAN (ESP)
• Valuation of environmental loss cannot be just compen-
• An Environmental Supplemental Plan (ESP) is an envi- sated by pecuniary payment by the violator.
ronmentally beneficial project or activity that is not
required by law, but that an alleged violator of Envi- • Whether the fine amount would be collected properly
ronmental Impact Assessment Notification, 2006 agrees and utilized for restoration is doubtful. No mechanism
to undertake as part of the process of environmental has been proposed to utilize the collected funds.
clearance. • ESP provides an escape mechanism to violators. Instead
• “Environmentally beneficial” means an Environmental of following the path of an EIA clearance, they can get
Supplemental Plan must remediate, improve, protect away by paying a penalty through specific investment
the environment or reduce risks to public health or the activities.
environment.
PARIVESH (Pro-Active and Responsive facilitation
Proposals under ESP by Interactive, Virtuous and Environmental
• ESP would allow violator companies to continue their Single-window Hub)
activities by paying a financial penalty.
• PARIVESH is a Single-Window Integrated Environmen-
• This would then be invested in an “environmentally tal Management System. Key features include single
beneficial project or activity” for an affected target registration and single sign-in for all types of clearances
group of stakeholders. (i.e. Environment, Forest, Wildlife and CRZ), unique-ID
Positives for all types of clearances required for a particular pro-
ject and a single Window interface for the proponent to
• Many developmental projects have been currently been submit applications for getting all types of clearances
stalled to non-compliance with EIA regime or for pre-
paring an improper EIA. ESP would enable reviving (i.e. Environment, Forests, Wildlife and CRZ clear-
these projects. ances).
 
PART - II
CHAPTER - 9
BIODIVERSITY
B iodiversity found on Earth today consists of many

millions of distinct biological species, the product of
four billion years of evolution. Biodiversity is the
variety of life on Earth, it includes all organisms, species,
and populations; the genetic variation among these; and
(a) Genetic diversity:
•
•
It is concerned with the variation in genes within a
particular species.
Genetic diversity allows species to adapt to changing
environments.
their complex assemblages of communities and ecosystems.
It also refers to the interrelatedness of genes, species, and • This diversity aims to ensure that some species sur-
ecosystems and in turn, their interactions with the envi- vive drastic changes and thus carry on desirable
ronment. genes.
This is life, This is Biodiversity� • The survival of individuals ensures the survival of
the population.
9.1. BIODIVERSITY • The genetic diversity gives us beautiful butterflies,
Biodiversity is defined as ‘the variability among living or- roses, parakeets or coral in a myriad hues, shapes
ganisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine and and sizes.
other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of (b) Species diversity:
which they are a part; this includes diversity within spe-
cies, between species and of ecosystems’. • It refers to the variety of living organisms on earth.
- United Nations Earth Summit (1992) • Species differ from one another, markedly in their
genetic makeup, do not inter-breed in nature.
• Closely-related species however have in common
Do you know? much of their hereditary characteristics. For in-
Sea snakes are very poisonous. The most poisonous stance, about 98.4 per cent of the genes of humans
one is the Beaded Sea Snake. Just 3 drops of venom can and chimpanzees are the same.
kill about 8 people! Their other methods of defense • It is the ratio of one species population over total
include to spray a stinky, musky liquid or to poop. Eew! number of organisms across all species in the given
biome.
Conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity is funda- • ‘Zero’ would be infinite diversity, and ‘one’ repre-
sents only one species present.
mental to ecologically sustainable development. Biodiver-
sity is part of our daily lives and livelihood, and constitutes (c) Ecosystem/ Community diversity:
resources upon which families, communities, nations and • This refers to the different types of habitats. A habi-
future generations depend. tat is the cumulative factor of the climate, vegetation
and geography of a region.
9�1�1� Levels of Biodiversity
• There are several kinds of habitats around the world.
Biodiversity is considered to exist at three levels: genetics, Corals, grasslands, wetland, desert, mangrove and
species, and ecosystems. tropical rain forests are examples of ecosystems.
• Change in climatic conditions is accompanied by a 9�1�3� Biodiversity and Food Web
change in vegetation as well. Each species adapts The building blocks of plants, animals and humans are
itself to a particular kind of environment. identical, and are made of the four elements - carbon, oxy-
• As the environment changes, species best adapted to gen, nitrogen and hydrogen.
that environment becomes predominant. Thus the These elements are present in the environment - in air,
variety or diversity of species in the ecosystem is water and soil. However, only green plants can absorb
influenced by the nature of the ecosystem. nitrogen from the soil through their roots, and use sunlight
and water to produce energy by a process called photosyn-
thesis. They are known as producers.
Do you know?
Animals and humans, who have plants or other animals
The most dangerous sharks are the Great White shark, as their food, are known as consumers. The chain that
the Tiger shark, the Hammerhead shark, the Mako links consumers to producers is called the food chain or
shark and the Bull shark. On average, there are only web.
about 100 shark attacks each year and only 10 of those Every living creature is found in a food chain. There are
result in a human death. People kill thousands of several food chains and they can be complex or simple
sharks in a year for sport and for food. Shark skins are depending on the environment.
used to make leather products. Until the 1950 s, shark To cite some examples, grasshoppers eat grass and are in
livers were used as a vitamin A supplement. Shark fin turn eaten by frogs; snakes eat frogs and rodents.
soup and shark steaks are both eaten in many coun- Thus the importance of each and every creature in the web
tries. So... who’s the dangerous predator? of life is evident. Tampering with the food chain only pro-
duces negative results, leading to the destruction of the
species.
9�1�2� Measurement of Biodiversity
Every time a species becomes extinct, the chain is broken
Biodiversity is measured by two major components:
and many species, including humans, move closer to ex-
i. species richness, and tinction.
ii. species evenness.
9�1�4� Services provided by Biodiversity:
(i) Species richness
Biodiversity provides a number of natural services for
It is the measure of number of species found in a com-
human beings:
munity
(a) Ecosystem services
a) Alpha diversity
It refers to the diversity within a particular area or ecosys-
• Protection of water resources
tem, and is usually expressed by the number of species (i.e., • Soils formation and protection
species richness) in that ecosystem. • Nutrient storage and recycling
b) Beta diversity • Pollution breakdown and absorption
It is a comparison of diversity between ecosystems, usually • Contribution to climate stability
measured as the change in amount of species between the • Maintenance of ecosystems
ecosystems • Recovery from unpredictable events
c) Gamma diversity (b) Biological services
It is a measure of the overall diversity for the different • Food
ecosystems within a region.
• Medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs
(ii) Species evenness • Wood products
It measures the proportion of species at a given site, e.g. • Ornamental plants
low evenness indicates that a few species dominate the
site.
• Breeding stocks
• Diversity in genes, species and ecosystems
(c) Social services Conservation of biological diversity leads to conservation
• Research, education and monitoring of essential ecological diversity and preserve the continuity
of food chains.
• Recreation and tourism
• Cultural values 9�1�7� Modes of Conservation
(a) Ex-situ conservation: Conserving biodiversity outside
9�1�5� Causes for Biodiversity Loss
the areas where they naturally occur is known as ex-
Loss of biodiversity occurs when either a particular species situ conservation.
is destroyed or the habitat essential for its survival is dam-
aged. The latter is more common as habitat destruction is
• Here, animals are reared or plants are cultivated like
zoological parks or botanical gardens. Reintroduc-
inevitable fallout of development.
tion of an animal or plant into the habitat from
The extinction of species takes place when they are ex- where it has become extinct is another form of ex
ploited for economic gain or hunted as sport or for food. situ conservation.
Extinction of species may also occur due to environmental
reasons like ecological substitutions, biological factors and
• For example, the Gangetic gharial has been reintro-
duced in the rivers of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
pathological causes which can be caused either by nature
Pradesh and Rajasthan where it had become extinct.
or man.
• Seed banks, botanical, horticultural and recreational
(a) Natural causes gardens are important centres for ex-situ conserva-
• floods, tion.
• earthquakes, (b) In-situ conservation: Conserving the animals and
• landslides, plants in their natural habitats is known as in-situ
conservation. The established natural habitats are:
• rivalry among species,
• lack of pollination and diseases. • National parks
• Sanctuaries
(b) Man-Made causes
• Biosphere reserves and
• Habitat destruction • Reserved forests
• Uncontrolled commercial exploitation • Protected forests
• Hunting & poaching
Constraints in biodiversity conservation
• Conversion of rich bio-diversity site for human set-
tlement and industrial development • Low priority for conservation of living natural re-
sources.
• Extension of agriculture
• Pollution • Exploitation of living natural resources for monetary
gain.
• Filling up of wetlands • Values and knowledge about the species and ecosystem
• Destruction of coastal areas are inadequate.
9�1�6� Biodiversity conservation • Unplanned urbanization and uncontrolled industrializa-

tion.
Do you know? 9�1�8� Botanical garden

Not all snakes have fangs. Only the poisonous ones Botanical garden refers to the scientifically planned collec-
do. Fangs are sharp, long, hollow teeth that are tion of living trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers and other
hooked up to small sacs in the snake’s head behind plants from various parts of the world.
their eyes. These sacs produce a poisonous liquid
Purpose of botanical gardens
called venom. When a snake bites, venom is released
and starts to work immediately to kill or paralyze the 1. To study the taxonomy as well as growth of plants.
prey. 2. To study the introduction and acclimatization process
of exotic plants.
3. It acts as a germplasm collection. Green pages are used for those species that were formerly
4. It helps development of new hybrids. endangered, but have now recovered to a point where they
are no longer threatened. With passing time, the number
5. It augments conserving rare and threatened species.
of pink pages continue to increase. There are pitifully few
green pages.
9�1�9� ZOO
Zoo is an establishment, whether stationary or mobile,
where captive animals are kept for exhibition to the public
and includes a circus and rescue centers but does not in-
clude an establishment of a licensed dealer in captive ani-
mals - CZA .
The initial purpose of zoos was entertainment, over the
decades, zoos have got transformed into centres for wildlife
conservation and environmental education.
Apart from saving individual animals, zoos have a role to
play in species conservation too (through captive breeding).
Do you know?
IUCN Categories
Two species of bear which have special feet are polar
bear and the giant panda. The polar bear has partially
webbed toes for swimming and walking on snow as
well as furry bottoms to keep its feet warm on the ice.
Giant pandas do not have a heel pad so they walk
more on their toes.
9.2. THE RED DATA BOOK

Species judged as threatened are listed by various agencies
as well as by some private organizations. The most cited
of these lists is the Red Data Book.
It is a loose-leaf volume of information on the status of
many kinds of species. This volume is continually updated
and is issued by the International Union for Conservation
of Nature (IUCN) located in Morges, Switzerland.
“Red” of course is symbolic of danger that the species both
plants and animals presently experience throughout the 9�2�1 IUCN CLASSIFICATION OF CONSERVATION
globe. PRIORITY
The Red Data Book was first issued in 1966 by the IUCN’s 9�2�1� Extinct (EX)
Special Survival Commission as a guide for formulation,
A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that
preservation and management of species listed.
the last individual has died. A taxon is presumed Extinct
In this Book, information for endangered mammals and when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat,
birds are more extensive than for other groups of animals at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout
and plants, coverage is also given to less prominent organ- its historic range have failed to record an individual.
isms facing extinction.
The pink pages in this publication include the critically 9�2�2� Extinct in the Wild (EW)
endangered species. As the status of the species changes, A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known only to
new pages are sent to the subscribers. survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized pop-
ulation (or populations) well outside the past range. A • it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk
taxon is presumed Extinct in the wild when exhaustive of extinction in the wild.
surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate
times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic 9�2�5� Vulnerable (VU)
range have failed to record an individual. A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence
indicates that it meets any of the criteria for Vulnerable i.e.
9�2�3� Critically Endangered (CR) criteria
A taxon is Critically Endangered when the best available
evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria for Crit-
• reduction in population (> 50% over the last 10 years)
ically Endangered. • population size estimated to number fewer than 10,000
mature individuals,
criteria
• probability of extinction in wild is at least 10% within
• reduction in population (> 90% over the last 10 years), 100 years, and
• population size (number less than 50 mature indi- • it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of
viduals), extinction in the wild.
• quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinc- 9�2�6� Near Threatened (NT)
tion in wild in at least 50% in their 10 years) and
A taxon is Near Threatened when it has been evaluated
• it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high against the criteria but does not qualify for Critically En-
risk of extinction in the wild.
dangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is close to
qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened cate-
PIT VIPERS gory in the near future.
The ‘pit’ is a special organ in between the eyes and the 9�2�7� Least Concern (LC)
nostrils. The pit senses body heat from animals and
A taxon is Least Concern when it has been evaluated
gives the snake a ‘picture’ of that animal. The snake
against the criteria and does not qualify for Critically
can then attack it. This helps these snakes to find prey
Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threat-
in the dark.
ened. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this
Some pit vipers will bite and poison the prey and then category.
release it. It will follow the dying animal, using its
heat sensors, until it stops and the snake can swallow 9.2.8. Data Deficient (DD)
it. Most pit vipers hunt at night when the air is cooler A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate infor-
and the heat from rodents and other prey is most mation to make a direct, or indirect, assessment of its risk
obvious to them. All rattlesnakes are Pit Vipers. of extinction based on its distribution and/or population
status. A taxon in this category may be well studied, and
its biology well known, but appropriate data on abundance
9�2�4� Endangered (EN) and/or distribution are lacking.
A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence Data Deficient is therefore not a category of threat. Listing
indicates that it meets any of the criteria for Endangered. of taxa in this category indicates that more information
is required and acknowledges the possibility that future
criteria
research will show that threatened classification is ap-
• reduction in population size (70% over the last 10 years), propriate.
• population size estimated to number fewer than 250
mature individuals, 9�2�9� Not Evaluated (NE)
A taxon is Not Evaluated when it is has not yet been evalu-
• quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinc- ated against the criteria.
tion in wild in at least 20% within 20 years and
  
CHAPTER - 10
INDIAN BIODIVERSITY DIVERSE

LANDSCAPE
I ndia is a recognised as one of the mega-diverse coun-

tries, rich in biodiversity and associated traditional
knowledge. With just 2.4% of the land area, India ac-
counts for nearly 7% of the recorded species even while
supporting almost 18% of human population.
The Indian region is composed of two realms. They are:
1) the Himalayan region represented by Palearctic Realm
and
2) the rest of the sub-continent represented by Malayan
Realm
In terms of species richness, India ranks seventh in mam-
mals, ninth in birds and fifth in reptiles.
The varied Edaphic, Climatic and Topographic conditions
have resulted in a wide range of ecosystems and habi-
tats such as forests, grasslands, wetlands, coastal and
marine ecosystems, and deserts in India with greater bio-
diversity.
Do you know?
The spider’s body has an oil on it to keep the spider
free from sticking to it’s own web.
Realm
10.1. INDIA REPRESENTS:

Eight terrestrial biogeographic realms are
a) Two Realms recognized.
b) Five Biomes 1. Nearctic realm
c) Ten Bio-geographic Zones 2. Palearctic realm
d) Twenty five Bio-geographic provinces 3. Africotropical realm
4. Indo-Malayan realm
a) Realms: 5. Ocenaia realm
Biogeographic realms are large spatial regions within 6. Australian realm
which ecosystems share a broadly similar biota. Realm is 7. Antarctic realm
a continent or sub continent sized area with unifying fea- 8. Neotropical realm
tures of geography and fauna & flora.
b) Biomes of India: 4) Semi-arid. The zone between the desert and the Dec-
The term biome means the main groups of plants and can plateau, including the Aravalli hill range. 15.6 %
animals living in areas of certain climate patterns. It of the country’s landmass.
includes the way in which animals, vegetation and soil 5) Western ghats. The hill ranges and plains running
interact together. The plants and animals living in the along the western coastline, south of the Tapti river,
area are adapted to that environment. The five biomes of covering an extremely diverse range of biotic provinces
India are: and biomes. 5.8% of the country’s landmass.
1) Tropical Humid Forests 6) Deccan peninsula. The largest of the zones, covering
2) Tropical Dry or Deciduous Forests (including Monsoon much of the southern and southcentral plateau with a
Forests) predominantly deciduous vegetation. 4.3 % of the
country’s landmass.
3) Warm deserts and semi-deserts
7) Gangetic plain. Defined by the Ganges river system,
4) Coniferous forests and
these plains are relatively homogenous. 11% of the
5) Alpine meadows. country’s landmass.
8) North-east India. The plains and non-Himalayan hill
c) Bio-geographic Zones: ranges of northeastern India, with a wide variation of
vegetation. 5.2% of the country’s landmass.
9) Islands. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay
of Bengal, with a highly diverse set of biomes. 0.03%
of the country’s landmass.
10) Coasts. A large coastline distributed both to the west
and east, with distinct differences between the two;
Lakshadeep islands are included in this with the per-
cent area being negligible.
Biogeography is divided into branches:

i. Phyto-geography (plant geography) deals with
origin, distribution and environmental interrela-
Bio-geographic Zones India tionships of plants.
ii. Zoogeography deals with the migration and distri-
bution of animals.
Biogeography deals with the geographical distribution
of plants and animals. There are 10 biogeographic
zones which are distinguished clearly in India. They are
as follows— d) Bio-geographic provinces�
1) Trans-Himalayas. An extension of the Tibetan plateau, Bio-geographic Province is a ecosystematic or biotic subdi-
harboring high-altitude cold desert in Laddakh (J&K) vision of realms. India is divided into 25 bio geographic
and Lahaul Spiti (H.P) comprising 5.7 % of the coun- zones.
try’s landmass.
2) Himalayas. The entire mountain chain running from Biogeographic classification of India was done by
north-western to northeastern India, comprising a di- Rodgers and Panwar (1988), describing 10 biogeo-
verse range of biotic provinces and biomes, 7.2 % of graphic zones in India, further divided into 25 biogeo-
the country’s landmass. graphic provinces. The classification was done using
3) Desert. The extremely arid area west of the Aravalli various factors such as altitude, moisture, topography,
hill range, comprising both the salty desert of Gujarat rainfall, etc. Biogeographic zones were used as a basis
and the sand desert of Rajasthan. 6.9% of the country’s for planning wildlife protected areas in India.
landmass.
7. The Gangetic 7A:Gangetic Plain - Upper
Do you know? Plains Gangetic Plains
The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has 7B:Gangetic Plain - Lower
agreed to construct a fourth underpass for animals Gangetic Plains
on national highway 6 (NH-6) between Sakoli and
Deori near the Nagzira Tiger Reserve (TR). 8. The Coasts 8A: Coasts - West Coast
8B: Coasts - East Coast
8C: Coasts – Lakshdweep
10�1�1� Biogeographic zones and Biogeographic 9. Northeast India 9A:North - East - Braham-
Provinces of India putra Valley
S�No� Biogeographic Biogeographic 9B: North - East – North
Zones (10 nos) Provinces (25 nos) East Hills
1. Trans Himalaya 1A:Himalaya -Ladakh 10. Islands 10A: Islands – Andamans
Mountains
10B: Islands – Nicobars
1B: Himalaya -Tibetan
Plateau
1C: Trans - Himalaya
Sikkim Do you know?
2. The Himalaya 2A:Himalaya - North West Wrinkles help elephants keep their body temperature
Himalaya down. Wrinkles increase the surface area, so that
2B: Himalaya - West more skin becomes wet when the animal bathes. All
Himalaya the cracks and crevices trap moisture, which then
2C: Himalaya - Central takes much longer to evaporate. A wrinkly elephant
Himalaya keeps cooler for longer than it would with smooth
2D:Himalaya - East skin.
Himalaya
3. The Indian 3A: Desert – Thar
Desert 3B: Desert – Katchchh 10.2. FAUNA
4. The Semi Arid 4A: Semi - Arid - Punjab
Plains
4B: Semi - Arid - Gujarat
Rajputana
5. The Western 5A:Western Ghats -
Ghats Malabar Plains
5B:Western Ghats -Western
Ghats Mountains
6. The Deccan 6A: Deccan Peninsular -
Peninsula Central Highlands
6B: Deccan Peninsular -
Chotta Nagpur
6C: Deccan Peninsular -
Eastern Highlands Do you know?
6D: Deccan Peninsular - Eels are sometimes mistaken for Sea Snakes. Eels are
Central Plateau part of the fish family and have gills for breathing. Sea
snakes do not have gills but lungs instead and need to
6E: Deccan Peninsular -
go to the surface for air.)
Deccan South
10�2�1� Vertebrates Reptiles
Vertebrates are animals with backbones and spinal col- • Cold blooded
umns. Vertebrates are the most advanced organisms on
Earth. Although vertebrates represent only a very small • Have scales
percentage of all animals, their size and mobility often • Have dry skin
allow them to dominate their environment.
• Usually lay eggs
• Ear holes instead of ears
• 4 legs or no legs
Aves
• Warm blooded
• Have feathers and wings
• Lay eggs
• Have 2 legs
• Ear holes instead of ears
Mammals
• Warm blooded
• Have hair or fur
• Give birth to live young ones
• Mammal mother nurse their young one with milk
• Breathe with lungs
• Mammals live on land have 4 legs (or 2 legs & 2 arms),
and ears that stick out.
Fishes Do you know?

• Cold blooded Elephants’ ears act as cooling devices. They can meas-
• Live in water ure up to 2 square metres and they are equipped with
• Breathe under water using gills , not lungs an intricate web of blood vessels. When the animal
• Have scales and fins flaps its ears, the blood temperature lowers by as
• Lay eggs much as 5°C.
Amphibians
• Cold blooded 10�2�2� Invertebrates
• Live on land & water Invertebrates do not have backbones. More than 98% ani-
• Webbed feet mal species in the world are invertebrates. Invertebrates
• Breathe with lungs and gills don’t have an internal skeleton made of bone. Many inver-
• Moist smooth skin tebrates have a fluid-filled, hydrostatic skeleton, like the
• Four legs (sometimes none) jelly fish or worm. Others have a hard outer shell, like in-
• Lay eggs sects and crustaceans.
• They do breathe, move and reproduce like multicelled
animals.
• E.g: amoebas, Flagellates,etc.
Arthropods
• Arthropods have limbs with joints that allow them to
move.
• They also have an exoskeleton, which is a hard, external
skeleton.
• Arthropods include the crustaceans and insects, arach-
nids.
Crustaceans
• live mostly in the ocean or other waters.
• Crustaceans have a hard, external shell which protects
their body
• Most commonly known crustaceans are the crab, lob-
ster and barnacle.
Insects
• Insects have an exoskeleton that covers their entire
body.
Annelids • An insect’s consists of 3 body parts and 6 legs and a

antennae
• Annelids have bodies that are divided into segments. • E.g: beetle, butterfly, moth, dragonfly, bee, wasp and
• They have very well-developed internal organs. praying mantis.
• Found almost anywhere in the world.
• They don’t have any limbs. Arachnids
• E.g: earthworms, leeches, roundworms, etc. • Common arachnids are spiders, scorpions, ticks and
mites.
Mollusks
• Arachnids do not have antennae.
• Most mollusks have a soft, skin-like organ covered with • Arachnids have 2 body parts and 4 pairs of legs.
a hard outside shell.
• Some mollusks live on land, such as the snail and slug.
• Other mollusks live in water, such as the oyster, mussel, 10.3. FLOR AL DIVERSITY
clam, squid and octopus.
In terms of plant diversity, India ranks tenth in the world
Echinoderms and fourth in Asia. India represents nearly 11% of the
• Echinoderms are marine animals that live in the ocean. world’s known floral diversity.
• Most echinoderms have arms or spines that radiate
from the center of their body. Do you know?
• Common echinoderms include the sea star, sea urchin, Polar bears are marvellously adapted to their Arctic sur-
sand dollar and sea cucumber. roundings. Their glossy ‘guard’ hairs and dense under-
Protozoa fur, the thick layer of fat beneath their skin, and their
size protect them against the cold. The guard hairs shed
• Protozoa are simple, single-celled animals. water easily, so that after a swim the polar bear can
• They are the smallest of all animals. shake itself like a dog to dry and warm itself quickly.
• Most protozoa are microscopic.
10.3.1. Important floral groups found in India are 4� Lichens
described below: A lichen is a peculiar combination of an alga and a fungus–
1� Algae the two live deriving mutual benefit.
The green non differentiated plants (non - differentiated They are group of greyish green plants which grow on
into organs like root, stem and leaf.) possessing chlorophyll rocks, tree-trunks, dead wood, etc.
are known as Algae. They usually grow in water or in The algae manufactures food which becomes available to
moist situations. the fungus, and the absorbs and retains water and thus
The fresh-water algae are generally green or blue-green in keeps the algal cells moist. A example of symbiosis.
colour, whereas the marine ones are red or brown. These They are most common in wetlands, rare in rivers and
are autotrophic plants, as they can manufacture their own streams and are not found in ground water.
food.
5� Bryophytes
2� Fungi:
The plant body is differentiated into a small stem and sim-
Non-green non differentiated plants characterised by total ple leaves, but true roots are absent.
absence of chlorophyll are called Fungi.
They usually grow in moist places. E.g. Liverworts, mosses
They grow either on dead, rotten organic matters as sap-
They are the second largest group of green plants in India
rophytes or live as parasites on other living bodies, which
distributed largely in Eastern Himalaya, North-eastern
are referred to as hosts.
India, Western Himalaya and the Western Ghats.
Moulds and mushrooms are the familiar examples of sap-
Mosses constitute the major component of Indian bryoflora
rophytic fungi. The maximum diversity of fungi is in the
followed by liverworts and hornworts.
Western Ghats followed by the eastern Himalaya and the
western Himalaya. 6� Pteridophytes
3� Bacteria The pteridophytes have well-differentiated plant bodies,
consisting of roots, stems and leaves. Moreover, they pos-
Non-chlorophyllous micro-organisms which lead sapro-
sess vascular bundles.
phytic or parasitic existence. Many of them are pathogenic;
Saprophytic bacteria are rather beneficial. They are soil Most of them are terrestrial plants flourishing well in moist
borne and many of them are used in industries. and shady places, and some of them are aquatic.
This group includes the vascular cryptogams like club- India has more than 7% of the world’s known flowering
mosses, horse-tails and ferns which are universally dis- plants.
tributed all over the world.
The north-eastern region (including Eastern Himalaya) is 10�3�2� Floral endemism - order
rich in pteridophytic diversity, followed by south India (in- 1) peninsular India including western and Eastern Ghats
cluding Eastern and Western Ghats) and north India (in- (about 2,600 species),
cluding Western Himalaya). 2) Eastern Himalaya and north-eastern region (about
7� Gymnosperms 2,500 species),
Gymnosperms (gymnos=naked, sperma=seed) are the 3) north-western Himalaya (about 800 species) and
naked-seeded plants. 4) Andaman & Nicobar Islands (about 250 species).
They have very simple flowers without accessory whorls
and stamens and carpels remain aggregated in cones. 10�3�3� Crop genetic diversity
Ovules are present on the surface of the carpels and are Agriculture remains one of the dominant drivers and
directly pollinated by the pollen grains. mainstay of economic growth in India. The large mosaic
of distinct agro-ecosystems, characterized by variations
There is nothing like ovary, style and stigma, and naturally in edaphic, climatic and geographic features, has contrib-
there is no fruit. uted to diverse cropping patterns and systems across the
e.g. Cycas, Pinus, Gnetum. country.
Pine is the largest family. Gnetum and Cycas are mostly India stands seventh in the world in terms of contribution
confined to North Eastern region, Eastern and Western of species to agriculture and animal husbandry.
Ghats, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
The national gene bank at National Bureau Of Plant Genetic
Resources (NBPGR), Delhi is primarily responsible for con-
servation of unique accessions on long-term basis, as base
Do you know? collections for posterity, predominantly in the form of
Polar bears evolved relatively recently (about 200,000 seeds.
years to possibly as long as 500,000 years ago) from
grizzly bears somewhere off eastern Russia or the 10�3�4� Livestock genetic diversity
Alaskan Panhandle. They depend on sea ice for their
India has vast resources of livestock and poultry, which
primary habitat for their food (mainly ringed seals
and bearded seals). As the world’s oceans have never play a vital role in rural livelihood security. In terms of
been frozen from the north to the south, polar bears population, India ranks first in buffaloes, second in cattle
simply didn’t have the possibility to reach the Ant- and goats, third in sheep, fourth in ducks, fifth in chicken
arctic, although it would have been a perfect home and sixth in camels in the world.
for them.
Do you know?
8� Angiosperms: The name ‘white rhinoceros’ is taken from the Afri-
Angiosperms (angeion=a case) are the closed-seeded kaans word describing its mouth: “weit”, meaning
plants. “wide”. Early English settlers in South Africa misin-
terpreted the “weit” for “white”.
These are the most highly developed plants which bear
White rhinos are also sometimes called ‘the square-
flowers having conspicuous accessory and essential whorls.
lipped rhinoceros’. Their upper lip lacks the prehensile
Carpels have the ovary, style and stigma. ‘hook’ of some of the other rhino species. The white
With the stimulus of fertilization the ovary usually devel- rhino is the largest species of land mammal after the
ops into the fruit and the ovules into seeds. Thus the seeds elephant.
remain within the fruits.
The genetic resources of farm animals in India are repre- Flora: Sal in north and east extensions (higher rainfall)
sented by a broad spectrum of native breeds of cattle, buf- and teak in southern plateau are dominant trees. West
faloes, goats, sheep, swine, equines, camel and poultry. Ghats have evergreen vegetation (flora and fauna similar
Over the years, animal husbandry has intensified in India to evergreen rainforests of north eastern of India. In dry
with widespread introduction of exotic breeds. This has led areas of Rajasthan and Aravalli hills, trees are scattered
to the reduction in total genetic variability and population and thorny scrub species predominate. The forests give
size of many local breeds. The majority (85%) of the do- way to more open savannah habit.
mestic livestock in India is reared under low input produc-
tion systems.
Do you know?
10.4. WILDLIFE OF INDIA polar bears have the ability to slow down their me-
10�4�1� Himalayan mountain system tabolism, after 7-10 days of not being able to feed, for
The west Himalayas have low rainfall, heavy snowfall (tem- whatever reason and at any time of year, until food
perate conditions), whereas in east Himalayas, there is becomes available again. This helps them adapt to the
heavy rainfall, snowfall only at very high altitudes, where uncertainties of food availability in the Arctic. In com-
as at lower altitudes conditions are similar to the tropical parison, black or brown bears can slow down their
rain forests. Flora and fauna of both Himalayas differ. metabolism only in response to not feeding in the late
autumn, just before they enter their dens for the win-
(1) Himalayan foothills
ter. If food is not available in spring or summer, they
Flora: Natural monsoon evergreen and semi-evergreen will simply starve to death.
forests; dominant species are sal, silk-cotton trees, giant
bamboos; tall grassy meadow with savannahs in tarai.
(2) Western Himalayas (High altitude region) (2) Indian desert�
Flora: Natural monsoon evergreen and semi-evergreen Thar desert of Rajasthan has unique flora and fauna.
forests; rhododendrons; dwarf hill bamboo and birch for- Flora: Throny trees with reduced leaves; cacti, other suc-
ests mixed with alpine pastures. culents are the main plants.
(3) Eastern Himalayas�
Flora� Oaks, magnolias, laurels and birches covered with
10�4�3� Tropical rain forest region
moss and ferns; coniferous forests of pine, fir, yew and Distributed in areas of western ghats and north east India.
junipers with undergrowth of scrubby rhododendrons and Flora: Extensive grass lands interspersed with densely
dwarf bamboos; lichens, moses, orchids, and other epi- forested gorges of evergreen vegetation known as sholas
phytes dominant (due to high humidity and high rainfall). occur in the Nilgiris (an offshoot of Western ghats). Sholas
also occur in Aanaimalai and Palani hills. The rain forests
10�4�2� Peninsular - Indian sub-region of the Western ghats have dense and lofty trees with much
It has two zones. species diversity. Mosses, ferns, epiphytes, orchids, lianas
(i) peninsular India and its extension into the drainage and vines, herbs, shrubs make diverse habitat. Ebony trees
basin of the Ganges river system, and predominate in these forests. A variety of tropical orchids
are found. Stratification in rain forests is very distinct-
(ii) desert region of Rajasthan-the Thar of Indian desert
three horizontal layers are distinguished.
region.
(1)� Peninsular India� 10�4�4� Andaman and Nicobar Islands
It is home to tropical moist deciduous to tropical dry de- Flora� These are home for tropical rain forests. Giant Dip-
ciduous and scrub vegetation depending upon the variation terocarpus, Terminalia and Lagerstroemia are dominant.
in rainfall and humidity. Mangroves are also distributed in the coastal areas.
10�4�5� Mangrove swamps of Sunderbans
Do you know? Sunderbans are delta of the Ganges where both the Brah-
Penguins are warm blooded, Just like whales, pen- maputra and Ganges join and drain into the Bay of Bengal.
guins have a layer of fat under their skin called “blub- Flora� The lower tidal zones are pioneer trees like Son-
ber”. Overtop of this they are covered with fluffy neratia and avicennia. Above this zone there are rhiz-
“down” feathers and overtop of those they have their ophora, bruguiria and excaecaria-cereops forest (covering
outer feathers which overlap to seal in warmth. Pen- nearly 70% of mangrove forest). Above this level there are
guins rub oil from a gland onto their feathers to help supporting forest of phoneix in association with excaecaria.
make them waterproof and windproof. There are heriteria forest in the highest portion with thick
undergrowth of phoneix and neepa plams.
 
CHAPTER - 11
SCHEDULE ANIMALS OF WPA 1972
11.1. SCHEDULE LIST-WPA, 1972 • Examples of animals listed in schedule 3 are hyaena,
Wildlife Protection Act (WPA), 1972 consists of 6 schedule hogdeer, nilgai, goral, sponges, barking deer, etc.
lists, which give varying degrees of protection. • Examples of animals listed in schedule 4 are man-
Poaching, smuggling and illegal trade of animals listed gooses, vultures, etc.
Schedule 1 to schedule 4 are prohibited.
Schedule 1 and part II of Schedule 2 schedule 5
• Animals listed in schedule 1 and part II of schedule 2 • Animals listed in schedule 5 are called “vermin” which
have absolute protection - offences under these are pre- can be hunted.
scribed the highest penalties.
• Mice, rat, common crow and flying fox (fruit eating
• Examples of animals listed in schedule 1 are lion tailed bats) are the list of animals (only 4 nos) in schedule 5
macaque, rhinoceros, great indian bustard, narcondam
[i.e. vermin].
hornbill, nicobar megapode, black buck, etc.
• Examples of animals listed in schedule 2 are rhesus
macaque, dhole, Bengal porcupine, king cobra, flying Schedule 6
squirrel, himalyan brown bear, etc. • Cultivation, Collection, extraction, trade, etc. of Plants
and its derivatives listed in schedule 6 are prohibited.
Schedule 3 and schedule 4
• Red Vanda, blue Vanda, kuth, pitcher plant, beddomes
• Animals listed in schedule 3 and schedule 4 are also
cycad and ladies slipper orchid are the list of plants
protected, but the penalties are lower compared to
listed in schedule 6 (Refer page - 154, 157).
schedule 1 and part 2 of schedule 2.
Description of Animals listed in Schedule 1 to 4 of WPA, 1972�
S� No� Common Name Category Range Description Habitat & Ecology Major threat
1. Andaman Wild Least Andaman Temperate to Habitat destruction
Pig Concern Tropical Habitat and hunting
pressure.
2. Bharal Least Bhutan, China, Open grass slopes Competition with
Concern Northern India, in high mountain livestock, habitat
Northern Myanmar, from 2500 - 5500 destruction due to
Nepal, North Pakistan. m avoid entering livestock.
forest area
Blue Sheep - North
Himalaya & Trans
Himalaya - along the
border of Arunachal
Pradesh.
Ladak, Himachal
Pradesh, U.P., Sikkim
and Eastern
Arunachal Pradesh &
recently conformed in
Western Arunachal
Pradesh
3. Binturong Vulnerable India - Sikkim, Arboreal animal, Habitat loss and
Bangladesh, Bhutan feed on fruits, degradation.
Myanmar, China insects, birds.
4. Brown antlered Endangered South & South East Open, Grass Hunting, Medicinal
Deer Asia, Manipur dominated habitat. Product, Habitat loss.
(Southern end of
“Hydroelectric Power
loktak lake) region of
Project - loktak lake
N.E. India through
Myanmar.
5. Brown Beer Critically India (Jammu and Temperate rain Man - animal
Endangered Kashmir, Himachal forest. (Northern conflict
Pradesh, Uttarkhant), India, Western
Nepal, Pakistan, China China)
6. Capped Langur Vulnerable Bangladesh, Bhutan Diurnal, arboreal, Habitat destruction,
(N.E. India - A.P., broadleaf, jhum cultivation,
Assam, Manipur, deciduous monoculture, timber
Meghalaya, Mizoram, and firewood
& bamboo forest
Nagaland, Tripura) harvest. Traded for
meat purpose.
Brahmaputra (Karbi
Anglong, Khasi, Garo,
Naga & Jaintia hills) &
Myanmar
7. Caracal desert Least Africa, Central Asia, Semi - desert to Habitat, destruction,
lynx Concern South West Asia into open tropical hunting
India grassland
8. Cheetah Vulnerable 1. Extint - Central - Open Grassy Habitat loss,

India & Pakistan habitat, dry forest, fragmentation, loss
savanna woodland, of prey - due to
2. Asiastic Cheetah
semi - desert - human hunting
(critically endangered)
absent in tropical activities. livestock
- Iran - only
rain forest damage - hunting by
man.
9. Chinese Pangolin Endangered Occur in Himalayan Primary & Habitat loss, hunting
foot hills in Eastern Secondary tropical for local use trade
Nepal, Bhutan, forest, lime stone skin, scales & meat
Northern India, North forest, bamboo
East Bangladesh (India forest, grassland &
- Sikkim) agricultural field.
Nocturnal animal
10. Indian Gazelle Least Western & Central Inhabits arid area, Habitat loss through
(Chinkara) Concern India through Sand deserts, Flat overgrazing,
Pakistan, South-West plains & hills, dry conversion to
Afghan. (Thar desert scrub & light agriculture &
remains strong hold) forest. industrial
development
11. Clouded Leopard Vulnerable Himalayan foot hill in Arboreal, forest Habitat destruction.
Nepal through habitat (Primary Hunted for skin,
mainland South East every green tropical bones for medicine,
Asia - China rainforest, also in captive animal
dry deciduous forest
Himalaya - 2500 m.
12. Crab eating Least Occurs on Nicobar Grassland, Hunting, Habitat

Macaque Concern Island of India, (Little loss.
Mangrove, swamp
Nicobar & Great
forest and can be
Nicobar) where it
found in
found up to 600 m.
agricultural area
near forest.
13. Sand Cat Near Only found in true Specialist of Habitat degradation
threatened desert. Northern sand desert, major threat - by
Africa, Southwest & localized around human settlement
Central Asia spare regetation and livestock grazing
which can
support small
rodent prey.
14. Dugong Dugong Vulnerable Coastal Island Coastal water, Habitat &
water belt East wide shallow degradation loss
(Sea Cow)
Africa & Vanuate belt mangroove &
Indigenous use &
latitude 27° N - South sizeable sea grass
hunting, pollution
of Eq (India - bed.
Andaman & Nicobar,
Laccadives)
15. Ermine Least Throughout North Forest edge No major threat

Concern America, Europe, Asia, habitat, scrub, Habitat destruction
Greenland, Canada, alpine meadow, due to timber loss.
Siberia, India. marshes, riparian
woodland,
hedgerows.
16. Fishing Cat Endangered Asia - Pakistan - Indus Wetland (Swamp Wetland destruction
Valley India - Nagpur, and marshy), 45% of wetland
Himalayan foothill & Oxbow lake, reed 94% of globally
Eastern India. beds, mangroves. significant wetland
(Keoladeo National - threatened.
Evergreen &
Park)
tropical dry forest. eg: Human
settlement,
agricultural
pollution, hunting &
Wood cutting.
17. Four horned Vulnerable 2008 - Widely Found in well- Habitat destruction
antelope distributed but wooded undulating through the
in scattered (or) hilly area and clearance of scrub &
population over never far from forest for agriculture.
most of India - From water, they are
Himalaya foothills solitary & browse
to Peninsular & graze.
India.
(Nepal. India)
18. Ganges river Endangered Indus Ganges - Cone in counter - 1. Water development
Dolphin Brahmaputra Megna, current pools project
Karnaphuli - Sangu below channel
2. Fragmenting
river system of south. convergence
of pop, dams,
Asian subcontinent, meanders. Can’t
barrages.
from upstream to tolerate salinity >
where they blocked 10 ppt. 3. Pollutant loads.
by barrier.
4. Deliberate killing
5. Mortality in
fishing gear
19. India Gaur Vulnerable Gaur historically From sea level Hunting, Habitat
occured throughout upto least 2800m. degradation, forest
main land south. (hill & low lying fragmentation with
South east asia, area.) human population.
Srilanka.
1. undisturbed
forest tact,
2. hilly terrain
3. availability of
water.
4. availability of
coarse grasses
20. Golden Cat Near Himalayan foothills Forest habitat Habitat loss to
threatened into China and South ranging from deforestations, illegal
East Asia tropical and trading
subtropical
evergreen to
mixed & dry
deciduous forest
21. Golden Langur Endangered Bhutan and North- Moist evergreen, Habitat destruction,
east India (Assam). diptero carp, Hunting.
Forest beltwest Assam riverine & moist
between manas river deciduous forest
in east, sankosh -
Brahmaputra
22(a) Indian / Malabar Least Southwestern, Central, Diuval - arboreal Habitat degradation
Gaint aquirtel Concern Eastern Peninsular sp. Tropical - agriculture and
India (W.G., E.G. & evergreen, semi plantation,
Satpura) AP, Kar, TN, evergreen & Moist Monoculture, dam,
M.P. Mah, Chatti, Jhar, decidous forest. Hunting.
Gujar, Kerala High Cannopy
22(b) Grizzled giant Near Southern India Tropical dry Habitat degradation
squirrel threatened (Kerala, TN) Srilanka decidous & agriculture and
Montane forest plantation,
Monoculture, dam,
Hunting.
23. Himalyan Ibex Least Central & Northeast Mountain, open Hunted for food.
Concern Afghanistan, China, alpine meadow & Habitat loss due to
North (India) - Hima crags (not in forest competition with
of Jammu and zone) livestock.
Kashmir & Himachal
Pradesh Hindu Kush
range (Karakoram,
Trans-Himalayan)
24. Himalayan Thar Near Himalaya China Steep rocky Uncontrolled hunting
threatened (Southern Tibet), mountain side & deforestation,
North India (J.K. to (3000-4000). habitat lose due to
Sikkim) & Nepal Grass, herb & livestock grazing.
(Uttarkhand, H.P.). fruit.
25. Hispid Hare Endangered From Uttar Pradesh Tall grassland Habitat loss, agri,
through Nepal, West (Elephant Grass) logging, flood control
Bengal to Assam and HD
(W.B., Assam,
Bihar, U.P.)
26. Hog budger Near Central to South east Diurnal, forested Hunting by Dogs &
threatened Asia. Mongolia, India area (tuberroot, Man.
(Sikkim, Terai, Assam, earthworm,
A.P.), China, Indonesia, insects).
LaoPDR, Myanmar
1) grass land -
India Terai
(Evergreen Forest)
27. Hoolock Endangered Northeast India, Forest dweller, Habitat loss,

Gibbon Bangladesh (A.P., locale, inhabit fragmentation,
Assam, Manipur, tropical evergreen human interferences
1) Western
Meghalaya, Tripura, (Tree to tree more) hunting,
Mizoram, Nagaland)
Upto South of
Brahamaputra & East
of Dibang
2) Eastern Vulnerable Southern China & Hill forest, Habitat loss,

Chindwin river Mountainous, piro fragmentation,
Myanmar. Boundary dominated forest human interferences
between (2) Hoolock hunting,
gibbon uncertain
in chindwin head
water.
India not found
(Expect
Eastern A.P.)
28. Leopard Near Southwest Asia, Rainforest to Habitat loss,

threatened Himalayan foothills, desert. India - all (deforestation)
India, China, Jawa, forest type-tropical peaching for illegal
Srilanka “Leopards rainforest to temp trade.
occur widely in forest deciduous and
Human attack on
of India - sub alpine coniferous.
people.
continent.
29. Leopard Cat Least Widespread up in Upto 3000m, Commercial
Concern Asia. Most of India extent into river exploitation
west into pak. Afgh, valley - Tropical to for skin.
through Himalayan temp broad leaf,
Leopard Cat X
foothill - across China, coniferous,
Domestic
Russia. grassland, cold
Cat - hybridisation
steppe to desert
is also not threat.
Pakistan
30. Red Panda Endangered Nepal, India, Bhutan, Temparate Forest Habitat loss,
Myanmar, Southern - having bamboo Fragmentation
China. (Meghalayan - thickest under Poaching, inbreeding
Plateau - North east stories depression.
India).
31. Loin tailed Endangered Endemic “Western Upper canopy of Habitat
Macaque Ghat hills range in primary tropical fragmentation
South Western India evergreen (Exotic plant - tea,
(Karnataka, Kerala, rainforest - Eucalyptus, Coffee)
Tamil Nadu) Monsoon forest in
hilly country
32. Indo-pacific Vulnerable Malabar West of India Coastal water, Susceptible to
Finlers porpoise Shallow bay, entanglement in
Mangrove, gillnets. Pollution
Swamps and boat traffic.
Estuaries.
33. Red Slenderlori Endangered Srilanka Primarily Habitat loss due to
insectivorous road kills,
Gray Slenderlori Least Southern eastern
electrification,
Concern India (Andhra Near human
Medicine uses.
Pradesh, Kar, Kerala, habitation
TN) Srilanka
34. Asian Caracal Least Africa, Centralasia, Semi desert, open Habitat destruction,
(Lynx) Concern Southwest Asia into savanna to moist Hunting due to
India wood land, its attack on
evergreen forest. livestock
35. Malabar Civet Critically Endemic western ghat, Lowland forest, Habitat loss &
Endangered Coastal district of lowland swamp degradation.
Western Ghats. and riparian forest Poaching for
Kanyakumari to in coastal plain civet oil
Wayanad, Coorg - district
Karnataka
36. Sun Bear Vulnerable Southeast Asia, Tropical forest Habitation,
North eastern India, habitat, Commercial
Southern China, Mangroves, Hunting.
Bangladesh Swamp
37. Marbled Cat Vulnerable Tropical Indo-Malaya Moist - Mixed Deforestation - due
westward along decidous evergreen to oil palm, logging,
Himalayan foot hills tropical forest agriculture.
- Nepal & China,
Sumatra Borneo.
38. Markhor Near Northeast Afghan, Mountain terrain Hunting and Habitat
threatened Northern India (J & 600 m - 3600 m Alteration. (Armed
K), Pakistan, - feeds on grasses conflict).
Uspekistan. “Pirpanjal & leaves.
range”, Banihal pass
on Jammu - Srinagar
highway.
39. Mouse Deer Least India - from T.N. & Tropical deciduous, Hunting (for Meat
Concern Kerala infar south Moist evergreen & purpose) - W.G. &
- north upto Rajasthan Semi ever-green E.G.
forest of
Peninsular hill
40. Himalayan Musk Endangered Himalayan of Bhutan, Alpine 1. Hunting for Meat.
Deer North India (Sikkim), environment,
Nepal & China barren plateaus at
high altitude 2. Trade - Musk
meadows, fell gland - Cosmetic /
fields, shurblands Pharmaceutical
forest
41. Nilgiri Langur Vulnerable Western Ghats in Evergreen, Hunted for skin,
South Western India Semi-evergreen Medicine, Habitat
(Karnataka, Kerala, Moist deciduous & loss, Mining, dam,
TN) riparian forest in road fills.
lower altitude
42 Nilgiri Tahr Endangered 5% of West Ghats in High elevation, Habitat loss &
South India (Kerala & grass covered hills, poaching.
Tamil Nadu) open terrain
43. Indian Pangolin Near South asia, Eastern Tropical forest, Meat & Medicine.
threatened part of pak to India open land, (for boots & shoes)
(Except North East grasslands, etc.
India). Himalayan to
High in human
extreme South. India
settlement area.
(TN, Kerala)
44. Pygmy Hog Critically Northwest Bengal & Smallest & Rarest Habitat loss,
Endangered North - Western wild pig in world. affecting natural
Assam in India. Grassland - with succession.
Himalayan foot hill shrub & tree
from Up to Assam
45. Greater onehorn Vulnerable Northern part - India Riverine grassland Habitat loss,
Rhino along Indus, Ganga, - Terai. Alluvial Poaching for horn
Brahmaputra basin grass land - - Medicinal use in
includes Nepal, swamps & forest China.
Bhutan, Bangladesh,
Pakistan
46. Rusty spotted Vulnerable India & Srilanka Moist & dry Habitat loss due to
Cat (confined to south) deciduous forest agriculture
types, scrub &
grassland - absent
in evergreen
forest.
47. Himalayan Near Southeast Bangladesh, Steep hills & rocky Meat & tropics,
Serow threatened Himalaya (Bhutan, places - limestone habitat destruction,
Northern India - region upto 3000 for agriculture,
Sikkim & Nepal), m & hill & fuelwood.
North east India & mountain foreat
into west myanmar area.
48. Asia - small Vulnerable India - Himalayan Wetland system Habitat destruction.
clawled offer foothills of H.P. (Kulu), - having pools & Tea & Coffee
WB, Assam, A.P. & S.I. stagnant water. cultivation
- Coorg (Karnataka), Fresh water
Ashambu, Nilgiri, swamp,
Palani Hill (TN), meandering river,
Kerala mangroves & tidal
tools.
49. Sloth Bear Vulnerable India, Nepal, Bhutan, Wet & dry tropical Habitat loss,
Srilanka forest, grasslands. poaching (harvesting
Lowland species - of forest produce,
(From Gujarat - to
1500 m W.G. - upto Monoculture)
NES) Western Ghats
2000 m
(Medicine) - fat of
bear
50. Bengal slow lori Vulnerable Bangladesh, Arboreal, Habitat loss -
Cambodia, China, nocturnal species Farming, road
North - Eastern India - tropical building, dam, power
(A.P., Assam etc). evergreen forest, line. Hunting -
semi & moist Medicine.
deciduous forest.
51. Travancore Near Restricted to W.G. of Arboreal & Habitat loss due to
Flying squirrel Threatened Southern India and Nocturnal agriculture & human
Srilanka. kerala & T.N. Evergreen, settlement.
(from Brahmagiri decidous and
Wildlife Santuary, montane forest
Karnataka).
52. Snubfin Dolphin Vulnerable Southeast Asia, India Coastal area with Habitat loss and
- Chilika lake. muddy, brackish degradation.
water at river
mouth.
53. Snow leopard Endangered High mountain of C.A, Alphine & Sub Reduce in prey,
Pamir, Karakorum, alphine ecological illegal trade, people
Hindu Kush and zone favouring conflict, lack of
Himalayan Range. steep terrain. conservation
capacity policy &
India - “J.K., H.P.,
awarness.
Sikkim, Uttarkhand).
54. Swamp Deer Vulnerable Northern & Central Open sal, with Habitat loss - due to
India, Southwestern grass understorey conversion into
Nepal (Assam - and grassland agriculture land.
Sunderbans (Indo forms, true swamp
- Gangetic) deer, Mangroves of
Sunderban.
55. Chiru Endangered China, India (J & K) High altitude Hunted for fur
plain, hill plateau (Shahtosh)
& Montane valley
Quality - making
“shawls”
56. Tibetan Fox Least Tibetan Plateau, Ladak Upland plains, No Major threat
Concern area of India, China, hills - mostly spare
Nepal grassland devoid
of trees & shrub
57. Tibetan Gazelle Near Qinghai - Tibet High altitude Habitat loss.
threatened Plateau, India (ladak, plains, hills also
Sikkim). grasses in wetland
margin.
58. Kiang (Wild Ass) Least Tibetan Plateau, Open terrain, Hunting, disease
Concern China, Northern Pak, plains, alphine transmission from
India, Nepal) Ladak & meadows - where domestic livestock.
Sikkim grasses & sedges
abundant.
59. Tiger Endangered Southwest Asia, Forest of tropical Poaching, Man
Central Asia, (Java & Asia animal conflict,
Bali) - disappeared. (bore anti-
inflammatory
Asian Countries -
property)
Bang, Bhutan,
Cambodia, China,
India, Indonesia, Laos,
Malaysia, Myanmar,
Nepal, Russia,
Thailand & Vietnam
60 Urial Vulnerable India - Only (laddak), Moderate to arid Poaching,
Central and South habitat grassland. Competition with
West Asia. livestock.
61. Indian Buffalo Endangered S. Nepal, Southern Low - lying Interbreeding with
Bhutan, Western Alluvial grassland, feral & domestic
Thailand, Northern deciduous forest buffalo, hunting &
Myanmar, India - with marshes & habitat loss.
(Bastar region - M.P., rivers.
Assam, AP, Meghalaya,
Orissa, Maharastra)
62.(a) Terrapin Critically Bangladesh, India, Terrestrial nest Trade
Endangered Cambodia, India, sites, tidal area of
Indonesia, Malaysia. largest river
estuaries
62.(b) Tricarinate Hill Vulnerable Bangladesh, India Fully terrestrial -
Turtle
63. Gharial Critically India - Chambal River, Terrestrial, Fresh Alternation of
endangered Girwa river. Pop - Son Water habitat, Fishing,
River Agriculture, grazing,
utilization
Bihar, U.P.
64. India Softshell Vulnerable Bangladesh, India Terrestrial, Fresh Trade in East Asian
Turtle (Ganges River), Water Market
Pakistan
65. Green Turtle Endangered Throughout tropical Highly migratory, Harvest of egg &
water, lesser - broad habitat Adult from nesting
subtropical. Indian during their beaches, retting,
ocean - east, west, lifetime. trawling.
mediterranean Sea,
Pacific ocean
66. Hawsbill Turtle Critically Throughout tropical Highly migratory, Tortoises shell trade
endangered water, larger extent broad habitat -
Egg collection, meat,
subtropical, Atlantic, during life time.
Indian, Pacific Ocean Destruction of
Nesting habitat,
Foraging habitat, oil
pollution,
hybridisation
67. Leather Back Vulnerable Leather back are Turtle inhabiting Habitat destruction,
Turtle distributed, with tropical, pollution, climate
nesting site on subtropical & sub change, Fisheries by
tropical sandy beaches polar extensive Catch.
& foraging range migration, different
that extent into temp / feeding area at
sup polar. different season.
68. Olive Ridly Vulnerable Throughout tropical Multiple habitat, Targeted
water (Except Mexico). Migration less Exploitation,
compared to other capturing, by
- usually carred by catch in fisheries,
major currents Habitat
impact, disease &
predation
69. Bengal Florican Critically Two population lowland dry, Modification of
endangered natural & semi- grassland,
1. Indian Sub
natural grassland, overgrazing,
Continent - (U.P.,
open forest. inappropriate
Nepal, Assam, A.P.)
cutting, burning
2. South - East Asia - & ploughing
Cambodia, Vietnam. regimes, flooding,
dam construction,
illegal
development.
70. Black Necked- Vulnerable China, Ladakh (A.P.) Alpine bog Intensive grazing &
Crane - India, Bhutan meadows & pesticide use - result
riverine marshes, in degradation of
lacustrine grassland.
marshes.
71. Cheer Pheasant Vulnerable India - Kashmir, H.P., Rocky terrain Hunted, egg
Uttarkhand, Pakistan, dominated by consumption,
Nepal scrub, tall grass & construction project
scattered clumb (dam, electricity).
tree (1445 -
3050m)
72. Forest Owlet Critically Endemic - Central Open dry Forest destruction,
endangered India, (North - deciduous forest human settlement &
Western Maharashtra, dominated by grazing.
South-east M.P. Teak, ground
Till 1997 only with grasses -
specimen, 2000 typical owlet site.
rediscovered.
73. Barking Deer Least Thai - Malay 1. In forest & areas Habitat
(or) Muntjac Concern Peninsula, Greater adjacent to forest encroachment &
Sundas (Borneo, Java, Hunting for
2. In plantations
Bali, Sumatra) freshmeat.
of coffee
rubber, sugarcane,
teak
74. Chital Least 8 - 30° N in India 1. Avoids - Dense Hunting &
Concern (Including SIKKIM), Moist forest Competition with
Nepal, Bhutan, domestic livestock
Open semi arid &
Bangladesh, Srilanka
arid desert No Major threat
WB - Eastern
2. Moist, dry
Rajasthan
deciduous
NB - Foothills &
day thorny scrub
Himalayas
(or) grasslands
EB - Western Assam - Habitat
SB - Throughout
Peninsular India
75. Goral (or) Near Bhutan, China 1. Steep Mountains Habitat destruction
Wodgsoni threatened (Southern Tibet) & will use Hunting competition
Northern India (Incl evergreen forest of livestock
SIKKIM) Northern near cliff
Pakistan Possibly
2. feed in grassy
Western Myanmar
rights & steep
rocky slopes
76. Hogdeer Endangered Pakistan, North & 1. Wet (or) Moist Hunting habitat cons
North Eastern India tall grassland degradation
east across non- 2. Floodplain
sundalic region grassland
Marginally - Southern
China
77. Hyena Near Africa, Arab peninsula 1. Open habitat (or) Persecution
threatened Turkey. Indian light thorn (poisoning)
Sub-continent recently
2. Avoids & open decrease in source
to Nepal
Desert
78. Nilgai Least concern Widely distributed in 1. Arid areas, 1. Constructed as
India. lowland of scrub, dry agricultural pest
Nepal & border areas deciduous,
2. Permit hunting if
of Pakistan extinct in agricultural areas
damage occurs.
Bangladesh
2. Avoid - Dense
Forest, deserts
3. Browsers &
grazers
79. Sambar Vulnerable India, East along 1. India - Thorn, 1. Habitat
Southern Himalayas arid forests of encroachment
India, Nepal, Bhutan, Gujarat &
2. Hunting
Srilanka Rajasthan
2. Moist decidiuous
forest throughout
Peninsular
3. Pine & Oak trees
at himalayan
forest
80. Wild Pig Least Occur in modified 1. Temperate & 1. Global lenes & No
Concern form in all continents tropical habitats major threats
except in Antarctica &
2. Semi desert to 2. local lenes &
on many oceanic
tropical rainforest Hunting & habitat
Islands
destruction.
81. India’s Procupine Least Turkey to Pakistan, 1. Rocky hill side Considered as
Concern India, China, Nepal & Agricultural Pest
2. Tropical &
Srilanka
temperate scrub - locals trap & use
land them for food.
 
CHAPTER - 12
ANIMAL DIVERSITY OF INDIA

the same risk category of critically endangered as its
Do you know? survival is linked to that of the host species.
• India has been ranked as seventh most environ- • Threats: The main threats are loss and degradation of
mentally hazardous country in the world. The grasslands, dry-season burning, livestock grazing and
study is based on evaluation of “absolute” environ- afforestation of grasslands. Hunting is also a threat to
ment impact of 179 countries, done by researchers the remnant populations.
in Harvard, Princeton, Adelaide University and
University of Singapore on January, 2011. Brazil 12�1�2� Andaman White-toothed Shrew
was found to be worst on environmental indicators (Crocidura andamanensis), Jenkin’s Andaman
followed by united states and china whereas Sin- Spiny Shrew
gapore was the best. • (Crocidura jenkinsi) and the Nicobar White-tailed
Shrew (Crocidura nicobarica) Endemic to India.
• They are usually active by twilight or in the night and
12.1. MAMMALS - CRITICALLY have specialized habitat requirements.
ENDANGERED • Habitat: Leaf litter and rock crevices.
• Distribution:
12�1�1� Pygmy Hog (Porcula salvania)
• The Andaman White-toothed Shrew is found on
• Is the world’s smallest wild pig, with adults weighing Mount Harriet in the South Andaman Islands.
only 8 kgs. This species constructs a nest throughout
the year. • The Jenkin’s Andaman Spiny Shrew is found on
Wright Myo and Mount Harriet in the South Anda-
• It is one of the most useful indicators of the manage- man Islands.
ment status of grassland habitats. The grasslands where
the pygmy hog resides are crucial for the survival of • The Nicobar White-tailed Shrew (Crocidura nicobarica)
other endangered species such as Indian Rhinoceros, is found in the southern tip of Greater Nicobar Island
Swamp Deer, Wild Buffalo, Hispid Hare, Bengal Florican and is also recorded in the area extending from the
and Swamp Francolin. Campbell Bay National Park to the Galathea River in the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• In 1996, a captive-breeding programme of the species
was initiated in Assam, and some hogs were reintro- • Threats: Habitat loss due to selective logging, natural
duced in Sonai Rupai area in 2009. disasters such as the tsunami and drastic weather
changes.
• Habitat: Relatively undisturbed, tall ‘terai’ grasslands.
• Distribution: Formerly, the species was more widely 12�1�3� Kondana Rat (Millardia kondana)
distributed along the southern Himalayan foothills but
now is restricted to only a single remnant population in • It is a nocturnal burrowing rodent that is found only in
India. It is sometimes known to build nests.
Manas Wildlife Sanctuary and its buffer reserves.
• Pygmy hog-sucking Louse (Haematopinus oliveri), a • Habitat: Tropical and subtropical dry deciduous forests
and tropical scrub.
parasite that feeds only on Pygmy Hogs will also fall in
• Distribution: Known only from the small Sinhagarh • Habitat / distribution: Western Ghats.
Plateau (about one km²), near Pune in Maharashtra.
Reported from an elevation of about 1,270 m above
• Threats: Deforestation and commercial plantations are
major threats.
mean sea level.
• Threats: Major threats are habitat loss, overgrazing of
vegetation and disturbance from tourism and recrea- Do you know?
tional activities. The Spitting Cobra spits venom which can spray more
than 1.8 meters, or 6 feet. It has near perfect aim, and will
12�1�4� The Large Rock Rat or Elvira Rat fire straight into the eyes of it’s prey.
(Cremnomys elvira)
• It is a medium sized, nocturnal and burrowing rodent.
endemic to India. 12�1�7� The Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus
• Habitat: Tropical dry deciduous shrubland forest, seen sumatrensis)
in rocky areas. • It is the smallest and most endangered of the five rhi-
• Habitat / distribution: Known only from Eastern Ghats noceros species.
of Tamil Nadu. Recorded from an elevation of about 600 • It is now thought to be regionally extinct in India,
m above mean sea level. though it once occurred in the foothills of the Himala-
• Threats: Major threats are habitat loss, conversion of yas and north-east India.
forests and fuel wood collection. • The Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) is also
believed to be extinct in India and only a small number
survive in Java and Vietnam.
Do you know?
India is endowed with vast inland and marine bio- 12.1.8. Kashmir stag/ hangul (Cervus elaphus
resources. It is the third largest producer of fish in hanglu)
the world and the second largest producer of inland • It subspecies of Red Deer which is native to India.
fish. The Western Ghats (the aquatic hotspot) has 192
endemic species of fishes
• Habitat / distribution - in dense riverine forests, high
valleys, and mountains of the Kashmir valley and
northern Chamba in Himachal Pradesh.
12�1�5� The Namdapha Flying Squirrel • State animal of J&k.

(Biswamoyopterus biswasi) • Threat - habitat destruction, over-grazing by domestic
livestock, and poaching.
• It is a unique (the only one in its genus) flying squirrel
that is restricted to a single valley in the Namdapha N.P.
(or) W.L.S. in Arunachal Pradesh.
Do you know?
• Habitat: Tropical forest.
Penguins don’t live near freshwater. they drink salt
• Habitat / distribution: Found only in Namdapha Tiger water. They have a special gland in their bodies that
Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh. takes the salt out of the water they drink and pushes
• Threats: Hunted for food. it out of grooves in their bill. A handy in-house filtra-
tion system!
12�1�6� The Malabar Civet (Viverra civettina)
• It is considered to be one of the world’s rarest mammals.
• It is endemic to India and was first reported from Tra- Do you know?
vancore, Kerala. Frog’s tongues are attached to the front of their mouths
rather than at the back like humans. When a frog
• It is nocturnal in nature and found exclusively in the
catches an insect it throws its sticky tongue out of it’s
Western Ghats.
mouth and wraps it around its prey. The frog’s tongue
• Habitat: Wooded plains and hill slopes of evergreen then snaps back and throws the food down its throat.
rainforests.
12�2�4� Herbivorous Marine Mammals
Do you know? • include dugong and manatees and they inhabit swamps,
Cobras are cannibals, which mean that they will eat rivers, estuaries, marine wetlands, and coastal marine
other snakes along birds, bird eggs and small mammals waters.
12�2�5� Dugong
• (Dugong dugon) also called as sea cow.
Do you know? • Status - vulnerable. Threat - hunting (meat and oil),
Sharks have the most powerful jaws on the planet. habitat degradation, and fishing-related fatalities.
Both the upper and lower jaws move. It tosses its head
back and forth to tear loose a piece of meat which it 12�2�6� Manatees
swallows whole. • Habitat / distribution - Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico,
the Amazon Basin, and West Africa
• Threat - coastal development, red tide, hunting.
Do you know? 12.3. FEW EXCEPTIONS

• When male frogs are ready to mate they will ‘call’ 12�3�1� Egg Laying Mammals
out to the female frogs. Each different species of
frog has their own special sound and that is the The unique feature of monotremes, a sub division of mam-
sound that the same species of female frog will mal, is that monotremes lay eggs rather than giving birth
answer to. Some frogs are so loud they can be to their young. There are only five living Monotreme/ egg
heard a mile away! laying Mammals species: they are - the duck-billed platy-
pus and four species of spiny anteaters (also known as
• Frogs and toads are carnivores echidna). All of them are found only in Australia and New
• Some frogs are very good at camouflaging them- Guinea.
selves so that they blend in with their environment,
making it harder for their enemies to find them. A Echidnas are also known as spiny ant eaters�
frog can change the colour of its skin depending on • Habitat / distribution - Australia and New Guinea
its surroundings. • In echidnas, the egg is carried in a pouch on the female’s
belly until the young hatches, at which point the barely-
developed young must find a mammary gland and latch
onto it for nourishment.
12.2. MARINE MAMMALS
Platypus is a semi-aquatic mammal�
12.2.1. Freshwater / river dolphin
• Habitat / distribution - endemic to eastern Australia,
• Habitat / distribution - India, Bangladesh, Nepal and including Tasmania.
Pakistan which is split into two subspecies, the Ganges
river dolphin and Indus river dolphin.
• In the platypus, the female retires to a burrow in the
bank of a river or pond. The burrow is lined with dry
vegetation, and there the eggs are laid.
12�2�2� Ganges river dolphin
• The male platypus has venom strong enough to can kill
• Habitat / distribution - Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers a small dog, or cause excruciating pain among humans.
and their tributaries in Bangladesh, India and Nepal.
• The Ganges river dolphin has been recognized by the 12�3�2� Marsupials
government of India as its National Aquatic Animal. • Marsupials are the group of mammals commonly
thought of as pouched mammals (like the wallaby and
12�2�3� Indus river dolphin kangaroo).
• Habitat / distribution - Indus River in Pakistan and its • Marsupial mammals have placenta but it is very short-
Beas and Sutlej tributaries. lived and does not make as much of a contribution to
fetal nourishment.
• They give birth very early and the young animal, es- subsequently declared as the Sri Lankamaleswara Wild-
sentially a helpless embryo, climbs from the mother’s life Sanctuary.
birth canal to the nipples. • Habitat: Undisturbed scrub jungle with open areas.
• There it grabs on with its mouth and continues to de- • Distribution: Jerdon’s Courser is endemic to Andhra
velop, often for weeks or months depending on the Pradesh.
species.
• Threats: Clearing of scrub jungle, creation of new pas-
• They do not have long gestation times like placental tures, growing of dry land crops, Illegal trapping of
mammals. The short gestation time is due to having a birds, plantations of exotic trees, quarrying and the
yolk-type placenta in the mother marsupial. construction of the River Canals.
• Extinct - Marsupial - quagga, the marsupial wolf .
• Placental mammals all bear live young, which are nour- 12�4�2� The Forest Owlet
ished before birth in the mother’s uterus through a • Had been lost for more than a century. After 113 long
specialized embryonic organ attached to the uterus years, the owlet was rediscovered in 1997 and reap-
wall, the placenta. peared on the list of Indian birds.
• Placental mammals nourish the developing embryo • Habitat: Dry deciduous forest.
using the mother’s blood supply, allowing longer gesta- • Habitat / distribution: South Madhya Pradesh, in north-
tion times. west Maharashtra and north-central Maharashtra.
• Threats: Logging operations, burning and cutting of
List of Marsupials trees damage roosting and nesting trees of the Forest
Phalangers Opossum Owlet.
Kola Tasmanian devils
12�4�3� The White-bellied Heron
Kangaroo Mursupial Mole (4 foot)
• extremely rare bird found in five or six sites in Assam
Wallaby Bandi coot and Arunachal Pradesh, one or two sites in Bhutan, and
Wombats Tasmanian Wolf /Tiger a few in Myanmar.
Dasyure • Habitat: Rivers with sand or gravel bars or inland lakes.
• Distribution: Bhutan and north-east India to the hills
of Bangladesh and north Myanmar.
Do you know? • Threats: Loss and degradation of lowland forests and

wetlands through direct exploitation and disturbance
Not all sharks are fierce carnivores. Some are quite by humans.
harmless. Oddly enough, the most harmless sharks
tend to be the largest! The basking shark, the whale 12�4�4� The Bengal Florican
shark and the Mega mouth sharks all fit this descrip-
tion. These huge sharks eat plankton. • A rare bustard species that is very well known for its
mating dance. Among the tall grasslands, secretive
males advertise their territories by springing from the
ground and flitting to and fro in the air.
12.4. BIRDS - CRITICALLY
ENDANGERED • Habitat: Grasslands occasionally interspersed with
scrublands.
12�4�1� The Jerdon’s Courser • Distribution: Native to only 3 countries in the world -
• It is a nocturnal bird found only in the northern part of Cambodia, India and Nepal. In India, it occurs in 3
the state of Andhra Pradesh in peninsular India. states, namely Uttar Pradesh, Assam and Arunachal
• It is a flagship species for the extremely threatened Pradesh.
scrub jungle. • Threats: Ongoing conversion of the bird’s grassland
• The species was considered to be extinct until it was habitat for various purposes including agriculture is
rediscovered in 1986 and the area of rediscovery was mainly responsible for its population decline.
12�4�5� The Himalayan Quail is home to some of the last existing wintering grounds
• It is presumed to be extinct since no reliable records of of this species.
sightings of this species exist after 1876. Intensive sur- • Habitat: Coastal areas with sparse vegetation. No breed-
veys are required as this species is hard to detect due ing records further inland than 7 km from the seashore.
to its reluctance to fly and its preference for dense grass • Distribution: Has been recorded in West Bengal, Orissa,
habitats. Possible sighting of this species was reported Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
in Nainital in 2003.
• Threats: Habitat degradation and land reclamation.
• Habitat: Tall grass and scrub on steep hillsides. Human disturbance also leads to high incidence of nest
• Distribution: Western Himalayas. desertion.
• Threats: Indiscriminate hunting during the colonial
12�8�9� Siberian Crane
period along with habitat modification.
• It is a large, strikingly majestic migratory bird that
12�4�6� Pink- headed Duck breeds and winters in wetlands. They are known to
winter at Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan. However
• It has not been conclusively recorded in India since 1949.
the last documented sighting of the bird was in 2002.
Males have a deep pink head and neck from which the
bird derives its name. • Habitat: Wetland areas.
• Habitat: Overgrown still-water pools, marshes and • Located distribution: Keoladeo National Park in Ra-
swamps in lowland forests and tall grasslands. jasthan.
• Distribution: Recorded in India, Bangladesh and Myan- • Threats: Pesticide pollution, wetland drainage, develop-
mar. Maximum records are from north-east India. ment of prime habitat into agricultural fields, and to
some extent, hunting.
• Threats: Wetland degradation and loss of habitat, along
with hunting are the main causes of its decline.
Do you know?
12�4�7� Sociable Lapwing (Vanellus gregarious) The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act,
• It is a winter migrant to India. This species has suffered 2001 while seeking to protect the rights of plant bree-
a sudden and rapid population decline due to which it ders, as mandated under TRIPS, has in an innovative
has been listed as critically endangered. fashion, managed to provide ‘rights’ to the Indian farmer.
• Habitat: Fallow fields and scrub desert.

• Distribution: central Asia, Asia Minor, Russia, Egypt, Do you know?
India, Pakistan. In India, habitat / distribution is re- 1. Roots store more starch than the trunk.
stricted to the north and north-west of the country.
2. Roots do not have a central pith (soft central tissue)
• Threats: Conversion of habitat to arable land, illegal while the trunk does.
hunting and proximity to human settlements. 3. The majority of tree roots are non-woody. These non-
woody roots only live for a few weeks.
4. The root hairs grow within days, when water, tem-
Do you know? perature, and nutrients are available to promote
Some trees can “talk” to each other. When willows are growth.
attacked by webworms and caterpillars, they emit a
chemical that alerts nearby willow of the danger. The
neighboring trees then respond by pumping more tan-
nin into their leaves making it difficult for the insects Do you know?
to digest the leaves. Pugmark Census Technique’. In this method the im-
prints of the pugmark (foot print) of the tiger were
recorded and used as a basis for identification of indi-
12�4�8� Spoon Billed Sandpiper viduals. Now it is largely used as one of the indices of
• It requires highly specialized breeding habitat, a con- tiger occurrence and relative abundance.
straint that has always kept its population scarce. India
12.5. COR ALS 12.7. WILDLIFE DISEASES
12�5�1� Fire corals Diseases Casual organism Animal
• They are more closely related to jellyfish than corals. susceptible
On contact, one usually feels a burning sensation simi- Tuberculosis Mycobacterium Deer, cat,
lar to a sting from a jellyfish. spp primates,
elephant
• Habitat: Generally found in murky inshore waters and
display a tolerance for siltation. They often are found in Anthrax Bacillus anthraxis Gaur, chetal,
clear offshore sites. wild pig,
• Distribution: Indonesia, Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama Pacific barking deer
Province. Possibly extinct from Australia, India, Indo- Rabies Rabies virus Tiger, lion, bear,
nesia, Malaysia, Panama, Singapore and Thailand. mongoose,
• Threats: Collected for decoration and jewellery trade. squirrel
This group is also sensitive to temperature rise, and is
thought to have completely disappeared from the major- Foot and mouth FMD virus Gaur, nilgai,
ity of marine areas possibly because of growing global disease chetal, sambar,
warming related bleaching effects. yak, mithun
Rinder pest Microbilli virus Deer, wild pig,
12.6. BIRD’S MIGR ATION wild buffalo
• Migration refers to the regular, recurrent and cyclical Trypanosomia Trypanosomia Tiger, elephant,
seasonal movement of birds from one place to other. virus sambar,
The distance of migration ranged from short distance macaque
to thousands of kilometers. But at the end of period, Taxoplasmosis Taxoplasma Rhesus macaque,
birds will eventually return to the original place. gondii civet cat
12�6�1� Reasons for migration

12.8. SPECIES EXTINCTION
1. To avoid adverse factors (extreme climatic condition)
2. To manage food shortage
• Extinction is caused through various processes:
3. To manage shortage of water

• Deterministic processes that have a cause and effect.
E.g. glaciations, human interference such as defor-
4. To have a better breeding conditions estation.
5. Less competition for safe nesting places • Stochastic processes (chance and random events)
that effect the survival and reproduction of indi-
12�6�2� Migratory birds of India viduals. E.g. unexpected changes of weather pat-
terns, decreased food supply, disease, increase of
Winter birds Summer birds competitors, predators or parasites, etc. that may act
independently or add to deterministic effects.
Siberian Cranes, Greater Asian Koel, Black
Flamingo, Common Crowned Night Heron, • The impact of these processes will of course depend on
the size and degree of genetic diversity and resilience of
Teal, Yellow Wagtail, Eurasian Golden Oriole,
populations.
White Wagtail, Northern Comb Duck, Blue
Shoveler, Rosy Pelican, Cheeked Bee Eater, • Traits that adversely affect or increase a species vulner-
Wood Sandpiper, Spotted Blue-Tailed Bee-Eater, ability to extinction due to habitat fragmentation have
Sandpiper, Eurasian Cuckoos. been identified. These are:
Pigeon, Black Tailed • rarity or low abundance
Godwit, Spotted Redshank • poor dispersal ability
Starling Bluethroat, Long
Billed Pipit. • ecological specialization
• unstable populations
• high trophic status – as animals occupying a higher Causes
trophic level (i.e. the position of a species in a food • Human population growth
chain) usually have smaller populations than those
at lower levels (e.g. carnivores are fewer in number
• Land use transformation
than herbivores) • Species habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation
• low adult survival rates
• Increasing livestock populations and competitive exclu-
sion of wild herbivores
• low intrinsic rate population increase
• Growing interest in ecotourism and increasing access
• Body size, fecundity, dietary specialization. to nature reserves
12�8�1� Natural extinctions

• Abundance and distribution of wild prey
• Increasing wildlife population as a result of conserva-
• Have been caused due to several factors: tion programmes
• continent drifting, • Climatic factors
• climate change, • Stochastic events (e.g. fire)
• tectonic activity
Impacts
• increased volcanic activity
• Crop damage
• The late Ordovician global glaciations (439 Mya).
• Livestock depredation
• The late Cretaceous extinction assumed to be associ-
• Injuries to people
ated with an extra-terrestrial impact.
• Loss of human life
• Extinction in vascular plants has been more gradual
• Damage to property
compared with the loss of animals. It is believed that
extinction among this group was due more to com- • Injuries to wildlife
petitive displacement by more advanced plant forms, or • Animal deaths
due to a gradual climate change, than due to any sudden • Destruction of habitat
catastrophic event.
Preventive strategies
12.8.2. Artificial Extinction • Artificial and natural barriers (physical and biological)
• Even though species extinction is a natural process which • Guarding
can happen without the intervention of humans, extinc- • Alternative high-cost livestock husbandry practices
tions caused by humans is now happening over and
above the reasonable estimate of natural extinction rates.
• Relocation: voluntary human population resettlement
• Waste management systems that restrict wildlife access
• Species are threatened with extinction by the interven- to refuse
tion of humans due to:
• direct causes – such as hunting, collection or capture Mitigative strategies
and persecution • Compensation systems
• Indirect causes – such as habitat loss, modification • Insurance programmes
and fragmentation and the introduction of invasive • Incentive programmes
species. • Community based natural resource management
schemes (CBNRMS)
12.9. MAN - ANIMAL CONFLICT
• Regulated harvest
• It refers to the interaction between wild animals and
• Increase alternate crops, preys or water points
people and the resultant negative impact on people or
their resources, or wild animals or their habitat. It oc- • Wildlife translocation
curs when wildlife needs overlap with those of human • Conservation education for local populations
populations, creating costs to residents and wild animals. • Better sharing of information.
 
CHAPTER - 13
PLANT DIVERSITY OF INDIA

13.1. PLANT CLASSIFICATION 13.2. EFFECT OF ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
1. Herb is defined as a plant whose stem is always green ON PLANTS
and tender with height of not more than 1 meter. 13�2�1� Intensity of light on growth of plants
2. Shrub is defined as a woody perennial plant differing
from a perennial herb in its persistent and woody • Extremely high intensity favours root growth than
shoot growth which results in increased transpiration,
stem. It differs from a tree in its low stature and its
habit of branching from the base. Not more than 6 short stem, smaller thicker leaves. On the other hand
meters in height. low intensity of light retards growth, flowering and
fruiting.
3. Tree is defined as a large woody perennial plant having
a single well defined stem with more or less definite • When the Intensity of light is less than the minimum,
crown. the plants ceases to grow due to accumulation of CO2
4. Parasites - An organism that draws a part or whole of and finally dies.
its nourishment from another living organism. These • Out of 7 colours in the visible part of spectrum, only red
plants do not draw moisture and mineral nutrients and blue are effective in photosynthesis.
from the soil. They grow on some living plant called
host and penetrate their sucking roots, called hausto- • Plant grown in blue light are small, red light results in
elongation of cells results in etiolated plants. Plants
ria, into the host plants.
grown in ultraviolet and violet light are dwarf.
• Total parasite - draws whole of its nourishment
• Partial parasite - draws a part of its nourishment 13.2.2. Effect of frost on plants
5 Epiphytes - plant growing on the host plant but not
nourished by the host plant. They do not draw food • Killing of young plants - Even a light radiation frost
from the host plant. They only take the help of the host chills the soil resulting in freezing the soil moisture. The
plant in getting access to light. Their roots perform plants growing in such soil, get exposed to direct sun
two functions. While changing roots establish the light in the morning, they are killed due to increased
plant on the branches of the host plant, aerial roots transpiration when their roots are unable to supply
draw moisture from the air. Eg. Vanda moisture. This is the main reason for innumerable death
6. Climbers - herbaceous or woody plant that climbs up of sal seedlings.
trees or other support by twining round them or by • Death of plants due to damage to cells - As a result of
holding on to them by trendrills, hooks, aerial roots or frost, water in the intercellular spaces of the plant gets
other attachments. frozen into ice which withdraws water from the inte-
rior of the cells. This results in increasing concentra-
Do you know? tion of salts and dehydration of cells. Thus coagulation
Bats are MAMMALS. They are warm blooded, nurse and precipitation of the cell colloid results in death of
their babies with milk and have fur. Bats are only plant.
mammals that can fly (without an airplane!) • Leads to Formation of canker.
Do you know? Do you know?
The male frog will hug the female from behind and Elephants have remarkable memories. In the wild, they
as she lays eggs, usually in the water, the male will appear to remember for years the relationships with
fertilize them. After that the eggs are on their own, dozens, perhaps hundreds of other elephants, some of
to survive and become tadpoles. There are a few spe- whom they may see only occasionally. They also have
cies of frogs that will look after their babies, but not an impressive memory for places to drink and to find
many. food. This information gets passed on from generation
to generation.
Males elephants do not maintain long-term social
13.2.3. Effects of Snow on plants bonds, remaining in the unit only into their teens.
They then live out their lives in loose bachelor groups
• Snow influences the distribution of deodar, fir and
or wandering on their own.
spruce.
• Snow acts as blanket, prevents further drop in tem-
perature and protects seedlings from excessive cold and 13.3. INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS
frost. These plants are specialised in trapping insects and are
• It results in mechanical bending of tree stem. popularly known as insectivorous plants.
• Shortens the period of vegetative growth also uproots They are very different from normal plants in their mode
the trees. of nutrition. They, however, never prey upon humans or
large animals as often depicted in fiction.
13.2.4. Effect of temperature on plants Insectivorous plants can broadly be divided into active
• Excessive high temperature results in death of plant due and passive types based on their method of trapping their
to coagulation of protoplasmic proteins. It disturbs the prey.
balance between respiration and photo synthesis • The active ones can close their leaf traps the moment
thereby causes depletion of food resulting in greater insects land on them.
susceptibility to fungal and bacterial attack. • The passive plants have a ‘pitfall’ mechanism, having
• It also results in desiccation of plant tissues and deple- some kind of jar or pitcher-like structure into which the
tion of moisture. insect slips and falls, to eventually be digested.
The insectivorous plants often have several attractions
13�2�5� Die back such as brilliant colours, sweet secretions and other curios
Refers the progressive dying usually backwards from the to lure their innocent victims.
tip of any portion of plant. This is one of the adaptive Why do they hunt despite having normal roots and
mechanisms to avoid adverse conditions. In this mecha- photosynthetic leaves?
nism, the root remains alive for years together but the
These plants are usually associated with rain-washed,
shoots dies. Eg. Sal, Red sanders, Terminalia tomentosa,
nutrient-poor soils, or wet and acidic areas that are ill-
Silk cotton tree, Boswellia serrata.
drained. Such wetlands are acidic due to anaerobic condi-
Causes for die back tions, which cause partial decomposition of organic matter
1. Dense over head canopy and inadequate light releasing acidic compounds into the surroundings. As a
result, most microorganisms necessary for complete de-
2. Dense week growth composition of organic matter cannot survive in such
3. Un-decomposed leaf litter on surface poorly oxygenated conditions.
4. Frost Normal plants find it difficult to survive in such nutrient
5. Drip poor habitats. The hunter plants are successful in such
places because they supplement their photosynthetic food
6. Drought
production by trapping insects and digesting their nitrogen
7. Grazing rich bodies.
13�3�1� The Indian Hunters 5� Pinguicula or Butterwort: It grows in the alpine
Insectivorous plants of India heights of Himalayas, from Kashmir to Sikkim, along
1� Drosera or Sundew inhabiting wet infertile soils or stream-sides in cool boggy places.
marshy places • Insect trapping mechanism: In Pinguicula, an entire leaf
works as trap. When an insect lands on the leaf surface,
• Insect trapping mechanism: The tentacles on the leaves
secrete a sticky fluid that shines in the sun like dew- it gets stuck in the sticky exudate.the leaf margins roll
drops. Therefore the Drosera. are commonly known as up thus trapping the victim.
‘sundews’. When an insect lured by these glistening Medicinal properties
drops alights on the leaf surface it gets stuck in this fluid
and are absorbed and digested. Drosera are capable of curdling milk, its bruised leaves are
applied on blisters, used for dyeing silk.
2� Aldrovanda is a freefloating, rootless aquatic plant, the
only species found in India, occurs in the salt marshes Nepenthes in local medicine to treat cholera patients, the
of Sunderbans, south of Calcutta. It also grows in fresh liquid inside the pitcher is useful for urinary troubles, it is
water bodies like ponds, tanks and lakes. also used as eye drops.
• Insect trapping mechanism: On the leaf midrib are Utricularia is useful against cough, for dressing of wounds,
found some sensitive trigger hairs. The two halves of as a remedy for urinary disease.
the leaf blade of Aldrovanda close along the midrib the
moment an insect comes into contact with the leaf, trap- 13�3�2� Threat
ping the victim inside.
• Gardening trading for medicinal properties is one of the
3� Nepenthes: The members of the family are com- main causes for their decline.
monly known as ‘pitcher plants’ because their
leaves bear jar-like structures� • Habitat destruction is also rampant, the wetlands har-
bouring such plants being the main casualties during
• Distribution - It is confined to the high rainfall hills and
the expansion of urban and rural habitation.
plateaus of north-eastern region, at altitudes ranging
from 100 – 1500 m, particularly in Garo, Khasi and • Pollution caused by effluents containing detergents, fer-
Jaintia hills of Meghalaya. tilizers, pesticides, sewage etc into the wetlands is yet
another major cause for their decline (Since insectivo-
• Insect trapping mechanism: Nepenthes conforms to the
pitfall type of trap. A honey like substance is secreted rous plants do not tolerate high nutrient levels)
from glands at the entrance of the pitcher. Once the • Moreover, polluted water bodies are dominated by pro-
insect enters into the pitcher, it falls down because of lific water weeds which cause elimination of the delicate
the slipperiness. insectivorous plants.
• The inner wall, towards its lower half, bears numerous
glands, which secrete a proteolytic enzyme. This en-
zyme digests the body of the trapped insects and nutri-
ents are absorbed. Do you know?
4� Utricularia or Bladderworts: The Bladderworts gen- Tiger, delineates its own territory by urinating on the
erally inhabit freshwater wetlands and waterlogged trees and rocks along the boundary and lives within
areas. Some species are associated with moist moss that. Trespass by another male usually ends up in
covered rock surfaces, and damp soils during rains. conflict which turns into a bloody battle sometimes.
• Insect trapping: Utricularia in its bladders mouth, has The tigresses in a family may have overlapping terri-
sensitive bristles or hairs. When an insect happens to tories within the male’s territory.
contact these hairs the door opens, carrying the insect Even though tiger is a powerful predator with plenty
into the bladder along with a little current of water. The of tactics, it is observed that only one in twenty at-
door is shut when water fills the bladder, The enzymes tempts of hunting is really successful.
produced by the inner wall of the bladder digest the
insect.
13.4. INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES 13�4�3� Some Invasive fauna in India are:
Purposely or accidentally, people often bring non-native
species into new areas where the species have few or no 1. A new invasive gall forming insect of Eucalyptus
natural predators to keep their populations in check. in Southern India.
Aliens are species that occur outside their natural range. • Leptocybe invasa - a new insect pest detected
from few pockets of coastal Tamil Nadu and it
Alien species that threaten native plants and animals or
has spread to peninsular India.
other aspects of biodiversity are called alien invasive spe-
cies. They occur in all groups of plants and animals, as • It is a tiny wasp that forms leaf and stem galls
in Eucalyptus.
competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites, and they
have invaded almost every type of native ecosystem, 2. Crazy ant
3. Giant African snail
Biological invasion by alien species is recognised as one
of the major threats to native species and ecosystems. 4. Myna
The effects on biodiversity are enormous and often ir- 5. Gold Fish
reversible. 6. Pigeon
7. Donkey
13.4.1. Invasion and Species Richness? 8. House Gecko
The invasions potentially lead to an increase in species 9. Tilapia
richness, as invasive species are added to the existing spe-
cies pool. But it also leads to extinction of native species,
resulting in decrease of species richness. The negative in- 13.5. SOME INVASIVE ALIEN FLOR A
teractions are primarily the competition with natives for OF INDIA
food and sustenance, which may not allow coexistence and 13�5�1� Needle Bush
also by predation. • Nativity: Trop. South America
13.4.2. Effects
• Distribution in India: Throughout
• Remarks: Occasional in thorny scrub and dry degraded
• Loss of Biodiversity forests and often creates close thickets.
• Decline of Native Species (Endemics).
13�5�2� Black Wattle
• Habitat Loss
• Nativity: South East Australia
• Introduced pathogens reduce crop and stock yields
• Distribution in India: Western Ghats
• Degradation of marine and freshwater ecosystems
• Remarks: Introduced for afforestation in Western Ghats.
This biological invasion constitutes the greatest threat to Regenerates rapidly after fire and forms dense thickets.
biodiversity, and it has already had devastating conse- It is distributed in forests and grazing lands in high
quences for the planet and challenges for the conservation altitude areas.
managers.
13�5�3� Goat weed
• Nativity: Trop. America
Are black rhinos really black? • Distribution in India: Throughout
No, black rhinos are not black at all. The species prob- • Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. Troublesome weed in
ably derives its name as a distinction from the white gardens, cultivated fields and forests.
rhino (which is not white at all either) or from the
13�5�4� Alternanthera paronychioides
dark-colored local soil that often covers its skin after
wallowing in mud. • Nativity: Trop. America
• Remarks: Occasional weed along edges of tanks, ditches
and in marshy lands. Do you know?
Sea cow, Dugong dugon occurs in near shore waters
13�5�5� Prickly Poppy of Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kachchh and Andaman and
• Nativity: Trop. Central & South America Nicobar Islands.
• Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. Common winter season
13.5.13. Ipomoea / the pink morning glory
weed in cultivated fields, scrub lands and fringes of
forests. • Nativity: Trop. America
13�5�6� Blumea eriantha

• Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. Common weed of
• Nativity: Trop. America marhsy lands and along the edges of tanks and ditches.
• Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. Abundant along railway 13.5.13. Lantana camara / Lantana, Wild Sage
tracks, road sides and degraded forest lands. • Nativity: Trop. America
13�5�7� Palmyra, Toddy Palm • Distribution in India: Throughout
• Nativity: Trop. Africa • Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. Common weed of for-
ests, plantations, habitation, waste lands and scrub
lands.
• Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. Cultivated and self
sown, occasionally found to be gregarious near by cul- 13�5�14� Black Mimosa
tivated fields, scrub lands and waste lands.
• Nativity: Trop. North America
13.5.8. Calotropis / Madar, Swallo Wort • Distribution in India: Himalaya, Western Ghats
• Nativity: Trop. Africa • Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. It invades water courses
• Distribution in India: Throughout and seasonally flooded wetlands.
• Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. Common in cultivated
13�5�15� Touch-Me-Not, Sleeping Grass
fields, scrub lands and waste lands.
• Nativity: Brazil
13�5�9� Datura, Mad Plant, Thorn Apple • Distribution in India: Throughout
• Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. Common weed of culti-
• Distribution in India: Throughout vated fields, scrub lands and degraded forests.
• Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. Occasional weed on dis-
turbed ground. 13�5�16� 4 ‘0’ clock plant�
13�5�10� Water Hyacinth
• Nativity: Peru


• Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. Runs wild in gardens
and near habitation.
• Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. Abundant in still or slow
floating waters. Nuisance for aquatic ecosystems. 13.5.17. Parthenium / Congress grass,
Parthenium
13�5�11� Impatiens, Balsam
• Nativity: Trop. America • Nativity: Trop. North America
• Distribution in India: Throughout • Distribution in India: Throughout
• Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. Common along streams • Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. Common weed of culti-
vated fields, forests, overgrazed pastures, waste lands
of moist forests and occasionally along railway tracks;
and gardens.
also runs wild in gardens.
13.5.18. Prosopis juliflora / Mesquite 13�6�4� Ladies Slipper Orchid
• Nativity: Mexico • Uses: These types of orchids are mainly used as collec-
• Distribution in India: Throughout tor’s items but lady’s slipper is some times used today
either alone or as a component of formulas intended to
• Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. Common weed of waste
produce treat anxiety / insomnia (scientific evidence is
lands, scrub lands and degraded forests.
not present). This is also sometimes used topically as a
poultice or plaster for relief of muscular pain.
13�5�19� Townsend grass
• Nativity: Trop. W. Asia 13�6�5� Red vanda
• Distribution in India: Throughout • Distribution: Manipur, Assam, Andhrapradesh
• Remarks: Very common along streams and banks of • Uses: As a whole orchids are collected to satisfy an ever
rivers. demanding market of orchid fanciers, especially in Eu-
rope, North America and Asia.
Do you know?
13�6�6� Sarpagandha
Four years after the Maharashtra government
launched a project to monitor and protect wild buf-
• Distribution: Sub Himalayan tract from Punjab east-
wards to Nepal, Sikkim, Assam, Eastern & Western
faloes at the Kolamarka Conservation Reserve at
Ghats, parts of Central India & in the Andamans.
Sironcha in Gadchiroli, the numbers have shown a
gradual rise. Now, the state government is consider- • Uses: Rauvolfia roots are of immense medicinal value
ing a proposal tiger reserve for a higher degree of and has steady demand. It is used for treating various
protection. central nervous system disorders. The pharmacological
activity of rauvolfia is due to the presence of several
alkaloids of which reserpine is the most important,
13.6. MEDICINAL PLANTS which is used for its sedative action in mild anxiety
states and chronic psychoses. It has a depressant action
13.6.1. Beddomes Cycad / Perita / Kondaitha
on central nervous system produces sedation and lower
• Eastern Peninsular India. blood pressure. The root extracts are used for treating
• Uses: The male cones of the plant are used by local intestinal disorders, particularly diarrhoea and dysen-
herbalists as a cure for rheumatoid arthritis and muscle tery and also anthelmintic. It is used for the treatment
pains. Fire resistant property is also there. of cholera, colic and fever. The juice of the leaves are
used as a remedy for opacity of the cornea. The total
13.6.2. Blue vanda / Autumn Ladies Tresses root extracts exhibits a variety of effects, viz., sedation,
Orchid hypertension, brodyeardia, myosis, ptosis, tremors,
• Distribution: Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, which are typical of reserpine.
Meghalaya, Nagaland.
13�6�7� Ceropegia species�
• Vanda is one of the few botanical orchids with blue
flowers a property much appreciated for producing in- • Lantern Flower, Parasol Flower, Parachute Flower,
terspecific and intergeneric hybrids. Bushman’s Pipe.
• Uses: These plants are used as ornamental plants.
13.6.3. Kuth / Kustha / Pooshkarmoola / Uplet
13.6.8. Emodi / Indian Podophyllum
• Distribution: Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh
• Uses: It is used as an anti-inflammatory drug, and a • Himalayan May Apple, India May Apple etc.,
component of the traditional Tibetan medicine. The • Distribution: Lower elevations in and around surround-
roots of the plant are used in perfumery. Dry roots ing the Himalayas.
(Kuth, Costus) are strongly scented and yields an aro- • Uses: Rhizomes and roots constitute the drug. The dried
matic oil, which is also used in making insecticides. The rhizome form the source of medicinal resin. Podophyl-
roots contain an alkaloid, ‘saussurine’, which is me- lin is toxic and strongly irritant to skin and mucous
dicinally important. membranes.
13�6�9� Tree Ferns • In hot and dry climates, deciduous trees usually lose
• Distribution: Lower elevations in and surrounding the their leaves during the dry season.
Himalaya. (ii) Evergreen trees
• Uses: The Soft Tree Fern can be used as a food source, • don’t lose all their leaves at the any time (they always
with the pith of the plant being eaten either cooked or have some foliage).
raw. It is a good source of starch. • They do lose their old leaves a little at a time with new
ones growing in to replace the old. An evergreen tree is
13�6�10� Cycads never completely without leaves.
• A Gymnosperm tree.
• All known as living fossil. Do you know?
• Distribution: Western ghats, Eastern ghats, North East The world’s oldest trees are 4,600 year old Bristlecone
India and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. pines in U.S.A.
• Cycads have been used as a source of starch and also
during socio-cultural rituals.
13�7�2� Parts of a Tree:
• There is some indication that the regular consumption
of starch derived from cycads is a factor in the develop- Roots:
ment of Lytico-Bodig disease, a neurological disease • The roots are the part of the tree that grows under-
with symptoms similar to those of Parkinson’s disease ground.
and ALS. • Besides keeping the tree from tipping over, the main job
• Threats: Over harvesting, Deforestation and forest fire. of the roots is to collect water and nutrients from the
soil and to store them for times when there isn’t as
13�6�11� Elephant’s foot much available.
• Distribution: Throughout the North Western Himalayas.
Crown:
• Uses: Commercial source of Diosgenin (a steroid sapo-
• The crown is made up of the leaves and branches at the
genin, is the product of sapogenin, is the product of
top of a tree.
hydrolysis by acids, strong bases, or enzymes of sapo-
nins, extracted from the tubers of Dioscorea wild yam. • The crown shades the roots, collects energy from the
The sugar-free (aglycone), diosgenin is used for the sun (photosynthesis) and allows the tree to remove
commercial synthesis of cortisone, pregnenolone, pro- extra water to keep it cool (transpiration -- similar to
gesterone, and other steroid products). sweating in animals).
Leaves:
Do you know? • They are the part of the tree that converts energy into
food (sugar).
Sharks give birth to pups in three ways
• Leaves are the food factories of a tree.
I. eggs are laid (like birds)
• They contain a very special substance called chlorophyll.
II. eggs hatch inside the mother and then are born It is chlorophyll that gives leaves their green colour.
III. pups (sharks) grow inside the mother. • Chlorophyll is an extremely important biomolecule,
used in photosynthesis. leaves use the sun’s energy to
convert carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and water
13.7. TREE CHAR ACTERS from the soil into sugar and oxygen.
13�7�1� Types of Trees: • The sugar, which is the tree’s food, is either used or
There are two main types of trees: deciduous and evergreen. stored in the branches, trunk and roots. The oxygen is
(i) Deciduous trees released back into the atmosphere.
• lose all their leaves for part of the year. Branches:

• In cold climates, this happens during the autumn so • The branches provide the support to distribute the leaves
that the trees are bare throughout the winter. efficiently for the type of tree and the environment.
• They also serve as conduits for water and nutrients and • A number of handy things are made from bark includ-
as storage for extra sugar. ing latex, cinnamon and some kinds of poisons. It isn’t
surprising the strong flavours, scents and toxins can
often be found in the bark of different types of trees.
Do you know?
Cambium:
1. Trees are the largest and oldest living organism on
earth: • The thin layer of living cells just inside the bark is called
cambium.
2. It can take 10 minutes to walk around the crown
of a giant banyan tree in Calcutta.
• It is the part of the tree that makes new cells allowing
the tree to grow wider each year.
3. Trees trap more of the sun’s energy than any other Sapwood (Xylem):
group of organisms on earth
• The scientific name for sapwood is xylem.
4. Trees do not restore and repair wood that is in-
jured and infected, instead they compartmentalize
• It is made up of a network of living cells that bring
water and nutrients up from the roots to the branches,
off the damaged tissue.
twigs and leaves.
• It is the youngest wood of the tree -- over the years, the
Trunk: inner layers of sapwood die and become heartwood.
• The trunk of the tree provides its shape and support Heartwood:
and holds up the crown. • The heartwood is dead sapwood in the center of the
• The trunk transports water and nutrients from the soil trunk.
and sugar from the leaves. • It is the hardest wood of the tree giving it support and
strength.
13�7�3� Parts of the Trunk: • It is usually darker in colour than the sapwood.
Annual rings Pith:
• Inside the trunk of a tree there are a number of growth • Pith is the tiny dark spot of spongy living cells right in
rings. the center of the tree trunk.
• Each year of the tree’s life, a new ring is added so it is • Essential nutrients are carried up through the pith.
referred as the annual rings. • It’s placement right in the center means it is the most
protected from damage by insects, the wind or animals.
• It is used to calculate Dendro-Chronology (Age of a tree)
and Paleo-Climatology.
13�7�4� Root types
• The age of a tree can be determined by the number of
• Taproot - Primary descending root formed by the direct
growth rings. The size of the growth ring is determined
prolongation of the radicle of the embryo.
in part by environmental conditions - temperature,
water availability. • Lateral Root - Roots that arise from the tap root and
spread laterally to support the tree.
Bark:
• Adventitious Roots - Roots that are produced from the
• The outside layer of the trunk, branches and twigs of parts of the plant other than the radicle or its subdivi-
trees. sion. The following kinds of Adventitious Roots are
• The bark serves as a protective layer of the tree. commonly found in trees.
• Trees actually have inner bark and outer bark. The • Buttresses - They are out - growths formed usually ver-
inner layer of bark is made up of living cells and the tically above the lateral roots and thus connect the base
outer layer is made of dead cells, sort of like our finger- of the stem with roots. They are formed in the basal
nails. portion of the stem.
• The scientific name for the inner layer of bark is Phloem. • Ex: Silk cotton tree.
The main job of this inner layer is to carry sap full of • Prop - Roots - Adventitious Roots - produced from the
sugar from the leaves to the rest of the tree. branches of the tree which remain suspended in the air
till they reach the ground. On reaching the ground they • Etiolation - With the absence of adequate light, plants
enter into the soil and get fixed. become pale yellow and have long thin internodes.
• Ex: Banyan Tree • Autumn tints - in some trees, leaves undergo a striking
• Stilt - Roots - Adventitious Roots which emerged from change in colour before falling from the tree.
the butt of a tree above ground level. So that the tree • Ex: Mango, Cassia fistula, Quercus incana
appears as if supported on flying buttresses.
• Taper - the decrease in diametre of the stem of a tree
• Ex: Rhizphora species of mangroves. from the base upwards. i.e., the stem is thicker at the
• Pneumatophore: It is a spike like projection of the roots base and thinner in the upper portion of the tree.
of swamp / mangrove tree above the ground. It helps
the submerged roots to obtain oxygen. • Tapering occurs due to the pressure of the wind which
is centred in the lower one third of the crown and is
• Ex: Heretiera spp, Bruguiera spp. conveyed to the lower parts of the stem, increasing with
• Haustorial roots are the roots of parasitic plants that increasing length. To counteract this pressure, which
can absorb water and nutrients from another plant. may snap the tree at the base, the tree reinforces itself
• Eg: mistletoe (Viscum alubum) and dodder. towards the base.
• Storage roots are modified roots for storage of food or • They are generally associated with the absence of long
water, such as carrots and beets. They include some taproot system due to either shallow soil are badly aer-
taproots and tuberous roots. ated and infertile subsoil.
• Mycorrhiza - structure produced from the combination • Bamboo gregarious flowering - general flowering over
of the modified rootlet with fungal tissue. the considerable area of all (or) most of the individuals
of certain species, that do not flower annually. Generally
followed by death of a plant.
Do you know?
1. A tree can absorb as much as 48 pounds of carbon • Sal Tree grows in variety of geological formations but
dioxide per year and can sequester 1 ton of carbon completely absent in Deccan trap where its place is
dioxide by the time it reaches 40 years old. taken by teak.
2. Tree wood is a highly organized arrangement of • Sandal tree is a partial-root parasite. The seedlings of
living, dying, and dead cells. this species grow independently in the beginning but in
few months develop haustorial connections with the
roots of some shrub and later with some tree species
13.7.5. Canopy classification– growing in the vicinity. Sandle tree manufactures its
• Relative completeness of canopy. Classified into 4 types. own food but depends upon the host like other partial
parasites for water and mineral nutrients.
• Closed - the density is 1.0
• Dense - the density is 0.75 to 1.0 • Aerial seeding is the process of dispersing the seed
aerially. In India, aerial seeding has been done on ex-
• Thin - the density is 0.50 to 0.75 periment basis in Chambal ravines in UP, Rajasthan,
• Open - the density is under 0.50 West Bengal and Western Ghats of Maharashtra. The
research carried out during 1982 shows that the sur-
13�7�6� Other characters vival percentage was 97.3 and 2.7 for Prosopis juliflora
• Phenology - Science that deals with the time of appear- and Acacia nilotica respectively. The survey indicated
ance of characteristic periodic events such as leaf shed- that 25% of the area has not responded for aerial seed-
ding etc. ing at all.
 
CHAPTER - 14
MARINE ORGANISMS
14.1 PLANKTON • Their total biomass is many times greater than that of
the total plants on land and they serve as the “pasture
• The term ‘plankton’ refers to the group of organisms
grounds” in the aquatic environment.
which float in the surface waters of the rivers, lakes and
oceans.
• Includes both microscopic plants like algae (phytoplank- Do you know?
ton) and animals like crustaceans and protozoans (zoo- Sea Kraits are one of the few sea snakes that go to land
plankton) found in all aquatic ecosystems, except to lay their eggs while most others, like the Olive sea
certain swift moving waters. snake will give birth in the water.
• The locomotory power of the planktons is limited so
that their distribution is controlled, largely, by currents 14.2.1. Factors Affecting Phytoplanktons
in the aquatic ecosystems. Biodiversity
• The growth rate, productivity and species diversity Light
of plankton in tropical waters especially in mangrove
waters are high. • Phytoplanktons are limited to the uppermost layers of
the ocean where light intensity is sufficient for photo-
14.2 PHYTOPLANKTON synthesis to take place.
• Derived from the Greek words phyto (plant) and plank- • The photosynthetic rate varies with light intensity.
ton (made to wander or drift), phytoplankton are mi- Nutrients
croscopic plant organisms that live in aquatic
environments, both salty and fresh.
• The major inorganic nutrients required by phytoplank-
ton for growth and reproduction are nitrogen and
• Some phytoplankton are bacteria, some are protists, and phosphorus.
most are single-celled plants. Among the common kinds
are cyanobacteria, silica-encased diatoms, dinoflagel-
• Diatoms and silicoflagellates also require silicate (SiO2)
in significant amounts.
lates, green algae, and chalk-coated coccolithophores.
• Some phytoplankton can fix nitrogen and can grow in
• Phytoplankton produce more than 60% of oxygen pro- areas where nitrate concentrations are low.
duced from all plants.
• They also require trace amounts of iron which limits
• Like land plants, all phytoplankton have chlorophyll to phytoplankton growth in large areas of the ocean be-
capture sunlight, and they use photosynthesis to turn cause iron concentrations are very low.
it into chemical energy. They consume carbon dioxide,
and release oxygen. All phytoplankton photosynthesize, Temperature
but some get additional energy by consuming other • Temperature acts along with other factors in influenc-
organisms. ing the variation of photosynthetic production.
• These micro-algae are present throughout the lighted • Generally, the rate of photosynthesis increases with an
regions of all the seas and oceans including the Polar increase in temperature, but diminishes sharply after
Regions. a point is reached.
• Temperature, together with illumination, influences the carbon is stored in the wood and leaves of a tree. Most
seasonal variation of phytoplankton production in the of the carbon is returned to near-surface waters when
temperate latitudes. phytoplankton are eaten or decompose, but some falls
Salinity into the ocean depths.
• Besides light and temperature, salinity also is known to • Worldwide, this “biological carbon pump” transfers
influence primary production. about 10 gigatonnes of carbon from the atmosphere to
the deep ocean each year. Even small changes in the
Grazing by Zooplankton growth of phytoplankton may affect atmospheric car-
• The grazing rate of zooplankton is one of the major bon dioxide concentrations, which would feed back to
factors influencing the size of the standing crop of phy- global surface temperatures.
toplankton, and thereby the rate of production.
Distribution Do you know?
• Marine phytoplankton are not uniformly distributed 1. Sharks have a sensory organ called the “ampullae
throughout the oceans of the world. The highest con- of Lorenzini” which they use to “feel” the electrical
centrations are found at high latitudes, with the excep- field coming from its prey.
tion of upwelling areas on the continental shelves, while
2. Silverfish is an insect that can be found in old un-
the tropics and subtropics have 10 to 100 times lower
used books
concentrations.
• In addition to nutrients, temperature, salinity and light
availability; the high levels of exposure to solar UV-B 14.3. ZOOPLANKTON
radiation that normally occur within the tropics and sub- • Zooplankton play vital role in food web of the food
tropics may play a role in phytoplankton distributions. chain, nutrient recycling, and in transfer of organic
• Phytoplankton productivity is limited to the euphotic matter from primary producers to secondary consum-
zone, the upper layer of the water column in which ers like fishes.
there is sufficient sunlight to support net productivity. • They are more abundant within mangrove water-ways
• The position of the organisms in the euphotic zone is than in adjacent coastal waters, and a large proportion
influenced by the action of wind and waves. of the juvenile fish of mangrove habitat are zooplank-
tivorous.
14�2�2� Importance of phytoplankton • The zooplankton determine the quantum of fish stock.
The food web Hence, zooplankton communities, based on their qual-
ity and species diversity, are used for assessing the pro-
• Phytoplanktons are the foundation of the aquatic food
ductivity vis-à- vis fishery resource, fertility and health
web, the primary producers, it feeds everything from
status of the ecosystem.
microscopic animal-like zooplankton to whales. Small
fish and invertebrates graze on the phytoplanktons, and • Tiny flagellates, giant jellyfish (>50 μm).
then those smaller animals are eaten by bigger ones.
14.4. SEA-GR ASS
Do you know?
• Sea grasses are (angiosperms) marine flowering plants
that resemble grass in appearance.
sea snakes are usually found in shallow waters of the • They produce flowers; have strap-like or oval leaves and
Indian Ocean, and warmer areas of the Pacific Ocean. a root system.
They eat fish, fish eggs and eels.
• They grow in shallow coastal waters with sandy or
muddy bottoms & require comparatively calm areas.
14�2�3� Phytoplankton - the Carbon Cycle and • They are the only group of higher plants adapted to life
climate change in the salt water.
• Phytoplankton are responsible for most of the transfer • Major Sea grass meadows in India occur along the south
of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to the ocean. east coast of Tamil Nadu and in the lagoons of a few
Carbon dioxide is consumed during photosynthesis, and Lakshadweep Islands. There are few grass beds around
the carbon is incorporated in the phytoplankton, just as Andaman and Nicobar islands also.
• The rich growth of seagrasses along the Tamil Nadu 14.5. SEAWEEDS
coast and Lakshadweep islands is mainly due to high
salinity, clarity of the water and sandy substratum.
• Seaweeds are (thalloid plants) macroscopic algae, which
mean they have no differentiation of true tissues such as
roots, stems and leaves. They have leaf-like appendages.
14�4�1� Functions
1. Sea grass beds physically help
• Seaweeds, the larger and visible marine plants are found
attached to rocks, corals and other submerged strata in
• to reduce wave and current energy, the intertidal and shallow sub tidal zones of the sea.
• to filter suspended sediments from the water and • Seaweeds grow in shallow coastal waters wherever siz-
• stabilise bottom sediments to control erosion. able substata is available.
2. Provides habitat for marine invertebrates and fishes. • Based on the colour of their pigmentation, sea weeds
are broadly classified into different classes such as
3. Seagrass beds are widespread in lagoon & in such
areas, the population of fish and migratory birds are • blue- green,
also higher due to the availability of food and shelter. • green,
4. Sea grasses on reef flats and near estuaries are also • brown,
nutrient sinks, buffering or filtering nutrient and chem- • red etc.
ical inputs to the marine environment.
14�5�1� Functions of seaweeds
Do you know?
• Food for marine organism,
• habitat for fish breeding grounds,
The five species of turtle that nest on Indian coast are
Leatherback sea turtle, Green turtle, the Olive Ridley, the
• Source of sediment.
Hawksbill, and the Loggerhead turtle. 14�5�2� Uses of seaweeds
• Seaweeds are important as food for humans, feed for
animals, and fertilizer for plants.
• IUCN has accorded high priority for the conserva- • Seaweeds are used as a drug for goiter treatment, in-
tion of sea grass. testinal and stomach disorders.
• Out of 58 species found in the world, Fourteen spe- • Products like agar-agar and alginates, iodine which are
cies of seagrasses have been recorded from Indian of commercial value, are extracted from seaweeds.
coast. • By the biodegradation of seaweeds methane like eco-
nomically important gases can be produced in large
• They are commonly distributed from inter-tidal to
quantities.
sub-tidal region down to 8 m depth.
• Extracts of some seaweed species show antibacterial
• Dugong, a mammal dependent on sea grass for activity.
food, is also on the verge of extinction.
• Seaweeds are also used as the potential indicators of
pollution in coastal ecosystem, particularly heavy metal
pollution due to their ability to bind and accumulate
14�4�2� Threats to sea grass beds
metals strongly.
• Eutrophication, siltation, trawling, coastal engineering
constructions and over exploitation for commercial pur- 14.5.3. Harmful effects of seaweeds
poses are the major threats for sea grass beds. • Rotting seaweed is a potent source of hydrogen sulfide,
a highly toxic gas, and has been implicated in some
14�4�4� Management incidents of apparent hydrogen-sulphide poisoning. It
• The major seagrass beds should be mapped and areas can cause vomiting and diarrhoea.
has to be identified for preservation.
14�5�4� Threats to seaweeds
• Dredging should be carried out far away from seagrass
beds as siltation /turbidity destroys seagrass beds. • Threats are similar to that of sea grass.
 
CHAPTER - 15
PROTECTED AREA NETWORK

• Wildlife sanctuary can be created for a particular spe-
NATIONAL INITIATIVE cies (for e.g. grizzled giant squirrel w.l.s in srivallipu-
thur) whereas the national park is not primarily focused
15.1. PROTECTED AREAS (PA) on a particular species.
• The adoption of a National Policy for Wildlife Conserva- • The Central Government may also declare, Wild Life
tion in 1970 and the enactment of the Wildlife (Protec- Sanctuary and National Park under certain conditions
tion) Act in 1972 lead to a significant growth in the
protected areas network, from 5 national parks and 60 15�2�1� General Provision for Sanctuary and
sanctuaries to a network of 669 Protected Areas with National Park
geographical area of the country, 4.92%.
Declaration of the Protected Area by the State
• The network was further strengthened by a number of
Government:
national conservation projects, notably Project Tiger,
project elephant, crocodile Breeding and Management • Initial Notification: The State Government may, by
Project, etc. notification, declare its intention to constitute any area
within or outside any reserve forest as a sanctuary/
15.2. WILD LIFE SANCTUARY (WLS) National Park if it considers that such area is of adequate
• The Wild Life (Protection) Act of 1972 provided for the ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or
declaration of certain areas by the State Government as zoological significance, for the purpose of protecting,
wildlife sanctuaries if the area was thought to be of propagating or developing wild life or its environment.
adequate ecological, geomorphological and natural sig- • Final notification: After the initial notification has
nificance. been issued and the period for preferring claims has
National Park (NP) elapsed, the State Government may issue a notification
• The Wild Life (Protection) Act (WPA) of 1972 provided specifying the limits of the area which shall be com-
for the declaration of National Parks by the State Gov- prised within the sanctuary and declare that the said
ernment in addition to the declaration of wildlife sanc- area shall be a sanctuary/ National park from such date
tuaries. as may be specified in the notification.
• National Parks are declared in areas that are considered
to be of adequate ecological, geomorphological and Do you know?
natural significance although within the law, the differ-
ence in conservation value of a National Park from that Spiders can’t chew or swallow inject their prey with
of a sanctuary is not specified in the WPA 1972. poison using their fangs. The poison turns the insides
of insect to a watery goop and the spider just sucks
Difference between the two it up.
• National Parks enjoy a greater degree of protection than
sanctuaries.
Declared by the Central Government:
• Certain activities which are regulated in sanctuaries, • The Central Government may, if it is satisfied that an
such as grazing of livestock, are prohibited in National
Parks. area is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomor-
phological, natural or zoological significance, for the • If such claim is admitted in whole or in part, the Col-
purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wild lector may either
life or its environment, declare it a sanctuary/ National (a) exclude such land from the limits of the proposed
Park by notification. sanctuary or
Boundaries (b) proceed to acquire such land or rights, except where
• The notification shall specify, as nearly as possible, the by an agreement between the owner of such land or
situation and limits of such area. holder of rights and the Government, the owner or
holder of such rights has agreed to surrender his
• In cases where territorial waters is included, the limits rights to the Government, in or over such land, and
shall be determined in consultation with the Chief Naval
on payment of such compensation, as is provided in
Hydrographer of the Central Government, after taking
the Land Acquisition Act, 1894
adequate measures to protect the occupational interests
of the local fishermen. (c) allow, in consultation with the Chief Wild Life War-
den, the continuation of any right of any person in
• No alteration of boundaries of a sanctuary/National or over any land within the limits of the sanctuary
Park shall be made except on recommendation of the
National Board for Wild Life. Entry into the Protected Area
• (The Amendment Act of 1991 provided for the inclusion • No person other than:-
of territorial waters in areas to be declared as sanctu- 1. A public servant on duty
aries for the protection of off-shore marine flora and
2. A person who has been permitted by the Chief Wild
fauna).
Life Warden or the authorized officer to reside within
Settlement of rights the limits of the sanctuary/National Park
• The State Government shall make alternative arrange- 3. A person who has any right over immovable prop-
ments required for making available fuel, fodder and erty within the limits of the sanctuary/National Park
other forest produce to the persons affected, in terms 4. A person passing through the sanctuary/National
of their rights as per the Government records. Park along a public highway
• The State Government appoints an officer as a ‘Collec- 5. The dependents of the person referred to in clause
tor’ under the Act to inquire into and determine the (a), (b) or (c) above,
existence, nature and extent of rights of any person in
or over the land comprised within the sanctuary/ Na-
• Shall enter or reside in the sanctuary/National Park,
except under and in accordance with the conditions of
tional Park which is to be notified.
a permit granted.
• After the issue of a notification for declaration of the
Protected Area, no right shall be acquired in, on or over Grant of permit for entry:
the land comprised within the limits of the area speci- • The Chief Wild Life Warden may, on application, grant
fied in such notification, except by succession, testamen- to any person a permit to enter or reside in a sanctuary/
tary or intestate. National Park for all or any of the following purposes:
• investigation or study of wildlife and purposes ancil-
Do you know? lary or incidental thereto
The term “crocodilians” refers to members of three • photography
families: the Family Crocodylidae (crocodiles), Family • scientific research
Alligatoridae (alligators and caimans) and Family Ga- • tourism
vialidae (gharial). The term “crocodiles” refers only to
crocodiles. • transaction of lawful business with any person resid-
ing in the sanctuary
• The Chief Wild Life Warden shall be the authority who
Claim of rights: shall control, manage and maintain all Protected Areas.
• In the case of a claim to a right in or over any land re- • The National Board for Wild Life may make recommen-
ferred to, the Collector shall pass an order admitting or dations on the setting up of and management of Na-
rejecting the same in whole or in part tional Parks, Sanctuaries and other protected areas and
on matters relating to restriction of activities in those • The State Government may notify any community land
areas. or private land as a Community Reserve, provided that
• The State Board for Wild Life shall advise the State the members of that community or individuals con-
Government on the selection and management of areas cerned are agreeable to offer such areas for protecting
to be declared as protected areas. the fauna and flora, as well as their traditions, cultures
and practices.
Do you know?
• The declaration of such an area is aimed at improving
the socio-economic conditions of the people living in
The extinct rhinos were also more widespread, occur- such areas as well as conserving wildlife. The Reserve
ring in North America and Europe in addition to Af- is managed through a Community Reserve Manage-
rica and Asia. In the past, rhinos were not confined to ment Committee
the tropics but extended into temperate and even arc-
tic regions.
• The State Government may, where the community or
an individual has volunteered to conserve wildlife and
its habitat, declare the area by notification as commu-
nity reserve.
15.3. CONSERVATION RESERVE AND
COMMUNITY RESERVES • No change in land use pattern shall be made within the
Community Reserve, except in accordance with a reso-
• Conservation Reserve and Community Reserves are the lution passed by the Management Committee and ap-
outcome of Amendments to the Wild life protection act proval of the same by the State Government
in 2003.
• It provided for a mechanism to provide recognition and 15.4. COASTAL PROTECTED AREAS
legal backing to the community initiated efforts in wild- • It aims to protect and conserve the natural marine eco-
life protection. systems in their pristine condition.
• It provides for a flexible system wherein the wildlife • Marine Protected Area (MPA) as “any area of intertidal
conservation is achieved without compromising the or sub tidal terrain, together with its overlaying water
community needs. and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural fea-
tures, which has been reserved by law or other effective
15�3�1� Conservation Reserves means to protect part or all of the enclosed environ-
• The Amendment Act of 2003 provided for the creation ment” - IUCN.
of a new type of protected area called a Conservation
Reserve.
• Marine productivity in India is concentrated in small
areas of coral reefs, lagoons, mangroves, estuaries and
• It is an area owned by the State Government adjacent seagrass beds around the coast, which provides rich feed-
to National Parks and sanctuaries for protecting the ing and breeding ground for fish and other marine life.
landscape, seascape and habitat of fauna and flora. It is
managed through a Conservation Reserve Management
• MPA protects the vital life support processes of the sea
and also ensures sustainable productivity and fish pro-
Committee duction.
• The State Government may, after having consultations
• The MPAs in marine environment in India are primar-
with the local communities, declare any area owned by ily classified into following three categories:
the Government as conservation reserve.
• Tiruppadaimarathur conservation reserve in
• Category-I: This covers National Parks and Sanctuaries
and having entire areas in intertidal/sub-tidal or man-
Tirunelveli, tamil nadu is the first conservation reserve groves, coral reefs, creeks, seagrass beds, algal beds,
established in the Country. It is an effort of the village estuaries, lagoons.
community to protect the birds nesting in their village
and acted for declaration of conservation reserve. • Category-II: This includes Islands, which have major
parts in marine ecosystem and some part in terrestrial
15�3�2� Community Reserve ecosystem.
• The Amendment Act of 2003 provided for the creation • Category-IIIA: This includes sandy beaches beyond in-
of a new type of protected area called a Community tertidal line but occasionally interacting with the sea-
Reserve. water.
• Category-IIIB: This includes ever green or semi ever • Temple Groves – Here a grove is created around a tem-
green forests of Islands. ple and conserved.
• The Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in India com- • Groves around the burial or cremation grounds.
prise of a 33 national parks and wildlife sanctuaries
designated under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, 15.5.2. Ecological Significance
encompassing a few of the country’s richest coastal • Conservation of Biodiversity – The sacred groves are
habitats. important repositories of floral and faunal diversity that
• Marine National Park and Marine Sanctuary in the Gulf have been conserved by local communities in a sustain-
of Kutch form one unit (one MPA). Similarly Bhitar- able manner. They are often the last refuge of endemic
kanika National Park and Bhitarkanika Sanctuary are species in the geographical region.
an integral part of one MPA. Thus, there a total of 31 • Recharge of aquifers – The groves are often associated
MPAs in India. with ponds, streams or springs, which help meet the
• MPAs cover less than 4.01 % of the total area of all Pro- water requirements of the local people. The vegetative
tected Areas of India. cover also helps in the recharging the aquifers.
• Soil conservation - The vegetation cover of the sacred
groves improves the soil stability of the area and also
Do you know? prevents soil erosion.
The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) de-
clared 2010-2020 as the United Nations Decade for 15�5�3� Distribution of Sacred Groves in India
Deserts and the Fight against Desertification, to raise • In India, sacred groves are found all over the country
awareness about desertification, land degradation and and abundantly along the western ghats in the states of
drought. Kerala and Karnataka.
15�5�4� Threats to the Sacred Groves

15.5. SACRED GROVES OF INDIA
• The threats vary from one region to the other and even
• Sacred groves comprise of patches of forests or natural from one grove to the other. But the common threats
vegetation – from a few trees to forests of several acres identified are:
– that are usually dedicated to local folk deities.
• Disappearance of the traditional belief systems, which
• These spaces are protected by local communities be- were fundamental to the concept of sacred groves.
cause of their religious beliefs and traditional rituals These systems and their rituals are now considered
that run through several generations. mere superstition.
• The degree of sanctity of the sacred forests varies from • Sacred groves in many parts of our country have been
one grove to another. In some forests even the dry foli- destroyed due to rapid urbanization and developmen-
age and fallen fruits are not touched. tal interventions such as roads, railways tracks, dams
• People believe that any kind of disturbance will offend including commercial forestry. Encroachment has led
the local deity, causing diseases, natural calamities or to the shrinkage of some of the largest groves in the
failure of crops. For example, the Garo and the Khasi country.
tribes of northeastern India completely prohibit any • Many groves are suffering due to ‘Sanskritisation’ or
human interference in the sacred groves. In other the transformation of the primitive forms of nature
groves, deadwood or dried leaves may be picked up, but worship into formal temple worship.
the live tree or its branches are never cut. For example,
the Gonds of central India prohibit the cutting of a tree
• Invasion by exotic weeds such as Eupatorium odoratum,
Lantana camara and Prosopis juliflora is a serious
but allow fallen parts to be used. threat to some groves.
15.5.1. Classification of Sacred Groves • Pressures due to increasing livestock and fuelwood col-
lection.
• Traditional Sacred Groves – It is the place where the
village deity resides, who is represented by an elemen-
tary symbol
15.6. EXPORT - PROHIBITED GOODS GLOBAL INITIATIVE
• The prohibited items are not permitted to be exported.
An export licence will not be given in the normal course 15.7. THE MAN AND BIOSPHERE (MAB)
for goods in the prohibited category.
• The Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme is an
• The following are the items probited in the flora and Intergovernmental Scientific Programme aiming to set
fauna category: a scientific basis for the improvement of the relation-
• All wild animals, animal articles including their ships between people and their environment globally.
products and derivatives (excluding those for which • Launched in the early 1970s, it proposes an interdisci-
ownership certificates have been granted and also plinary research agenda and capacity building that tar-
those required for transactions for education, scien- get the ecological, social and economic dimensions of
tific research and management under Wild Life (Pro- biodiversity loss and the reduction of this loss.
tection) Act, 1972 including their parts and products).
• Concerned with problems at the interface of scientific,
• Beef of cows, oxen and calf. Beef in the form of offal environmental, societal and development issues, MAB
of cows, oxen and calf combines natural and social sciences, economics and
• Meat of buffalo (both male and female) fresh and education to improve human livelihoods and safe-
chilled and frozen guard natural ecosystems, thus promoting innovative
approaches to economic development that is socially
• Peacock Tail Feathers & its Handicrafts and articles
and culturally appropriate and environmentally sus-
• Shavings & Manufactured Articles of shavings of tainable.
Shed Antlers of Chital and Sambhar
• The agenda of the MAB Prorgamme is defined by its
• Sea shells main governing body, the International Coordinating
• Wood and wood products Council in concertation with the broader MAB Com-
• Fuel wood munity.
• Wood charcoal • For implementation of its interdisciplinary work on-
ground, MAB relies on the World Network of Biosphere
• Sandalwood in any form,( but excluding finished
Reserves, and on thematic networks and partnerships
handicraft products of sandalwood, machine fin-
ished sandalwood products, sandalwood oil): for knowledge-sharing, research and monitoring, edu-
cation and training, and participatory decision-
• Red Sanders wood, Value added products of Red making.
Sanders
• It predicts the consequences of today’s actions on tomor-
• Mechanical, chemical and semi chemical wood pulp row’s world and thereby increases people’s ability to
efficiently manage natural resources for the well-being
Do you know? of both human populations and the environment.
• The Marble Palace Zoo in Calcutta city which was
established in the year 1854 is the oldest existing Do you know?
zoo in the country. • Paints and dressings do not help to cure the tree
• Delhi has the largest fleet of busses operating on com- wound, some actually speed up the decay.
pressed natural gas, which is a successful example of • The death of one 70-year old tree would return over
low-carbon sustainable transport three tons of carbon to the atmosphere. Do cut!!
• India maintains and reports ozone depleting sub- • The cottonwood tree seed is the seed that stays in
stance (ODS) data on year to year basis. flight the longest.
• Nesting sites of an amphibious snake is reported from

• Aloe vera is also called as fountain of youth
the shores of North Andaman Islands.
• During periods of increased or decreased tempera-
ture, cracks may develop in the tree trunk -- re-
• Traditional Wetland agriculture (locally known as ferred to as frost cracks and sun cracks. Both can
pokkali in Kerala and Gazhani in Karnataka) lead to decay.
15.8. BIOSPHERE RESERVE (BR) (2) The network of BRs includes significant examples of
• The International Co-ordinating Council (ICC) of UN- biomes throughout the world.
ESCO, November, 1971, introduced the designation ‘Bio- (3) Each BR includes one or more of the following cate-
sphere Reserve’ for natural areas. The concept of gories:-
Biosphere Reserves was refined by a Task Force of UN-
ESCO’s MAB Programme in 1974, and BR network was (i) BRs are representative examples of natural biomes.
formally launched in 1976. (ii) BRs conserve unique communities of biodiversity
or areas with unusual natural features of excep-
15.8.1. Definition
tional interest.
• Biosphere Reserve (BR) is an international designation
by UNESCO for representative parts of natural and cul- (iii) BRs have examples of harmonious landscapes re-
tural landscapes extending over large area of terrestrial sulting from traditional patterns of land-use.
or coastal/marine ecosystems or a combination thereof. (iv) BRs have examples of modified or degraded ecosys-
• BRs are special environments for both people and the tems capable of being restored to more natural con-
nature and are living examples of how human beings ditions.
and nature can co-exist while respecting each others’
needs. (v) BRs generally have a non-manipulative core area,
• Biosphere reserves are sites established by countries in combination with areas in which baseline meas-
and recognized under UNESCO’s Man and the Bio- urements, experimental and manipulative research,
sphere (MAB) Programme to promote sustainable de- education and training is carried out. Where these
velopment based on local community efforts and sound areas are not contiguous, they can be associated in
science. a cluster.
• As places that seek to reconcile conservation of biologi-
cal and cultural diversity and economic and social de- 15�8�4� Functions of Biosphere Reserves
velopment through partnerships between people and
nature, they are ideal to test and demonstrate innova- Conservation
tive approaches to sustainable development from local • To ensure the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems,
to international scales. species and genetic variations.
• To encourage the traditional resource use systems;
Do you know? • To understand the patterns and processes of function-
ing of ecosystems;
• The forests in the country have been classified into
16 major types and 251 subtypes on the basis of • To monitor the natural and human-caused changes on
climatic and edaphic features. spatial and temporal scales;
• Slender loris (primate) found only in the tropical rain- Development
forests of Southern India and Sri Lanka. • To promote, at the local level, economic development
• The Indian star tortoise found in scrub forests of which is culturally, socially and ecologically sustainable.
India and Sri Lanka • To develop the strategies leading to improvement and
management of natural resources;
15�8�3� Characteristics of Biosphere reserve Logistics support
• The characteristic features of Biosphere Reserves are: • To provide support for research, monitoring, education
(1) Each Biosphere Reserves are protected areas of land and information exchange related to local, national and
and/or coastal environments wherein people are an global issues of conservation and development
integral component of the system. • Sharing of knowledge generated by research through
site specific training and education; and
• Together, they constitute a worldwide network linked
by International understanding for exchange of sci- • Development of community spirit in the management
entific information. of natural resources.
Beneficiaries • The core area should be typical of a biogeographical unit
• Direct Beneficiaries - local people and the ecological and large enough to sustain viable populations repre-
resources of the Biosphere Reserves senting all tropic levels in the ecosystem.
• indirect beneficiaries - world community.
Biosphere Reserves: an Indian approach Do you know?
• It is this ecological diversity that makes India as one of Frogs are found all over the world, and in every cli-
the mega-diversity regions on the globe. Efforts are on mate, except Antarctica. Frogs cannot live in the sea
to designate at least one Biosphere Reserve in each of or any salt water.
the Biogeographic Provinces.
15�8�5� National Biosphere Reserve Programme� Secondary criteria

• The national Biosphere Reserve Programme was initi- • Areas having rare and endangered species
ated in 1986.
• Areas having diversity of soil and micro-climatic condi-
• To ensure participation of local inhabitants for effective tions and indigenous varieties of biota.
management and devise means of improving livelihood
of the local inhabitants through sustainable use.
• Areas potential for preservation of traditional tribal or
rural modes of living for harmonious use of environ-
Objectives ment.
• It may be noted that BRs are not a substitute or alterna-
tive, but a re-enforcement to the existing protected 15�8�7� Structure and Design of Biosphere
areas. The objectives of the Biosphere Reserve pro- Reserves
gramme, as envisaged by the Core Group of Experts, • In order to undertake complementary activities of bio-
are as follows: diversity conservation and development of sustainable
• To conserve the diversity and integrity of plants and management aspects, Biosphere Reserves are demar-
animals within natural ecosystems; cated into three inter-related zones.
• To safeguard genetic diversity of species on which their 1� The Core Zone:
continuing evolution depends;
• To provide areas for multi-faceted research and moni-
toring;
• To provide facilities for education and training; and
• To ensure sustainable use of natural resources through Core Zone
most appropriate technology for improvement of eco-
nomic well-being of the local people. Buffer Zone
• These objectives should be oriented in such a way that Transition Zone
the BRs are the Units wherein the Biological, socio-eco-
nomic and cultural dimension of conservation are inte-
grated together into a realistic conservation strategy.
• The core zone should be kept absolutely undisturbed. It
15�8�6� Criteria for selection of BRs must contain suitable habitat for numerous plant and
• The criteria for selection of sites for BRs as laid down animal species, including higher order predators and
by the Core Group of Experts in 1979 are listed below: may contain centres of endemism. A core zone secures
legal protection and management and research activi-
Primary criteria ties that do not affect natural processes and wildlife are
• A site that must contain an effectively protected and allowed. Strict nature reserves and wilderness portions
minimally disturbed core area of value of nature con- of the area are designated as core areas of BR. The core
servation and should include additional land and water zone is to be kept free from all human pressures exter-
suitable for research and demonstration of sustainable nal to the system.
methods of research and management.
2� The Buffer Zone: However, the Biosphere Reserves differ from
• Buffer Zone adjoins or surrounds core zone. Its uses and protected areas due to their emphasis on:
activities are managed in ways that protect the core (i) Conservation of overall biodiversity and landscape,
zone. These uses and activities include restoration, dem- rather than some specific flagship species, to allow
onstration sites for enhancing value addition to the re- natural and evolutionary processes to continue without
sources, limited recreation, tourism, fishing and any hindrance.
grazing, which are permitted to reduce its effect on core (ii) Different components of BRs like landscapes, habitats,
zone. Research and educational activities are to be en- and species and land races.
couraged. Human activities, if natural within BR, are (iii) Developmental activities, and resolution/mitigation of
likely to be permitted to continue if these do not ad- conflicts between development and conservation,
versely affect the ecological diversity. (iv) Increase in broad-basing of stakeholders, especially
3� The Transition Zone: local people’s participation and their Training, com-
pared to the features of scheme on Wildlife Sanctuar-
• The Transition Zone is the outermost part of a Bio- ies and National Parks.
sphere Reserve. This is usually not delimited one and is
a zone of cooperation where conservation, knowledge (v) Sustainable environment friendly development, and
and management skills are applied and uses are man- sustained coordination amongst different development
aged in harmony with the purpose of the Biosphere organizations and agencies.
Reserve. This includes settlements, crop lands, managed (vi) Research and Monitoring to understand the structure
forests and area for intensive recreation, and other eco- and functioning of ecological system and their mode
nomic uses characteristic of the region. of reaction when exposed to human intervention.
• (In Buffer Zone and the Transition Zones, manipulative • The Indian National Man and Biosphere Committee
macro-management practices are used. Experimental constituted by the Central Govt. identifies new sites,
research areas are used for understanding the patterns advises on policies and programmes, lays down guide-
and processes in the ecosystem. Modified or degraded lines, reviews progress and guidelines in the light of
landscapes are included as rehabilitation areas to re- evaluation studies and feed back.
store the ecology in a way that it returns to sustainable • The Management of Biosphere Reserves is the respon-
productivity). sibility of the concerned State/UT with necessary finan-
cial assistance, guidelines for management and
15.8.8. How Biosphere Reserves are different Technical expertise provided by the Central Govern-
from protected areas? ment.
• BR is not intended to replace existing protected areas • BR are internationally recognized within the framework
but it widens the scope of conventional approach of of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme,
protection and further strengthens the Protected Area after receiving consent of the participating country.
Network.
• Existing legally protected areas (National Parks, Wild- Do you know?
life Sanctuary, Tiger Reserve and reserve/protected
The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) de-
forests) may become part of the BR without any change
clared 2011-2020 as the United Nations Decade on
in their legal status. Biodiversity and United Nations Decade for Deserts
• On the other hand, inclusion of such areas in a BR will and the Fight against Desertification.
enhance their national value.
Do you know? 15.9. WORLD NETWORK OF BIOSPHERE

RESERVES (WNBR)
Dead and decaying trees on the ground replenish soils
by returning important nutrients, and provide food 15�9�1� The World Network
resources for many types of wildlife. • In order to facilitate cooperation, BRs are admitted
into International network by International Coordinat-
ing Council (ICC) of the Man and Biosphere (MAB) Factors
Programme of UNESCO on the request of the partici- 1. Endemic plants
pating country subject to their fulfillment of prescribed
2. Endemic vertebrates
criteria.
3. Endemic plants/area ratio (species per 100km2)
• The BRs remain under the sole sovereignty of the con-
cerned country/state where it is situated, and participa- 4. Endemic vertebrates/area ratio (species per 100km2)
tion in World Network is voluntary. 5. Remaining primary vegetation as % of original extent
• Delisting from international Network is done as an ex- The eight hottest hot spots in terms of five factors
ception on ground of violation of obligation for conser-
1. Madagascar
vation and sustainable development of Biosphere
Reserves after consulting the concerned Government. 2. Philippines
3. Sundaland
• The MAB programme’s primary achievement is the
creation in 1977 of the World Network of Biosphere Re- 4. Brazil’s Atlantic Forest
serves. 5. Caribbean
• Composed of 610 biosphere reserves in 117 countries, 6. Indo-Burma
including 12 transboundary sites, the WNBR of the MAB 7. Western Ghats/Sri Lanka
Programme promotes North-South and South-South
8. Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of Tanzania/Kenya
collaboration and represents a unique tool for interna-
tional co-operation through sharing knowledge, ex- These eight `hottest hot spots’, appear at least three times
changing experiences, building capacity and promoting in the top ten listings for each factor.
best practices.
Do you know?
15.10. BIODIVERSITY HOT SPOTS
All snakes and lizards have two penises
• Biodiversity hot spot concept was put forth by Norman
Myers in 1988
15�10�2� Indian Biodiversity Hot Spots�
• To qualify as a hot spot, a region must meet two strict
criteria: • There are 4 biodiversity hot spots present in India. They
are:
a. Species endemism - it must contain at least 1,500
species of vascular plants (> 0.5% of the world’s 1. The Himalayas
total) as endemics, and 2. Indo- Burma and
b. Degree of threat - it has to have lost at least 70% of 3. The western Ghats & Sri Lanka
its original habitat. 4. Sunderland
• Each biodiversity hot spot represents a remarkable
universe of extraordinary floral and faunal endemic-
Do you know?
ity struggling to survive in rapidly shrinking eco-
systems. • Spider silk, it looks like one thread but it is actually
many thin threads that stick together. As soon as
• Over 50 percent of the world’s plant species and 42
this liquid silk hits the air it hardens.
percent of all terrestrial vertebrate species are endemic
to the 35 biodiversity hot spots. • All spiders have fangs! their poison is strong
enough to kill their prey. few spiders with poison
15�10�1� The hottest hot spots strong enough to cause pain or even some nerve
damage in humans.
• Some hot spots are much richer than others in terms of
their numbers of endemics. • Spiders have 48 knees. Yup, count them…eight legs
with six joints on each.
• Five key factors have been taken into consideration and
those biodiversity hot spot tops the list with respect to • Spider’s legs are covered with many hairs. The
these five factors are considered as hottest hot spots. hairs pick up vibrations and smells from the air.
1� The Eastern Himalayas Hot Spot physical environments (low or high temperatures or
pressures, or unusual chemical composition) inhabited
About the region:
by just one or two specially adapted species are colds-
• The Eastern Himalayas is the region encompassing Bhu- pots that warrant conservation because they represent
tan, northeastern India, and southern, central, and unique environments that are biologically and physi-
eastern Nepal. The region is geologically young and cally interesting.
shows high altitudinal variation.
• The abrupt rise of the Himalayan Mountains from less 15.12. WORLD HERITAGE SITES
than 500 meters to more than 8,000 meters results in • World Heritage Sites means “Sites any of various areas
a diversity of ecosystems that range from alluvial grass- or objects inscribed on the United Nations Educational,
lands and subtropical broad leaf forests along the foot- Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) World
hills to temperate broad leaf forests in the mid hills, Heritage List”.
mixed conifer and conifer forests in the higher hills, and
alpine meadows above the tree line.
• The sites are designated as having outstanding univer-
sal value under the Convention concerning the Protec-
2� Indo-Burma tion of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage.
Region: • This Convention, which was adopted by the UNESCO
in 1972 (and enforced in 1975) provides a framework for
• The Indo-Burma region encompasses several countries. international cooperation in preserving and protecting
• It is spread out from Eastern Bangladesh to Malaysia cultural treasures and natural areas throughout the
and includes North-Eastern India south of Brahmaputra world.
river, Myanmar, the southern part of China’s Yunnan
province, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Cambodia,
• The convention defines the kind of sites which can be
considered for inscription of the World heritage list (an-
Vietnam and Thailand. cient monuments, museums, biodiversity and geological
3� Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: heritage etc.,), and sets out the duties of the State Par-
ties in identifying potential sites and their role in pro-
• Western Ghats, also known as the “Sahyadri Hills” tecting them.
encompasses the mountain forests in the southwestern
parts of India and highlands of southwestern Sri • Although many World Heritage sites fall into either the
Lanka. ‘cultural’ or ‘natural’categories, a particularly important
aspect of the convention is its ability to recognise lad-
• The entire extent of hotspot was originally about scapes that combine these values, and where the bio-
1,82,500 square kms, but due to tremendous population logical and physical aspects of landscape have evolved
pressure, now only 12,445 square Km or 6.8% is in alongside human activity.
pristine condition.
• The first list of World Heritage state was published in
• The wide variation of rainfall patterns in the Western 1978.
Ghats, coupled with the region’s complex geography,
produces a great variety of vegetation types. • The World Heritage Convention reiterates that the pro-
tection on sites should be dovetailed with regional plan-
• These include scrub forests in the low-lying rainshadow ning programmes. This is not happening always. (Agra
areas and the plains, deciduous and tropical rainforests city developments do not go well the conversation of Taj
up to about 1,500 meters, and a unique mosaic of mon- Mahal is a point).
tane forests and rolling grasslands above 1,500 meters.
• “Natural heritage sites are restricted to those natural
• In Sri Lanka diversity includes dry evergreen forests to areas that
dipterocarpus dominated rainforests to tropical mon- 1. furnish outstanding examples of the Earth’s record
tane cloud forest. of life or its geologic processes.
2. provide excellent examples of ongoing ecological and
15.11. BIODIVERSITY COLDSPOTS biological evolutionary processes.
• Areas that have relatively low biological diversity but
3. contain natural phenomena that are rare, unique,
are also experiencing a high rate of habitat loss. Al-
superlative, or of outstanding beauty or
though a biodiversity coldspot is low in species richness,
it can also be important to conserve, as it may be the 4. furnish habitats or rare endangered animals or
only location where a rare species is found. Extreme plants or are sites of exceptional biodiversity”.
• Until the end of 2004, there were six criteria for cultural • The UNESCO funds numerous efforts to preserve and
heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005 restore World Heritage Sites in developing nations. It
this was modified so that there is only one set of ten maintains also a List of World Heritage Sites in develop-
criteria. Nominated sites must be of “outstanding uni- ing nations. It maintains also a List of World Heritage
versal value” and meet at least one of the ten criteria. in danger facing threat of pollution and other natural
The criteria are given below. hazards. Sites subject to unusual levels of pollution,
natural hazards, or other problems may be placed for
15�11�1 Criteria restoration. Such designated sites facilitate promotion
I. “to represent a masterpiece of human creative genius”; of tourism.
II. “to exhibit an important interchange of human values, International Year of Biodiversity
over a span of time or within a cultural area of the
world, on developments in architecture or technology, • The United Nations declared 2010 to be the Interna-
monumental arts, town-planning or landscape de- tional Year of Biodiversity. It is a celebration of life on
sign?”. earth and of the value of biodiversity for our lives.
III. “to bear a unique or atleast exceptional testimony to a
cultural tradition or to a civilization which is living or Do you know?
which has disappeared?;
There is no parrot in India. They are parakeets.
IV. “to be an outstanding example of a type of building,
architectural or technological ensemble or landscape
which illustrates a significat stage(s) in human history”; International Day for Biological Diversity - 22 May
V. “to be an outstanding example of a traditional human • The United Nations proclaimed May 22 as The Interna-
settlemnet, land-use, or sea-use, which is representa- tional Day for Biological Diversity (IDB) to increase un-
tive of a culture (or cultures), or human interaction derstanding and awareness of biodiversity issues.
with the environment especially when it has become • Initially 29 December (the date of entry into force of the
vulnerable under the impact of irreversible change”; Convention of Biological Diversity), was designated The
VI. ”to be directly or tangibly associated with events or International Day for Biological Diversity by the UN
living traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, with ar- General Assembly in late 1993.
tistic and literary works of outstanding universal sig- • In December 2000, the UN General Assembly adopted
nificance. (The Committee considers that this criterion 22 May as IDB, to commemorate the adoption of the text
should preferably be used in conjunction with other of the Convention on 22 May 1992 by the Nairobi Final
criteria). Act of the Conference for the Adoption of the Agreed
VII. ”to contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of Text of the Convention on Biological Diversity.
exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance”;
VIII.”to be outstanding examples representing major stages Do you know?
of Earth’s history, including the record of life, signifi-
cant on-going geological processess in the development • Gymnosperms produce their seeds on the surface
or tips of an appendage such as a pine cone.
of landforms, or significant geomorphic or psysio-
graphic features”; • Angiosperms produce their seeds inside a fruit
such as an acorn.
IX. “to be outstanding examples representing significant
ongoing ecological and biological processes in the evo- • Dendrochronology is the science of calculating a
lution and development of terrestrial, fresh water, tree’s age by its rings.
coastal and marine ecosystem and communities of • For every five percent of tree cover added to a com-
plants and animals”; munity, storm water runoff is reduced by approxi-
X. ”to contain the most important and significant natural mately two percent.
habitats for insists conservation of biological diversity, • “Heat islands,” created by tree loss, also exponen-
including those containing threatened species of out- tially increase air pollutants.
standing universal value from the point of view of • Aspirin is derived from the bark of a willow tree.
science or conservation.
 
CHAPTER - 16
CONSERVATION EFFORTS
16.1. PROJECT TIGER • Initially 9 tiger reserves were covered under the project,
A potential example of conservation of a highly en- and has currently increased to 42, falling in 17 States
dangered species is the Indian Tiger (Panthera ti- (tiger reserve States).
gris). The fall and rise in the number of Tiger • The State Government shall, on recommendation of the
population in India is an index of the extent and nature of National Tiger Conservation Authority, notify an area
conservation efforts. as a tiger reserve.
It is estimated that India had about 40 000 tigers in 1900, • A Tiger reserve includes:
and the number declined to a mere about 1800 in 1972. a) Core zone
Hence, Project Tiger centrally sponsored scheme was
launched in 1973 with the following objectives:
• Critical tiger habitat areas established, on the basis of
scientific and objective criteria.
• To ensure maintenance of available population of Tigers • These areas are required to be kept as inviolate for the
in India for scientific, economic, aesthetic, cultural and purposes of tiger conservation, without affecting the
ecological value rights of the Scheduled Tribes or such other forest
• To preserve, for all times, the areas of such biological dwellers.
importance as a national heritage for the benefit, educa-
tion and enjoyment of the people
• These areas are notified by the State Government in
consultation with an Expert Committee (constituted for
Aim that purpose)
(i) Conservation of the endangered species and b) Buffer zone
(ii) Harmonizing the rights of tribal people living in and • Peripheral area to critical tiger habitat or core area,
around tiger reserves where a lesser degree of habitat protection is required
to ensure the integrity of the critical tiger habitat with
Do you know? adequate dispersal for tiger species.
The scientific name for the tiger is Panthera tigris • It aims at promoting co-existence between wildlife and
There are eight subspecies of tiger: among the eight, human activity with due recognition of the livelihood,
at present five subspecies are present in the wild. They developmental, social and cultural rights of the local
are - Bengal, South China, Indochinese, Sumatran, people.
and Siberian. Three subspecies of tiger—Caspian, Bali, • The limits of such areas are determined on the basis of
and Javan—are extinct. scientific and objective criteria in consultation with the
concerned Gram Sabha and an Expert Committee con-
stituted for the purpose.
16�1�1� Tiger Reserve • No alteration in the boundaries of a tiger reserve shall
• Tiger reserves are areas that are notified for the protec- be made except on a recommendation of the National
tion of the tiger and its prey, and are governed by Pro- Tiger Conservation Authority and the approval of the
ject Tiger which was launched in the country in 1973. National Board for Wild Life.
• No State Government shall de-notify a tiger reserve, 8. To facilitate ongoing capacity building program for skill
except in public interest with the approval of the Na- development of officers and staff of tiger reserves
tional Tiger Conservation Authority and the approval
of the National Board for Wild Life. 16�1�2� Estimation of Tiger Populations
• The process of estimating the number of tigers in a
16�1�1 National Tiger Conservation Authority given area is called ‘Tiger census.’
(NTCA):
• This exercise provides us with an estimate of tiger num-
• The Amendment Act of 2006 provides for the constitu- ber, density and change in tiger indices - a measure of
tion of a statutory authority known as the National tiger occupancy in a given area.
Tiger Conservation Authority to aid in the implementa-
tion of measures for the conservation of the tiger. • It is conducted at regular intervals to know the current
tiger populations and population trends.
Do you know? • Besides estimating the number of tigers the method also
No two tigers have exactly the same pattern of stripes. helps to gather information on the density of the tiger
Tigers live alone, except for mothers and their young. populations and associated prey.
A male and female tiger come together to mate, and • The most commonly used technique in the past was
then go their separate ways. ‘Pugmark Census Technique’. In this method the im-
prints of the pugmark of the tiger were recorded and
used as a basis for identification of individuals. Now it
Powers and functions: is largely used as one of the indices of tiger occurrence
1. To approve the Tiger Conservation Plan prepared by and relative abundance.
the State Government • Recent methods used to estimate the numbers of tigers
2. To evaluate and assess various aspects of sustainable are camera trapping and DNA finger-printing.
ecology and disallow any ecologically unsustainable • In camera trapping, the photograph of the tiger is taken
land use such as mining, industry and other projects and individuals are differentiated on the basis of the
within tiger reserves stripes on the body.
3. To lay down normative standards for tourism activities • In the latest technique of DNA fingerprinting, tigers can
and guidelines for project tiger from time to time for be identified from their scats.
tiger conservation in the buffer and core area of tiger
reserves and ensure their due compliance 2010 Assessment Methodology
4. To provide information on protection measures includ- • The All India Tiger Estimation exercise is one of the
ing future conservation plan, estimation of population most crucial components of our national tiger conserva-
of tiger and its natural prey species, status of habitats, tion efforts.
disease surveillance, mortality survey, patrolling, re- • Since 2006, this monitoring exercise is being under-
ports on untoward happenings and such other manage- taken every four years.
ment aspects as it may deem fit including future plan
of conservation • This report presents the results of the 2010 National
Tiger Assessment, undertaken through a best-in-class
5. To ensure that tiger reserves and areas linking on pro- scientific process.
tected area or tiger reserve with another protected area
or tiger reserve are not diverted for ecologically unsus- • This presents an estimate of India’s current tiger popu-
tainable uses, except in public interest and with the lation and a broader assessment of our tiger landscapes.
approval of the National Board for Wild Life. • The three phases of the tiger estimation procedure are
6. To facilitates and support tiger reserve management in as follows:
the State for biodiversity conservation initiatives • Phase 1: Field data collected at the beat-level (i.e. the
through eco-development and peoples participation as primary patrolling unit) by trained personnel using
per approved management plans, and to support simi- a standardised protocol.
lar initiatives in adjoining areas consistent with the
Central and State laws • Phase 2: Analysis of habitat status of tiger forests
7. To ensure critical support including scientific, informa- using satellite data.
tion technology and legal support for better implemen- • Phase 3: Camera trapping was the primary method
tation of the tiger conservation plan used, where individual tigers were identified from
photographs based on their unique stripe patterns. Innovations In 2010 National Tiger assessment
This information was analysed using a well estab- • The 2010 National Tiger Assessment has several innova-
lished scientific framework. Camera trapping was tions over previous assessments. These include:
carried out by teams of wildlife biologists and local
forest personnel.
• Partnerships with civil society organizations
• Local communities involved in data collection and
• Based on the tiger numbers recorded in sampled sites, analysis.
an estimate for other contiguous tiger-occupied land-
scapes, was made. For this, additional information such • Genetic analysis to estimate tiger populations from
faecal samples.
as tiger signs, prey availability, habitat conditions and
human disturbance was used. Thus, the final estimates • Along with tigers, co-predators, prey, and habitat
provide a comprehensive and statistically robust result quality assessed.
for the whole country • Pioneering attempt to estimate tiger populations in
Sunderbans Tiger Reserve (West Bengal) using satel-
“Phase IV” lite telemetry and sign surveys.
• India has announced a major expansion of its tiger • First estimation of tiger population in Sahyadri Tiger
monitoring programme, through ‘Phase IV’ of the na- Reserve (Maharashtra).
tional tiger estimation programme.
Tiger Population Estimates
• This initiated intensive, annual monitoring of tigers at
the tiger reserve level, across protected areas in the • The same scientifically robust methods were consist-
country, from November 2011. ently used in 2006 and 2010. This enabled comparison
of results from both estimation exercises and in under-
• The methodology is developed by the Wildlife Institute standing the trend in tiger numbers.
of India (WII) and the National Tiger Conservation Au-
thority (NTCA), in consultation with experts, and will • The estimated tiger population in 2006 was 1411 and
use statistically sound procedures to estimate numbers due to conservation efforts it has steadily increased and
of both tigers and their prey. the tiger population was 1706 in the 2010 tiger estimate.
• The tiger monitoring protocol use camera traps, at a
density of 25 double-sided cameras per 100 square kilo- Do you know?
metres, and a minimum trapping effort of 1000 trap
nights per 100 square kilometres. (Note: Tiger reserve
• Tigers have a lifespan of 10–15 years in the wild,
but can live longer than 20 years in captivity.
- see appendix)
• They are highly adaptable and range from the Si-
• This will provide a yearly indication of the status of berian taiga to open grasslands and tropical man-
critical tiger populations around the country, and will grove swamps.
be critical to long-term management and conservation
of tiger populations.
16�1�3 International Cooperation
• Prey population monitoring will be conducted simul-
taneously, using Distance sampling protocols. Distance • India has a Memorandum of Understanding with Nepal
sampling will be conducted along line transects already on controlling trans-boundary illegal trade in wildlife
established in phase I, and will use a minimum of 30 and conservation, apart from a protocol on tiger con-
spatial replicates for 2 km each, and a total effort of servation with China.
300 km. • The process is on for bilateral protocol with Bangladesh,
Bhutan & Myanmar.
Do you know? • A Global Tiger Forum of Tiger Range Countries has
been created for addressing international issues related
Royal Bengal tiger, is a tiger subspecies native to India, to tiger conservation.
Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan, and has been classified
as endangered by IUCN as the population is estimated Asian Ministerial Conference on Tiger Conservation�
at fewer than 2,500 individuals with a decreasing
trend. The Bengal tiger is the national animal of Bang-
• The New Delhi Resolution on Tiger Conservation was
adopted by the 3rd Asian Ministerial Conference on
ladesh. Panthera tigris is the national animal of India.
Tiger Conservation.
• The salient features of the Resolution include: recovery
of tiger in low density protected areas by three Rs – Do you know?
Restoration, Reintroduction and Rehabilitation, accel- The hippopotamus, walrus, narwhal, mammoth,
eration of the implementation of Global Tiger Recovery Rhino and most commonly, Asian and African ele-
Programme, which includes habitat improvement and phants are poached for their ivory tusk.
anti-poaching surveillance through modern technology,
align development and tiger conservation by ensuring
intensive participation of locals and other stakeholders, Objectives:
promotion of tiger habitats to provide ecosystem ser- • To protect elephants, their habitat & corridors
vice, economic growth and addressing climate change
• To address issues of man-animal conflict
and strengthening cooperation to combat wildlife crime.
• Welfare of domesticated elephants
• This is the third conclave, with the earlier ones being
held at Hua Hin, Thailand (2010) and Thimpu, Bhutan Aim
(2012), besides the Tiger Summit at St Petersburg in • Ecologically restoring the natural habitats and migra-
2010. Tiger Range Countries include Bangladesh, Bhu- tory routes of the elephants
tan, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, India, Lao PDR, Ma-
laysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russian Federation, Thailand,
• Mitigation of the increasing conflicts between man and
elephants in important habitats and moderating the
Vietnam.
pressures of human and domestic stock activities in
important elephant habitats.
Do you know?
Rajasthan has become the first state to launch project
• Developing scientific and planned management meas-
ures for conservation of elephants.
Leopard to conserve it by improving their prey base,
mitigating man and leopard conflict and controlling • Protecting the elephants from poachers and other un-
poaching. natural causes of death and preventing illegal ivory
Project Leopard will be chaired by State Forest Min- trade is also one of the major concerns of the Elephant
ister and it will be implemented in 8 Wildlife Sanctu- Project in India
aries in Rajasthan
• Researching on issues related to elephants and creating
public awareness and education programs for it.
16.2. PROJECT ELEPHANT
• Eco-development and Veterinary care for the elephants.
• Project Elephant was launched in February, 1992 as
• It also aims at maintaining health care and breeding of
centrally sponsored scheme to assist states having free
tamed elephants.
ranging populations of wild elephants and to ensure
long term survival of identified viable populations of • (Elephant reserve of India see appendix)
elephants in their natural habitats.
16�2�1� Elephant Corridor
• The Project is being mainly implemented in 13 States /
UTs , viz. Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, • An elephant corridor is defined as a stretch/ narrow
Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Meghalaya, Nagaland, strips of forested (or otherwise) land that connects
Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and larger habitats with elephant populations and forms a
West Bengal. Small support is also being given to Ma- conduit for animal movement between the habitats.
harashtra and Chhattisgarh. This movement helps enhance species survival and
birth rate.
• States are being given financial as well as technical as-
sistance in achieving the objectives of the Project. Help • There are 88 identified elephant corridors in India.
is also provided to other states with small populations • Out of total 88 corridors, 20 were in south India, 12 in
of elephants for the purpose of census, training of field north-western India, 20 in central India, 14 in northern
staff and mitigation of human-elephant conflict. West Bengal and 22 in north-eastern India.
• Of the total, 77.3 per cent is regularly used by elephants. ing on the need, habitat restoration work shall also be
About one-third is of ecologically high priority and re- done.
maining two third of medium priority. • Securing the corridors involves sensitizing local com-
• Fragmentation of elephant habitat was severe in north- munities to the option of voluntarily relocation outside
ern West Bengal followed by north-western India, the conflict zones to safer areas. It would also have great
north-eastern India and central India respectively. The conservation value, preventing further fragmentation
least fragmentation was noted in south India. of the continuous forest habitat by encroachment from
• In south India, 65 per cent of the corridors are in pro- urban areas, as well as providing continued refuge for
tected area or in reserved forests. tiger, elephant, sambar, marsh crocodile, gharial and
many species of bird.
• 90 per cent in central India are jointly under forest,
agriculture and settlements, Only 10 per cent are com-
16�2�4� Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephants
pletely under forest area.
(MIKE) Programme
• Nationally, only 24 per cent of the corridors are under
• Mandated by COP resolution of CITES, MIKE program
complete forest cover.
started in South Asia in the year 2003 with following
16�2�2� Threats to Elephant Corridors purpose –
• The primary threat is the Habitat loss leading to frag- • To provide information needed for elephant range States
mentation and destruction caused by developmental to make appropriate management and enforcement de-
activities like construction of buildings,roeds, railways, cisions, and to build institutional capacity within the
holiday resorts and the fixing solar energized electric range States for the long-term management of their
fencing, etc. elephant populations
• Coal mining and iron ore mining is the two “single big- Main objectives
gest threats” to elephant corridors in central India. 1. to measure levels and trends in the illegal hunting of
• Orissa, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, are mineral-rich elephants;
states, but also have the highest number of elephant 2. to determine changes in these trends over time; and
corridors in the country, which makes them known for
3. to determine the factors causing or associated with
elephant-man conflicts.
such changes, and to try and assess in particular to
• There is also a serious poaching problem, as elephant what extent observed trends are a result of any deci-
ivory from the tusks is extremely valuable. sions taken by the Conference of the Parties to CITES
• Elephants need extensive grazing grounds and most • Under the programme data are being collected from all
reserves cannot accommodate them. If protected areas sites on monthly basis in specified MIKE patrol form
are not large enough, elephants may search for food and submited to Sub Regional Support Office for South
elsewhere. This often results in conflicts with humans, Asia Programme located in Delhi who are assisting
due to elephants raiding or destroying crops. Ministry in the implementation of the progremme.
Do you know?
Do you know?
White tigers are not a separate sub-species, but are
white in color due to an expression of recessive genes Paraceratherium, the largest land mammal that ever
lived, which resembles a very big, muscular giraffe.
16�2�3� Mitigation
• Fusion of the corridors with nearby protected areas 16�2�5� Haathi Mere Saathi
wherever feasible; in other cases, declaration as Eco- • Haathi Mere Saathi is a campaign launched by the Min-
logically Sensitive Areas or conservation reserves to istry of environment and forest (MoEF) in partnership
grant protection. with the wildlife trust of India (WTI).
• During the process of securing a corridor, monitoring • To improve conservation and welfare prospects of the
for animal movement have to be carried out; depend- elephant - India’s National Heritage Animal.
• The campaign was launched at the “Elephant- 8” Min- 16�2�6� Elephant - 8 Ministerial Meeting
isterial meeting held in Delhi on 24th May 2011. • The E-8 ministerial meeting represented regions with
• The E-8 countries comprise of India, Botswana, the all 3 species of elephants, viz.,
Republic of Congo, Indonesia, Kenya, Srilanka, Tanza-
l. Elephas maximus (Asian elephant)
nia, and Thailand.
2. Loxodonta africana (African Bush Elephant)
• This public initiative was aimed at increasing awareness
among people and developing friendship, companion- 3. Loxodonta cyclotis (African Forest Elephant)
ship between people and elephants. • The participants included policy makers, conservation-
The campaign mascot ‘Gaju’� ist, scientists, historians, art and culture experts among
the participating countries.
• The campaign focuses on various target audience
groups including locals near elephant habitats, youth, • Discussions covered a wide range of issues categorised
policy makers, among others. under three basic themes.
• It envisions setting up of Gajah (the elephant) centres 1. Science and conservation
in elephant landscapes across the country to spread 2. Management and conservation
awareness on their plight and invoke people’s participa-
tion in addressing the threats to them. 3. Cultural and Ethical perspectives of conservation
• It also plants to build capacity of protection and law • The E-8 countries besides resolving to take necessary
enforcement agencies at the ground level, and advocate steps in the direction of elephant conservation also de-
for policies favouring the pachyderms (the elephant). cided to actively pursue a common Agenda to ensure a
• Recommended by the elephant task force (ETF) consti- long term welfare and survival of all species of ele-
tuted by the ministry last year, the campaign to “Take phants in all range countries.
Gajah (the elephant) to the prajah (the people)” aims to • To realise this global goal, the meeting has called upon
spread awareness and encourage people’s participation all range countries to join hands under
in elephant conservation and welfare.
• the umbrella of elephant-50:50 forum. It is the shared
vision of 50 states to promote conservation, manage-
Tiger, faces threat of extinction, whereas the elephant ment and welfare of elephants in the next 50 years.
faces threat of attrition. The elephant Nos. have not
increased or decreased drastically but there is a in- 16�2�7� E-50:50 forum
creasing pressure on the elephant habitats and it is a • The E-8 countries decided to hold the 1st International
serious concern which has to be addressed by involv- Congress of E-50:50 forum in early 2013 at New Delhi,
ing people in elephant conservation and welfare India for adopting a common global vision on conserva-
through this campaign. tion, management and welfare of elephants across all
range countries.
• The Asian elephant is threatened by habitat degrada- 16.3. VULTURE
tion, conflicts and poaching for ivory. These threats are
more intense in India which harbours more than 50% India has nine species of vultures in the wild. They are the
of worlds Asian elephant population. 1. Oriental White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis),
• India has about 25000 elephants in the wild. Despite 2. Slender billed Vulture (Gyps tenuirostris),
this seemingly large number, the elephant particularly 3. Long billed Vulture (Gyps indicus),
the tuskers (male), in India is as threatened as the tiger.
There are just about 1200 tuskers left in the country. 4. Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus),
5. Red Headed Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus),
Do you know? 6. Indian Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus),
The term “blind as a bat” isn’t really accurate. Bats 7. Himalayan Griffon (Gyps himalayensis),
have perfectly good eyes for seeing in the daylight. The 8. Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus) and
problem is, they do most of their hunting at night!
9. Bearded Vulture or Lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus).
• Decline of vulture populations in India was first re- reduced risk of side effects, and is also approved for
corded at the Keoladeo Ghana National Park, Rajasthan human use in more than 70 countries. Meloxicam is
• The decline of Gyps genus in India has been put at 97% licensed as a veterinary drug in India, Europe and USA.
(over a 12 year period) by 2005.
• Similar declines have occurred in other countries in 16�3�3� Banned but still in use
Asia, including Nepal and Pakistan. • The Indian Government in May 2006 banned the vet-
• In India the population of three species i.e. White- erinary use of diclofenac. Unfortunately, the ban didn’t
backed Vulture, Slender billed Vulture and Long billed reach far enough and human forms of diclofenac were
Vulture in the wild has declined drastically over the used to treat sick cattle.
past decade. • One particular problem is that the human form of di-
• Red-headed vulture or king vulture, Slender billed Vul- clofenac is much cheaper than alternative drugs like
ture and Long billed Vulture are listed as critically en- meloxicam which have been safety tested for vultures
dangered.
• Populations of Egyptian vultures and White-backed 16.3.4. Significance of vultures in India
Vulture have also undergone decline in India and are • Scavenging on animal carcasses of animals and thereby
now classified as Endangered. helping keep the environment clean;
• It is initially thought the drastic decline in population • Disposal of dead bodies as per the religious practices of
was due to non-availability of food (dead livestock) or the Parsi community.
an unknown viral epidemic disease, but later on con- • Vultures are the primary removers of carrion in India
firmed that decline in population was due to the drug and Africa.
diclofenac.
16�3�5� Without vultures
16�3�1� Diclofenac Sodium as the Probable Cause
• Equilibrium between populations of other scavenging
• Diclofenac is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug species will be affected.
(NSAID) administered to reduce inflammation and to
reduce pain in certain conditions. • Result in increase in putrefying carcasses.
• NSAIDs are associated with adverse kidney (renal) fail- • Movement of Feral dogs into carcass dumps increasing
ure which is caused due to the reduction in synthesis of the spread of diseases such as rabies, anthrax.
renal prostaglandins. • Traditional custom of the Parsis of placing their dead in
• Vultures which were unable to break down the chemical the ‘Towers of Silence’ for vultures to feed upon will be
diclofenac, suffer from kidney failure when they eat the affected.
carcass of animals which have been administered with • Life will be much harder for local hide and bone-collec-
the drug - Diclofenac tors, who rely on cleaned carcasses in order to earn a
• Visceral gout, an accumulation of uric acid within tis- living.
sues and on the surfaces of internal organs, was ob-
served in 85% of dead vultures found. Death caused by Do you know?
renal failure, which is known to occur as a result of Although all snakes can swim, sea snakes live mostly
metabolic failure or toxic disease. in the water. They do need to come up for air but can
• “Neck drooping” - vulture exhibit this behaviour for stay under water for up to an hour!.
protracted periods over several weeks before collapsing
and falling out of trees or just prior to death. It is the
only obvious behavioural indication that birds are ill.
16�3�6� Vulture Safety Zones
Neck drooping is also reported in healthy birds under • The concept of a VSZ is unique for the Asian continent
hot conditions. but similar VSZ are in operation in both Europe and
Africa.
16�3�2� Meloxicam - An Alternative • Aim of developing VSZs is to establish targeted aware-
• Meloxicam is a second generation NSAID and rated bet- ness activities surrounding 150 km radius of vultures’
ter than Diclofenac for the treatment of livestock, with colonies so that no diclofenac or the veterinary toxic
drugs are found in cattle carcasses, the main food of 16�3�9� What have to be done?
vultures(to provide safe food).
• Diclofenac free zones’ (DFZ) meant the complete re-
• The VSZ is spread around in several hundred kilometers moval of diclofenac in the identified vulture safe zones
covering the Jim Corbett in Uttarakhand, Dudhwa and i.e. places where vulture colonies have been identified.
Kartarniaghat forest reserves in UP which is adjoining
the Indo-Nepal border. Nepal has already set up VSZ on 16�3�10� Vulture Restaurants
the Indian borders. • At this restaurant, tables are reserved only for the
unique and rare vultures by Maharashtra and Punjab
forest departments
Do you know?
Aim
• Frog bones form a ring when the frog is hibernating,
just like trees do. Scientists can use these rings to • Conserve the fast dwindling vulture population.
figure out the age of a frog • As uncontaminated food shortage is one of the reasons
• Frogs don’t drink water they absorb it through their for vultures’ decline, these scavengers will be fed by
skin. serving diclofenac free carcasses of cattle through res-
taurants.
• VR includes involvement of local communities in in-situ
16�3�7� VSZ’s provide: conservation, is having dual benefits to vultures and to
• A safe source of food that is free of contamination from our society.
veterinary drugs, poisons and other agricultural • People inform the forest department in case of the death
chemicals. of an animal in their village and the department tests
• Extra food close to breeding colonies, this helps to in- the dead animal for the presence of diclofenac.
crease their breeding success by improving the survival • In their absence the department pays monetary benefits
chances of the young vultures. to the owner of the animal and informer, transports it
• Additional food, such as bone fragments, which can be to the vulture restaurant.
supplied to breeding birds. • Apart from this, whenever a vulture nesting is found,
• Help to reduce the risk of spreading diseases. conservation measures like providing safe food near
nesting trees, constant protection from all sorts of dis-
• A place for scientists to study the biology and ecology of turbances, etc., are put in place without delay.
these threatened species.
Benefits
• An opportunity to raise public awareness on vulture
conservation and to raise funds. • Conservation of vulture from extinction
• An excellent opportunity for eco-tourists to observe • Community participation in conservation
these magnificent birds. • Economic incentive to local cattle breeders
• Phasing out the use of diclofenac
16�3�8� Zones • Awareness
1. The zone between Uttarkhand to Nepal, which spans • Dining spots
from Corbett to Katriya Ghat, a Tarai belt, covering • Punjab - Kathlore, Chandola and Chamraur
30,000 square kilometers will be earmarked as Vulture
Safe zone. Slender-billed vulture and white-backed vul- • Maharastra – Gadchiroli, Thane, Nagpur, Nashik,
Raigad districts
ture are found in this area, which is marshy grassland,
savannas and forests.
16�3�11� Breeding Centres in India
2. Similarly, a belt between Dibrugarh in Assam to North
Lakhimpur in Arunachal Pradesh will also be con- • Vulture Breeding and Conservation Centre had already
been established at Pinjore, Haryana in 2001, and Rani,
served as a vulture safe zone where slender-billed and
Guwahati (Assam) and another one has been estab-
white-backed species of vultures are found.
lished at Buxa, West Bengal in 2005. The Central Zoo
3. The third zone would be in central India, covering Authority of India has also committed for supporting 4
Chhatisgarh, where white-backed and long-billed vul- such centers in the zoos at Junagadh, Bhopal, Hyderabad
tures are found. and Bhubhaneshwar in 2006-07.
• The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) & and range countries to develop and implement national
BNHS has taken up a program to release 30 young vul- vulture recovery plans, including conservation breeding
tures from the breeding centre’s to the demarcated safe and release.”
zones at three places by year 2014.
16�3�14� Save - Saving Asia’s Vultures From
• Though the breeding facilities had started some years
Extinction�
back, it takes time for the reproduction amongst vultures.
Young vultures take at least four to five years to fly. • It’s a consortium of like-minded, regional and interna-
tional organizations, created to oversee and co-ordinate
Do you know? conservation, campaigning and fundraising activities
to help the plight of south Asia’s vultures.
India has more than 100,000 brick kilns and they are
noxious sources of pollution, particularly soot. To save three species of Gyps vulture
• Oriental white-backed vulture or White-rumped vulture
16�3�12� Measures taken to Conserve Vultures • Long-billed vulture
• The veterinary drug Diclofenac has been banned by • Slender-billed vulture
Indian and Nepalese governments. Partners
• Meloxicam, a safe alternative for vultures and other
• Bird Conservation Nepal, Bombay Natural History So-
scavenging birds, is being promoted as an effective re- ciety (India), International Centre for Birds of Prey
placement. (UK), National Trust for Nature Conservation (Nepal),,
• Government of India has formulated a National Action Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (UK)
Plan (2006) on Vulture Conservation. The Action Plan
provides for strategies, actions for containing the de-
• Asia’s first ‘Gyps Vulture Reintroduction Programme’
launched at Pinjore. Two Himalayan Griffons were re-
cline of vulture population through ex-situ, in-situ vul- leased into the wild from the Jatayu Conservation
ture conservation. Breeding Centre, Pinjore.
• Protection status of White backed, Long Billed and Slen-
• The Himalayan Griffon is closely related to the critically
der Billed Vultures has been upgraded from Schedule endangered resident Gyps species of vultures but is not
IV to Schedule I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. endangered.
• Vultures Safety Zone.
• Vulture Restaurant sites. 16.4. ONE HORN RHINO
• A ‘Vulture Captive Care facility’ has been established at
16�4�1� Indian Rhino Vision 2020
Panchkula.
• The State Governments have been advised to set up • Indian rhino vision 2020 implemented by the depart-
vulture care centres for the conservation of three spe- ment of environment and forests, Assam with The Bodo
cies of vultures. autonomous council as a active partner. The programme
will be supported by WWF – India, WWF areas (Asian
• Captive breeding centers have been established to se-
rhino and elephant action strategy) programme, the
cure healthy birds from the wild for breeding in captiv-
international rhino foundation (IRF), save the rhino’s
ity for purposes of conservation and future release. campaign of zoological institutions worldwide and a
• Awareness raising activities targeting various groups number of local NGOs.
such as veterinarians, pharmacists, school children,
government agencies, conservation partners and local
• The vision of this program is to increase the total rhino
foundation in Assam from about 2000 to 3000 by the
communities are being organized regularly.
year 2020 and to ensure that these rhinos are distrib-
uted over at least 7 protected areas (PA) to provide long
16�3�13� India‘S Role in Conservation term viability of the one-horned rhino population.
• India moved a motion in IUCN in 2004 for vulture con-
servation, which was accepted in the form of the IUCN
resolution which called upon Gyps vulture Range coun- Do you know?
tries to begin action to prevent all uses of diclofenac in Woolly rhino (Coelodonta antiquitatis), probably the
veterinary applications, and establishment of IUCN most well known of the extinct rhinos.
South Asian Task Force under the auspices of the IUCN
16.4.2. Why? • Most snow leopard occurring in China, followed by
• Concentrating so many rhinos in a single protected area Mongolia and India. India is believed to have between
like Kaziranga exposes the species to risks of calamities 400 and 700 snow leopards in the five Himalayan
(epidemics, floods, massive poaching attempts). Further, states, though these estimates are not precise.
rhinos in Pabitora have exceeded carrying capacity and • Threats posed due to
numbers must be reduced to protect the habitat and to
mitigate the increasing rhino-human conflicts.
• competition with livestock,
• Rhino species: Greater one-horned rhino (Rhinoceros
• degradation,
unicornis) • poaching, and
• Activities: Anti-poaching, monitoring, translocations, • even facing local extinction
community conservation.
• Translocations are the backbone of the IRV 2020 pro- Do you know?
gram Chinese experts have successfully used a plant Pteris
• The goal set was to populate the potential rhino habitat vittata L (The Chinese fern) to clean arsenic pollution
areas identified viz. Manas NP, Dibru Saikhowa WLS, from the soil.
Laokhowa - Bura Chapori WLS with a viable population
of rhino through translocations from Kaziranga NP and
Pobitora WLS. 16�5�1� Project Snow Leopard - Jan 2009
• Manas National Park was selected as the first site for • The Project Snow Leopard is an Indian initiative for
translocation of rhinos. strengthening wildlife conservation in the Himalayan
• Ten rhinos have been released into Manas since 2008. high altitudes.
Ten more rhinos will be moved from Kaziranga National Aim:
Park before the end of the year. Translocating rhinos
will help to create a viable population of this threatened • to promote a knowledge-based and adaptive conserva-
species. tion framework that fully involves the local communi-
ties, who share the snow leopard’s range, in
Do you know? conservation efforts.
CNG is not without environmental drawbacks, burning Goal:
CNG has the highest rates of potentially hazardous car-
bonyl emissions. - Central Pollution Control Board
• To safeguard and conserve India’s unique natural herit-
age of high altitude wildlife populations and their hab-
(study 2011).
itats by promoting conservation through participatory
policies and actions.
16.5. PROJECT SNOW LEOPARD Location:
• SNOW LEOPARD: The mystical apex predator
• All biologically important landscapes in the Himalayan
• The snow leopard is a globally endangered species. high altitudes in the states of Jammu & Kashmir,
Merely 7,500 are estimated to be surviving over two Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal
million square kilometers in the Himalaya and Central Pradesh.
Asian mountains, where they are facing tremendous
human pressures. • Project Snow Leopard is designed for all biologically
important habitats within the snow leopard’s range,
• India is perhaps home to 10% of the global population
irrespective of their ownership (e.g. Protected Areas,
in less than 5% of its global range, thus having a sub-
common land, etc.).
stantial proportion of its global population.
• Distribution in India – in Indian Himalayas, high alti- • Forming an estimated 1,29,000 km2 within India, these
tude areas located above the forests (alpine meadows areas generally comprise the non-forested or sparsely-
and cold deserts) Areas above 3000m broadly constitute forested high altitude regions of the Himalaya and
snow leopard range in India. In the five Himalayan Trans-Himalaya above elevations of 3,000 m in the
states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Utta- Western Himalaya and above 4,000m in the eastern
rakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. Himalaya.
16�5�2� Why to conserve the high altitude ecosystem? 16.7. SEA TURTLE PROJECT
• The high altitudes of India (> 3000 m. to 130,000 km , 2
• A significant proportion of world’s Olive Ridley Turtle
including the Himalaya and Trans-Himalaya biogeo- population migrates every winter to Indian coastal wa-
graphic zones) support a unique wildlife assemblage of ters for nesting mainly at eastern coast.
global conservation importance.
• With the objective of conservation of olive ridley turtles
• This includes highly endangered populations of species and other endangered marine turtles, Ministry of En-
such as the snow leopard, two species of bears, wolf, vironment & Forests initiated the Sea Turtle Conserva-
red panda, mountain ungulates such as the wild yak, tion Project in collaboration of UNDP in November, 1999
chiru, Tibetan gazelle, Tibetan argali, Ladakh urial, two with Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun as the Imple-
species of musk deer, the hangul, three species of goral, menting Agency.
serow, and takin, etc. High altitude lakes and bogs pro-
vide breeding grounds for a variety of avifauna includ- • The project is being implemented in 10 coastal States of
ing the black-necked crane, barheaded Geese, brahminy the country with special emphasis in State of Orissa.
ducks, and brown-headed gulls, etc. • The project has helped in preparation of inventory map
• India has ratified international agreements promoting of breeding sites of Sea Turtles, identification of nesting
the conservation of high altitude wildlife species such and breeding habitats along the shore line, and migra-
as the snow leopard. tory routes taken by Sea Turtles, development of guide-
lines to safeguard and minimize turtle mortality,
• In 2003, the Convention on Migratory Species included
development of national and international cooperative
the snow leopard as a Concerted Action Species under
and collaborative action for Sea Turtle Conservation,
its Appendix I.
developing guideline plans for tourism in sea turtle
• Similarly, in 2003, the Convention on International areas and developing infrastructure and human re-
Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) expanded the sources for Sea Turtle Conservation.
scope of the CITES Tiger Enforcement Task Force to
include all Asian big cat species including the snow • One of the important achievements have been demon-
leopard. stration of use of Satellite Telemetry to locate the migra-
tory route of Olive Ridley Turtles in the sea and
• In both cases, representatives of the MoEF played a vital sensitizing the fishermen and State Government for the
role in elevating the conservation prominence of the
use of Turtle Exclusion Device (TED) in fishing trawlers
snow leopard internationally.
to check turtle mortality in fishing net.
• Each state will select one biologically important site and
develop a science-based, participatory conservation pro-
gramme in that site in the first five years of Project Do you know?
Snow Leopard. This will be subsequently expanded to
include other biologically important sites. Hippopotamuses are found in Africa. The name hip-
popotamus means ‘river horse’ and is often shortened
16.6 SECURE HIMALAYA to hippo.
• The project was launched by the MoEF&CC in collabora-

tion with UNDP. The plan intends to conserve the snow
leopards by protecting their habitats and improve the
16.8. INDIAN CROCODILE
ecology of Himalayan ranges and lives of the mountain
CONSERVATION PROJECT
communities. It covers Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and • The Indian Crocodile Conservation Project has pulled
Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Sikkim. back the once threatened crocodilians from the brink
of extinction and place them on a good path of recovery.
Focus areas The Project has not just produced a large number of
1. Strengthening and improving protected area network crocodiles, but has contributed towards conservation in
a number of related fields as well.
2. Landscape-level approach for wildlife conservation
3. Control of poaching and illegal trade in wildlife Objectives:
4. Mitigation of human-wildlife conflicts and • To protect the remaining population of crocodilians in
their natural habitat by creating sanctuaries.
5. Management of tourism in wildlife areas
• To rebuild natural population quickly through `grow • Bringing an animal into captivity may represent the
and release’ or `rear and release’ technique - more than last chance to preserve a species in the wild in these
seven thousand crocodiles have been restocked - about situations:
4000 gharial (Gavialis gangeticus), 1800 mugger (Croc- • When a population drops dangerously, captive breeding
odylus palustris) and 1500 saltwater crocodiles (Croc- can boost numbers. Captive-produced young can some-
odylus porosus) times be released into the wild where populations have
diminished or disappeared, yet where suitable habitat
• To promote captive breeding,
remains to support them.
• To take-up research to improve management.
• When all of the existing habitat is poor quality or other
• To build up a level of trained personnel for better con- environmental problems occur, a captive population can
tinuity of the project through training imparted at be maintained until the problems can be solved or an-
project-sites and through the (erstwhile) Central Croc- other appropriate habitat can be found for the animal
odile Breeding and Management Training Institute, in the wild.
Hyderabad. • When the existing habitat is fragmented, captive breed-
• To involve the local people in the project intimately ing combined with management may provide the only
hope for survival by providing opportunities for genetic
16.9. PROJECT HANGUL mixing.
• The Kashmir stag (Cervus affinis hanglu) also called • When a group of birds stays in one area of degraded
Hangul is a subspecies of Central Asian Red Deer native habitat because they are behaviorally trapped, captive
to northern India. breeding and release programs can help them to expand
their range.
• It is the state animal of jammu & kasmir
• By holding and breeding birds in captivity we acquire
• This deer lives in groups of two to 18 individuals in knowledge about them that may be difficult or impos-
dense riverine forests, high valleys, and mountains of sible to accomplish in the wild. Sometimes this scientific
the Kashmir valley and northern Chamba in Himachal research provides some of the information necessary to
Pradesh. save a species.
• In Kashmir, it’s found in Dachigam National Park at • If situation demands reintroduction or reestablishment
elevations of 3,035 meters. in the natural habitat may also arise.
• These deer once numbered from about 5,000 animals • E.g. captive breeding of lion tailed macaque in Arignar
in the beginning of the 20th century. Unfortunately, Anna Zoological Park, Chennai and in mysore zoo.
they were threatened, due to habitat destruction, over-
grazing by domestic livestock and poaching. 16.11. DOLPHIN
• This dwindled to as low as 150 animals by 1970. How- • Dolphins are animals of aquatic ecosystems. They are
found in the sea, brackish water and fresh water. A total
ever, the state of Jammu & Kashmir, along with the
of 15 species of marine and harbour dolphins have been
IUCN and the WWF prepared a project for the protec- reported from Indian waters and coasts. Besides, the
tion of these animals. It became known as Project Irrawady Dolphins are found in brackish waters of
Hangul. This brought great results and the population Odisha. Amongst the fresh water dolphins, the Gangetic
increased to over 340 by 1980. Dolphin is found in the Ganges river and its tributaries.
Apart from this, Indus River Dolphins have also been
Do you know? reported in Indus River in Punjab.
Hippopotamuses are threatened by habitat loss and • All fresh water, brackish water and marine Dolphins
poachers who hunt them for their meat and teeth. (Cetaceans) are listed in Schedule-I of the Wild Life
(Protection) Act, 1972, thereby according them the high-
est degree of protection against hunting.
16.10. CAPTIVE BREEDING • Gangetic Dolphin is one of the 17 species identified for
• Captive breeding means that members of a wild species taking up ‘Recovery programme of Critically Endan-
are captured, then bred and raised in a special facility gered Species, under the Centrally Sponsored Scheme
under the care of wildlife biologists and other expert. of ‘Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitat’
• National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) has initiated and wildlife areas like the national parks and sanctuar-
dolphin conservation programme in 2016 to ensure long ies to augment food and water availability in forests
term survival of dolphin and other river fauna. which can reduce migration of animals from forests to
the habitations.
Ganges Dolphin
• Construction of barriers like boundary walls and solar-
• The Ministry of Environment and Forests notified the powered electric fences around the sensitive areas to
Ganges River Dolphin as the National Aquatic Animal. prevent the wild animal attacks. These activities are
• The River Dolphin inhabits the Ganges-Brahmaputra- also permissible under the Central assistance.
Meghna and Karnaphuli-Sangu river systems of Nepal, • Development of necessary infrastructure and support
India, and Bangladesh. facilities for immobilization of the identified problematic
• It is estimated that their total population is around animals through tranquilization, and their relocation
2,000 and they are listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife to the natural habitat or rehabilitation in rescue centers.
Protection Act (1972). • The Chief Wildlife Wardens of the States/Union Terri-
• The Ganges Dolphin is among the four “obligate” fresh- tories are empowered to permit hunting of problematic
water dolphins found in the world – the other three are animals under the provisions of the Wildlife (Protec-
the ‘baiji’ found in the Yangtze River (China), the ‘bhu- tion) Act, 1972.
lan’ of the Indus (Pakistan) and the ‘boto’ of the Amazon • Programmes are launched to sensitize people and create
River (Latin America). awareness about the Do`s and Don’ts in case of scare
and attacks of wild animals.
• Although there are several species of marine dolphins
whose ranges include some freshwater habitats, these • Eco-development activities are undertaken in villages
four species live only in rivers and lakes. around Protected Areas to elicit the cooperation of com-
munities in management of the Protected Areas, which
• The Chinese River Dolphin was declared functionally includes actions to address the grievances of people
extinct by a team of international scientists in 2006.
regarding human-wildlife conflicts.
• In India, the Ganges River Dolphin is threatened by
river water pollution and siltation, accidental entangle- Do you know?
ment in fishing nets and poaching for their oil.
A two-member technical evaluation mission team of
• In addition, alterations to the rivers in the form of bar- the international Union for Conservation of Nature
rages and dams are separating populations. Various (IUCN), deputed by UNESCO, visited the Bhitarkanika
organizations, including the WWF-India in Uttar National Park recently to assess the suitability of the
Pradesh have initiated programs for conservation and park’s inclusion in the World Heritage Site list.
re-introduction of the River Dolphin.
Do you know? 16.13. INDIA ADOPTS SAWEN

Nothing specified in wildlife protection act 1972, shall • India has adopted the Statute of the South Asia Wildlife
affect the hunting rights conferred on the Scheduled Enforcement Network (SAWEN) sand becoming its for-
Tribes of the Nicobar Islands in the Union territory of mal member in order to strengthen ties with the mem-
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. ber countries in controlling the trans-boundary wildlife
crime through communication, coordination, collabora-
16.12 GOVERNMENT MEASURES TAKEN tion, capacity building and cooperation in the region.
TO PREVENT THE MENACE OF WILD AN- • SAWEN, a Regional network is comprised of eight coun-
IMAL’S ENTRY TO HUMAN HABITATS tries in South Asia: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. It aims at
• Financial assistance is provided to the State Govern-
working as a strong regional inter governmental body for
ments under the Centrally Sponsored Schemes, viz.,
combating wildlife crime by attempting common goals
‘Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats’, ‘Project
and approaches for combating illegal trade in the region.
Tiger’ and ‘Project Elephant’ for improvement of forest
 
PART - III
CHAPTER - 17
CLIMATE CHANGE
C limate is the long-term average of a region’s weather

events. The Earth’s climate is not static. Over the
billions of years of earth’s existence, it has changed
many times in response to natural causes like sun spot, ice
age glaciations, etc.
on record. 2016 was the hottest year on record, worldwide.
An upsurge in the amount of extreme weather events, such
as wildfires, heat waves, and strong tropical storms, is also
attributed
“Global warming is an average increase in the temperature
“Climate change” means a change of climate which is at- of the atmosphere near the Earth’s surface and in the
tributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters troposphere, which can contribute to changes in global
the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in climate patterns. Global warming can occur from a variety
addition to natural climate variability observed over com- of causes, both natural and human induced. In common
parable time periods. usage, “global warming” often refers to the warming that
However, when today people talk about ‘climate change’, can occur as a result of increased emissions of greenhouse
they mean the changes in climate over the last 100 years gases from human activities.”
which is caused predominantly by human activity.
17.1.1. Global Warming - Impacts
The phrase ‘climate change’ represents a change in the
long-term weather patterns. Climate change is not a • Rise in Sea level
change of weather in a particular day; it is the cumulative • Changes in rainfall patterns.
change of long term weather pattern i.e. changes in cli- • Increased likelihood of extreme events such as heat
mate. For example, it’s possible that a winter day in Jammu, wave, flooding, hurricanes, etc.
could be sunny and mild, but the average weather, the • Melting of the ice caps.
climate, tells us that Jammu’s winters will mainly be cold
and include snow and rain. The change in the pattern of
• Melting of glaciers.
Jammu’s winters from the normal winter pattern repre- • Widespread vanishing of animal populations due to
sents an epitome of climate change. habitat loss.
Climate change is the measurable effects of the continual

• Spread of disease (like malaria, etc).
warming trend. Climate change is usually measured in • Bleaching of Coral Reefs.
major shifts in temperature, rainfall, snow, and wind pat- • Loss of Plankton due to warming of seas.
terns lasting decades or more.
Humans are creating climate change by burning large Do you know?
amounts of fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas), deforestation Black Panther is not a separate species. Blackness, the
(when forests are cut down or burned, they can no longer general darkening of colour is due to the excessive pres-
store carbon, and the carbon is released to the atmosphere). ence of a substance called Melanin which intensifies
pigmentation. The production of melanin is increased
17.1. GLOBAL WARMING where there is a combination of high temperature,
Earth has warmed at an unprecedented rate over the last humidity and reduced light. Both black and normal-
hundred years and particularly over the last two decades. coloured cubs may be produced in the same litter.
Since 1992, each year has been one of the warmest years
17.2. GREENHOUSE EFFECT 17.2.1. What is the Greenhouse Effect?
The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenome-
non that blankets the earth lower atmosphere and warms
it, maintaining the temperature suitable for living things
to survive.
Just as greenhouses, that keeps the air warm inside its
chamber, water vapor and green house gases warms the
Earth. Greenhouse gases play an important role in the
balance of Earth’s cooling and warming.
According to one estimate, in the absence of naturally oc-
curring green house effect, the average temperature of the
earth surface would be -19°C instead of present value of
15°C and the earth would be a frozen lifeless planet.
The greenhouse effect is a process (similar to green house)

caused by greenhouse gases, which occur naturally in the
atmosphere. This process plays a crucial role in warming
the Earth’s surface, making it habitable.
However, human-generated greenhouse gas emissions
upset the natural balance and lead to increased warmth.
Green House
A greenhouse/ glasshouse is a building made of glass

chambers in which plants are grown in cold countries or
in cold climate areas. There is a continued increase in tem-
perature in green house even when the outside tempera-
ture remained low. It protects plants from frost.
Do you know?
• Tree rings provide precise information about envi-
ronmental events, including volcanic eruptions.
Incoming Energy 17.3. GREEN HOUSE GASES
• The Sun emits energy that is transmitted to Earth. Be- • Greenhouse gases means those gaseous constituents of
cause the Sun is very hot, the energy is emitted in high- the atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic, that
energy short wavelengths that penetrate the Earth’s absorbs and re-emit infrared radiation.
atmosphere.
17.3.1. Water vapour
Absorption
Water vapour is the biggest overall contributor to the
• About 30% of the Sun’s energy is reflected directly back
greenhouse effect and humans are not directly responsible
into space by the atmosphere, clouds, and surface of the for emitting this gas in quantities sufficient to change its
Earth. The rest of the Sun’s energy is absorbed into the concentration in the atmosphere. However, CO2 and other
Earth’s system. greenhouse gases is increasing the amount of water vapour
Emission in the air by boosting the rate of evaporation.
• The Earth re-emits energy back into the atmosphere. Unlike CO2, which can persist in the air for centuries, water
Because the Earth is cooler than the Sun, the energy is vapour cycles through the atmosphere quickly, evaporating
emitted in the form of infrared radiation, at wave- from the oceans and elsewhere before coming back down
lengths longer than the incoming solar energy. as rain or snow.
Since the rate of evaporation rises with temperature, the
Role of Greenhouse Gases amount of water vapour in the air at any one time (and the
• Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb much of amount of warming it causes) is strongly related to the
the long-wave energy (infrared radiation) emitted from amount of other greenhouse gases in the air.
the Earth’s surface, preventing it from escaping from
17.3.2. CARBON DIOXIDE
the Earth’s system. The greenhouse gases then re-emit
this energy in all directions, warming the Earth’s sur-
face and lower atmosphere.
Human Role
• The atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases has
increased significantly over the past two centuries,
largely due to human-generated carbon dioxide emis-
sions from burning fossil fuels, deforestation.
• This increase has amplified the natural greenhouse ef- • Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the primary greenhouse gas
emitted through human activities. Carbon dioxide
fect by trapping more of the energy emitted by the is naturally present in the atmosphere as part of the
Earth. This change causes Earth’s surface temperature Earth’s carbon cycle (the natural circulation of car-
to increase. bon among the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants, and
animals).
Do you know? • Human activities are altering the carbon cycle both by
adding more CO2 to the atmosphere and by reducing
• No tree dies of old age. They are generally killed by the natural sinks, like deforestation, to remove CO2
insects, disease or by people.
from the atmosphere.
• Trees grow from the top, not from the bottom as • While CO2 emissions come from a variety of natural
is commonly believed. sources, human-related emissions are responsible for
• Tree leaves help trap and remove tiny particles of the increase that has occurred in the atmosphere since
soot and dust which otherwise damages human the industrial revolution.
lungs.
The main sources
• Tree root networks filter contaminants in soils pro- i. The combustion of fossil fuels to generate electricity.
ducing clean water.
ii. The combustion of fossil fuels such as gasoline and
• Trees prevent erosion by trapping soil that would diesel used for transportation.
otherwise become silt
iii. Many industrial processes emit CO2 through fossil fuel
combustion.
iv. Several processes also produce CO2 emissions through • Smaller sources include termites, oceans, sediments,
chemical reactions that do not involve combustion, for volcanoes, and wildfires.
example, the production and consumption of mineral
Human induced:
products such as cement, the production of metals such
as iron and steel, and the production of chemicals, etc. • Agriculture: Domestic livestock such as cattle, buffalo,
sheep, goats, and camels produce large amounts of CH4
Emissions and Trends as part of their normal digestive process. Also, when
• Changes in CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion animals’ manure is stored or managed in lagoons or
are influenced by many factors, including population holding tanks, CH4 is produced. Because humans raise
growth, economic growth, changing energy prices, new these animals for food, the emissions are considered
technologies, changing behavior, and seasonal temper- human-related. Globally, the Agriculture sector is the
atures. primary source of CH4 emissions
• Between 1990 and 2010, the increase in CO2 emissions • Industry: Methane is the primary component of natural
corresponded with increased energy use by an expand- gas. Some amount of CH4 is emitted to the atmosphere
ing economy and population. during the production, processing, storage, transmis-
sion, and distribution of crude oil & natural gas.
Do you know? • Waste from Homes and Businesses: Methane is gener-
USA is the second largest Greenhouse Gas emitter ated in landfills as waste decomposes and from the
presently. However, if cumulative historical emission treatment of wastewater.
is considered, USA would be a largest GHG emitter.
So, its withdrawal will affect control of cumulative
Do you know?
global GHG emissions. It will also affect the availabil-
ity of international funds for climate change, as USA Polar bears are the largest living carnivorous quadru-
was a contributor to climate finance. ped (animals with four legs).
Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions 17.3.4. NITROUS OXIDE

• The most effective way to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) • Nitrous oxide (N2O) is naturally present in the atmos-
emissions is to reduce fossil fuel consumption. Other phere as part of the Earth’s nitrogen cycle, and has a
strategies include Energy Efficiency, Energy Conserva- variety of natural sources.
tion, Carbon Capture and Sequestration. • However, human activities such as agriculture, fossil
fuel combustion, wastewater management, and indus-
Do you know? trial processes are increasing the amount of N2O in the
The pesticide industry in India, which is the fourth atmosphere.
largest in the world and second largest in the Asia-
Pacific region, only after China. Sources
Natural sources:
17.3.3. METHANE • Natural emissions of N2O are mainly from bacteria
breaking down nitrogen in soils and the oceans.
• Methane (CH4) is emitted by natural sources such as
wetlands, as well as human activities such as leakage Human induced:
from natural gas systems and the raising of livestock. • Agriculture. Nitrous oxide is emitted when people add
• Natural processes in soil and chemical reactions in the nitrogen to the soil through the use of synthetic fertiliz-
atmosphere help remove CH4 from the atmosphere. ers. Nitrous oxide is also emitted during the breakdown
of nitrogen in livestock manure and urine, which con-
Source tributed to 6% of N2O emissions in 2010.
Natural sources: • Transportation. Nitrous oxide is emitted when trans-
portation fuels are burned.
• Wetlands are the largest source, emitting CH4 from bac-
teria that decompose organic materials in the absence • Industry. Nitrous oxide is generated as a byproduct dur-
of oxygen. ing the production of nitric acid, which is used to make
synthetic commercial fertilizer, and in the production • Like HFCs, PFCs generally have long atmospheric life-
of adipic acid, which is used to make fibers, like nylon, times and high GWPs.
and other synthetic products. • Sulfur hexafluoride is used in magnesium processing
• Removal: Nitrous oxide is removed from the atmos- and semiconductor manufacturing, as well as a tracer
phere when it is absorbed by certain types of bacteria gas for leak detection. HFC-23 is produced as a by-prod-
or destroyed by ultraviolet radiation or chemical re- uct of HCFC-22 production.
actions.
Transmission and Distribution of Electricity:
Do you know? • Sulfur hexafluoride is used in electrical transmission
equipment, including circuit breakers.
Telecoeras, a single-horned, hippo-like grazer, once
common in North America.
Do you know?
Planting trees on denuded and waste land, along
17.3.5. FLUORINATED GASES roads, railway tracks, deserted areas, watersheds, etc.
• They are emitted through a variety of industrial pro- protects soil from erosion by wind or water by firmly
cesses such as aluminum and semiconductor manu- binding it with roots and by diverting runoff during
facturing & Substitution for Ozone-Depleting rains
Substances.
• Many fluorinated gases have very high global warming 17.3.6. BLACK CARBON
potentials (GWPs) relative to other greenhouse gases.
Fluorinated gases are well-mixed in the atmosphere,
• Black carbon (BC) is a solid particle or aerosol, (though
not a gas) contributes to warming of the atmosphere.
spreading around the world after they’re emitted.
• Fluorinated gases are removed from the atmosphere
• Black carbon, commonly known as soot, is a form of
particulate air pollutant, produced from incomplete
only when they are destroyed by sunlight in the far
combustion. It consists of pure carbon in several linked
upper atmosphere. In general, fluorinated gases are the
forms.
most potent and longest lasting type of greenhouse
gases emitted by human activities. Source
• There are three main categories of fluorinated gases— • biomass burning,
1. hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), • cooking with solid fuels, and
2. perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and • diesel exhaust,etc.
3. sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). What does BC do?
Substitution for Ozone-Depleting Substances: • Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing heat in the
• Hydrofluorocarbons are used as refrigerants, aerosol atmosphere and by reducing albedo, (the ability to re-
propellants, solvents, and fire retardants. These chem- flect sunlight) when deposited on snow and ice.
icals were developed as a replacement for chlorofluoro- • BC is the strongest absorber of sunlight and heats the
carbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) air directly. In addition, it darkens snow packs and gla-
because they do not deplete the stratospheric ozone ciers through deposition and leads to melting of ice and
layer. snow.
• Unfortunately, HFCs are potent greenhouse gases with • Regionally, BC disrupts cloudiness and monsoon rainfall
long atmospheric lifetimes and high GWPs, and they are and accelerates melting of mountain glaciers such as
released into the atmosphere through leaks, servicing, the Hindu Kush-Himalayan glaciers.
and disposal of equipment in which they are used.
Life time
Industry:
• Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several
• Perfluorocarbons are compounds produced as a by- days to weeks.
product of various industrial processes associated with
aluminum production and the manufacturing of semi-
• Thus the effects of BC on the atmospheric warming and
glacier retreat disappear within months of reducing
conductors. emissions.
How far India contributes to globe? • Dark carbon-rich particles such as soot from diesel en-
• According to estimates, between 25 and 35 percent of gines absorb sunlight and warm the atmosphere.
black carbon in the global atmosphere comes from • Conversely, exhaust from high-sulphur coal or oil pro-
China and India, emitted from the burning of wood and duce light aerosols that reflect sunlight back to space,
cow dung in household cooking and through the use of producing a cooling effect. Aerosols that form naturally
coal to heat homes. during volcanic eruptions cool the atmosphere. Large
Government Measures volcanic eruptions can eject enough ash into the atmos-
• Project Surya has been launched to reduce black carbon phere to lower temperature for a year or more until the
in atmosphere by introducing efficient stove technolo- sulfate particles settle out of the atmosphere.
gies, solar cookers, solar lamps and biogas plants.
17.4.1. Forcing
17.3.7. Brown Carbon
Altering the Energy Balance
• Brown carbon is a ubiquitous and unidentified compo-
• The power of a process to alter the climate is estimated
nent of organic aerosol which has recently come into
the forefront of atmospheric research. by its “radiative forcing,” the change in the Earth’s en-
ergy balance due to that process.
• Light-absorbing organic matter (other than soot) in at-
mospheric aerosols of various origins, e.g., soil humics, • Some climate forcings are positive, causing globally av-
humic-like substances (HULIS), tarry materials from eraged warming, and some are negative, causing cool-
combustion, bioaerosols, etc. ing. Some, such as from increased CO concentration,
are well known; others, such as from aerosols, are more
Possible Sources of Brown Carbon are
uncertain.
• Biomass burning (possibly domestic wood burning) is
shown to be a major source of brown carbon Natural Forcings
• smoke from agricultural fires may be an additional • Natural forcings include changes in the amount of en-
source. ergy emitted by the Sun, very slow variations in Earth’s
orbit, and volcanic eruptions.
• “Brown carbon” is generally referred for greenhouse
gases and “black carbon” for particles resulting from • Since the start of the industrial revolution, the only
impure combustion, such as soot and dust. natural forcing with any long-term significance has been
a small increase in solar energy reaching Earth. How-
ever, this change is not nearly enough to account for the
Do you know?
current warming.
A flowering tree usually has a dome-shaped appear-
ance and a deliquescent stem in which the main trunk Human-Induced Forcings
divides at some distance from the ground into several • Climate forcing can also be caused by human activities.
branches, which branch again and again, making the These activities include greenhouse gas and aerosol
trunk appear to deliquese or melt away emissions from burning fossil fuels and modifications
of the land surface, such as deforestation.
17.4. CLIMATE FORCINGS Human-Generated Greenhouse Gases

• Climate “forcings” are factors in the climate system that • Greenhouse gases are a positive climate forcing; that is,
either increase or decrease the effects to the climate they have a warming effect. Carbon dioxide emitted
system. from the burning of fossil fuel is presently the largest
single climate forcing agent, accounting for more than
• Positive forcings such as excess greenhouse gases warm
half of the total positive forcing since 1750.
the earth while negative forcings, such as the effects of
most aerosols and volcanic eruptions, actually cool the Human-Generated Aerosols
earth. • Burning fossil fuels adds aerosols to the atmosphere.
• Atmospheric aerosols include volcanic dust, soot from Aerosols are tiny particles in the atmosphere composed
the combustion of fossil fuels, particles from burning of many things, including water, ice, ash, mineral dust,
forests and mineral dust. or acidic droplets.
• Aerosols can deflect the Sun’s energy and impact the energy (preventing it from immediately escaping
formation and lifetime of clouds. Aerosols are a negative to space), and how long the gas stays in the atmos-
forcing; that is, they have a cooling effect. phere.
Causes of Climate Change • The Global Warming Potential (GWP) for a gas is a
measure of the total energy that a gas absorbs over a
• While natural forcings do exist, they are not significant particular period of time (usually 100 years), compared
enough to explain the recent global warming. Human
to carbon dioxide.
activities are very likely responsible for most of the
recent warming. • Gases with a higher GWP absorb more energy, per
pound, than gases with a lower GWP, and thus contrib-
ute more to warming Earth.
How to estimate the effect of each gas?
GWP Lifetime of Green House Gases:
• Each gas’s effect on climate change depends on
three main factors:
S. No GAS GWP LIFETIME
1. How much of these gases are in the atmosphere? (100-year) (years)
• Concentration, or abundance, is the amount 1 Carbon di oxide 1 100
of a particular gas in the air. Greenhouse gas
concentrations are measured in parts per mil- 2 Methane 21 12
lion, parts per billion, and even parts per 3 Nitrous oxide 310 120
trillion.
4 Hydro fluoro 140-11,700 1-270
• One part per million is equivalent to one drop of carbons (HFCs)
water diluted into about 13 galloons of liquid (roughly
the fuel tank of a compact car). 5 Perfluoro 6,500-9,200 800-50,000
2. How long do they stay in the atmosphere? carbons (PFCs)
• Each of these gases can remain in the atmos- 6 Sulfur 23,900 3,200
phere for different amounts of time, ranging hexafluoride (SF6)
from a few years to thousands of years.
• All of these gases remain in the atmosphere Carbon dioxide (CO2) has a GWP of 1 and serves as a base-
long enough to become well mixed, meaning line for other GWP values.
that the amount that is measured in the atmos-
phere is roughly the same all over the world,
• The larger the GWP, the more warming the gas causes.
For example, methane’s 100-year GWP is 21, which
regardless of the source of the emissions. means that methane will cause 21 times as much warm-
3. How strongly do they impact global temperatures? ing as an equivalent mass of carbon dioxide over a 100-
• Some gases are more effective than others at year time period.
making the planet warmer and “thickening the • Methane (CH4) has a GWP more than 20 times higher
Earth’s blanket (green house gas)”. than CO2 for a 100-year time scale. CH4 emitted today
• For each greenhouse gases, a Global Warming lasts for only 12 years in the atmosphere, on average.
Potential (GWP) has been calculated to reflect However, on a pound-for-pound basis, CH4 absorbs
how long it remains in the atmosphere, on aver- more energy than CO2, making its GWP higher.
age, and how strongly it absorbs energy. • Nitrous Oxide (N2O) has a GWP 310 times that of CO2
for a 100-year timescale. N2O emitted today remains in
the atmosphere for an average of 120 years.
17.5. GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL • Chloro fluoro carbons (CFCs), hydro fluoro carbons
• Global warming potential describes the impact of each (HFCs), hydro chloro fluoro carbons (HCFCs), perfluoro
gas on global warming. carbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) are called
• The two most important characteristics of a GHG in high-GWP gases because, for a given amount of mass,
terms of climate impact are how well the gas absorbs they trap substantially more heat than CO2.
• The Himalayas and other mountain chains of central
Do you know? Asia support large regions that are glaciated. These gla-
Spices and condiments are flavoring agents obtained ciers provide critical water supplies to dry countries
from plants. Because they have little nutritive value, such as Mongolia, western China, Pakistan and Afghan-
they are not classified as foods. They contain essential istan. The loss of these glaciers would have a tremen-
oils, which impart flavor and aroma to food and add dous impact on the ecosystem of the region.
greatly to the pleasure of eating. They stimulate the • World’s leading scientists predict that global warming
appetite and increase the flow of gastric juices. may pose serious threat to national and global economy
and the environment.
Do you know? • The poor and low-lying countries will find it difficult to
cope with the damages caused by changing climate and
Shola forest, Temperate forest is an evergreen ecosys- rise in sea level
tem found at the high altitude regions. It is distributed
in Nilgris and Palani hills of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and 17.6.2. Chain of events
Karnataka. Sholas are found at sites where adjacent
slope converges. These are interrupted by grasslands Combustion of fossil fuels due to
ecosystem with stunted evergreen woods and confined Human Activities
to sheltered valleys, gleeves, hallows and depressions.
The main role of shola forest is conservation of water
in that region. It needs well drained soils and avoids Increase of Green House Gases
swampy soils.
Global Warming
17.6. RECEDING GLACIERS-A SYMPTOM
OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE
• 150 years ago there were 147 glaciers in Glacier National
Climatic Changes
park, but today only 37 glaciers remain, and scientists
predict that they are likely to melt by the year 2030.
Similarly, glaciers all across the Himalayas and Alps are
retreating and disappearing every year. There are al- Melting of Glaciers
most 160,000 glaciers found in Polar Regions and high
mountain environments. Therefore, researchers are
increasingly using satellite remote sensors to routinely Flooding / Rise in sea level
survey our world’s glaciers in a fraction of the time.
17.6.1. Impact of glacial retreat

Submergence of Low-lying Coastal Lands
• The retreat of glaciers in the Andes and the Himalayas
will have a potential impact on water supplies.
• Climate change may cause variations in both tempera-
Large-scale destruction of Ecosystems
ture and snowfall, causing changes in mass balance of
a glacier. and Extinction of species
 
CHAPTER - 18
OCEAN ACIDIFICATION
18.1. OCEAN ACIDIFICATION
Oceans are an important reservoir for CO2, absorbing a Forms of calcium carbonate
significant quantity of it (one-third) produced by anthro- Calcite and aragonite are two different forms of cal-
pogenic activities and effectively buffering climate change. cium carbonate.
Ocean acidification is the change in ocean chemistry - low- 1. Calcite is the mineral form found in the shells of
ering of ocean pH (i.e. increase in concentration of hydro- planktonic algae, amoeboid protists, some corals,
gen ions) driven by the uptake of carbon compounds by the echinoderms, and some molluscs (e.g. oysters); it
ocean from the atmosphere. is relatively less soluble.
As the uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide by the ocean 2. Aragonite is a more soluble form of calcium car-
increases, the concentration of hydrogen ions in the ocean bonate; it is found in most corals, most mollusks
(small planktonic snails), as well as some species
increases, the concentration of carbonate ions decreases,
of algae.
the pH of the oceans decreases and the oceans become less
alkaline – this process is know as ocean acidification.
18.1.1. CO2 effect on ocean acidification 18.1.2. Influence of other factors

Various factors can locally influence the chemical reactions
of CO2 with sea water and add to the effects to ocean acid-
ification. For example,
i. Acid rain
Acid rain can have a pH between 1 and 6 and has impact
The uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide is occurring at on surface ocean chemistry. It has major effect on ocean
a rate exceeding the natural buffering capacity of the acidification locally and regionally but very small globally.
ocean. ii. Eutrophication
The pH of the ocean surface waters has decreased by about Coastal waters are also affected by excess nutrient inputs,
0.1 pH unit (i.e. 26% increase in ocean hydrogen ion con- mostly nitrogen, from agriculture, fertilizers and sewage.
centration) since the beginning of the industrial revolution. The resulting eutrophication leads to large plankton
The ocean currently has a pH around 8.0 and is therefore blooms, and when these blooms collapse and sink to the
‘basic’ and it is nearly impossible, chemically, for all of it to sea bed the subsequent respiration of bacteria decomposing
actually become a pH less than 7.0. Why do we therefore the algae leads to a decrease in sea water oxygen and an
refer to ‘ocean acidification’ increase in CO2 (a decline in pH).
That is because acidification is the direction of travel, the
How it reacts?
trend, regardless of the starting point. Acidification refers
to lowering pH from any starting point to any end point The term ‘ocean acidification’ summarizes several pro-
on the pH scale. cesses that occur when CO2 reacts with sea water.
Two reactions are particularly important. Firstly, the for- 18.1.4. Mitigation
mation of carbonic acid with subsequent release of hydro- • Reducing CO2
gen ions:
• promoting government policies to cap CO2 emissions,
CO2 + H2O
(Carbon dioxide) + (Water)
H2CO3 H+ HCO3--
(Carbonic acid) (Hydrogen ions) + (Bicarbonate ions)
• eliminate offshore drilling,
• by advocating for energy efficiency and
• Alternative energy sources such as wind power, solar,
etc.
18.1.5. Saturation horizons

• Deep, cold ocean waters are naturally under saturated
with carbonate ions causing the shells of most calcifying
organisms to dissolve.
• Surface waters are over saturated with carbonate ions
and do not readily dissolve shells of calcifying organisms.
• The saturation horizon is the level below which calcium
carbonate minerals undergo dissolution.
• Those organisms that can survive below the saturation
The above reaction and release of hydrogen ions increases horizon do so due to special mechanisms to protect
acidity and thus pH level is reduced. their calcium carbonate from dissolving.
A second reaction, between carbonate ions, CO2 and water • As ocean acidification causes this horizon to rise verti-
produces bicarbonate ions. cally in the water column so more and more calcifying
The combined effect of both these reactions not only in- organisms will be exposed to under saturated water
creases acidity but also lowers the availability of carbon- and thus vulnerable to dissolution of their shells and
ate ions. skeletons.
• The saturation horizon of calcite occurs at a greater
18.1.3. Effect of ocean acidification ocean depth than that for aragonite, but both horizons
Seawater absorbs CO2 to produce carbonic acid (H2CO3), have moved closer to the surface presently when com-
bicarbonate (HCO3--) and carbonate ions (CO32-). pared to the 1800s.
These carbonate ions are essential to the calcification pro-
cess that allows certain marine organisms to build their Do you know?
calcium carbonate shells and skeletons (e.g. hard tropical
Chameleons are seen inhabiting almost all the parts
corals, cold water corals, molluscs, crustaceans, sea ur-
of south India and west of the Ganges. However, they
chins, certain types of plankton, lobsters, etc).
are rarely seen in areas that receive heavy rainfall.
However, increases in atmospheric CO2 levels lead to de- Chameleons are mostly arboreal and are found in
crease in pH level, increase in the concentration of carbonic trees or on smaller bushes.
acid and bicarbonate ions, causing a decrease in the con-
centration of carbonate ions.
Thus carbonate ions are less available and calcification is 18.1.6. Ocean acidification and the short and
therefore harder to achieve, and may be prevented alto- long-term fate of carbon in the system
gether. Imagine trying to build a house while someone On long timescales (>100,000 years) there is a natural bal-
keeps stealing your bricks. ance maintained between the up-take and release of CO2
This impact of ocean acidification may therefore have po- on Earth; the CO2 produced by volcanoes, the main natural
tentially catastrophic consequences for ocean life and many source of CO2, is taken up by the production of organic
marine species of economic importance. matter by plants and by rock weathering on land.
the sediment and trapped for a long time, but where the
UPWELLING shells sink in deep water nearly all the CaCO3 is dis-
solved, thereby not locking the carbon away for millions
• Surface Coastal regions periodically experience
of years.
upwelling events where deeper ocean water circu-
lates onto continental shelves and near-shore The current increased rate of dissolution of atmospheric
areas. CO2 into the ocean results in an imbalance in the carbonate
compensation depth (CCD), the depth at which all carbon-
• This exposes the productive upper ocean ecosys-
ate is dissolved.
tems to colder water containing more nutrients &
more CO2. As the pH of the ocean falls, it results in a shallowing of
the lysocline and the CCD, thus exposing more of the
• As ocean acidification makes the upper oversatu-
shells trapped in the sediments to understaturated condi-
rated layer of sea water shallower each year, these
tions causing them to dissolve, which will help buffer
natural upwelling events will more often cause
ocean acidification but over a long time scale of a thousand
undersaturated water to well up and flow to the
years.
shore.
• Coastal marine organisms that form shells are un-
accustomed to such events, and periodic exposures Do you know?
to these significantly different conditions may af- The park had been put on the tentative list of future
fect these communities. heritage sites of UNESCO in 2009 and had been in-
cluded in the final list in 2014. The Odisha govern-
ment had submitted a dossier, compiled by the Wildlife
However, rock weathering takes tens of thousands of years Institute of India, recommended to UNESCO that the
so will not remove the current anthropogenic input of CO2 park be declared a World Heritage Site.
to the atmosphere and ocean fast enough.
On shorter time scales (>1,000 years), the ocean has an
internal stabilizing feedback linking the ocean carbon cycle 18.1.7.Winners and losers
to the underlying carbonate rich sediment known as car- • The growth and level of photosynthesis of certain ma-
bonate compensation. rine phytoplankton and plant species may increase with
The upper layers of the ocean tend to be supersaturated higher CO2 levels, but this is by no means a general rule.
with CaCO3 so little dissolution takes place, whilst the deep • For others, higher CO2 and rising acidity may have ei-
ocean is undersaturated and carbonate readily dissolves. ther negative or neutral effects on their physiology.
The first boundary between these two states is known as • Therefore, particular marine plants will be ’winners’,
the lysocline, the depth at which dissolution strongly in- while others will be ‘losers’ and some may show no
creases in the deep ocean. signs of change but change is inevitable.
The CaCO3 in the form of dead shells sink to the sea bed. A reduction in atmospheric CO2 levels is essential to halt
If it is of shallow water depth, the majority is buried in ocean acidification before it is too late.
 
CHAPTER - 19
OZONE DEPLETION
O zone is a natural gas; it is an allotrope of oxygen

consisting of three atoms of oxygen bound together
in a non-linear fashion. The chemical symbol of
ozone is O3.
It helps in reducing the risks of mutation and harm to plant
and animal life. Too much UV rays can cause skin cancer
and will also harm all plants and animals. Life on Earth
could not exist without the protective shield of the ozone
layer.
It is found in two different layers of the atmosphere. Ozone
in the troposphere is “bad” because it dirties the air and
helps to form smog, which is not good to breathe. Ozone 19.1. OZONE DEPLETION
in the stratosphere is “good” because it protects life on
Earth by absorbing some of the sun’s harmful Ultra Violet 19.1.1. Change in equilibrium
(UV) rays. • The equilibrium between the formation and destruction
The ozone layer is very important because the configura- of ozone, has been upset by the influx of several sub-
tion of the ozone molecule and its chemical properties are stances into the atmosphere which react with ozone and
such that ozone efficiently absorbs ultraviolet light, thus destroy it.
acting like a sun-screen. • The rate at which ozone is being destroyed is much
faster than the rate at which it is being formed.
The UV rays cause direct damage to the genetic mate- • It implies that there is a significant decrease in the con-
centration of ozone in a particular region of the atmos-
rial or DNA of animal and plant cells. Exposure of
phere, hence the name ‘Ozone Depletion’.
mammals to UV light has been shown to act on the
immune system, thereby making the body more sus- • The best example of such an Ozone Depletion is the
ceptible to diseases. atmosphere over the Antarctic which has only about 50
percent of the ozone that originally occurred there. The
actual realization of ozone-depletion came only in 1985.
Do you know? 19.1.2. Sources

• Hoolock Gibbon is the only ape found in India. Rest chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs):
of the monkeys are all macaques and langurs. In CFCs molecules are made up of chlorine, fluorine and
India is distributed in the northeast India. carbon.
• Palms are typically unbranched trees with only one
trunk (columnar stem), called the “caudex,” which Where it is used?
ends in a crown of large leaves. They are used as refrigerants, propellents in aerosol sprays,
foaming agents in plastic manufacturing, fire extinguish-
ing agents, solvents for cleaning electronic and metallic
In doing so, ozone protects oxygen at lower altitudes from
components, for freezing foods etc .
being broken up by the action of ultraviolet light and also
keeps most of the ultraviolet radiation from reaching the Two-thirds of CFC is used as refrigerants while one-third
earth’s surface. is used as blowing agents in foam insulation products.
Why CFCs are used? The depletion of O3 is catalystic. The element that de-
CFCs has a wide and varied application due to its proper- stroys O3 (i.e chlorine) is being reformed at the end of
ties like non-corrosiveness, non-inflammability, low toxic- cycle. A single chlorine atom destroys thousands of ozone
ity and chemical stability, etc. molecules before encountering reactive nitrogen or hy-
drogen compounds that eventually return chlorine to its
Lifetime removal of CFCs reservoirs.
Unlike other chemicals, CFCs cannot be eliminated from
the atmosphere by the usual scavenging processes like
photodissociation, rain-out and oxidation. Do you know?
In fact, the residence time of CFCs in the atmosphere esti- Barking deer /common muntjac is the mammal with
mated to be between 40 and 150 years. During this period, the lowest recorded chromosome number. It gives
the CFCs move upwards by random diffusion, from the calls similar to barking, usually on sensing a predator.
troposphere to the stratosphere. Status – least threatened.
The escape of CFCs
The CFCs enter into the atmosphere by gradual evapora-
tion from their source. CFCs can escape into the atmos-
CFC substitutes – characteristics
phere from a discarded refrigerator. Since the CFCs are
thermally stable they can survive in the troposphere. But • The substitute for CFCs should be safe, low cost,
in the stratosphere, they are exposed to UV radiation. increased energy efficiency of CFC replacement
technology, effective refrigerants with low ozone
The chemical reaction layer depletion potential (ODP) and low global
The molecules of CFCs when exposed to UV radiation break warming potential (GWP).
up, thus freeing chlorine atoms. A free chlorine atom reacts • CFC-12 (R-12) is a widely used refrigerant. HFC
with an ozone molecule to form chlorine monoxide (ClO). 134a (R-134a) is the most promising alternative (R-
The molecules of chlorine monoxide further combine with 143a) and (R-152a) can also be used.
an atom of oxygen. This reaction results in the formation
of an oxygen molecule (O2) and reformation of the free
chlorine atom (CI). 19.1.3. Nitrogen Oxides:
Source
Chlorine + Chlorine monoxide + oxygen
The sources of nitrogen oxides are mainly explosions of
Chlorine monoxide Chlorine + Oxygen thermonuclear weapons, industrial emissions and agricul-
+ monoxide (o) tural fertilizers.
Net reaction:
The chemical reaction
ozone + oxygen + oxygen
monoxide (o) Nitric oxide (NO) catalytically destroys ozone.
Nitric oxide Nitrogen dioxide

+ ozone + Oxygen
Nitrogen dioxide Nitric oxide
+ monoxide + Oxygen
The escape of N2O

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is released from solid through denitri-
fication of nitrates under anaerobic conditions and nitrifi-
cation of ammonia under aerobic conditions. This N2O can
gradually reach the middle of the stratosphere, where it is
photolytically destroyed to yield nitric oxide which in turn
CFC Ozone Depletion
destroys ozone.
Other substances: 2. The second type of clouds contain nitric acid instead of
Bromine containing compounds called halons and HBFCs, pure water.
i.e. hydrobromo fluorocarbons both used in fire extin- 3. The third type of clouds have the same chemical com-
guishers and methyl bromide (a widely used pesticide)]. position as nacreous clouds, but form at a slower rate,
Each bromine atom destroys hundred times of more ozone which results in a larger cloud with no iridescence.
molecules than what a chlorine atom does. The chlorine released by the breakdown of CFCs exists
initially as pure chlorine or as chlorine monoxide (active
Bromine + ozone Bromine monoxide chlorine / instable) but these two forms react further to
+ Oxygen form compounds Chlorine nitrate and HCL that are stable
(inactive chlorine).
Bromine monoxide Oxygen + Bromine
+ chlorine monoxide + chlorine
Chlorine + methane HCl + methyliumcation (CH3)
Bromine (Br) combines with ozone forming bromine mon- Chlorine monoxide Chlorine nitrate
oxide (BrO) and Oxygen (O2). The BrO further reacts with + Nitrogen dioxide
chlorine monoxide (ClO) to give oxygen (O2) and free atoms
of bromine (Br) and chlorine (Cl). This free atoms can
further react with ozone. The stable compounds HCL and CLONO2 are reservoirs of
chlorine, and therefore for chlorine to take part in reac-
Sulphuric acid particles: These particles free chlorine from
tions of any sort, it has to be freed.
molecular reservoirs, and convert reactive nitrogen into
inert forms thus preventing the formation of chlorine res-
ervoirs.
Carbon tetrachloride (a cheap, highly toxic solvent) and
methyl chloroform (used as a cleaning solvent for clothes
and metals, and a propellant in a wide range of consumer
products, such as correction fluid, dry cleaning sprays,
spray adhesives) and other aerosols.
Monitoring the Ozone Layer

• Some organizations that help in monitoring the at-
mosphere and form a network of informations com-
munication about the atmosphere, including ozone
layer monitoring are:
• World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
• World Weather Watch (WWW)
• Integrated Global Ocean Services Systems (IGOSS)
• Global Climate Observing System (GCOS)
19.1.4. Role of polar stratospheric clouds in ozone

depletion and the presence of polar stratospheric clouds
depletion.
(PSCs) i.e. the ice particles of the cloud provided substrates
There are three types of stratospheric clouds. They are: for chemical reactions which freed chlorine from its res-
1. Nacreous clouds extend from 10 to 100km in length and ervoirs. Usually the reaction between HCl and ClONO2 is
several kilometers in thickness. They are also called very slow, but this reaction occurs at a faster rate in the
‘mother-of-pearl’ clouds due to their glow with a sea- presence of a suitable substrate which is provided by the
shell like iridescence. stratospheric clouds at the poles.
and chlorine nitrate react on cloud surfaces to free chlo-
HCl + Chlorine nitrate molecular chlorine
rine and winter temperatures drops to their lowest
point.
It results in the formation of molecular chlorine and nitric
acid. The molecular chlorine formed in the above reaction • In September sunlight returns to the centre of the vor-
can be broken down to atomic chlorine and the ozone tex as the austral spring begins and PSCs disappear
depletion reaction would continue. The PSCs not only ac- because of increasing temperature. ClO-ClO and ClO-
tivate chlorine, but they also absorb reactive nitrogen. If BrO catalystic cycles destroy ozone.
nitrogen oxides were present they would combine with • During October lowest levels of ozone are reached.
chlorine monoxide to form a reservoir of chlorine nitrate
(ClONO2).
• In November, Polar vortex breaks down, ozone-rich are
from the mid-latitudes replenishes the Antarctic strato-
Dimer of chlorine monoxide: Stratospheric chlorine mon- sphere and ozone-poor air spreads over the southern
oxide reacts with itself forming a dimer Cl2O2. This dimer hemisphere.
is easily dissociated by sunlight, giving rise to free chlorine
atoms which can further react to destroy ozone. 19.1.6. Arctic Ozone Depletion
• The Ozone Depletion has been increasingly evident over
Every spring, a hole as big as the USA develops in the the Arctic as well.
ozone layer over Antarctica, in the South Pole. A
smaller hole develops each year over the Arctic, at the
• The Arctic Ozone Depletion which swept across Britain
in March 96 was the greatest depletion of ozone ever
North Pole. And there are signs that the ozone layer seen in the northern hemisphere.
is getting thinner all over the planet.
• Scientists claim that it had been caused, in past, by a
dramatic cooling of the upper atmosphere in the north-
ern latitudes over.
19.1.5. Why is the Ozone Depletion predominant
at the Antarctic? • The ozone depletion over the northern hemisphere has
been increasing steadily since the winter of 1992.
• The Antarctic stratosphere is much colder. The low tem-
perature enables the formation of Polar stratospheric • Apart from the build-up of ozone depleting chemicals,
Clouds (PSCs), below 20 km. the main cause is the increasing cold temperature in
the arctic stratosphere which encourages the formula-
• Ozone absorbs sunlight, causing the characteristic in-
tion of PSCs.
crease in temperature with increase in altitude in the
stratosphere. If ozone is being depleted, the air becomes
cooler, further adding to the favourable conditions for
the formation of PSCs and stabilization of the vortex. How ozone is measured?
The vortex is a ring of rapidly circulating air that con- • The ozone measurement instruments and tech-
fines the ozone depletion in the Antarctic region. niques are varied. Some of them are the Dobson
spectrophotometer and the filter ozonometer called
• The longetivity of the Antarctic vortex is another factor,
M83, and total ozone mapping spectrometer
enhancing favourable conditions for the depletion of
ozone. The vortex remains, in fact, throughout the polar (TOMS) in the Nimbus-7 satellite.
winter, well into midspring whereas the vortex in the
Arctic disintegrates by the time the polar spring (March- The Umheher technique
April) arrives. • The most common measure of total ozone abun-
dance is the Dobson unit (named after the pioneer-
• Typical happenings in the winter months leading to the
ing atmospheric physical Gordon Dobson) which is
Ozone Depletion over the Antarctic.
the thickness of the ozone column (compressed at
• In June Antarctic winter begins, the vortex develops and Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)) in
the temperature falls enough for the clouds to form. milli-centimeters. At STP one Dobson unit is equal
to 2.69x1020 molecules per square meter.
• During July and August PSCs denitrify and dehydrate
the stratosphere through precipitation, hydrochloric acid
19.1.7. Environmental Effects Of Ozone timing of developmental phases and second metabolism
Depletion may be equally or sometimes more important that the
Decrease in the quantity of total-column ozone; tend to damaging effects of UV-B.
cause increased penetration of solar UV-B radiation Effects on aquatic ecosystems
(290-315nm) to the earth’s surface. UV-B radiation is the
most energetic component of sunlight reaching the • Exposure to solar UV-B radiation has been shown to
affect both orientation mechanisms and motility in phy-
earth’s surface. It has profound effects on human health,
animals, plants, micro-organisms, materials and on air toplankton, resulting in reduced survival rates for these
quality. organisms.
• Solar UV-B radiation has been found to cause damage
Effects of human and animal health in the early developmental stages of fish, shrimp, crab,
• Potential risks include an increase in the incidence of amphibians and other animals. The most severe effects
and morbidity from eye diseases, skin cancer and infec- are decreased reproductive capacity and impaired larval
tious diseases. development.
• UV radiation has been shown in experimental systems Effects on bio-geochemical cycles
to damage the cornea and lens of the eye. Experiments
in animals show that UV exposure decreases the im- • Increases in solar UV radiation could affect terrestrial
mune response to skin cancers, infectious agents and and aquatic bio-geochemical cycles, thus, altering both
other antigens and can lead to unresponsiveness upon sources and sinks of greenhouse and chemically impor-
repeated challenges. tant trace gases.
• In susceptible (light-skin coloured) populations, UV-B • These potential changes would contribute to bio-sphere
radiations is the key risk factor for development of non- atmosphere feedbacks that reinforce the atmospheric
melanoma skin cancer (NMSC). build-up of these gases.
Effects on air quality

Do you know? • Reduction in stratospheric ozone and the concomitant
All the chameleons have the ability to change color increase in UV-B radiation penetrating to the lower
whenever they are subject to changes in stimuli, like atmosphere result in higher photo dissociation rates of
a change in light, temperature or emotion. For exam- key trace gases that control the chemical reactivity of
ple, when angered, they are likely to become darker the troposphere.
in color.
• This can increase both production and destruction of
ozone (O3) and related oxidants such as hydrogen per-
Effects on terrestrial plants oxide (H2O2), which are known to have adverse effects
on human health, terrestrial plants, and outdoor mate-
• Psychological and developmental processes of plants are
rials.
affected by UV-B radiation.
• Response to UV-B also varies considerably among spe- • Changes in the atmospheric concentrations of the hy-
cies and also cultivars of the same species. In agricul- droxyl radical (OH) may change the atmospheric life-
ture, this will necessitate using more UV-B tolerant times of climatically important gases such as methane
cultivars and breeding new ones. (CH4) and the CFC substitutes.)
• In forests and grasslands, this is likely to result in • Increased tropospheric reactivity could also lead to
changes in the composition of species; therefore there increased production of particulates such as cloud
are implications for the biodiversity in different eco- condensation nuclei, from the oxidation and subse-
systems. quent nucleation of sulphur, of both antropogenic and
natural origin (e.g. carbonyl sulphide and dimethyl-
• Indirect changes caused by UV-B such as changes in
plant form, biomass allocation to parts of the plant, sulphide.
Effects on materials dation rates of these materials, limiting their life out-
• Synthetic polymers, naturally occurring bio-polymers, doors.
as well as some other materials of commercial interest
are adversely affected by solar UV radiation.
• The application of these materials, particularly, plas- Do you know?
tics, in situations which demand routine exposure to The gray slender loris (primate) It is found in India
sunlight is only possible through the use of light-stabi- and Sri Lanka. Its natural habitats are subtropical
lizers and / or surface treatment to protect them from or tropical dry forests and subtropical or tropical
sunlight. moist lowland forests. It is threatened by habitat
• Any increase in solar UV-B content due to partial loss
ozone depletion will therefore accelerate the photogra-
 
CHAPTER - 20
IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

20.1. AGRICULTURE AND FOOD • Erosion, submergence of shorelines, salinity of the
SECURITY water table due to the increased sea levels, could mainly
affect agriculture through inundation of low lying lands.
• Climate Change can affect crop yield as well as the types
of crops that can be grown in certain areas, by impacting • In a recent study, the International Commission for
agricultural inputs such as water for irrigation, amounts Snow and Ice (ICSE) reported that Himalayan glaciers
of solar radiation that affect plant growth, as well as the – that are the principal dry-season water sources of
prevalence of pests. Asia’s biggest rivers - Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra,
Yangtze, Mekong, Salween and Yellow – are shrinking
• Rise in temperatures caused by increasing green house
gases is likely to affect crops differently from region to quicker than anywhere else and that if current trends
region. For example, moderate warming (increase of 1 continue they could disappear altogether by 2035.
to 3 C in mean temperature) is expected to benefit crop • If agricultural production in the low-income developing
yields in temperate regions, while in lower latitudes countries of Asia and Africa is adversely affected by
especially seasonally dry tropics, even moderate tem- climate change, the livelihoods of large numbers of the
perature increases (1 to 2°C ) are likely to have negative rural poor will be put at risk and their vulnerability to
impacts for major cereal crops. Warming of more than food insecurity will be manifold.
3 C is expected to have negative effect on production in
all regions.
Do you know?
• The Third Assessment Report of the IPCC, 2001 con- A conifer usually has a conical appearance and has an
cluded that climate change would hit the poorest coun- excurrent stem; i.e., its main stem is thickest at the
tries severely in terms of reducing the agricultural base and gradually tapers toward the apex, with lat-
products. eral branches in an acropetal succession.
• The Report claimed that crop yield would be reduced
in most tropical and sub-tropical regions due to de-
20.1.1. Impacts on Indian agriculture
creased water availability, and new or changed insect/
pest incidence. • A large part of the arable land in India is rain-fed, the
productivity of agriculture depends on the rainfall and
• In South Asia losses of many regional staples, such as its pattern.
rice, millet and maize could top 10 per cent by 2030.
• Agriculture will be adversely affected not only by an
• As a result of thawing of snow, the amount of arable increase or decrease in the overall amounts of rainfall
land in high-latitude region is likely to increase by re- but also by shifts in the timing of the rainfall.
duction of the amount of frozen lands.
• Any change in rainfall patterns poses a serious threat
• At the same time arable land along the coast lines are to agriculture, and therefore to the economy and food
bound to be reduced as a result of rising sea level. security.
• Summer rainfall accounts for almost 70 per cent of the • As the world population expands and the consumption
total annual rainfall over India and is crucial to Indian of water spirals upwards, water problems are bound to
agriculture. intensify.
• However, studies predict decline in summer rainfall by • Increase in temperature due to climate change has been
the 2050s. widespread over the globe.
• Semi arid regions of western India are expected to re- • Warming has resulted in decline in mountain glaciers
ceive higher than normal rainfall as temperatures soar, and snow cover in both hemispheres and this is pro-
while central India will experience a decrease of be- jected to accelerate throughout the 21st century.
tween 10 and 20 per cent in winter rainfall by the 2050s. • This will in turn lead to reducing water availability, hy-
• Relatively small climate changes can cause large water dropower potential, and would change the seasonal flow
resources problems particularly in arid and semi arid of rivers in regions supplied by melt water from major
regions such as northwest India. mountain ranges (e.g. Hindu-Kush, Himalaya, Andes).
• Productivity of most crops may decrease due to increase • By 2050s freshwater availability in Central, South, East
in temperature and decrease in water availability, es- and South-East Asia, particularly in large river basins,
pecially in Indo-Gangetic plains. is projected to decrease.
• This apart, there would be a decline in the productivity of • A warmer climate will accelerate the hydrologic cycle,
rabi as compared to kharif season crops. altering rainfall, magnitude and timing of run-off.
• Rising temperature would increase fertilizer require- • Available research suggests a significant future increase
ment for the same production targets and result in in heavy rainfall events in many regions, while in some
higher GHG emissions, ammonia volatilization and cost regions the mean rainfall is projected to decrease.
of crop production. • The frequency of severe floods in large river basins has
• Increased frequencies of droughts, floods, storms and increased during the 20th century.
cyclones are likely to increase agricultural production • Increasing floods poses challenges to society, physical
variability. infrastructure and water quality.
• Rising temperatures will further affect the physical,
Do you know? chemical and biological properties of fresh water lakes
The sloth bear, also known as the labiated bear, is a and rivers, with predominantly adverse impacts on
nocturnal insectivorous species of bear found wild many individual fresh water species, community com-
within the Indian subcontinent. They feed on termites, position and water quality.
honeybee colonies and fruits • In coastal areas, sea level rise will exacerbate water
resource constraints due to increased salinisation of
groundwater supplies.
20.2. WATER STRESS AND WATER
INSECURITY 20.2.1. Impacts on water situation in India
• Lack of access to water is a perturbing issue, particu- • Water resources will come under increasing pressure
larly in developing countries. in the Indian subcontinent due to the changing climate.
• Climate change is expected to exacerbate current • The Himalayan glaciers are a source of fresh water for
stresses on water resources. perennial rivers, in particular the Indus, Ganga, and
• By 2020, between 75 and 250 million people are pro- Brahmaputra river systems.
jected to be exposed to increased water stress due to • In recent decades, the Himalayan region seems to have
climate change. undergone substantial changes as a result of extensive
• Spreading water scarcity is contributing to food inse- land use (e.g. deforestation, agricultural practices and
curity and heightened competitions for water both urbanization), leading to frequent hydrological disas-
within and between countries. ters, enhanced sedimentation and pollution of lakes.
• There is evidence that some Himalayan glaciers have re- • At present, available statistics on water demand shows
treated significantly since the 19th century. that the agriculture sector is the largest consumer of
water in India.
• Available records suggest that the Gangotri glacier is
retreating about 28 m per year. • About 83% of the available water is used for agriculture
alone. If used judiciously, the demand may come down
• Glacial melt is expected to increase under changed cli-
to about 68% by the year 2050, though agriculture will
mate conditions, which would lead to increased summer
still remain the largest consumer.
flows in some river systems for a few decades, followed
by a reduction in flow as the glaciers disappear. • In order to meet this demand, augmentation of the ex-
isting water resources by development of additional
• As a result of increase in temperature significant
sources of water or conservation of the existing re-
changes in rainfall pattern have been observed during
sources and their efficient use will be needed.
the 20th century in India.
• A serious environmental problem has also been wit-
• It is evident that the impact of global warming threats
are many and alarming.
nessed in the Indo-Gangetic Plain Region (IGPR) in the
past whereby different rivers (including Kosi, Ganga, • Water security in terms of quantity and quality pose
Ghaghara, Son, Indus and its tributaries and Yamuna) problems for both developed and developing countries.
changed their course a number of times. • However, the consequences of future climatic change
• The recent devastating floods in Nepal and Bihar due may be felt more severely in developing countries such
to change of course of River Kosi is a case in point. as India, whose economy is largely dependent on agri-
culture and is already under stress due to current pop-
• Available study suggests that food production has to be in-
ulation increase and associated demands for energy,
creased to the tune of 300 mt by 2020 in order to feed India’s
freshwater and food.
ever-growing population, which is likely to reach 1.30 billion
by the year 2020.
Do you know?
• The total foodgrain production has to be increased by
Indian Flying Fox are the fruit eating bats. This spe-
50 per cent by 2020 to meet the requirement.
cies is found in roosts in large colonies of hundreds to
• It is feared that the fast increasing demand for food in thousands of individuals on large trees in rural and
the next two or three decades could be quite grim par- urban areas, close to agricultural fields, ponds and by
ticularly in view of the serious problem of soil degrada- the side of roads.
tion and climate change.
• The rise in population will increase the demand for
20.3. RISE IN SEA LEVELS
water leading to faster withdrawal of water and this in
turn would reduce the recharging time of the water • Sea level rise is both due to thermal expansion as well
tables. as melting of ice sheets.
• As a result, availability of water is bound to reach crit-

• Satellite observations available since the early 1990s
show that since 1993, sea level has been rising at a rate
ical levels sooner or later. During the past four decades,
per year, significantly higher than the average during
there has been a phenomenal increase in the growth of
the previous half-century.
groundwater abstraction structures.
• IPCC predicts that sea levels could rise rapidly with ac-
• Growing demand of water in agriculture, industrial and
celerated ice sheet disintegration.
domestic sectors, has brought problems of overexploita-
tion of the groundwater resource to the fore. • Global temperature increases of 3–4°C could result in
330 million people being permanently or temporarily
• The falling groundwater levels in various parts of the displaced through flooding.
country have threatened the sustainability of the
groundwater resources.
• Warming seas will also fuel more intense tropical
storms.
20.3.1. Impacts on Coastal States in India • It have catastrophic impact on the marine ecosystems.
• The coastal states of Maharashtra, Goa and Gujarat face They will be affected not only by an increase in sea
a grave risk from the sea level rise, which could flood temperature and changes in ocean circulation, but also
land (including agricultural land) and cause damage to by ocean acidification, as the concentration of dissolved
coastal infrastructure and other property. carbon dioxide (carbonic acid) rises.
• Goa will be the worst hit, losing a large percentage of • This is expected to negatively affect shell forming or-
its total land area, including many of its famous beaches ganisms, corals and their dependent ecosystems.
and tourist infrastructure.
• Mumbai’s northern suburbs like Versova beach and
Do you know?
other populated areas along tidal mud flats and creeks
are also vulnerable to land loss and increased flooding Grizzled giant squirrel is distributed in the patches of
riparian forest along the Kaveri River and in the hill
due to sea level rise.
forests in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states of south-
• Flooding will displace a large number of people from ern India. IUCN Status - near threatened
the coasts putting a greater pressure on the civic amen-
ities and rapid urbanisation.
• Sea water percolation due to inundations can diminish 20.5. IMPACTS ON INDIA’S BIODIVERSITY
freshwater supplies making water scarcer.
• India is a land of mega-biodiversity, encompassing fea-
• The states along the coasts like Orissa will experience tures from glaciers to deserts. However, climate change
worse cyclones. Many species living along the coastline is posing grave threat to its ecosystems.
are also threatened.
• Mountain ecosystems are hot spots of biodiversity. How-
• The coral reefs that India has in its biosphere reserves ever, temperature increases and human activities are
are also saline sensitive and thus the rising sea level causing fragmentation and degradation of mountain
threatens their existence too, not only the coral reefs biodiversity.
but the phytoplankton, the fish stocks and the human
• The Himalayan Ecosystem is considered as the lifeline
lives that are dependent on it are also in grave danger. not only to India but also to our neighbouring countries
• People living in the Ganges Delta share the flood risks such as China, Pakistan, Nepal, owing to the perennial
associated with rising sea levels. rivers that arise out of the melting glaciers.
20.4. ECOSYSTEMS AND BIO-DIVERSITY • It is home to the largest amount of glaciers after the
North and the South Poles. However, climate change is
• Climate Change has the potential to cause immense threatening this life giver drastically.
biodiversity loss, affecting both individual species and
their ecosystems that support economic growth and
• It is also predicted that there will be an increase in the
phenomenon of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs)
human well being.
in the eastern and the central Himalayas, causing cata-
• The projected extinctions of flora and fauna in the fu- strophic flooding downstream, with serious damage to
ture will be human driven i.e. due to adverse impact of ‘life, property, forests, farms, and infrastructure’.
human activities.
• The melting glaciers of the Himalayas have a serious
• According to International World Wildlife Fund (WWF) impact given the fact that they give rise to the perennial
species from the tropics to the poles are at risk. rivers that further flourishes the agriculture.
• Many species may be unable to move to new areas • The Himalayan rivers are closely interlinked with the
quickly enough to survive changes that rising tempera- Indo-Gangetic Ecosystem, which is primarily an agri-
tures will bring to their historic habitats. cultural ecosystem, nearly 65-70% of Indians having
• WWF asserted that one-fifth of the world’s most vulner- agriculture as their primary occupation.
able natural areas may be facing a “catastrophic” loss • The National Environment Policy, 2006 states that the
of species. Indian Desert Ecosystems (arid and semi-arid region)
occupies 127.3 mha (38.8%) of the country’s geograph- • A warmer and more variable climate would result in
ical area and spreads over 10 states. higher levels of some air pollutants, increased transmis-
• The Indian desert fauna is extremely rich in species sion of diseases through unclean water and through
diversity of mammals and winter migratory birds. contaminated food.
• Recent studies have shown that deserts have shown • Climate change has a direct impact on human health.
signs of expansion, thus leading to a process called de- • For example, the warmer the climate the likelihood of
sertification. its impact on human health becomes worse.
• The climate patterns have altered the natural attributes • It is anticipated that there will be an increase in the
of a desert region; for example the floods in the desert number of deaths due to greater frequency and severity
district of Barmer in Rajasthan in 2006. of heat waves and other extreme weather events.
• Coastal and Marine Ecosystem is one of the assets of • Climate change and the resulting higher global tem-
India. peratures are causing increasing frequency of floods
• The mangrove forests (wetlands) of the rivers and the and droughts leading to the risk of disease infections.
coasts acts as carbon sink as well as a habitat for a • Lack of freshwater during droughts and contamination
unique and diverse species of plants and animals. of freshwater supplies during floods compromise hy-
• The wetlands act as a natural barrier to flooding (that giene, thus increasing rates of diarrhoeal disease.
may be caused by the rising sea levels) and cyclones. • Endemic morbidity and mortality due to diarrhoeal dis-
• The most explicit event in the perspective of climate ease primarily associated with floods and droughts are
change affecting the marine ecosystem is the example expected to rise in East, South and South-East Asia due
of coral bleaching. to projected changes in hydrological cycle.
• In the Peninsular India, even the rivers of the Peninsula • Flooding also creates opportunities for breeding of dis-
are dependent on the monsoons, thus the Peninsular ease carrying insects such as mosquitoes.
Ecosystem is basically a monsoon dependent ecosystem. • Areas affected by frequent floods and drought condi-
• India is heavily dependent on the monsoon to meet its tions also witness large scale migration of populations
agricultural and water needs, and also for protecting to relatively stable regions leading to overcrowding and
and propagating its rich biodiversity. Climate change is unhygienic conditions resulting in transmission of dis-
linked with the changing patterns observed in the mon- eases like Japanese encephalitis and malaria.
soons of India. • Climate change is a major factor in the spread of infec-
tious diseases. Diseases, confined to one specific geo-
graphic region spread to other areas.
Do you know?
• The World Health Organization (WHO) in their studies
Narcotic substances that are used for smoking pur- have indicated that due to rising temperatures, malaria
poses are called “fumitories,” and those that are used
cases are now being reported for the first time from
for chewing purposes are called “masticatories.”
countries like Nepal and Bhutan.
• It has also been predicted that an additional 220-400
20.6. CLIMATE CHANGE AND HEALTH million people could be exposed to malaria- a disease
that claims around 1 million lives annually.
• Climate change poses a host of threats to the survival
of mankind. • Dengue fever is already in evidence at higher levels of
elevation in Latin America and parts of East Asia.
• Each year, about 800,000 people die from causes at-
tributable to air pollution, 1.8 million from diarrhoea • Studies suggest that climate change may swell the pop-
resulting from lack of access to clean water supply, ulation at risk of malaria in Africa by 90 million by
sanitation, and poor hygiene, 3.5 million from malnutri- 2030, and the global population at risk of dengue by 2
tion and approximately 60,000 in natural disasters. billion by 2080s.
• Rising temperatures and changing patterns of rainfall • In addition, the negative effects are concentrated on
are projected to decrease crop yields in many developing poor populations that already have compromised health
countries, stressing food supplies. This will ultimately prospects, thus widening the inequality gap between
translate into wider prevalence of malnutrition/ under- the most and the least privileged.
nutrition. In some African countries, yields from rain-fed
agriculture could be reduced by up to 50 per cent by 2020. • The balance of positive and negative health impacts will
vary from one location to another, and will alter over
• Emission of the Green House Gases have been respon-
time as temperatures continue to rise.
sible for the depletion of ozone layer, which protects the
Earth from the harmful direct rays of the sun. Depletion
of stratospheric ozone results in higher exposure to the
ultra violet rays of the sun, leading to an increase in the Do you know?
incidents of skin cancer. It could also lead to an increase Saponins are a group of water-soluble glucosides that
in the number of people suffering from eye diseases yield soap froth in water, form emulsions with oils and
such as cataract. It is also thought to cause suppression fats, and are capable of absorbing large amounts of
of the immune system. gases such as carbon dioxide. Soap nut tree yields
• The projections by WHO and IPCC suggest that the saponins.
negative effects of climate change on health are greater.
 
CHAPTER - 21
MITIGATION STRATEGIES
21.1. CARBON SEQUESTR ATION: • Ocean Sequestration: Carbon stored in oceans through
• Carbon capture and storage, also known as CCS or car- direct injection or fertilization.
bon sequestration, describes the technologies designed • Geologic Sequestration: Natural pore spaces in geologic
to tackle global warming by capturing CO2 at power formations serve as reservoirs for long-term carbon
stations, industrial sites or even directly from the air dioxide storage.
and permanently storing it underground.
• Terrestrial Sequestration: A large amount of carbon is
• Carbon sequestration describes long-term storage of stored in soils and vegetation, which are our natural
carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to either miti- carbon sinks. Increasing carbon fixation through pho-
gate or defer global warming. tosynthesis, slowing down or reducing decomposition
• It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric of organic matter, and changing land use practices can
and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases, which enhance carbon uptake in these natural sinks.
are released by burning fossil fuels.
• Geologic Sequestration is thought to have the largest
Sinks potential for near-term application.
• Carbon sequestration may be carried out by pumping Geologic Sequestration Trapping Mechanisms
carbon into ‘carbon sinks’— an area that absorbs carbon.
• Natural sinks - Oceans, forests, soil etc. • Hydrodynamic Trapping: Carbon dioxide can be trapped
as a gas under low-permeability cap rock (much like
• Artificial sinks - Depleted oil reserves, unmineable natural gas is stored in gas reservoirs).
mines, etc.
• Solubility Trapping: Carbon dioxide can be dissolved
• Carbon capture has actually been in use for years. The into a liquid, such as water or oil.
oil and gas industries have used carbon capture for
decades as a way to enhance oil and gas recovery. Only • Mineral Carbonation: Carbon dioxide can react with the
recently have we started thinking about capturing car- minerals, fluids, and organic matter in a geologic forma-
bon for environmental reasons. tion to form stable compounds/minerals; largely cal-
cium, iron, and magnesium carbonates.
There are three main steps to carbon capture and
storage (CCS) – • Carbon dioxide can be effectively stored in the earth’s
subsurface by hydrodynamic trapping and solubility trap-
• trapping and separating the CO2 from other gases, ping - usually a combination of the two is most effective.
• transporting this captured CO2 to a storage location,
and
Do you know?
• storing that CO2 far away from the atmosphere (under-
ground or deep in the ocean). Asian golden cat prefer forest habitats interspersed
with rocky areas, and are found in dry deciduous,
Types of Sequestration:
subtropical evergreen and tropical rainforests. In
• There are number of technologies under investigation India it is distribution in assam& arunachal Pradesh.
for sequestering carbon from the atmosphere. These IUCN Status – near threatened.
can be discussed under three main categories:
21.2. CARBON SINK The Blue Carbon Initiative
• Unlike black and brown carbon that contribute to at- • The Blue Carbon Initiative is the first integrated program
mospheric green house gases, green and blue carbon with a comprehensive and coordinated global agenda
sequestrate the atmosphere green house gases focused on mitigating climate change through the con-
servation and restoration of coastal marine ecosystems.
Green Carbon
• Green carbon is carbon removed by photosynthesis and International Cooperation
stored in the plants and soil of natural ecosystems and • Conservation International (CI), the International Union
is a vital part of the global carbon cycle. for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and the Intergov-
• Many plants and most crops, have short lives and re- ernmental Oceanic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO is
lease much of their carbon at the end of each season, collaborating with governments, research institutions,
but forest biomass accumulates carbon over decades non-governmental and international organizations, and
and centuries. communities around the world to
• Furthermore, forests can accumulate large amounts of • Develop management approaches, financial incentives
CO2 in relatively short periods, typically several decades. and policy mechanisms for ensuring conservation and
• Afforestation and reforestation are measures that can restoration of coastal Blue Carbon ecosystems;
be taken to enhance biological carbon sequestration. • Engage local, national, and international governments
Blue Carbon to ensure policies and regulations support coastal Blue
Carbon conservation, management and financing;
• Blue Carbon refers to coastal, aquatic and marine car-
bon sinks held by the indicative vegetation, marine or- • Develop comprehensive methods for coastal carbon ac-
ganism and sediments. counting;
• In particular, coastal ecosystems such as tidal marshes, • Develop incentive mechanisms such as carbon payment
mangroves, and seagrasses remove carbon from the schemes for Blue Carbon projects; and
atmosphere and ocean, storing it in plants and deposit- • Implement projects around the world that demonstrate
ing it in the sediment below them by natural processes. the feasibility of coastal Blue Carbon accounting, man-
• These coastal ecosystems are very efficient at sequester- agement, and incentive agreements;
ing and storing carbon - each square mile of these sys- • Support scientific research into the role and importance
tems can remove carbon from the atmosphere and of coastal Blue Carbon ecosystems for climate change
oceans at rates higher than each square mile of mature mitigation.
tropical forests.
• Furthermore, coastal ecosystems have been found to
Do you know?
store huge quantities of carbon in organic rich sedi-
ments - up to 5 times more carbon than many temper- The seeds of Phytelephas macrocarpa, in the family
ate and tropical forests. Arecaceae, commonly called “ivory nut” or “tagua
palm tree,” is the chief source of vegetable ivory. It is
• These ecosystems are found in all continents, except
extensively used as a substitute for true ivory. It can
Antarctica.
be carved and used in the manufacture of buttons,
Why is Blue Carbon Ecosystem Important? chess pieces, poker chips, dice, knobs, inlays, billiard
• Preventing degradation and destruction and promoting balls, toys, etc. Metroxylon amicarum, in the Are-
restoration of coastal ecosystems is a significant tool to caceae family, can likewise be used for these purposes
mitigate climate change.
• The coastal ecosystems of mangroves, tidal marshes,
and seagrasses are some of the most rapidly disappear- 21.3. CARBON CREDIT:
ing natural systems on Earth. • A carbon credit is a tradeable certificate or permit rep-
• When lost they not only stop sequestering carbon but resenting the right to emit one tonne of carbon or car-
also release their stores of carbon and become new bon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e).
sources of climate change causing carbon emissions • One carbon credit is equal to one ton of carbon dioxide,
which can last for centuries. or in some markets, carbon dioxide equivalent gases.
How does one earn a carbon credit? 21.4. CARBON OFFSETTING:
• An organisation which produces one tonne less of car- • Carbon offsets are credits for reductions in greenhouse
bon or carbon dioxide equivalent than the standard gas emissions made at another location, such as wind
level of carbon emission allowed for its outfit or activity, farms which create renewable energy and reduce the
earns a carbon credit. need for fossil-fuel powered energy.
How does it help? • Carbon offsets are quantified and sold in metric tonnes
of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e).
• Countries which are signatories to the Kyoto Protocol
under the UNFCCC have laid down gas emission norms • Buying one tonne of carbon offsets means there will be
for their companies to be met by 2012. In such cases, a one less tonne of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere than
company has two ways to reduce emissions. there would otherwise have been.
(i) It can reduce the GHG (greenhouse gases) by adopt- • Carbon offsetting is often the fastest way to achieve the
ing new technology or improving upon the existing deepest reductions within businesses and it also often
technology to attain the new norms for emission of delivers added benefits at the project site, such as em-
gases. ployment opportunities, community development pro-
(ii) It can tie up with developing nations and help them grammes and training and education.
set up new technology that is eco-friendly, thereby • For a carbon offset to be credible it must meet essential
helping developing country or its companies ‘earn’ quality criteria, including proof that it is additional (the
credits. This credit becomes a permit for the com- reduction in emissions would not have occurred without
pany to emit GHGs in its own country. However, only the carbon finance), that it will be retired from the car-
a portion of carbon credits of the company in devel- bon market so it cannot be double counted, and that it
oping country can be transferred to the company in addresses issues such as permanence (it delivers the
developed country. reductions it stated) and leakage (the emission reduc-
tion in one area doesn’t cause an increase in emissions
Developing countries somewhere else)
• Developing countries like India and China are likely to Example:
emerge as the biggest sellers and Europe is going to be
the biggest buyers of carbon credits. • Business A1 is unable to reduce 100 tonnes of its CO2
emissions in the short term.
• Last year global carbon credit trading was estimated at
$5 billion, with India’s contribution at around $1 billion. • There is a project somewhere else in the world which
could save 100 tonnes easily, but they need a cash in-
• China is currently the largest seller of carbon credits jection.
controlling about 70% of the market share.
• Carbon, like any other commodity, has begun to be • For example, a community in India could swap from
traded on India’s Multi Commodity Exchange. carbon intensive kerosene as an energy source to solar
panels – but they can’t afford the solar panels.
• MCX has become first exchange in Asia to trade carbon
credits. • Through the purchase of carbon offsets, you provide the
financial assistance to subsidise the cost of getting solar
panels onto housing, and through that means you have
enabled a saving of 100 tonnes of CO2.
Do you know?
Several species of nitrogen-fixing bacteria of Rhizo-
• Business A1 has therefore reduced global net CO2 emis-
sions by 100 tonnes.
bium, live inside the root nodules of leguminous trees.
Similarly, Frankia, a nitrogen-fixing mycelial bacte- • The added benefit is that Business A1 has helped facili-
rium, is associated symbiotically with the root nod- tate a step change in local technology in a developing
ules of several non-legume plants, including Alnus, market.
Casuarina, Coriaria, Myrica and Rubus. Both Rhizo-
bium and Frankia are capable of fixing atmospheric 21.5. CARBON TAX:
nitrogen. • Carbon tax is the potential alternative to the ‘cap and
trade’ method currently used by the protocol.
• This tax is based on the amount of carbon contained in damage and ensuing climate changes to make the
a fuel such as coal, etc. planet more inhabitable. Geoengineering, at this point,
• The aim of this tax is to cause less fossil fuel use and is still only a theoretical Concept
hopefully cause an incentive to use other sources of • Hoisting parasols, placing mirrors in space, whitening
energy. the stratosphere with sulfate aerosols, whitewashing
• If the carbon tax was implemented it would be gradual building roofs to reflect sunlight or flinging iron filings
and start at a low amount and increase over time to into the ocean to promote carbon-gulping algae are
allow better industry and technology to be developed. some of the modes.
• Five primary reasons why a carbon tax could prove How Geoengineering Works: 5 Big Plans to Stop
more beneficial than the ‘cap and trade’ system. Global Warming
1. Predictability – the tax could help predict energy prices
1. Copy a Volcano
which might also help investments in energy efficiency
and alternate fuels. • A volcanic eruption can bellow many million tons of
sulfur-dioxide gas into the atmosphere, creating a cloud
2. Implementation - a carbon tax could be put into use
that blocks some of the sun’s radiation. By injecting the
much quicker compared to the legalities that go along
atmosphere with sulfur, some scientists believe they
with the ‘cap and trade’ method.
could likewise block solar radiation and potentially cool
3. Understandable – the carbon tax is simpler to under- the planet.
stand and may therefore be embraced more by every-
day people • Those droplets are particularly good at scattering the
sun’s light back out into space. And because sulfur
4. Lack of Manipulation – special interest groups have less doesn’t heat the stratosphere as much as other aerosols,
of a chance to manipulate a carbon tax because of its it wouldn’t work against the cooling effect. Hydrogen
simplicity. sulfide is an even better candidate for atmospheric seed-
5. Rebates – like other forms of taxes, the carbon tax could ing than sulfur dioxide.
be open for rebates to the public
2. Shoot Mirrors Into Space
India’s Position on carbon tax:
• In order to deflect enough sunlight to bring the Earth’s
• India will bring a WTO challenge against any “carbon climate back to its pre-industrial level, geoengineers
taxes” that rich countries impose on Indian imports. plan to launch a mirror, the size of Greenland and stra-
• “If they impose such a tax, we will take them to the tegically position it between the planet and the sun.
WTO dispute settlement forum,” “We will deal with
3. Seed the Sea with Iron
this] through hard negotiations. Such barriers are not
going to be WTO-compatible and we will fight it.” - the • Scientist suggests iron will be the key to turn things
minister, MoEF around. Phytoplankton, which dwell near the surface,
• Both United States and European Union have discussed prefer iron.
the possibility of imposing tariffs or other forms of “bor- • They are also adapt at pulling carbon out of the atmos-
der carbon adjustment” on goods imported from coun- phere during photosynthesis.
tries with tax regulations on greenhouse gas emissions. • When they die after about 60 days, the carbon the organ-
isms have consumed falls to the bottom of the ocean.
Do you know? • By pumping iron into the sea and stimulating phyto-
Generally, softwood tracheids are preferred over hard- plankton to grow like crazy, scientist believe, global
wood fibers for papermaking because the tracheids of warming could be reversed.
conifers are longer (about 2–4 mm) than are hard-
4. Whiten the Clouds with Wind-Powered Ships
wood fibers (0.5–1.5 mm).
• Scientist hopes, like the volcanic eruption, the tops of
clouds also reflect solar radiation. Spraying a lot of sea-
21.6. GEO-ENGINEERING: water into the sky by wind powered remotely activated
• Geo-engineering primarily aims at modifying and cool- ships to whiten the clouds and thus it will reflect solar
ing Earth’s environment, defeating the environmental radiation.
5. Build Fake Trees • But pulling carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is only
half the battle--afterwards it must be sequestered, or
Do you know? permanently trapped.
Mugger crocodile is a freshwater species, which primar- How sequestrated CO2 can be commercials used?
ily occupies Indian lakes, rivers and marshes. It prefers
slow-moving, shallower bodies of water and may be
• Horticulturists need CO2 in greenhouses for plants to
use during photosynthesis,
found in man-made reservoirs and irrigation canals.
• For dry ice production, and
• For developing new kinds of plastic and concrete that
• “artificial tree,” a scaled-down version of an earlier pro- can be made with CO2.
totype capable of capturing a ton of carbon in the at-
mosphere per day. Drawbacks
• Panels covering the surface of the tree--which would • Scientists have no idea whether they could shut down
need to be about 50 square meters--will be made of an some of these geoengineering projects once they start.
absorbent resin that reacts with carbon dioxide in the • Geoengineering treats the symptoms of global warm-
air to form a solid. ing, and could very well undermine efforts to address
• It can be compared to a furnace filter, capable of pulling the root cause.
particles out of the air. • people may feel as though they don’t need to reduce
• The panels, or “boxes,” can be removed and exposed to their personal carbon emissions and companies may
113 F steam, which effectively cleans the filter. continue to conduct business as usual, expecting re-
searchers to clean up the mess.
• The chemical reaction with the steam causes the solid
to release the carbon it has captured, which can then • The cost, maintenance for geoengineering projects are
seize as liquid CO2. too high.
 
CHAPTER - 22
INDIA AND CLIMATE CHANGE

22.1. INDIA’S POSITION ON CLIMATE 22.2. OBSERVED CLIMATE AND
CHANGE WEATHER CHANGES IN INDIA
• India emitted 2,136.84 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent • India’s National Communication (NATCOM) to UNF-
greenhouse gases in 2010. CCC has consolidated some of the observed changes in
• Energy sector was the prime contributor to emissions climate parameters in India. No firm link between the
and with 71% of total emissions in 2010. Energy sector documented changes described below and warming
includes - electricity production, fuel combustion in in- due to anthropogenic climate change has yet been es-
dustries, transport and fugitive emissions. tablished.
• Industrial processes and product use contributed 8%; 22.2.1. Surface Temperature
agriculture and waste sectors contributed 18% and 3%
respectively to the national GHG inventory. • At the national level, increase of — 0.4 C has been ob-
served in surface air temperatures over the past cen-
• About 12% of emissions were offset by carbon sink ac- tury. A warming trend has been observed along the
tion of forests and croplands, considering which the west coast, in central India, the interior peninsula, and
national GHG emissions are arrived at a total of 1,884.31 north-eastern India. However, cooling trends have been
million tonnes of CO2 equivalent. observed in north-west India and parts of south India.
• India’s per capita GHG emission in 2010 was 1.56 tCO2
equivalent, which is less than one- third of the world’s 22.2.2. Rainfall
per capita emissions and far below than many devel- • While the observed monsoon rainfall at the all-India
oped and developing countries. level does not show any significant trend, regional mon-
• A reduction of emission intensity of GDP by about 12% soon variations have been recorded.
between 2005 and 2010 has been achieved against our • A trend of increasing monsoon seasonal rainfall has
voluntary pledge to reduce the emission intensity of its been found along the west coast, northern Andhra
GDP by 20–25 per cent by 2020, compared with the Pradesh, and north-western India (+10% to +12% of the
2005 level. normal over the last 100 years) while a trend of decreas-
• India will continue to be a low-carbon economy (World ing monsoon seasonal rainfall has been observed over
Bank study). eastern Madhya Pradesh, north-eastern India, and some
parts of Gujarat and Kerala (-6% to —8% of the normal
• India’s primary focus is on “adaptation”, with specific
over the last 100 years).
focus for “mitigation”.
• India has already unveiled a comprehensive National 22.2.3. Extreme Weather Events
Action Plan on Climate Change whose activities are in
the public domain.
• Instrument records over the past 130 years do not indi-
cate any marked long-term trend in the frequencies of
• India advocates collaborative research in future low- large-scale droughts and floods. Trends are however
carbon technology and access to intellectual property observed in multi-decadal periods of more frequent
rights (IPRs) as global public goods. droughts, followed by less severe droughts.
• There has been an overall increasing trend in severe energy instead of burning fossil fuel in thermal power
storm incidence along the coast at the rate of 0.011 stations.
events per year. While the states of West Bengal and • Current Indian government expenditure on adaptation
Gujarat have reported increasing trends, a decline has to climate variability, exceeds 2.6% of the GDP, with
been observed in Orissa. agriculture, water resources, health and sanitation, for-
ests, coastal-zone infrastructure and extreme weather
22.2.4. Rise in Sea Level events, being specific areas of concern.
• The records of coastal tide gauges in the north Indian
Ocean for more than 40 years, reports that sea level rise 22.3.1. AGRICULTURE
was between 1.06-1.75 mm per year. These rates are • Two risk-financing programmes support adaptation to
consistent with 1-2 mm per year global sea level rise climate impacts. The Crop Insurance Scheme sup-ports
estimates of IPCC. the insurance of farmers against climate risks, and the
Credit Support Mechanism facilitates the extension of
22.2.5. Impacts on Himalayan Glaciers credit to farmers, especially for crop failure due to cli-
• The Himalayas possess one of the largest resources of mate variability.
snow and ice and its glaciers form a source of water for
22.3.2. CROP IMPROVEMENT
the perennial rivers such as the Indus, the Ganga, and
the Brahmaputra. • The present programmes address measures such as
development of arid-land crops and pest management,
• Glacial melt may impact their long-term lean-season
as well as capacity building of extension workers and
flows, with adverse impacts on the economy in terms
NGOs to support better vulnerability reducing practices.
of water availability and hydropower generation.
• The available monitoring data on Himalayan glaciers 22.3.3. DROUGHT PROOFING
indicates that while recession of some glaciers has oc- • The current programmes seek to minimize the adverse
curred in some Himalayan regions in recent years, the effects of drought on production of crops and livestock,
trend is not consistent across the entire mountain and on productivity of land, water and human re-
chain. It is accordingly, too early to establish long-term sources, so as to ultimately lead to drought proofing of
trends, or their causation, in respect of which there are the affected areas.
several hypotheses.
• They also aim to pro¬mote overall economic develop-
ment and improve the socio-economic conditions of the
Do you know? resource poor and disadvantaged sections inhabiting
Tripura is one of the highest CVP (Climate, Vegetation, the programme areas.
Precipitation) index zones (a measure of potential pro- 22.3.4. FORESTRY
ductivity) in the country.
• India has a strong and rapidly growing afforestation
programme. The afforestation process was accelerated
by the enactment of the Forest Conservation Act of
22.3. CURRENT ACTIONS FOR 1980, which aimed at stopping the clearing and deg-
ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION radation of forests through a strict, centralized con-
• Adaptation, in the context of climate change, comprises trol of the rights to use forest land and mandatory
the measures taken to minimize the adverse impacts of requirements of compensatory afforestation in case
climate change, e.g. relocating the communities living of any diversion of forest land for any non-forestry
close to the sea shore, for instance, to cope with the purpose.
rising sea level or switching to crops that can withstand
higher temperatures.
• In addition an aggressive afforestation and sustainable
forest management programme resulted in annual re-
• Mitigation comprises measures to reduce the emissions forestation of 1.78 mha during 1985-1997, and is cur-
of greenhouse gases that cause climate change in the rently 1.1 mha annually. Due to this, the carbon stocks
first place, e.g. by switching to renewable sources of in Indian forests have increased over the last 20 years
energy such as solar energy or wind energy, or nuclear (during 1986 to 2005) to 9 -10 gigatons of carbon (GtC).
22.3.5. WATER 22.4. INDIA’S NATIONAL ACTION PLAN
• The National Water Policy stresses that non-conven- ON CLIMATE CHANGE
tional methods for utilization of water, including inter- In dealing with the challenge of climate change we must
basin transfers, artificial recharge of groundwater, and act on several fronts in a focused manner simultaneously.
desalination of brackish or sea water, as well as tradi- The National Action Plan hinges on the development and
tional water conservation practices like rainwater har- use of new technologies. The implementation of the Plan
vesting, including roof-top rainwater harvesting, should would be through appropriate institutional mechanisms
be practised to increase the utilizable water resources. suited for effective delivery of each individual Mission’s
Many states now have mandatory water harvesting pro- objectives and include public private partnerships and civil
grammes in several cities. society action. The focus will be on promoting understand-
ing of climate change, adaptation and mitigation, energy
22.3.6. COASTAL REGIONS efficiency and natural resource conservation.
• In coastal regions, restrictions have been imposed in There are Eight National Missions which form the core of
the area between 200m and 500m of the HTL (high tide the National Action Plan, representing multipronged, long-
line) while special restrictions have been imposed in the term and integrated strategies for achieving key goals in
area up to 200m to protect the sensitive coastal ecosys- the context of climate change.
tems and prevent their exploitation.
• This, simultaneously, addresses the concerns of the
Do you know?
coastal population and their livelihood. Some specific
measures taken in this regard include construction of The Economic Survey 2011-12, suggests to make lower
coastal protection infrastructure and cyclone shelters, carbon sustainable growth a central element of our
as well as plantation of coastal forests and mangroves. Twelfth Five Year Plan commencing in April 2012. The
Survey points out that India’s per capita CO2 emissions
22.3.7. HEALTH are much lower (1.52 CO2 tons) than those of the devel-
oped countries even if historical emissions are excluded.
• The prime objective present of health programmes is
the surveillance and control of vector borne diseases
such as Malaria, Kala-azar, Japanese Encephalitis, Filaria
and Dengue. Programmes also provide for emergency 22.4.1. NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION
medical relief in the case of natural calamities, and to • The National Solar Mission is a major initiative of the
train and develop human resources for these tasks. Government of India and State Governments to promote
ecologically sustainable growth while addressing India’s
22.3.8. DISASTER MANAGEMENT energy security challenge.
• The National Disaster Management programme pro- Objective
vides grants-in-aid to victims of weather related disas-
ters, and manages disaster relief operations. It also • To establish India as a global leader in solar energy, by
creating the policy conditions for its diffusion across the
supports proactive disaster prevention programmes,
country as quickly as possible.
including dissemination of information and training of
disaster-management staff. • The Mission will adopt a 3-phase approach,
• spanning the remaining period of the 11th Plan and
first year of the 12th Plan (up to 2012-13) as Phase 1,
Do you know? • the remaining 4 years of the 12th Plan (2013-17) as
A Chapter on Sustainable Development and Climate Phase 2 and
Change has been for the first time introduced in the • the 13th Plan (2017-22) as Phase 3.
annual Economic Survey. This new chapter reflects the • At the end of each plan, and mid-term during the 12th
growing challenges of sustainable development and and 13th Plans, there will be an evaluation of progress,
climate change. Pressures on land, air, water, forests review of capacity and targets for subsequent phases,
and loss of plant and animal habitant are growing. based on emerging cost and technology trends, both
domestic and global.
• The aim would be to protect Government from subsidy Objective
exposure in case expected cost reduction does not ma- • Promoting innovative policy and regulatory regimes,
terialize or is more rapid than expected. financing mechanisms, and business models which not
• The first phase (up to 2013) will focus on capturing of only create, but also sustain markets for energy effi-
the low hanging options in solar thermal; on promoting ciency in a transparent manner with clear deliverables
off-grid systems to serve populations without access to to be achieved in a time bound manner.
commercial energy and modest capacity addition in
Mission Goals
grid-based systems.
• In the second phase, after taking into account the ex-
• Market-based approaches to unlock energy efficiency
opportunities, estimated to be about Rs. 74,000 Crores
perience of the initial years, capacity will be aggres-
sively ramped up to create conditions for up scaled and By 2014-15:
competitive solar energy penetration in the country. • Annual fuel savings in excess of 23 million toe
Mission targets are: • Cumulative avoided electricity capacity addition of
19,000 MW
• To create an enabling policy framework for the deploy-
ment of 100 MW of solar power by 2022. • CO2 emission mitigation of 98 million tons per year
• The Centre has revised cumulative targets under Na- • Four New Initiatives to Enhance Energy Efficiency:
tional Solar Mission from 20,000 MW by 2021-22 to a) Perform Achieve and Trade
1,00,000 MW- a quantum jump. b) Market Transformation for Energy Efficiency
• The target will principally comprise of 40 GW Rooftop c) Energy Efficiency Financing Platform (EEP)
and 60 GW through Large and Medium Scale Grid Con-
d) Framework for Energy Efficient Economic Development
nected Solar Power Projects.
(FEEED)
Do you know?
In Kaziranga, which has the highest concentration of
the one-horned rhinoceros, the figure has gone up
from 2,048 in 2009 to 2,990 now, despite the death of
roughly 120 rhinos between 2009 and 2011. The rhino
census, also registered 100 rhinos in Orang National
Park and 93 in Pobitora wildlife sanctuary, besides 22
that have been translocated to Manas National Park
over the past four years.
22.4.2. THE NATIONAL MISSION FOR

ENHANCED ENERGY EFFICIENCY (NMEEE)
• The National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
(NMEEE), which seeks to strengthen the market for
energy efficiency by creating conducive regulatory and
policy regime.
• NMEEE has been envisaged to foster innovative and 22.4.3. NATIONAL MISSION ON SUSTAINABLE
sustainable business models to the energy efficiency HABITAT
sector. • “National Mission on Sustainable Habitat” seeks to pro-
• The NMEEE seeks to create and sustain markets for mote sustainability of habitats through improvements
energy efficiency in the entire country which will ben- in energy efficiency in buildings, urban planning, im-
efit the country and the consumers”. proved management of solid and liquid waste, modal
shift towards public transport and conservation 22.4.4. NATIONAL WATER MISSION (NWM)
through appropriate changes in legal and regulatory
MISSION OBJECTIVES
framework.
• It also seeks to improve ability of habitats to adapt to
• Ensuring integrated water resource management for
conservation of water, minimization of wastage and
climate change by improving resilience of infrastruc- equitable distribution both across and within states.
ture, community based disaster management and meas-
ures for improving advance warning systems for • Developing a framework for optimum water use
through increase in water use efficiency by 20%
extreme weather events.
through regulatory mechanisms with differential enti-
• It will broadly cover the following aspects: tlements and pricing, taking the National Water Policy
• Extension of the energy conservation building (NWP) into consideration.
code - which addresses the design of new and large • Ensuring that a considerable share of water needs of
commercial buildings to optimize their energy de- urban areas is met through recycling of waste water.
mand; • Meeting water requirements of coastal cities (with in-
• Better urban planning and modal shift to public adequate alternative sources of water) through the
transport - make long term transport plans to fa- adoption of new and appropriate technologies such as
cilitate the growth of medium and small cities in low-temperature desalination technologies allowing use
such a way that ensures efficient and convenient of ocean water.
public transport; • Revisiting NWP to ensure basin-level management
• Recycling of material and urban waste management strategies to deal with variability in rainfall and river
- a special area of focus will be development of tech- flows due to climate change, including enhancement of
nology for producing power form waste. storage both above and below ground, implementation
of rainwater harvesting and establishment of equitable
• The National Mission will include a major R&D pro-
and efficient management structures.
gramme, focusing on bio-chemical conversion,
waste water use, sewage utilization and recycling • Developing new regulatory structures to optimize ef-
ficiency of existing irrigation systems, to rehabilitate
options.
run-down systems and to expand irrigation to increase
storage capacity.
Do you know? • Promotion of water-neutral and water-positive tech-
nologies through the design of a proper incentive struc-
A rainforest is a forested biome with high annual
ture combined with recharging of underground water
rainfall. Tropical rainforests arise due to the inter-
sources and adoption of large-scale irrigation pro-
tropical convergence zone. The largest tropical rain-
gramme based on efficient methods of irrigation.
forests exist in the Amazon basin, Nicaragua,
equatorial Africa, southeastern Asia from Myanmar
to Indonesia, eastern Queensland and part of Do you know?
Australia.
1. The 2009 State of the Environment Report by the
The beneficial effects of rain forests are manifold. It Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) clubs
is also called “lungs of the world” and act as major the issues under five key main challenges faced by
consumers of atmospheric carbon and play a large role India, which are climate change, food, security,
in cooling air. water security, energy security and managing ur-
It is estimated that the rainforests were reduced by banization.
about 58,000 km2 annually in the 1990s. Rainforests 2. Mercury in the environment can be reduced by
used to cover 14% of the Earth’s surface. This percent- using alternative products that don’t contain mer-
age is now down to 6% and it is estimated by study cury, cleaning up spills properly, recycling mer-
that the remaining natural rainforests could disap- cury-containing products and properly handling
pear within 40 years. and disposing of mercury-containing equipment.
22.4.5. NATIONAL MISSION FOR SUSTAINING Mission Targets
THE HIMALAYAN ECOSYSTEM (NMSHE) • Improvement in the quality of forest cover and ecosys-
• The most crucial and primary objective of the mission tem services of forests /nonforests, (including moder-
is to develop a sustainable National capacity to continu- ately dense, open forests, degraded grassland and
ously assess the health status of the Himalayan Ecosys- wetlands: 5 million ha)
tem and enable policy bodies in their policy-formulation • Eco-restoration/afforestation of scrub, shifting cultiva-
functions and assist States in the Indian Himalayan tion areas, cold deserts, mangroves, ravines and aban-
Region with their implementation of actions selected for doned mining areas (2 million ha)
sustainable development. • Improvement in forest and tree cover in urban/
peri-urban lands (0.20 million ha)
Mission Objectives
• Improvement in forest and tree cover on marginal ag-
• Building Human and Institutional capacities on climate ricultural lands/fallows and other non-forest land under
change related aspects agro-forestry/social forestry (3 million ha)
• Network knowledge institutions and develop a coherent • Management of public forest/non-forests areas (taken
database on all knowledge systems up under the mission) by community institutions
• Detect and decouple natural and anthropogenic global • Adoption of improved fuel wood-use efficiency and al-
environmental changes and project future trends on ternative energy devices by households in the project
potential impacts area
• Assess the socio-economic and ecological consequences • Diversification of forest-based livelihoods of about 3
of global environmental change and design appropriate million households living in and around forests
strategies for growth in the economy of the region Sub Missions
• Study traditional knowledge systems for community • Sub-mission 1: Enhancing quality of forest cover and
participation in adaptation, mitigation and coping improving ecosystem services (4.9 million ha)
mechanisms • Sub-mission 2: Ecosystem restoration and increase in
• Evaluate policy alternatives for regional development forest cover (1.8 million ha)
plans • Sub-mission 3: Enhancing tree cover in urban and peri-
• Create awareness amongst stakeholders in the region urban areas (including institutional lands): 0.20 mil-
lion ha
• Develop regional cooperation to generate a strong
knowledge and database for policy interventions • Sub-mission 4: Agro-forestry and social forestry (in-
creasing biomass and creating carbon sink): 3 million ha
22.4.6. NATIONAL MISSION FOR A GREEN • Sub-mission 5: Restoration of wetlands: 0.10 million ha
INDIA
Mission Objectives
Do you know?
• Increased forest/tree cover on 5 million hectares (ha)
Indian government has announced a domestic goal of
of forest/non- forest lands and improved quality of for- reducing the carbon emission intensity by 20-25 per
est cover on another 5 million ha of non-forest/forest cent of its GDP of the 2005 level by 2020.
lands (a total of 10 million ha)
• Improved ecosystem services including biodiversity,
hydrological services, and carbon sequestration from 22.4.7. NATIONAL MISSION FOR SUSTAINABLE
the 10 million ha of forest/non-forest lands mentioned AGRICULTURE (NMSA)
above
Mission Objectives
• Increased forest-based livelihood income of about 3 mil-
• To devise strategic plans at the agro-climatic zone level
lion households, living in and around the forests
so that action plans are contextualised to regional scales
• Enhanced annual CO2 sequestration by 50 to 60 million in the areas of research and development (R&D), technol-
tones in the year 2020 ogy and practices, infrastructure and capacity building
• To enhance agricultural productivity through custom- • Establishment of global technology watch groups with
ised interventions such as use of biotechnology to de- institutional capacities to carry out research on risk
velop improved varieties of crops and livestock, minimised technology selection for developmental
promoting efficient irrigation systems, demonstration choices
of appropriate technology, capacity building and skill • Development of national capacity for modeling the re-
development gional impact of climate change on different ecological
• To facilitate access to information and institutional sup- zones within the country for different seasons and liv-
port by expanding Automatic Weather Station networks ing standards
to the panchayat level and linking them to existing in-
surance mechanisms including the Weather Based Crop
• Establishing research networks and encouraging re-
search in the areas of climate change impacts on
Insurance Scheme and the National Agriculture Insur- important socio-economic sectors like agriculture,
ance Scheme (NAIS), scaling the returns at that level health, natural ecosystems, biodiversity, coastal
• To promote “laboratory to land” research by creating zones, etc.
model villages and model farm units in rainfed and
dryland areas
• Generation and development of the conceptual and
knowledge basis for defining sustainability of develop-
• To strategise long-term interventions for emission re- ment pathways in the light of responsible climate
duction from energy and non-energy uses by way of change related actions
introduction of suitable crop varieties and farm prac-
tices, livestock and manure management
• Providing an improved understanding and awareness
of key climate processes and the resultant climate risks
• To realise the enormous potential of growth in dryland and associated consequences
agriculture, through the development of drought and
pest resistant crop varieties, adopting resource-con-
• To complement the efforts undertaken by other national
missions, strengthen indigenous capacity for the devel-
serving technologies, providing institutional support to
opment of appropriate technologies for responding to
farmers and capacity building of stakeholders.
climate change through adaptation and mitigation and
• The NMSA has identified 10 key dimensions for adapta- promote their utilisation by the government and socie-
tion and mitigation: ties for the sustainable growth of economies
1. Improved Crop Seeds, Livestock and Fish Culture • Creating institutional capacity for research infrastruc-
2. Water Efficiency ture including access to relevant data sets, computing
3. Pest Management and communication facilities, and awareness to improve
the quality and sector specific scenarios of climate
4. Improved Farm Practices change over the Indian subcontinent
5. Nutrient Management • Ensuring the flow and generation of human resources
6. Agricultural Insurance through a variety of measures including incentives to
7. Credit Support attract young scientists to climate science
8. Markets • Building alliances and partnerships through global col-
laboration in research & technology development on
9. Access to Information
climate change under international and bilateral science
10. Livelihood Diversification and technology (S&T) cooperation arrangements
22.4.8. The National Mission on Strategic

Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC) Do you know?
Mission Objectives The concept of “green GDP” arose in the early 1990s
• Formation of knowledge networks among the existing in reaction to the deficiencies of the traditional gross
knowledge institutions engaged in research and devel- domestic product (GDP) to account for the economic
opment relating to climate science and facilitating data costs of depleted natural resources and incurred pol-
sharing and exchange through a suitable policy frame- lution, which in turn affect human welfare.
work and institutional support
22.4.9. National Bio-Energy Mission held in Warsaw in November 2013 invited all Parties to
initiate domestic preparations for their INDC towards
• According to estimates, biomass from agro and agro-
achieving the objective of the Convention and to commu-
industrial residue can potentially generate 25,000 MW
nicate them, well in advance of the 21st session of the Con-
of power in India. This can be further raised with
ference of Parties.
wasteland-based integrated energy plantation and
power generation systems. The concept of ‘Nationally Determined Contributions’, tak-
ing into account the outcomes of both Warsaw COP 19 and
Bio Energy Lima COP 20 has to (i) reflect the principles of equity and
• “Bioenergy is renewable energy derived from biological Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) and
sources, to be used for heat, electricity, or vehicle fuel. (ii) the Country’s contributions must be seen in a balanced
Biofuels derived from plant materials is among the most and comprehensive context.
rapidly growing renewable energy technologies.” India declared a voluntary goal of reducing the emissions
intensity of its GDP by 20–25%, over 2005 levels by
Sources of Bio – Energy
2020, despite having no binding mitigation obligations
• Existing Sources as per the Convention. A slew of policy measures to pro-
• Leftover organic residue mote low carbon strategies and Renewable Energy have
• Leftover farm organic residue resulted in the decline of emission intensity of our GDP
by 12% between 2005 and 2010. It is a matter of satisfac-
• Leftover forest residue tion that United Nations Environment Programme
• Leftover organic urban residue (UNEP) in its Emission Gap Report 2014 has recognized
• Algal residue India as one of the countries on course to achieving its
voluntary goal.
• New Sources
INDC outlines the post-2020 climate actions they intend to
• Cultivation of short rotation energy crops
take under a new international agreement. The INDC cen-
• Social forestry tre around India’s policies and programmes on promotion
Advantages of Bio – Energy of clean energy, especially renewable energy, enhancement
of energy efficiency, development of less carbon intensive
• Capital efficient and resilient urban centres, promotion of waste to wealth,
• High energy generation potential safe, smart and sustainable green transportation network,
• Significant carbon emission reduction potential abatement of pollution and India’s efforts to enhance car-
bon sink through creation of forest and tree cover. It also
• Substantial employment and income generation po-
captures citizens and private sector contribution to com-
tential
bating climate change.
• Investments & benefits remain within the country
The INDC proposals are on the following:
• Sizable economic value add to GDP
a. Sustainable Lifestyles
• Wasteland regeneration b. Cleaner Economic Development
c. Reduce Emission intensity of Gross Domestic Product
Do you know? (GDP)
India is highly vulnerable to climate change due to a d. Increase the Share of Non Fossil Fuel Based Electricity
combination of; (i) high levels of poverty, (ii) popula- e. Enhancing Carbon Sink (Forests)
tion density, (iii) high reliance on natural resources,
and (iv) an environment already under stress (for in- f. Adaptation
stance water resources). g. Mobilizing Finance
h. Technology Transfer and Capacity Building
22.5 INDC In the INDC, the country has focused on adaptation efforts,
including:
Conference of Parties (COP) of United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at 19th Session a) developing sustainable habitats;
b) optimizing water use efficiency; 22.6. INDIAN NETWORK ON CLIMATE
c) creating ecologically sustainable climate resilient ag- CHANGE ASSESSMENT
ricultural production systems; • The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment
d) safeguarding the Himalayan glaciers and mountain (INCCA) was launched in October 2009 by the Ministry
ecosystem; and, of Environment and Forests (MoEF) in an effort to pro-
mote domestic research on climate change, and build
e) enhancing carbon sinks in sustainably managed for- on the country’s climate change expertise.
ests and implementing adaptation measures for vul-
nerable species, forest-dependent communities and • INCCA is a network-based programme of the MoEF,
which consists of over 120 institutions and over 250
ecosystems.
scientists country wide is aimed at bringing in more
India’s Intended Nationally Determined Contribution: science-based policy-making, based on measurements,
At a Glance monitoring and modelling.
India has submitted its Intended Nationally Determined • The INCCA has been conceptualized as a Network based
Contribution (INDC) to the United Nations Framework Scientific Programme designed to address and assess
Convention on Climate Change. Some of the salient points the drivers and implications of climate change through
of the INDC are: scientific research; climate change assessments on var-
ious aspects of climate change, associated vulnerabili-
• To put forward and further propagate a healthy and ties and adaptation; devise decision support systems;
sustainable way of living based on traditions and values and build capacity towards management of climate
of conservation and moderation. change related risks and opportunities.
• To adopt a climate-friendly and a cleaner path than the • The INCCA will carry out research on the effects of
one followed hitherto by others at corresponding level climate change in different regions and sectors in India
of economic development. and suggest suitable adaptation and mitigation steps.
• To reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 • Objective - to have an independent body of Indian sci-
per cent by 2030 from 2005 level. entists who could “prepare scientific reports at the do-
mestic level about the impact of climate change on
• To achieve about 40 per cent cumulative electric power various sectors, which can give a real picture and influ-
installed capacity from non-fossil fuel based energy re- ence the world debate”.
sources by 2030, with the help of transfer of technology
and low cost international finance, including from
• Reports prepared by the INCCA will form a part of In-
dia’s National Communication (Nat Com) to the United
Green Climate Fund. Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
• To create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion (UNFCCC).
tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and
tree cover by 2030. 22.6.1. INCCA – First Assessment ‘India:
Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2007 ’
• To better adapt to climate change by enhancing invest-
ments in development programmes in sectors vulner- • The first publication to come out from the INCCA has
able to climate change, particularly agriculture, water been an updated greenhouse gas emissions inventory
for India for the year 2007.
resources, Himalayan region, coastal regions, health
and disaster management. • The first Assessment of the Green House Gas emissions
was released on May 11, 2010.
• To mobilize domestic and new and additional funds
from developed countries to implement the above miti- • INCCA prepared the country’s greenhouse gas (GHG)
emission data “India: Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2007”
gation and adaptation actions in view of the resource
which said the country’s emissions grew by 58 per cent
required and the resource gap.
during 1994 to 2007
• To build capacities, create domestic framework and in-
• It covers the sectors of Energy, Industry, Agriculture,
ternational architecture for quick diffusion of cutting Land Use Land Use Change and Forest and Waste by
edge climate technology in India and for joint collabora- sources and removal by sinks presented in this do-
tive R&D for such future technologies. cument.
22.6.2. INCCA - Second Assessment ‘Climate Human health
Change and India: A 4 4 Assessment’ • Higher morbidity and mortality from heat stress and
• A 4×4 Assessment’ addresses the impact of climate vector/water-borne diseases
change in 2030s to the natural resources and liveli- • Expanded transmission window for malaria
hoods of the people in the four climate sensitive regions
of Himalayan region, North-East region, the Western
Ghats and the Coastal plains for the 4 key sectors of
Do you know?
Agriculture, Water, Health and Natural Ecosystems and
Biodiversity. Article 21 conferring the Right of Life has been as-
signed the broadest interpretations by the judiciary to
• The 4 region, 4 sectors Assessment in short has been
encompass the right to a clean environment, right to
referred to as a 4×4 Assessment.
livelihood, right to live with dignity and a number of
• The assessment examines the implications of the cli- other associated rights.
mate change scenario in 2030s using a regional climate
model (PRECIS).
• The assessment also brings out the future areas of work 22.7. NATIONAL COMMUNICATION
to enhance the knowledge and areas of further im- (NATCOM)
provement in the future assessments.
• In pursuance of the implementation of the provisions of
• 4 Regions: Western Ghats, Himalayan Region, Coastal the Convention, India’s Initial National Communication
India, North-East (NATCOM) to the UNFCCC has been initiated in 2002
• 4 Thrust Areas: Agriculture, Water, Forests, Human funded by the Global Environment Facility under its
Health enabling activities programme through the United Na-
tions Development Programme, New Delhi.
Impacts
• Warmer seasons: Avg. temp rise: 2.0 deg C predicted.
1.0-4.0 deg C at extreme ranges Parties to the Convention are enjoined to communi-
• Increased annual precipitation with lower frequency of cate the following information to the Secretariat of
rainy days; increased intensity the Conference of Parties:
• Cyclonic disturbances of lower frequency; increased • A national inventory of anthropogenic emissions
intensity and increased risk of storm surges by sources and removal by sink of all GHGs not
• Sea-level rise: 1.3mm/year on average controlled by the Montreal protocol, to the extent
its capacities, permit, using comparable method-
Agriculture ologies to be promoted and agreed upon by the
• Up to 50% reduction in maize yields Conference of Parties.
• 4-35% reduction in rice yields (with some exceptions) • A general description of steps taken or envisaged
• Rise in coconut yields (with some exceptions); reduced by the Party to implement the Convention.
apple production • Any other information relevant to the achievement
• Negative impacts on livestock in all regions of the objective of the Convention and suitable for
inclusion in its communication, including if feasi-
• Fresh water supply
ble, material relevant for calculation of global emis-
• High variability predicted in water yields (from 50% sion trends.
increase to 40-50% reduction)
• 10-30% increased risk of floods; increased risks of
droughts • The National Communication process envisages com-
prehensive scientific and technical exercises for prepa-
Forests and natural ecosystems
ration of inventories of greenhouse gases of
• Increased net primary productivity anthropogenic origin, reduction of uncertainities in
• Shifting forest borders; species mix; negative impact on these estimations and vulnerability assessment and ad-
livelihoods and biodiversity aptation due to climate change, besides other related
information of India’s initiatives which address the ob-
jectives of the Convention. Do you know?
• Towards preparation of National Communication, a Strengthening of ecological security is one of the goal
broad participatory approach involving research institu- of the Mahatma Gandhi Rural Employment Guarantee
tions, technical institutions, universities, government Programme (MGNREGA). MGNREGA is designed to
departments, and non governmental and private or- strengthen ongoing efforts in the areas of water har-
ganizations has been adopted, necessitated by vast re- vesting, watershed management and soil health care
gional diversity and sector complexities in India. and enhancement.
Implementation arrangements
• The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) is 22.8. INDIA’S POLICY STRUCTURE
implementing and executing agency of the project.
RELEVANT TO GHG MITIGATION
Work Programme envisaged
1. Integrated Energy Policy
• Development of comprehensive inventory for the base
• India has in place a detailed policy, regulatory, and leg-
year 1994 and improvement of its reliability vis-à-vis
islative structure that relates strongly to GHG mitiga-
earlier estimates. This would entail reducing uncertain-
tion: The Integrated Energy Policy was adopted in 2006.
ties of GHC emission coefficients in key source categories.
• Identification of key steps to be taken towards imple-
• Some of its key provisions are:
menting the Convention. • Promotion of energy efficiency in all sectors
• Vulnerabilty and adaptation assessment for presenta- • Emphasis on mass transport
tion of information on specific needs and concerns aris- • Emphasis on renewables including biofuels planta-
ing from the adverse impacts of climate change. tions
• Creation of reliable and comprehensive database for all • Accelerated development of nuclear and hydropower for
the outputs produced through the establishment of a clean energy
‘Data Centre’ (DC). This information will be accessible • Focused R&D on several clean energy related tech-
on the Internet. nologies
• Enhancement of capacity to respond to projected cli-
2. The Rural Electrification Policy, 2006
mate change through the preparation of a ‘Targeted
Research Proposal’ for developing a medium to long- • It promotes renewable energy technologies where grid
term action plan. connectivity is not possible or cost-effective. The New
and Renewable Energy Policy, 2005, promotes utiliza-
GHG Inventory Estimations tion of sustainable, renewable energy sources, and ac-
• In accordance with the provisions of Article-4 and 12.1 celerated deployment of renewables through indigenous
of UNFCCC, preparation of inventories of a basket of design, development and manufacture.
gases has been started for the areas of energy, indus- • The National Environment Policy, 2006, and the Noti-
trial processes, agriculture land use and land use fication on Environment Impact Assessment (EIA),
change and forestry (LULUCF) and waste. 2006, reform India’s environmental assessment regime.
• The gases to be inventoried include carbon dioxide A number of economic activities are required to prepare
methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluoro- environment impact assessments, and environment
carbon and sulphur hexafluoride released from various management plans, which are appraised by regulatory
anthropogenic sources of the base year 1994. authorities prior to start of construction. The EIA provi-
• This is in addition to estimating historical trends of sions strongly promote environmental sustainability
GHG growth as a part of the initial National Commu- Several other provisions
nication to UNFCCC.
• It relates to reforming energy markets to ensure that
• The estimation of national GHG inventories for all sec- energy markets are competitive, and energy prices re-
tors is based on the 1996 guidelines of the ‘Intergovern- flect true resource costs. These include: Electricity Act
mental Panel on Climate Change’ (IPCC) and as good 2005, Tariff Policy 2003, Petroleum & Natural Gas Reg-
practices guidelines. ulatory Board Act, 2006, etc.
• The provisions taken together are designed to: pro¬gramme for manufacturers of electrical appliances
• Remove entry barriers and raise competition in ex- is expected to lead to significant savings in electricity
ploration, extraction, conversion, transmission and annually.
distribution of primary and secondary energy
22.10. ENERGY CONSERVATION
• Accomplish price reform, through full competition BUILDING CODE
at point of sale
• Promote tax reform to promote optimal fuel choices • An Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) was
launched in May, 2007, which addresses the design of
• Augment and diversify energy options, sources and new, large commercial buildings to optimize the build-
energy infrastructure ings’ energy demand based on their location in differ-
• Provide feed-in tariffs for renewables (solar, wind, ent climatic zones. Commercial buildings are one of the
biomass cogeneration) fastest growing sectors of the Indian economy, reflect-
• Strengthen, and where applicable, introduce inde- ing the increasing share of the services sector in the
pendent regulation economy.
• Nearly one hundred buildings are already following the
Code, and compliance with the Code has been incorpo-
Do you know? rated into the mandatory Environmental Impact Assess-
Rajiv Gandhi Environment Award for Clean Technol- ment requirements for large buildings.
ogy is given to industrial units that make a significant • It has been estimated that if all the commercial space
contribution towards the development of new or the in India every year conform to ECBC norms, energy
innovative modification of existing, technologies or consumption in this sector can be reduced by 30-40%.
adoption and use of clean technologies and practices Compliance with ECBC norms is voluntary at present
that substantially reduce or prevent environmental but is expected to soon become mandatory.
pollution.
22.10.1. Green Building
• Buildings are one of the major pollutants that affect
22.9. INTRODUCTION OF LABELLING urban air quality and contribute to climate change.
PROGR AMME FOR APPLIANCES • Human Habitats (Buildings) interact with the environ-
ment in various ways. Throughout their life cycles, from
Do you know? construction to operation and then demolition, they
consume resources in the form of energy, water, mate-
The UN General Assembly on 23.01.95 adopted a reso- rials, etc. and emit wastes either directly in the form of
lution which proclaims 16th September as the Inter- municipal wastes or indirectly as emissions from elec-
national Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer, tricity generation.
to commemorate the signing of the Montreal Protocol
on the Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer which • Green building is the essence of which would be to ad-
was signed on 16th September, 1987 dress all the pollution related issues of a building in an
integrated and scientific manner.
• A green building depletes as little of the natural re-
• An energy labelling programme for appliances was sources during its construction and operation.
launched in 2006, and comparative star-based labelling • The aim of a green building design is to:
has been introduced for fluorescent tube-lights, air con-
ditioners, refrigerators, and distribution transformers. • Minimize the demand on non-renewable resources
and maximize the utilization efficiency of these re-
• The labels provide information about the energy con- sources when in use, and
sumption of an appliance, and thus enable consumers
to make informed decisions. The Bureau of Energy Ef- • Maximize reuse and recycling of available resources
ficiency has made it mandatory for refrigerators to dis- • Utilization of renewable resources.
play energy efficiency label and is expected to do so for • It costs a little more to design and construct a green
air conditioners as well. The standards and labelling building.
• However, it costs less to operate a green building that • Selection of ecologically sustainable materials (with
has tremendous environmental benefits and provides a high recycled content, rapidly renewable resources
better place for the occupants to live and work in. with low emission potential, etc.) for Water and
waste management.
• It maximizes the use of efficient building materials and
construction practices; optimizes the use of on-site • Indoor environmental quality (maintains indoor
sources and sinks by bio-climatic architectural practices; thermal and visual comfort and air quality)
uses minimum energy to power itself; uses efficient
22.10.2. Green Rating for Integrated Habitat
equipment to meet its lighting, air-conditioning, and
Assessment (GRIHA)
other needs; maximizes the use of renewable sources of
energy; uses efficient waste and water management • GRIHA is a Sanskrit word meaning – ‘Abode’.
practices; and provides comfortable and hygienic indoor • GRIHA has been conceived by TERI and developed
working conditions. jointly with the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy,
Government of India.
• It is evolved through a design process that requires all
concerned (the architect and landscape designer and the • The green building rating system devised by TERI and
air conditioning, electrical, plumbing, and energy con- the MNRE is a voluntary scheme.
sultants) to work as a team to address all aspects of Objective
building and system planning, design, construction, and • The primary objective of the rating system is to help
operation. design green buildings and, in turn, help evaluate the
• They critically evaluate the impacts of each design deci- ‘greenness’ of the buildings.
sion on the environment and arrive at viable design Aim
solutions to minimize the negative impacts and enhance
the positive impacts on the environment.
• The rating system aims to achieve efficient resource
utilization, enhanced resource efficiency, and better
• In sum, the following aspects of the building design are quality of life in the buildings.
looked into in an integrated way in a green building:
Rating Tool
• Building system designed in a way to efficiently use
• GRIHA is a rating tool that helps people assess the per-
HVAC (heating ventilation and air conditioning), formance of their building against certain nationally
lighting, electrical, and water heating. acceptable benchmarks and is suitable for all kinds of
• Integration of renewable energy sources to generate buildings in different climatic zones of the country.
energy onsite. • Going by the old adage ‘what gets measured, gets man-
aged’, GRIHA attempts to quantify aspects such as en-
ergy consumption, waste generation, renewable energy
Do you know? adoption, etc. so as to manage, control and reduce the
The 42nd Amendment to the constitution brought same to the best possible extent.
about in the year 1974 inserted two new Articles • It will evaluate the environmental performance of a
namely. building holistically over its entire life cycle, thereby
Art. 48-A under Directive principles of State Policy, providing a definitive standard for what constitutes a
making it the responsibility of the State Government ‘green building’.
to protect and improve the environment and to safe- • The rating system, based on accepted energy and envi-
guard the forests and wildlife of the country ronmental principles, will seek to strike a balance be-
Art. 51-A (g) under Fundamental duties of citizens; tween the established practices and emerging concepts,
making it the fundamental duty of every citizen to both national and international.
protect and improve the natural environment includ-
ing forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have com-
• The guidelines/criteria appraisal may be revised every
three years to take into account the latest scientific de-
passion for living creatures
velopments during this period.
The basic features • Reduced water consumption
• The system has been developed to help ‘design and • Limited waste generation due to recycling and reuse
evaluate’ new buildings (buildings that are still at the
inception stages).
• Reduced pollution loads
• A building is assessed based on its predicted performance • Increased user productivity

over its entire life cycle – inception through operation. • Enhanced image and marketability
• The stages of the life cycle that have been identified for The challenges
evaluation are:
• The Indian building industry is highly de-centralized
Rating system with people and/ or groups engaged in design, con-
• GRIHA rating system consists of 34 criteria categorized struction, equipment provision, installation, and reno-
under 4 categories. vation working together.
• They are • Each group may be organized to some extent, but there
1. Site Selection and Site Planning, is limited interaction among the groups, thus disabling
2. Conservation and efficient utilization of resources, the integrated green design and application process.
3. Building operation and maintenance, and • Hence, it is very important to define and quantify sus-
4. Innovation points. tainable building practices and their benefits.
• Eight of these 34 criteria are mandatory, four are partly • It is also important to separate the role of different par-
mandatory, while the rest are optional. Each criterion ticipants in ensuring that the building consumes mini-
has a number of points assigned to it. mal resources over its entire life cycle and leaves behind
• It means that a project intending to meet the criterion a minimal environmental footprint.
would qualify for the points. Different levels of certifica-
tion (one star to five stars) are awarded based on the
Do you know?
number of points earned. The minimum points required
for certification is 50. Amrita Devi Bishnoi Wildlife Protection Award is
given for significant contribution in the field of wild-
life protection, which is recognised as having shown
Do you know? exemplary courage or having done exemplary work
Medini Puraskar Yojana - This award is given to In- for the protection of wildlife.
dian authors each year to encourage original works in
Hindi on environment and its related subjects such as
wildlife, water resources and conservation 22.11. ENERGY AUDITS OF LARGE
INDUSTRIAL CONSUMERS
The benefits • In March 2007 the conduct of energy audits was made
mandatory in large energy-consuming units in nine
• On a broader scale, this system, along with the activities industrial sectors. These units, notified as “des ignated
and processes that lead up to it, will benefit the com-
munity at large with the improvement in the environ- consumers” are also required to employ “certified en-
ment by reducing GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions, ergy managers”, and report energy con¬sumption and
reducing energy consumption and the stress on natural energy conservation data annually.
resources.
• Reduced energy consumption without sacrificing the 22.12. MASS TR ANSPORT
comfort levels • The National Urban Transport Policy emphasizes exten-
• Reduced destruction of natural areas, habitats, and sive public transport facilities and non-motor¬ized
biodiversity, and reduced soil loss from erosion etc. modes over personal vehicles. The expansion of the
• Reduced air and water pollution (with direct health Metro Rail Transportation System in Delhi and other
benefits) cities (Chennai, Bangalore, Jaipur, etc) and other mass
transit systems, such as the Metro Bus project in Ban- Ethanol Blending of Gasoline requires 5% blend¬ing of
galore, are steps in its implementation. The state gov- ethanol with gasoline from 1st January, 2003, in 9 States
ernment of Maharashtra recently announced that it will and 4 Union Territories.
impose a congestion tax to discourage the use of private
cars in cities where it has created “sufficient public
trans¬port capacity”. Do you know?
Indira Gandhi Paryavaran Puraskar is Awarded each
Do you know? year to Indian nationals or any Indian organisation for
significant contributions in the field of environment
Rajiv Gandhi Wildlife Conservation Award is Awarded
annually for significant contribution in the field of
wildlife conservation which has made or has the po-
tential to make, a major impact on the protection and 22.16. INDIAN SOLAR LOAN PROGR AMME
conservation of wildlife in the country • In April 2003, the United Nations Environment Pro-
gramme (“UNEP”) initiated a, three-year Programme,
credit facility in Southern India to help rural households
22.13. CLEAN AIR INITIATIVES finance the purchase of Solar Home Systems.
• In urban areas, one of the major sources of air pollution • Canara Bank and Syndicate Bank, along with their eight
associate Regional Rural Banks, partnered with UNEP
is emissions from transport vehicles.
to establish and run a Loan Programme through their
• Steps taken to reduce such pollution include branch offices across Karnataka State and part of the
(i) introduction of compressed natural gas (CNG) in neighbouring Kerala State.
Delhi and other cities; • In addition to providing financial support in the form
(ii) Retiring old, polluting vehicles; and of interest rate subsidies for borrowers, UNEP provides
assistance with technical issues, vendor qualification
(iii) Strengthening of mass transportation. and other activities to develop the institutional capacity
• Some state governments provide subsidies for purchase for this type of finance.
and use of electric vehicles. For thermal power plants,
the installation of electrostatic precipitators is manda- 22.17. NATIONAL INITIATIVE ON CLIMATE
tory. In many cities, polluting industrial units have ei- RESILIENT AGRICULTURE (NICRA)
ther been closed or shifted from residential areas. • The ICAR has launched National Initiative on Climate
Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) during 2010-11 with an
22.14. PROMOTION OF ENERGY SAVING outlay of Rs.350 crores for the XI Plan.
DEVICES • This initiative will primarily enhance the resilience
• The Bureau of Energy efficiency has introduced “The of Indian Agriculture covering crops, livestock and
Bachat Lamp Yojana”, a programme under which house- fisheries.
holds may exchange incandescent lamps for CFLs (com-
22.17.1. Objective
pact fluorescent lamps) using clean devel¬opment
mechanism (CDM) credits to equate pur¬chase price. • To enhance the resilience of Indian agriculture cover-
ing crops, livestock and fisheries to climatic variability
• Some states have made mandatory the installation of and climate change through development and applica-
solar water heaters in hospitals, hotels and large gov- tion of improved production and risk management
ernment and commercial buildings. Subsidy is provided technologies
for installation of solar water heaters in residential
Project Components
buildings.
• The project is comprised of four components.
22.15. PROMOTION OF BIOFUELS 1) Strategic research on adaptation and mitigation
• The Biodiesel Purchase Policy mandates biodiesel pro- 2) Technology demonstration on farmers’ fields to cope
curement by the petroleum industry. A mandate on with current climate variability
3) Sponsored and competitive research grants to fill management strategies, seed and fodder banks, timely
critical research gaps and precision agriculture, effective agro-advisory sys-
4) Capacity building of different stake holders tem using Information Communication Technology
kiosks.
Strategic Research
• The strategic research has been planned at leading re- • Small and marginal farmers in rain-fed, coastal and hill
search institutes of ICAR in a network mode covering areas will benefit more in view of the focused attention
crops, horticulture, livestock, natural resource manage- in these regions.
ment and fisheries sectors. • Capacity building of scientists in frontier areas is an-
• To begin with, the project is focusing on crops like other core activity of the project.
wheat, rice, maize, pigeonpea, groundnut, tomato, • To prepare all stakeholders to face challenges, multi-
mango and banana; cattle, buffalo and small ruminants pronged awareness generation programs on issues of
among livestock and both marine and freshwater fish climate change are planned.
species of economic importance.
• The major research themes are:
Do you know?
• Vulnerability assessment of major production zones
MoEF&CC initiated a national campaign named “Green
• Linking weather based agro-advisories to contin- Good Deeds” weaving around some 500 simple lifestyle
gency planning habits that can be easily adopted, in an effort to sensi-
• Assessing the impacts and evolving varieties tolerant tise the hazards of climate and global warming.
to key climatic stresses (drought, heat, frost, flood-
ing, etc.) in major food and horticulture crops 22.18. BSE-GREENEX
• Continuous monitoring of greenhouse gases in open • The BSE-GREENEX Index is a veritable first step in
field conditions in major production systems creating a credible market based response mechanism
in India, whereby both businesses and investors can rely
• Evolving adaptation and mitigation strategies
upon purely quantitative and objective performance
through enhancing water and nutrient use efficiency
based signals, to assess “carbon performance”.
and conservation agriculture
• gTrade Carbon Ex Ratings Services Private Limited
• Studying changes in pest dynamics, pest/pathogen- (gTrade) is a company based in India, which has co-
crop relationships and emergence of new pests and developed the BSE-GREENEX Index in close association
pathogens under changing climate with the BSE.
• Adaptation strategies in livestock through nutritional Index Description
and environmental manipulations
• The BSE-GREENEX Index includes the top 20 compa-
• Harnessing the beneficial effects of temperature in nies which are good in terms of Carbon Emissions,
inland and marine fisheries through better under- Free-Float Market Capitalization and Turnover.
standing of the spawning behaviour. • The Index is a Cap Weighted Free-Float Market Capi-
• Seven major research institutes of the ICAR will work talization weighted Index comprising from the list of
in unison to evolve coping technologies with Central BSE-100 Index.
Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA), • The Index has been back-tested from 1stOctober, 2008
Hyderabad as the lead centre. (Base Date) with the base index value of 1000.
• Best-bet and cost-effective technologies to cope with • The Index is rebalanced on a bi-annual basis i.e. end of
climate variability will be demonstrated on farmers’ March and September quarters.
fields in 100 most vulnerable districts of the country. • The September quarter review will be based on the
fresh set of carbon emission numbers and the March
• The technologies include rain water harvesting and its
quarter review will be based on the existing carbon
judicious use, in-situ moisture conservation, drought emission numbers but latest financial data.
22.19 FAME-INDIA PROGR AMME Nicobar Islands, Jammu & Kashmir and Sundarbans.
Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid) and Elec- • LTEO Programme aims to understand the biophysical
tric Vehicles (FAME India) scheme rolled out in april, 2015 and anthropogenic drivers of ecosystem change in the
by Union Minister for Heavy Industries and Public Enter- selected biomes and their effects on social- ecological
prises responses through a network of scientific institutions.
The scheme will help promote use of electric and hybrid • Activities include experimental work to assess the
vehicles, and initially, a subsidy of 30% will be provided to change of structure and function in the natural ecosys-
the buyers. tems, identification of patterns and drivers of change in
the natural ecosystems by monitoring populations of
Phased replacement of fossil fuel-based vehicles with those
fresh water fish, birds, mammals, herbivores & carni-
based on latest technologies will lead to a net saving of Rs
vores, animal movements, soil processes in forests &
14,000 crore.
grasslands, biophysical climatic variables, etc.
The scheme is proposed to be implemented over six years,
till 2020, which looks at sales of electric and hybrid vehicles 22.21. THE NATIONAL ADAPTATION
up to 60-70 lakh units per year. FUND FOR CLIMATE CHANGE (NAFCC)
• The National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change
22.20. LONG TERM ECOLOGICAL (NAFCC) is a Central Sector Scheme set up in 2015-16.
OBSERVATORIES (LTEO) The aim of NAFCC is to support concrete adaptation
• Long Term Ecological Observatories (LTEO) for Climate activities which mitigate the adverse effects of climate
Change Studies are one of the components under the change. The activities under this scheme are imple-
‘Climate Change Action Programme’ with an outlay of mented in a project mode. The projects related to adap-
Rs. 40 crores in the 12th Plan Period. tation in sectors such as agriculture, animal husbandry,
water, forestry, tourism etc. are eligible for funding
• A Science Plan of LTEO was released during the 21st
under NAFCC. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural
Conference of Parties to the United Nations Framework
Development (NABARD) is the National Implementing
Convention on Climate Change at Paris in December
Entity (NIE).
2015.
• First phase of the LTEO Programme includes creating
22.22. OTHER “CRITICAL INITIATIVES”
a network of field sites to assess the health of eight dif-
ferent biomes of the country namely; Western Hima- • In addition, India has 24 other “Critical Initiatives” in
the anvil, for which detailed plans and an institutional
laya, Eastern Himalaya, North-Western Arid Zone,
framework is being prepared
Central Indian Forests, Western Ghats, Andaman &
Type Initiative
Energy Efficiency in Power Super critical technologies
Generation Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC)
Technology Natural Gas based Power Plants
Closed Cycle Three Stage Nuclear Power Programme
Efficient Transmission and Distribution
Hydropower
Other Renewable Energy RETs for power generation
Technologies Programmes Biomass based popup generation technologies
Small scale Hydropower
Wind Energy
Grid connected systems
RETs for transportation and industrial fuels
Disaster Management Response Reducing risk to infrastructure through better design
to Extreme Climate Events Strengthening communication networks and disaster management facilities
Protection of Coastal Areas Undertake measures for coastal protection and setting up Early Warning System
Development of a regional ocean modelling system
High resolution coupled ocean-atmosphere variability studies in tropical oceans
Development of a high-resolution storm surge model for coastal regions
Development of salinity-tolerant crop cultivars
Community awareness on coastal disasters and necessary action;
Timely forecasting, cyclone and flood warning systems
Enhanced plantation and regeneration of mangroves and coastal forests
Health Sector Provision of enhanced public health care services and assessment of increased
burden of disease due to climate change
Creating appropriate capacity at Building capacity in the Central, State and other at the local level to assimilate
different levels of Government and facilitate the implementation of the activities of national plan
  
CHAPTER - 23
CLIMATE CHANGE ORGANIZATIONS

23.1. UNFCCC launched negotiations to strengthen the global response
to climate change, and, two years later, adopted the
• UN Summit Conference on Environment and Develop-
Kyoto Protocol.
ment (UNCED) held in Rio de Janerio in June 1992
adopted, by consensus, the first multilateral legal in- • The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11
December 1997. Due to a complex ratification process,
strument on Climate Change, the UN Framework Con-
it entered into force on 16 February 2005.
vention on Climate Change or the UNFCCC.
• In short, the Kyoto Protocol is what “operationalizes”
• In 1992, countries joined UNFCCC, to cooperatively con- the Convention. It commits industrialized countries to
sider what they could do to limit average global tem- stabilize greenhouse gas emissions based on the prin-
perature increases and the resulting climate change, and ciples of the Convention.
to cope with whatever impacts were, by then, inevitable.
• The major distinction between the Protocol and the
There are now 195 Parties to the Convention. Convention is that while the Convention encouraged
• The UNFCCC secretariat supports all institutions in- industrialized countries to stabilize GHG emissions, the
volved in the international climate change negotiations, Protocol commits them to do so.
particularly the Conference of the Parties (COP), the
23.2.1. Targets
subsidiary bodies (which advise the COP), and the COP
Bureau (which deals mainly with procedural and or- • KP, as it is referred to in short, sets binding emission
reduction targets for 37 industrialized countries and the
ganizational issues arising from the COP and also has
European community in its first commitment period.
technical functions).
• It only binds developed countries because it recognizes
• All subsequent multilateral negotiations on different that they are largely responsible for the current high
aspects of climate change, including both adaptation levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere, which are
and mitigation, are being held based on the principles the result of more than 150 years of industrial activity.
and objectives set out by the UNFCCC.
• KP places a heavier burden on developed nations under
its central principle: that of “common but differentiated
Do you know? responsibility”.
The major difference Tortoise vs turtle being that the • Overall, these targets add up to an average five per cent
land dwelling ones are called Tortoises and water emissions reduction compared to 1990 levels over the
dwelling are called Turtles. Tortoise are herbivorous five-year period 2008 to 2012.
where as turtle are omnivorous The architecture of the KP regime: What makes
KP tick?
• The Kyoto Protocol is made up of essential architecture
23.2. KYOTO PROTOCOL: COP-3. that has been built and shaped over almost two decades
• By 1995, countries realized that emission reductions of experience, hard work and political will. The beating
provisions in the Convention were inadequate. They heart of KP is made up of:
1. Reporting and verification procedures; • Encourage the private sector and developing coun-
2. Flexible market-based mechanisms, which in turn tries to contribute to emission reduction efforts
have their own governance procedures; and
Joint Implementation:
3. A compliance system.
• The mechanism known as “joint implementation”, al-
• So, two things make KP tick. lows a country with an emission reduction or limita-
1. Emissions Reduction Commitments tion commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B
Party – developed country) to earn emission reduction
• The first was binding emissions reduction commitments units (ERUs) from an emission-reduction or emission
for developed country parties. This meant the space to removal project in another Annex B Party, each equiv-
pollute was limited.
alent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted to-
• Greenhouse gas emissions, most prevalently carbon wards meeting its Kyoto target.
dioxide, became a new commodity. KP now began to
internalize what was now recognized as an unpriced
• Joint implementation offers Parties a flexible and
cost-efficient means of fulfilling a part of their Kyoto
externality. commitments, while the host Party benefits from
foreign investment and technology transfer.
Do you know? • Projects starting as from the year 2000 may be eli-
Indian Water Monitor lizard is one of the largest as gible as JI projects, ERU issued from 2008
well as the heaviest species of lizards, second only to
Clean Development mechanism:
the Komodo Monitors
• The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) allows a
country with an emission-reduction or emission-limi-
2. Flexible Market Mechanisms tation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B
• This leads us to the second, the flexible market mecha- Party) to implement an emission-reduction project in
nisms of the KP, based on the trade of emissions per- developing countries.
mits. KP countries bound to targets have to meet them • It is the first global, environmental investment and
largely through domestic action— that is, to reduce their credit scheme of its kind, providing standardized emis-
emissions onshore. sions offset instrument, CERs
• But they can meet part of their targets through three • Such projects can earn saleable certified emission re-
“market-based mechanisms” that ideally encourage duction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of
GHG abatement to start where it is most cost-effective-- CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto
for example, in the developing world. Quite simply, it targets.
does not matter where emissions are reduced, as long
as they are removed from the planet’s atmosphere. Example
• The Kyoto Flexible Market Protocol mechanisms: • A CDM project activity might involve, for example, a
rural electrification project using solar panels or the
• Joint Implementation (JI) installation of more energy-efficient boilers. The mech-
• The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) anism stimulates sustainable development and emission
• Emission Trading reductions, while giving industrialized countries some
flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction or
23.2.2. The objectives of Kyoto mechanisms: limitation targets.
• Its objective is to facilitate, promote and enforce compli- • Most of the CDM projects were implemented in China
ance with the commitments under the Protocol. and India as climate in these countries is favorable for
• Stimulate sustainable development through technol- implementing projects for almost all the spheres such
ogy transfer and investment as Agriculture, Waste handling and disposal, Afforesta-
• Help countries with Kyoto commitments to meet tion and reforestation. Such CDM projects are also to
their targets by reducing emissions or removing car- be supported by the approval of Annex B countries -
bon from the atmosphere in other countries in a those which have quantified obligations according Kyoto
cost-effective way Protocol.
Carbon Trading: newer, cleaner infrastructure and systems, with obvi-
• Carbon trading is the name given to the exchange of ous longer-term benefits.
emission permits. This exchange may take place within • The Kyoto Protocol compliance mechanism is designed
the economy or may take the form of international to strengthen the Protocol’s environmental integrity,
transaction. support the carbon market’s credibility and ensure
• Two types of Carbon trading: transparency of accounting by Parties.
1. Emission trading and
Do you know?
2. Offset trading.
One of the unique features of the Rock pythons of
Emission trading/ ‘cap-and-trade’,
India is that they can raise their body temperature
• Emission permit is known alternatively as carbon above the ambient level, through muscular contrac-
credit. For each Annex I country, the protocol has as- tions. Rock python of India is an endangered species.
signed a fixed amount of carbon emission in the agree- The reason for this is that it is killed for its fine skin,
ment. This amount is actually the amount of emission meat and even for medicinal purposes.
which is to be reduced by the concerned country.
• On the other hand, it implies that the country was per-
mitted to emit the remaining amount. This emission 23.2.3. Non-Compliance of Kyoto And Penalties
allowance is actually one kind of carbon credit. • Like most things in life, failure to comply with the Pro-
• The total amount of allowance is then subdivided into tocol carries penalties.
certain units. The units are expressed in terms of car- • If a country does not meet the requirements for meas-
bon-equivalent. Each unit gives the owner the right to urements and reporting said country looses the privi-
emit one metric tonne of carbon dioxide or other equiv- lege of gaining credit through joint implementation
alent green-house gases. projects.
Offset Trading/ Carbon Project/ ‘baseline-and • If a country goes above its emissions cap, and does not
credit’ trading: try to make up the difference through any of the mech-
• Another variant of carbon credit is to be earned by a anisms available, then said country must make up the
country by investing some amount of money in such difference plus an additional thirty percent during the
projects, known as carbon projects, which will emit next period.
lesser amount of green-house gas in the atmosphere. • The country could also be banned from participating in
• For example, suppose a thermal plant of 800 megawatt the ‘cap and trade’ program.
capacity emit 400 carbon-equivalent in the atmosphere.
Now a country builds up a 800 megawatt wind energy 23.3. BALI MEET:
plant which does not generate any amount of emission • Bali Meet was the meeting of 190 countries that are
as an alternative of the thermal plant. Then by investing party to a UN treaty on climate change held in Decem-
in this project the country will earn 400 carbon-equiv- ber 2007.
alent.
Objectives:
• According to an estimate made by the World Bank’s • The treaty’s aim was to push the world towards taking
Carbon Finance Unit, volume of carbon trade through
action that reduces the greenhouse gases in the atmos-
Emission Trading route alone had shown a 240 percent
phere which cause climate change.
increase in 2005 over the previous year.
• Bali was to discuss what happens after 2012—what are
Benefits of Flexible Market Mechanisms countries expected to do after the first phase of Kyoto
• This has the parallel benefits of stimulating green in- ends in 2012.
vestment in developing countries and of including the • As per developed countries, after 2012, even the devel-
private sector in this endeavour to cut and hold steady oping countries like India and China, which are increas-
GHG emissions at a safe level. ing their emissions as they grow economically, also
• It also makes “leap-frogging” more economical that is, undertake some kind of emission cuts. This meant a
the possibility to skip older, dirtier technology for complete overhaul of the existing UN treaty.
• In Bali, the nations have decided upon a new set of prin- 23.4. COP 15 COPENHAGEN SUMMIT:
ciples that will, help the countries decide a post-2012 • A legally binding agreement could not be arrived n CoP
deal. 15, Copenhagen mainly due to discord between develop-
ing and developed nations.
23.3.1. Bali Roadmap • The summit concluded with the CoP taking a note
• The participating nations adopted the Bali Road Map as of Copenhagen Accord ( a five nation accord- BASIC
a two-year process to finalizing a binding agreement in and US).
2009 in Copenhagen. • The Copenhagen Accord is a non-binding agreement.
• The Bali Road Map includes; • The Accord states that deep international emissions cuts
are needed to hold the increase in global temperature
• The Bali Action Plan (BAP)
to under two degrees Celsius.
• The Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commit-
• Under the Accord, developed countries agree to set tar-
ments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol gets for reductions in their greenhouse gas emissions
negotiations and their 2009 deadline, by 2020.
• Launch of the Adaptation Fund, • Developing countries agree to pursue nationally appro-
• Decisions on technology transfer and priate mitigation strategies to slow the growth of their
emissions, but are not committed to reducing their car-
• On reducing emissions from deforestation.
bon output.
23.3.2. Bali Action Plan • Recognizes the need to establish a mechanism (in-
cluding REDD-plus) to enable the mobilization of
• The Conference of Parties decided to launch a compre-
financial resources from developed countries to help
hensive process to enable the implementation of the
achieve this
Convention through long-term cooperative action up to
and beyond 2012, by addressing: • Developing countries, specially these with low-emit-
ting economies should be provided incentives to con-
• A shared vision for long-term cooperative action, tinue to develop on a low-emission pathway
including a long-term global goal for emission reduc-
tions.
• Agrees that developed countries would raise funds
of $30 billion from 2010-2012 of new and additional
• Enhanced national/international action on mitiga- resources
tion of climate change. • Agrees a “goal” for the world to raise $100 billion per
• Enhanced action on adaptation. year by 2020. New multilateral funding for adapta-
tion will be delivered, with a governance structure.
• Enhanced action on technology development and
transfer to support action on mitigation and adapta- 23.5. COP 16 CANCUN SUMMIT
tion.
• The Cancun Agreements include decisions under both
• Enhanced action on the provision of financial re- the Convention and Kyoto protocol negotiating tracks.
sources and investment to support action on mitiga- • As per the Cancun Agreements, all Parties to the Con-
tion and adaptation and technology cooperation. vention (including the developed and developing coun-
tries) have agreed to report their voluntary mitigation
goals for implementation.
Do you know? • These will be subject to measurement and verification
Russell’s Viper is responsible for the more deaths due or international consultation, as appropriate, in accord-
to snakebite than any other venomous snake. It is ance with agreed international guidelines.
highly irritable and when threatened, coils tightly,
hisses, and strikes with a lightning speed. Its hemo- 23.5.1. Cancun Agreements
toxic venom is a very potent coagulant, which dam- • Industrialized country targets are officially recognized
ages tissue as well as blood cells. under the multilateral process and these countries are
to develop low-carbon development plans and strategies
and assess how best to meet them, including through Green Climate Fund
market mechanisms, and to report their inventories
annually.
• At COP 16, Parties, established a Green Climate Fund
(GCF) as an operating entity of the financial mechanism
• Developing country actions to reduce emissions are of- of the Convention under Article 11.
ficially recognized under the multilateral process. A
registry is to be set up to record and match developing • The GCF will support projects, programmes, policies
country mitigation actions to finance and technology and other activities in developing country Parties. The
support from by industrialized countries. Developing Fund will be governed by the GCF Board.
countries are to publish progress reports every two • The World Bank was invited by the COP to serve as the
years. interim trustee of the GCF, subject to a review three
• A total of 30 billion in fast start finance from industri- years after operationalization of the Fund.
alized countries to support climate action in the devel-
oping world up to 2012 and the intention to raise $100
• The COP also decided that an independent secretariat
will support the operations of the Fund. The COP also
billion in long-term funds by 2020 are included in the
decided that the GCF was to be designed by the Transi-
decisions.
tional Committee (TC).
• In the field of climate finance, a process to design a
‘Green Climate Fund’ under the Conference of the Par-
ties, with a Board with equal representation from de-
Do you know?
veloped and developing countries, is established.
At the time of nesting, the female hornbill starts living
• A new Cancun Adaptation Framework is established to
in a tree hollow sealed with dung and pellets of mud.
allow better planning and implementation of adaptation
The male collects the pellets, swallows them and re-
projects in developing countries through increased fi-
gurgitates small saliva-cased building materials. This
nancial and technical support, including a clear process
material is given to the female, along with food,
for continuing work on loss and damage.
through a slit in the tree seal. The process of incuba-
• Governments agree to boost action to curb emissions tion continues for 6-8 weeks. The female hornbill
from deforestation and forest degradation in developing comes out only after she has molted and fresh feathers
countries with technological and financial support. have grown on her and her young ones.
• Parties have established a technology mechanism with
a Technology Executive Committee and Climate Tech-
nology Centre and Network to increase technology Adaptation Fund
cooperation to support action on adaptation and miti-
gation.
Do you know?
23.5.2. Mechanism of COP 16 The only endemic genus in the hotspot is the Nama-
dapha flying squirrel which is critically endangered
• Three mechanisms that are outcome of CoP 16 are
and is described only from a single specimen from
1. Technology mechanism Namdapha National Park
2. Green climate fund
3. Adaptation fund
• The Adaptation Fund was established to finance con-
Technology Mechanism crete adaptation projects and programmes in develop-
• A Technology Mechanism, under the guidance of and ing country Parties to the Kyoto Protocol that are
accountable to the Conference of the Parties (COP), was particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate
established by the 16th session of the COP in Cancun change.
2010. • The Adaptation Fund is financed from the share of pro-
• The Technology Mechanism is expected to facilitate the ceeds on the clean development mechanism project ac-
implementation of enhanced action on technology de- tivities and other sources of funding. The share of
velopment and transfer in order to support action on proceeds amounts to 2% of certified emission reduc-
mitigation and adaptation to climate change. tions (CERs) issued for a CDM project activity.
• The Adaptation Fund is supervised and managed by the (JI) and International Emissions Trading (IET) – will
Adaptation Fund Board (AFB). The AFB is composed of continue.
16 members and 16 alternates and meets at least twice
a year.
• Access to the mechanisms remains uninterrupted for
all developed countries that have accepted targets for
• Upon invitation from Parties, the Global Environment the second commitment period.
Facility (GEF) provides secretariat services to the AFB
and the World Bank serves as trustee of the Adaptation • A key element was added to the measurement, report-
ing and verification (MRV) framework for developed
Fund, both on an interim basis.
countries with the adoption of the tables for the bien-
23.6. COP 17 DURBAN SUMMIT nial reports known as common tabular format, thereby
strengthening transparency and the accountability
New global climate change regime regime.
• India had gone to Durban with two major demands — • Surplus assigned amount units (AAUs) can be carried
that the principle of equity remain intact in any new over without limit from the first to the second commit-
climate regime and that this new global deal be ment period of the Kyoto Protocol by Parties included
launched after 2020.
in Annex I that have a target for the second commit-
Outcome ment period. But there were restrictions on the use of
• New deal to be finalized by 2015 and launched by 2020 these carried-over AAUs for the second commitment
period and quantitative limits on how many of these
• Second phase of Kyoto Protocol secured units may be acquired from other Parties.
• Green Climate Fund launched, though empty as yet
Green tech development mechanism put in place
Completion of new infrastructure
• Equity finds place back in future climate talks
• In Doha, governments advanced the completion of new
• Adaptation mechanism infrastructure to channel technology and finance to
• Transparency mechanism developing nations and move toward the full implemen-
• Secures 10 years of economic growth without carbon tation of this infrastructure and support.
containment Intellectual Property Rights and technol- • Songdo, the Republic of South Korea will be the host of
ogy not as well anchored in new deal the Green Climate Fund (GCF) and the work plan of the
• Loopholes for developed world not fully blocked Standing Committee on Finance.
• Agriculture brought in by developed nations under cli- • UNEP-led consortium will be host of the Climate
mate change Technology Center (CTC), for an initial term of five
years.
23.7 DOHA OUTCOMES COP 18, 2012
• The CTC, along with its associated Network, is the im-
Global Climate Change Agreement plementing arm of the UNFCCC Technology Mecha-
Governments agreed to work towards a universal climate nism. Governments also agreed the constitution of the
change agreement by 2015 covering all countries which will Climate Technology Center Network (CTCN) Advisory
come into effect from 2020. Board.
Amendment of the Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is the only existing and binding agree- Do you know?
ment under which developed countries undertake quanti- Found only in Manipur’s Keibul Lamjao National
tative commitments to cut greenhouse gases. It was Park, the sangai is one of the four species that have
amended so that it could seamlessly continue. been included in the Centre sponsored endangered
species recovery programme. The other three are the
• 8-year second commitment period, which started on
great Indian bustard, the Gangetic dolphin and the
January 1st 2013.
dugong.
• The Kyoto Protocol’s Market Mechanisms – the Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM), Joint Implementation
23.8 WARSAW OUTCOMES,COP 19, 2013 now fully operational. It is an important agreement be-
cause it means that the mitigation, sustainability and
2015 Agreement support efforts of countries can now be better measured.
• Governments advanced the timeline for the develop-
Technology to boost action on climate change
ment of the 2015 agreement.
• Nationally determined contributions would be put for- • CTCN, established in Cancun in 2010, has now moved
ward in a clear and transparent manner. to the operational stage to support action by developing
countries in response to their requests for support
Closing the pre-2020 ambition gap through their national designated entities.
• Governments resolved to strengthen measures to close • The CTCN is ready to respond to requests from develop-
the “ambition gap” – the gap between what has been ing countries on issues related to the development and
pledged to date and what is required to keep the world transfer of technology.
below a maximum average 2 degrees Celsius tempera-
ture rise - before the new agreement enters into force 23.9 LIMA OUTCOMES,COP 20, 2014
in 2020. • The Lima Climate Conference achieved”firsts” in the
history of the international climate process.
• Additionally, governments urge the voluntary cancella-
tion of Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) under the • Pledges were made by both developed and developing
Kyoto Protocol’s Clean Development Mechanism. countries prior to and during the COP that took the
capitalization of the new Green Climate Fund (GCF)
Strengthening efforts to mobilize USD 100 billion by past an initial $10 billion target.
2020
• Levels of transparency and confidence-building reached
• To mobilize USD 100 billion annually by 2020 to support new heights as several industrialized countries submit-
developing countries in their climate change actions, ted themselves to questioning about their emissions
developed countries agreed to make their efforts on a targets under a new process called a Multilateral As-
biennial basis from 2014 to 2020. sessment.
• The Green Climate Fund is open for business and will
• The Lima Ministerial Declaration on Education and
begin its initial resource mobilization process in the Awareness-raising calls on governments to put climate
middle of 2014. change into school curricula and climate awareness into
Cutting emissions from deforestation – “the Warsaw national development plans.
Framework for REDD ”
Steps Forward on Adaptation
• Governments agreed on a set of decisions on ways to
reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degra- • Progress was made in Lima on elevating adaptation
dation. onto the same level as the curbing and cutting of curb-
ing greenhouse gas emissions. This will be done
• Global deforestation accounts for some 20 percent of the through National Adaptation Plans (NAPs).
world’s CO2 emissions. The set of decisions bolsters
forest preservation and sustainable use of forests with • NAPs will now be made more visible via the UNFCCC
direct benefits for people who live in and around forests. website which should improve the opportunity for re-
ceiving backing.
• It establishes the means for results-based payments if
developing countries can demonstrate the protection of • A NAP Global Network was launched involving Peru,
forests. the US, Germany, the Philippines, Togo, the UK, Ja-
maica, and Japan.
Progress on driving adaptation
• The Lima Adaptation Knowledge initiative--a pilot pro-
• Developed countries met the target capitalization of ject in the Andes under the Nairobi Work Programme--
USD 100 million for the Adaptation Fund, which can has underlined that establishing the adaptive needs of
now continue funding priority projects. communities can be successfully captured.
Progress towards accountability • Countries supported the idea of replicating this in Least
• The framework for measuring, reporting and verifying Developed Countries, Small Island Developing States
mitigation efforts, including by developing countries, is and Africa.
More Countries Accept the Kyoto Protocol Doha significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate
Amendment change.
• Nauru and Tuvalu submitted their instrument of accept- • The Agreement also talks about reaching the global
ance to the Doha amendment, bringing the number of peaking of emissions by the second half of the century,
Parties to 21. Acceptance of 144 countries are required recognizing that peaking will take longer for developing
to bring it into force. country Parties.
Nationally determined contributions
New climate action portal
The Paris Agreement requires all Parties to put forward
• Peru launched a new portal, Nazca Climate Action Por- their best efforts through “nationally determined contribu-
tal, with support from the UNFCCC, to increase the tions” (NDCs) and to strengthen these efforts in the years
visibility of the wealth of climate action among cities, ahead. This includes requirements that all Parties report
regions, companies and investors, including those under regularly on their emissions and on their implementation
international cooperative initiatives. efforts.
In 2018, Parties will take stock of the collective efforts in
Lima Work Programme on Gender
relation to progress towards the goal set in the Paris
• The Lima conference agreed a Lima Work Programme Agreement and to inform the preparation of NDCs.
on Gender to advance gender balance and to promote
There will also be a global stock take every 5 years to as-
gender sensitivity in developing and implementing cli-
sess the collective progress towards achieving the purpose
mate policy.
of the Agreement and to inform further individual actions
by Parties.
UNFCCC NAMA Day
The Paris Agreement entered into force on 4 November
• A special event took place on actions to reduce emissions
2016. The first session of the Conference of the Parties
with the help of so-called “nationally appropriate miti-
serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agree-
gation actions” (NAMAs).
ment (CMA 1) took place in Marrakech, Morocco from 15-18
• NAMAs are plans of developing countries to reduce November 2016.
emissions and to develop sustainably which can be sup-
By the close of the Marrakech conference, it had been rat-
ported by developed countries. The UNFCCC secretariat
ified by 111 countries representing more than three-fourths
has established a registry to match requests for and
of global emissions.
offers of support.
The agreement defines parties’ basic obligations and es-
Climate action on the ground celebrated tablishes new procedures and mechanisms. But for these
by the UN to be fully operational, their details must be further
elaborated. This requires the adoption by parties of an
• The UNFCCC secretariat’s Momentum for Change Ini-
extensive set of decisions known loosely as the “Paris
tiative presented awards to representatives of some of
rulebook.”
the best examples of climate solutions in the world
which inspire increased climate action.
23.11 MARR AKECH CLIMATE CHANGE
• The Momentum for Change initiative this year for the CONFERENCE –COP22, 2016
first time included the category of Information and
Beyond developing the Paris rulebook, parties took actions
Communication technology.
and made announcements on a range of other issues, in-
cluding:
23.10 PARIS CLIMATE CHANGE
CONFERENCE COP 21, 2015 Finance
The Paris Agreement requires developed countries to pro-
Objectives of the Paris Agreement
vide biennial reports on financial support provided or mo-
• To hold the increase in global average temperature to bilized through “public interventions,” and on projected
well below 2 °C above pre industrial levels and levels of future support. In Marrakech, SBSTA began con-
• To pursue efforts to limit temperature increase to 1.5 C sidering how to account for public finance. Issues include
above pre-industrial levels, recognizing that this would whether the accounting should apply only to flows from
developed to developing countries or to broader flows of Canada, Germany, Mexico, and the United States became
public finance. the first countries to submit what have come to be known
as mid-century strategies. A new initiative called the 2050
Global Stocktake Pathway Platform was launched, with support from a
In Marrakech, parties began discussing how to structure broad array of national governments, cities, states, and
the stocktake, including its format, inputs, timeline, dura- companies, to help other countries develop their own mid-
tion, and output, and its linkage to other elements of the century strategies.
Paris architecture.
Finance
“Orphan” issues Heading into Marrakech, developed countries released a
One of the most contentious items in Marrakech was how roadmap outlining how they foresee meeting the goal of
to treat a set of so-called orphan issues that are referenced mobilizing 100 billion a year in public and private finance
in the Paris Agreement but not assigned to the APA or for developing countries by 2020. In Marrakech, the UNF-
another body for further consideration. These issues in- CCC’s Standing Committee on Finance released its second
clude whether to establish common timeframes for NDCs biennial assessment, showing that total global climate fi-
(parties adopted different timeframes in the first round); nance increased 15 percent in 2013-14, reaching a high-
any rules around the adjustment by parties of their NDCs; bound estimate of $741 billion in 2014.
and the development of a new collective finance goal be-
yond 2025. Unable to agree on any specific direction, par- Countries and others announced a variety of new
ties simply asked the APA to continue its consideration of financial pledges, including:
“possible additional matters relating to the implementation $23 million for the Climate Technology Centre and Net-
of the Paris Agreement.” work (CTCN), which provides technical assistance and
capacity building for developing countries.
Adaptation Fund
More than $50 million for the Capacity-building Initiative
One holdover issue from Paris was whether the Adaptation for Transparency established in Paris to help developing
Fund established under the Kyoto Protocol, which provides countries build the capacity to meet new transparency
adaptation support to developing countries, would continue requirements; and
under the Paris Agreement. Although developed countries
A doubling of World Bank climate finance for the Middle
would prefer to channel support through the newly estab-
lish Green Climate Fund, developing countries pushed very East-North Africa region to $1.5 billion by 2020.
hard to keep the Adaptation Fund alive. Parties decided the
fund “should serve the Paris Agreement,” pending deci- Loss and Damage
sions on governance and other issues. Parties conducted the first review of the Warsaw Interna-
tional Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with
2018 Facilitative Dialogue Climate Change Impacts (WIM). The mechanism, estab-
In Paris, anticipating that the Paris Agreement would not lished as an interim body at COP 19 and subsequently
be in force for several years, parties decided to conduct an brought under the Paris Agreement, is charged with devel-
early stocktake through a “facilitative dialogue” in 2018. oping approaches to help vulnerable countries cope with
(The next round of NDCs is due in 2019/20.) In Marrakech, unavoidable climate impacts, including extreme weather
parties asked the presidencies of COP 22 and COP 23 to events and slow-onset events such as sea-level rise. The
jointly undertake consultations on how to organize the next review will take place in 2019, and further reviews
facilitative dialogue, and to report back at COP 23. will be conducted on a five-year cycle, which could align
with the global stocktakes.
Mid-century Strategies
The Paris Agreement encourages countries to prepare and 23.12 BONN CLIMATE CHANGE
submit “long-term low greenhouse gas emission develop- CONFERENCE - COP23, 2017
ment strategies” outlining the kinds of actions needed to Fiji presided over UNFCCC’s COP23 in Bonn. COP23 took
achieve much deeper emission reductions. In Marrakech, place in Bonn, Germany in November 2017.
Key outcomes agreed at the UN climate talks in Bonn It brings together G20 countries in partnership with the
V20 nations, as well as civil society, international organiza-
Powering Past Coal Alliance tions, the private sector, and academia. The V20 is a group
It is launched in COP23, Bonn and led by UK and Canada. of 49 of the most vulnerable countries including small is-
It has more than 20 members aimed at accelerating clean lands
growth and achieving the rapid phase-out of traditional Its vision is to strengthen the resilience of developing coun-
coal power. tries and to protect the lives and livelihoods of poor and
Alliance declares that the coal phase-out is required in the vulnerable people from the impacts of disasters by enabling
OECD and EU28 by 2030, and no later than by 2050 in the faster, more reliable and cost-effective responses to disas-
rest of the world” to meet the Paris Agreement. But it does ters.
not commit signatories to any particular phase-out date.
It also does not commit the signatories to end the financing It aims to increase the number of poor and vulnerable
of unabated coal power stations, rather just restricting it. people in developing countries benefiting from direct or
indirect insurance by up to 400 million by 2020.
Fiji’s COP
Fiji is the first small-island state to host the UNFCCC cli- COP24
mate talks. COP24 will take place in December 2018, in Katowice, Po-
The outcomes were the land. Poland will hold the Presidency of the Climate Con-
vention for the third time.
• Gender Action Plan - highlights the role of women in
climate action and promotes gender equality in the pro-
cess. Do you know?
• Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples Platform - The Relict Dragonfly is an endangered species found
aims to support the exchange of experience and sharing here with the only other species in the genus being
of best practices on mitigation and adaptation. found in Japan. The region is also home to the Hima-
• Ocean Pathway Partnership - two-track strategy for layan Newt the only salamander species found within
2020 supporting the goals of the Paris Agreement that Indian limits.
includes; 1. Increasing the role of the ocean considera-
tions in the UNFCCC process and; 2. Significantly in-
creasing action in priority areas impacting or impacted 23.13. OTHER MECHANISMS OF UNFCCC
by the ocean and climate change.
1. Special Climate Change Fund (Sccf)
Talanoa Dialogue • The Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) was estab-
“Talanoa is a traditional word used in Fiji and across the lished under the Convention in 2001 to finance projects
Pacific to reflect a process of inclusive, participatory and relating to: adaptation; technology transfer and capac-
transparent dialogue. ity building; energy, transport, industry, agriculture,
Talanoa Dialogue is a process designed to help countries forestry and waste management; and economic diver-
implement and enhance their Nationally Determined Con- sification.
tributions by 2020. The process of Talanoa involves the
sharing of ideas, skills,and experience through storytelling. • The Global Environment Facility (GEF), as an operating
entity of the financial mechanism, has been entrusted
It will be structured around three questions – Where are
we? Where do we want to go? How do we get there? Orig- to operate the SCCF.
inally called the facilitative dialogue, the name was 2. Finance Mechanism for Climate Change
changed to Talanoa dialogue in Bonn UNFCCC meeting
under the Fijian COP presidency. • The Financial resources that have been made available
to Non-Annex I Parties to the UNFCCC consist of the
Insu Resilience Global Partnership following three modules:
The InsuResilience Global Partnership for Climate and Dis- • The “National Communications Module”: This
aster Risk Finance and Insurance Solutions was launched module presents information communicated by
at the UN Climate Conference COP23 in Bonn. Annex II Parties on the provision of financial re-
sources related to the implementation of the Conven- 23.14. REDD REDD
tion through their fourth and fifth national
• REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and For-
communications. est Degradation) is the global endeavour to create an
Fast-Start Finance incentive for developing countries to protect, better
manage and save their forest resources, thus contribut-
• During the Conference of the Parties (COP15) held in
ing to the global fight against climate change
December 2009 in Copenhagen developed countries
pledged to provide new and additional resources, • REDD+ goes beyond merely checking deforestation
including forestry and investments, approaching and forest degradation, and includes incentives for
USD 30 billion for the period 2010 - 2012 and with positive elements of conservation, sustainable man-
balanced allocation between mitigation and adapta- agement of forests and enhancement of forest carbon
tion. This collective commitment has come to be stocks.
known as ‘fast-start finance’. • REDD+ conceptualizes flow of positive incentives for
demonstrated reduction in deforestation or for en-
• Following up on this pledge, the Conference of the
hancing quality and expanse of forest cover.
Parties (COP 16)in Cancún, in December 2010, took
note of this collective commitment by developed • It works on the basis of creating a financial value for
country Parties and reaffirmed that funding for the carbon stored and enhanced in biomass and soil
adaptation will be prioritized for the most vulner- of standing forests. Countries that reduce emissions
able developing countries, such as the least devel- and undertake sustainable management of forests
oped countries, small island developing States and will be entitled to receive funds and resources as
Africa. incentives.
• At COP 17 Parties welcomed the fast-start finance • REDD+ approach incorporates important benefits of
provided by developed countries as part of their livelihoods improvement, biodiversity conservation
collective commitment to provide new and addi- and food security services.
tional resources approaching USD 30 billion for the Will India Benefit from REDD ?
period 2010–2012, and noted the information pro-
India’s sustained efforts for conserving and expanding its
vided by developed country Parties on the fast-start
forest and tree resources have the possibility of being re-
finance they have provided and urged them to con-
warded for providing carbon service to the international
tinue to enhance the transparency of their report-
community in addition to providing traditional goods and
ing on the fulfillment of their fast-start finance
services to the local communities.
commitments.
• The “Funds Managed by the GEF Module” is a • The incentives so received from REDD+ would be
passed to the local communities involved in protection
joint effort between the secretariat of the UNFCCC
and management of the forests. This will ensure sus-
and the secretariat of the Global Environment Fa-
cility (GEF). This module presents information on tained protection of our forests against deforestation.
financial flows that have been channelled, mobi- • It is estimated that a REDD+ programme for India could
lized and leveraged by the GEF in its role as an provide capture of more than 1 billion tonnes of addi-
operating entity of the Financial Mechanism of the tional CO2 over the next 3 decades and provide more
UNFCCC. than USD 3 billion as carbon service incentives under
REDD+.
Do you know? India’s Position on Redd And Redd

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands is the first territory • India believes REDD needs to be seen in the broader
in the country to initiate a species recovery pro- context of REDD+, not in isolation or in a truncated
gramme for the dugong and restoration of sea grass form since reduction of deforestation, and conservation
meadows under the Centrally Sponsored Scheme of and improvement of forests are two sides of the same
the Central Ministry of Environment, Forests and Cli- coin, and so should be treated at par.
mate Change. • India’s stand was finally accepted in 13th Meeting of the
Conference of the Parties (COP 13) at Bali when ele-
ments of conservation, sustainable management of for- that would lead to efficient and equitable solutions at
ests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks were the global level.
added to the then existing text of reducing deforestation
and forest degradation as part of Bali Action Plan. 23.15. THE GEF
• It has presented an ambitious Green India Mission pro- • Article 11 of the UNFCCC creates a ‘financial mecha-
nism’ for convention implementation, which is to func-
gramme under its National Action Plan on Climate
tion under the guidance of the UNFCCC COP and be
Change.
accountable to the COP.
India initiatives related to REDD • Under Article 11(1), the COP is to decide on the financial
• India has made a submission to UNFCCC on “REDD, mechanism’s policies, programme priorities and eligibil-
Sustainable Management of Forest(SMF) and Afforesta- ity criteria relating to the convention.
tion and Reforestation (A&R)” in December 2008 • Article 21 names the GEF to serve as the financial mech-
• A Technical Group has been set up to develop method- anism on an interim basis.
ologies and procedures to assess and • The GEF was established in 1991 by the World Bank in
• monitor contribution of REDD+ actions consultation with the United Nations Development Pro-
gramme (UNDP) and the United Nations Environment
• A National REDD+ Coordinating Agency is being estab-
Programme (UNEP), to provide funding to protect the
lished global environment.
• A National Forest Carbon Accounting Programme is
• The GEF’s governance, operational, financial and ad-
being institutionalized ministrative oversight procedures are set out in the
• India is hosting the Conference of Parties (COP-11) of Instrument for the Establishment of the Restructured
the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 2012, to Global Environment Facility, which was adopted in
coincide with twenty years of Rio convention. 1994 and subsequently amended in 2002 (GEF In-
• Study on the impact of climate change on India’s forests strument).
assigned to the Indian Network for Climate Change As- • The GEF now has six focal areas:
sessment (INCCA), has been released in November 2010.
1. biological diversity;
• There is likely to be an increase in Net Primary Produc-
2. climate change;
tivity (NPP) ranging from 20 – 57 %.
3. international waters;
India looks for Enhanced Implementation of the
Unfccc 4. land degradation, primarily desertification and de-
forestation;
India looks forward to enhanced international cooperation
under the UNFCCC. Overall, future international coopera- 5. ozone layer depletion; and
tion on climate change should address the following objec- 6. persistent organic pollutants.
tives:
• Minimizing the negative impacts of climate change
through suitable adaptation measures in the countries Do you know?
and communities affected and mitigation at the global
Nepal has a rhino population of 645 and there have
level
been no cases of rhino poaching in 2014 and 2015.
• Provide fairness and equity in the actions and measures Nepal’s zero poaching success is rooted in a coordi-
• Uphold the principle of common but differentiated re- nated national response.
sponsibilities in actions to be taken, such as conces-
sional financial flows from the developed countries, and
access to technology on affordable terms 23.16. CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE
• India as a large democracy, with the major challenge of • While agriculture is the sector most vulnerable to cli-
achieving economic and social development and eradi-
mate change, it is also a major cause, directly account-
cating poverty, will engage in negotiations and other
ing for about 14 percent of greenhouse gas emissions
actions at the international level in the coming months
(IPCC 2007).
• And yet, agriculture can be a part of the solution: help- • Brazil has also invested in good quality research and
ing people to feed themselves and adapt to changing extension and is demonstrating these triple results.
conditions while mitigating climate change. • And small-holder farmers in Kenya are already receiv-
• It is possible for agriculture to actually sequester or ing cash payments on a pilot basis for new farming
absorb carbon into the soil rather than emitting it. This techniques that will hold more carbon in the soil, even
can be done without the trade off with productivity and while increasing soil fertility.
yields.
• It is possible to have higher yields, more carbon in the
soil and greater resilience to droughts and heat. Do you know?
• This is called the `triple win’: interventions that would Karnataka will soon use an immuno-contraception
increase yields (poverty reduction and food security), technique to control the elephant population in the
make yields more resilient in the face of extremes state. The technique involves injecting the female el-
(adaptation), and make the farm a solution to the cli- ephant with a vaccine that triggers an immune system
mate change problem rather than part of the problem response to block sperm reception. The technique is
(mitigation). reported to have been used successfully in South Af-
rica. The Karnataka forest Department (FD) will first
• These triple wins are likely to require a package of in-
use this technique on captive female elephants, before
terventions and be country- and locality specific in their
using it on elephants in the wild.
application. This method of practicing agriculture is
called `Climate Smart Agriculture’.
23.17. INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON
23.16.1 Climate-smart agriculture includes CLIMATE CHANGE (IPCC)
proven practical techniques. • The UN General Assembly adopted a resolution, in De-
For example, cember 1988, on the subject and endorsed the UNEP/
WMO proposal for the setting up of the Inter-Govern-
• by increasing the organic content of the soil through
mental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
conservation tillage, its water holding capacity in-
creases, making yields more resilient and reducing ero- • It was established by the United Nations Environment
sion. Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Or-
ganization (WMO) in 1988 to provide the governments
• Promoting soil carbon capture also helps mitigate cli-
of the world with a clear scientific view of what is hap-
mate change. Another example is integrated soil fertil- pening to the world’s climate.
ity management that can lower fertilizer costs, increase
soil carbon and improve yields. • The Secretariat coordinates all the IPCC work and li-
aises with Governments. The secretariat is supported
• Climate-smart agriculture gives attention to landscape by WMO and UNEP and hosted at WMO headquarters
approaches, for example, integrated planning of land, in Geneva.
agriculture, forests, fisheries and water to ensure syner-
gies are captured. • It is open to all member countries of the United Nations
(UN) and WMO. Currently 195 countries are members
• These can be further strengthened by adding better of the IPCC.
weather forecasting, more resilient food crops and risk
insurance to cover losses when the vagaries of weather • The initial task for the IPCC as outlined in the UN Gen-
eral Assembly Resolution 1988 was to prepare a compre-
strike.
hensive review and recommendations with respect to
• If yields increase through such practices and become the state of knowledge of the science of climate change;
more stable, it results in improved farm incomes. A social and economic impact of climate change, and pos-
more stable income helps enhance the adaptive capacity sible response strategies and elements for inclusion in a
of farmers. possible future international convention on climate.
• A good number of countries are now showing that it can • The IPCC is a scientific body. It reviews and assesses the
be done. most recent scientific, technical and socio-economic
• China has been a leader in this, with programs such as information produced worldwide relevant to the under-
the Loess Plateau now internationally famous. standing of climate change.
• It does not conduct any research nor does it monitor pects of climate change and implications for sustainable
climate related data or parameters. development, risk management and the framing of a
response through both adaptation and mitigation.
• Thousands of scientists from all over the world contrib-
ute to the work of the IPCC on a voluntary basis. • The AR5 comprise the full reports prepared by the
Working Groups (I, II and III) as well as the Synthesis
• Review is an essential part of the IPCC process, to en-
Report.
sure an objective and complete assessment of current
information. • Key AR5 cross-cutting themes are:
• Governments participate in the review process and the • Water and the Earth System: Changes, Impacts and
plenary Sessions, where main decisions about the IPCC Responses;
work programme are taken and reports are accepted, • Carbon Cycle including Ocean Acidification;
adopted and approved. • Ice Sheets and Sea-Level Rise;
• By endorsing the IPCC reports, governments acknowl- • Mitigation, Adaptation and Sustainable Develop-
edge the authority of their scientific content. The work ment; and
of the organization is therefore policy-relevant and yet • Article 2 of the UNFCCC (see UNFCCC for definition).
policy-neutral, never policy-prescriptive.
Special Reports
• The IPCC has delivered on a regular basis the most
• Special Reports have been prepared on topics such as
comprehensive scientific reports about climate change
aviation, regional impacts of climate change, technology
produced worldwide, the Assessment Reports. transfer, emissions scenarios, land use, land use change
• It has also responded to the need of the UNFCCC for and forestry, carbon dioxide capture and storage and
information on scientific and technical matters through on the relationship between safeguarding the ozone
Special Reports, Technical Papers and Methodology layer and the global climate system.
Reports.
• It has also produced methodologies and guidelines to Do you know?
help Parties to the UNFCCC prepare their national
The Madhya Pradesh Forest Department (FD) has pro-
greenhouse gas inventories.
posed to declare the Kathiwada forests as the first
conservation reserve (CR) in the State.
23.17.1. Assessment Reports
• In accordance with its mandate and as reaffirmed in
23.18. NATIONAL GREEN HOUSE GAS
various decisions by the Panel, the IPCC prepares at
regular intervals comprehensive Assessment Reports of INVENTORIES PROGR AMME (NGGIP)
scientific, technical and socio-economic information • The IPCC established the national green house gas In-
relevant for the understanding of human induced cli- ventories Programme (NGGIP) to provide methods for
mate change, potential impacts of climate change and estimating national inventories of greenhouse gas emis-
options for mitigation and adaptation. sions to, and removals from, the atmosphere.
• Assessment Reports are normally published in several • The guidance produced by the NGGIP is used by coun-
volumes, one for each of the Working Groups of the tries that are Parties to the UN Framework Convention
IPCC and, subject to the decision by the Panel, a Syn- on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to estimate the emissions
thesis Report. and removals that they report to the UNFCCC.
• They are written in a non-technical style suitable for • It may be used by others who want to produce estimates
policymakers. They are composed of a longer report and consistent with national totals. Internationally agreed
a Summary for Policymakers. guidance is needed so that emission and removal esti-
• Five Assessment Reports have been completed in 1990, mates can be compared between countries and over
1995, 2001 and 2007, 2014. time.
AR5 Contents • All the IPCC guidance has therefore been compiled by
• Compared with previous reports, the AR5 has put an international range of authors and with an extensive
greater emphasis on assessing the socio-economic as- global review process.
Methodology
Do you know?
• The first methodologies were produced by the IPCC in
early 1990s and have been revised since (Development A study by the non-governmental organization, has
found that the Suswa River which passes through the
of IPCC Guidelines and Good Practice Guidance).
Rajaji National Park is highly contaminated with sew-
• The Revised 1996 Guidelines for National Greenhouse age and hence its water may no longer be safe to
Gas Inventories, the Good Practice Guidance and Un- drink. Two other seasonal rivers of Dehradun, Ris-
certainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas In- pana and Bindal, join Suswa in the Dudhi valley.
ventories (GPG2000) and the Good Practice Guidance
for Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (GPG-
LULUCF) are used by developed countries to estimate
• This includes
(a) developing methods for estimating emissions of
emissions and removals, and are recommended by the
greenhouse gases (GHGs) by sources and removals
UNFCCC for use by all countries. by sinks,
• The 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas (b) assessing and developing methods to quantify and
Inventories (the 2006 Guidelines) are the IPCC’s most to manage uncertainties in the estimates of GHGs,
recent guidance on methods and data for developing (c) assessing the scientific literature related to the de-
estimates of emissions and removals of greenhouse velopment of GHG emission factors and management
gases. of inventories,
• They build on earlier guidance, over a decade of expe- (d) disseminating information related to inventory
methods and practices,
rience and a world-wide scientific and technical effort
to produce guidelines, applicable to all countries not- (e) identifying the implications of the different options
in relation to inventory methods and practices and
withstanding widely varying levels of resources and
expertise. (f) assessing scientific issues related to independent
verification.
Mandate 23.19. GREEN ECONOMY

• The current mandate of the National Greenhouse • The concept of green economy lacks an internationally
Gas Inventories Programme (NGGIP) was approved agreed definition or universal principles. The Rio + 20
by IPCC16 (Montreal, May 2000). IPCC19 (Geneva, outcome document identifies green economy in the con-
April 2002) decided to maintain its Task Force on text of sustainable development and poverty eradication
Inventories, co-chaired by two members of the and it affirms that approach will be different in accord-
ance with the national circumstances and priorities for
IPCC Bureau (one from an industrialized country
each country.
and one from a developing country) with twelve
additional members on the Task Force Bureau (two • Accordingly, green economy in India is seen in the con-
text of sustainable development and inclusive economic
per IPCC/WMO region). growth including poverty eradication. The Government
• The NGGIP is mandated to carry out the work, as endeavors to address all the three dimensions of sus-
approved by the Panel, on inventory-related meth- tainable development (social, economic and environ-
odologies and practices. mental) in a balanced manner.
• Green economy focuses specifically on the fundamental
The Panel decided: changes that are required to ensure that economic sys-
tems are made more sustainable. Green Economy fo-
• That the IPCC is responsible for assessing and de- cuses on the ways to overcome the deeply rooted causes
veloping inventory methods and practices which are of unsustainable economic development.
scientifically sound and relevant to all countries, noting
particularly the lack of information in developing coun-
• A Green Economy is one whose growth in income and
employment is driven by public and private investments
tries. that reduce carbon emissions and pollution, enhance
energy and resource efficiency, and prevent the loss of • Recycling appropriate materials and composting food
biodiversity and ecosystems. waste reduces the demand on our natural resources.
• The Green Economy is about sustainable energy, green • Moving towards a green economy has the potential to
jobs, low carbon economies, green policies, green build- achieve sustainable development and eradicate poverty
ings, agriculture, fisheries, forestry, industry, energy on an unprecedented scale, with speed and effectiveness.
efficiency, sustainable tourism, sustainable transport,
waste management, water efficiency and all other re-
source efficiency. Do you know?
The Uttarkhand Forest Department in collaboration
Transition to green economy
with the Wildlife Institute of India is going to intro-
Three priorities in transition of economy to green econ- duce a project in which female monkeys will be given
omy are the oral immuno-contraceptive drug, Porcine Zona
• decarbonizes the economy; Pellucida, in order to help curtail their population.
• commit the environmental community to justice and
equity; and
23.20 THE ECONOMICS OF ECOSYSTEMS
• conserve the biosphere.
AND BIODIVERSITY (TEEB)
A key step forward consists in changing our conception of
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) was
growth and prosperity – achieving more with less and
launched by Germany and the European Commission in
creating real wealth and quality of life.
2007. It is a study led by Pavan Sukhdev.
Measures to adapt green economy It is an international initiative to draw attention to the
global economic benefits of biodiversity.
• Energy audit can reduce your building’s climate foot-
print and lead to significant savings in energy costs.
Objective
• Overfishing in many parts of the world threatens to
Highlight the growing cost of biodiversity loss and ecosys-
deplete future fish stocks. We can avoid this by working
tem degradation and to draw together expertise from the
to promote sustainable fishing practices.
fields of science, economics and policy to enable practical
• Deforestation accounts for close to 20% of the world’s actions.
greenhouse gas emissions.
• Sustainably managed forests can continue to support Aim
communities and ecosystems without damaging envi- To assess, communicate and mainstream the urgency of
ronment and climate. actions through its five deliverables—
• Use electronic files to reduce your demand for paper 1. Science and economic foundations, policy costs and
products. costs of inaction,
• When you support certified sustainable forest products, 2. Policy opportunities for national and international
you support a healthy environment and sustainable policy-makers,
livelihoods.
3. Decision support for local administrators,
• Car-pooling or taking public transport reduces environ-
4. Business risks, opportunities and metrics and
mental impacts and economic costs while strengthening
community. 5. Citizen and consumer ownership
• Walking or riding a bike for short trips is good for your The Ministry has launched the Economics of Ecosystems
health - and the environment. and Biodiversity TEEB-India Initiative (TII) to highlight
• Taking small steps towards wise water use can help the economic consequences of the loss of biological diver-
conserve this precious resource sity and the associated decline in ecosystem services.
• Resource efficiency is key to a Green Economy and
23.21 ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
water is one of our most important resources.
The “ecological footprint” is a measure of human demand
• The development of clean, renewable energy by using
on the Earth’s ecosystems. It is a standardized measure of
solar, wind, tidal,etc will contribute to green economy.
demand for natural capital that may be contrasted with the • Area of focus - Adaptation, Mitigation - general, Mitiga-
planet’s ecological capacity to regenerate and represents tion - REDD
the amount of biologically productive land and sea area • Date operational – 2008
necessary to supply the resources a human population
consumes, and to assimilate associated waste.
• The Strategic Climate Fund (SCF), one of two multi-
donor Trust Funds within the Climate Investment
Currently, humanity’s total ecological footprint is esti- Funds (CIFs), serves as an overarching framework for
mated at 1.5 planet Earths—in other words, humanity uses three targeted programs piloting new approaches and
ecological services 1.5 times as fact as Earth can renew scaled-up, transformational action on climate change:
them. 1. Forest Investment Program (FIP);
The “carbon footprint” is the amount of carbon being emit- 2. Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR); and
ted by an activity or organization. The carbon component 3. Scaling Up Renewable Energy in Low Income Countries
of the ecological footprint converts the amount of carbon Program (SREP).
dioxide being released into the amount of productive land
and sea area of carbon dioxide being released into the Forest Investment Program
amount of productive land and sea area required to seques- • Administered by The World Bank
ter it and tells the demand on the Earth that results from
burning fossil fuels.
• Area of focus - Mitigation - REDD
• Date operational – 2009
The carbon footprint is 54% of the ecological footprint and
The Forest Investment Program (FIP) is a targeted pro-
its most rapidly-growing component having increased 11-
gram of the Strategic Climate Fund (SCF) within the Cli-
fold since 1961.
mate Investment Funds (CIF).
Global Footprint Network (GFN) every year presents a re-
The FIP supports developing countries’ efforts to reduce
port on ecological footprint which maps consumption and
deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) and promotes
requirement of natural resources to sustain it. Lifestyle
sustainable forest management that leads to emission re-
adopted in developed countries is unsustainable and it will ductions and the protection of carbon reservoirs.
require five Earths to fulfil their lifestyle demands.
It achieves this by providing scaled-up financing to devel-
On the other hand, Indian lifestyle is sustainable where oping countries for readiness reforms and public and pri-
one earth is sufficient. The Earth Overshoot Report has vate investments, identified through national REDD
indicated that the Ecological Footprint of developed coun- readiness or equivalent strategies.
tries ranges from 8 to 4 whereas India is at 0.9.
Pilot Program for Climate Resilience
Do you know? • Administered by The World Bank
The Global Positioning System (GPS) will be used to • Area of focus - Adaptation
count and map elephants in the elephant census to be • Date operational – 2008
held in April-May 2017. Forest officials will also use
The Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR) is a tar-
the line transect method as well as the dung decay
geted program of the Strategic Climate Fund (SCF), which
rate assessment for the purpose.
is one of two funds within the Climate Investment Funds
(CIF) framework.
23.22. GLOBAL CLIMATE FINANCE The PPCR aims to pilot and demonstrate ways in which
ARCHITECTURE climate risk and resilience may be integrated into core
The global climate finance architecture is channeled development planning and implementation by providing
through multilateral funds such as the Global Environment incentives for scaled-up action and initiating transforma-
Facility and the Climate Investment Funds and as well as tional change.
increasingly through bilateral channels.
Scaling-Up Renewable Energy Program for Low
Strategic Climate Fund Income Countries
• Administered by the World Bank • Administered by The World Bank
• Area of focus - Mitigation - general The Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) is a World
• Date operational – 2009 Bank programme and consists of a Readiness Fund and a
Carbon Fund.
The Scaling-Up Renewable Energy Program in Low Income
Countries (SREP) is a targeted program of the Strategic The FCPF was created to assist developing countries to
Climate Fund (SCF), which is one of two funds within the reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degrada-
Climate Investment Funds (CIF) framework. tion, enhance and conserve forest carbon stocks, and sus-
tainably manage forests (REDD+).
The SREP was designed to demonstrate the economic, so-
cial and environmental viability of low carbon development
pathways in the energy sector in low-income countries. Do you know?
It aims to help low-income countries use new economic The city of Guwahati has declared the Gangetic dol-
opportunities to increase energy access through renewable phin as its official mascot. The move is aimed at gen-
energy use. erating awareness and highlighting conservation
concerns for the urban biodiversity of Guwahati.
Biocarbon Fund
• Administered by The World Bank
Partnership for Market Readiness
• Area of focus - Adaptation, Mitigation - general, Mitiga-
• Administered by The World Bank
tion - REDD
• Area of focus - Mitigation - general
The BioCarbon Fund Initiative for Sustainable Forest Land-
scapes supports developing countries’ efforts to reduce It is a partnership of developed and developing countries
emission through testing jurisdictional approaches that administered by the World Bank, established to use market
integrate reducing deforestation and degradation, sustain- instruments to scale up mitigation efforts in middle income
able forest management with the climate smart agricul- countries.
tural practices to green supply chains. Although initially geared towards promoting market read-
iness for the anticipated emergence of international carbon
Clean Technology Fund markets, this approach has become more flexible, provid-
• Administered by The World Bank ing grants and technical support for proposals for imple-
mentation of market tools that contribute to mitigation
• Area of focus - Mitigation - general
efforts.
The Clean Technology Fund (CTF), one of two multi-donor Special Climate Change Fund
Trust Funds within the Climate Investment Funds (CIFs), • Administered by The Global Environment Facility (GEF)
promotes scaled-up financing for demonstration, deploy-
ment and transfer of low-carbon technologies with sig-
• Area of focus - Adaptation
nificant potential for long-term greenhouse gas emissions • Date operational – 2002
savings. The Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) was created in
Channelled through the African Development Bank, Asian 2001 to address the specific needs of developing countries
Development Bank, European Bank for Reconstruction and under the UNFCCC. It covers the incremental costs of in-
Development, Inter-American Development Bank, and terventions to address climate change relative to a develop-
World Bank Group, the CTF finances 12 country pro- ment baseline.
grammes and one regional programme. Adaptation to climate change is the top priority of the
SCCF, although it can also support technology transfer and
Forest Carbon Partnership Facility its associated capacity building activities.
• Administered by The World Bank The SCCF is intended to catalyse and leverage additional
• Area of focus - Mitigation - REDD finance from bilateral and multilateral sources, and is ad-
ministered by the Global Environment Facility.
Strategic Priority on Adaptation
Do you know?
• Administered by the Global Environment Facility (GEF)
The Gandak river in Bihar has established itself as the
• Area of focus - Adaptation
third breeding ground in the country for gharials.
• Date operational – 2004 This is the third breeding population of gharials in
The Strategic Priority on Adaptation (SPA) was a 3-year the country after the Chambal and Girwa rivers.
pilot programme aimed to show how adaptation planning
and assessment could be practically translated into full- Green Climate Fund
scale projects. • Administered by - to be confirmed
The Fund is now closed. • Area of focus - Adaptation, Mitigation - general, Mitiga-
The SPA overall objective was to address local adaptation tion - REDD
needs and generate global environmental benefits in the • Date operational – 2015
focal areas in which the GEF works: biodiversity, climate The Green Climate Fund (GCF) was adopted as a financial
change, international waters, land degradation, and per- mechanism of the UN Framework Convention on Climate
sistent organic pollutants. Change (UNFCCC) at the end of 2011.
It aims to make an ambitious contribution to attaining the
GEF Trust Fund - Climate Change focal area mitigation and adaptation goals of the international com-
• Administered by The Global Environment Facility (GEF) munity.
• Area of focus - Adaptation, Mitigation - general Over time it is expected to become the main multilateral
• Date operational – 1991 (tracked since 2010) financing mechanism to support climate action in develop-
ing countries.
The Global Environment Facility Trust Fund supports the
implementation of multilateral environmental agreements,
Adaptation Fund
and serves as a financial mechanism of the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change. • Administered by Adaptation Fund Board
It is the longest standing dedicated public climate change • Area of focus - Adaptation
fund. Climate Change is one of the six focal areas sup- • Date operational - 2009
ported by the GEF Trust Fund. The Adaptation Fund is a financial instrument under the
The GEF also administers several funds established under UNFCCC and its Kyoto Protocol (KP) and has been estab-
the UNFCCC including the Least Developed Countries lished to finance concrete adaptation projects and pro-
Trust Fund (LDCF), the Special Climate Change Trust grammes in developing country Parties to the KP, in an
effort to reduce the adverse effects of climate change facing
Fund (SCCF) and is interim secretariat for the Adaptation
communities, countries and sectors.
Fund.
The Fund is financed with a share of proceeds from Clean
Least Developed Countries Fund Development Mechanism (CDM) project activities as well
as through voluntary pledges of donor governments.
• Administered by The Global Environment Facility
(GEF) The share of proceeds from the CDM amounts to 2% of
Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) issued for a CDM
• Area of focus - Adaptation project activity.
The Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF) was estab- Global Climate Change Alliance
lished to meet the adaptation needs of least developed • Administered by The European Commission
countries (LDCs). • Area of focus - Adaptation, Mitigation - general, Mitiga-
Specifically the LDCF has financed the preparation and tion - REDD
implementation of National Adaptation Programs of Action • Date operational – 2008
(NAPAs) to identify priority adaptation actions for a coun- The Global Climate Change Alliance (GCCA) is an initiative
try based on existing information. of the European Union.
Its overall objective is to build a new alliance on climate
change between the European Union and the poor develop- Do you know?
ing countries that are most affected and that have the least The Greater Noida authority has decided to develop
capacity to deal with climate change. an eco park across 2,500 acres on the lines of forest
The GCCA does not intend to set up a new fund or govern- reserves in Paris in France. Chief Minister of Uttar
ance structure, but is working through the European Com- Pradesh, had announced the project of development
mission’s established channels for political dialogue and of the eco park in Gautam Budh Nagar to combat ris-
cooperation at national and international level. ing pollution.
Global Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Fund UN-REDD Programme
• Administered by The European Commission • Administered by UNDP
• Area of focus - Mitigation - general • Area of focus - Mitigation - REDD
• Date operational – 2008 • Date operational – 2008

The Global Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Fund Three UN Agencies – United Nations Environment Pro-
gramme (UNEP), United Nations Development Programme
(GEEREF) is a Public-Private Partnership (PPP) designed
(UNDP) and Food and Agriculture Organization of the
to maximise the private finance leveraged through public
United Nations (FAO) – have collaborated in the establish-
funds funded by the European Commission and managed
ment of the UN-REDD programme, a multi-donor trust
by the European Investment Bank.
fund that allows donors to pool resources and provide
GEEREF is structured as a fund of funds, and invests in funding with the aim of significantly reducing global emis-
private equity sub-funds that specialise in financing small sions from deforestation and forest degradation in develop-
and medium-sized project developers and enterprises ing countries.
(SMEs) to implement energy efficiency and renewable en- Through its nine initial country programme activities in
ergy projects in developing countries and economies in Africa, Asia and Latin America, the UN-REDD Programme
transition. supports the capacity of national governments to prepare
and implement national REDD strategies with the involve-
MDG Achievement Fund – Environment and
ment of all stakeholders.
Climate Change thematic window
• Administered by UNDP Adaptation for Smallholder Agriculture Program
• Area of focus - Adaptation, Mitigation - general • Administered by the International Fund for Agricultural
• Date operational – 2007 Development
The MDG Achievement Fund (MDG-F) was established by • Area of focus - Adaptation
the Government of Spain and the United Nations Develop- • Date operational – 2012
ment Programme (UNDP) to accelerate efforts to reach the To channel climate and environmental finance to small-
Millennium Development Goals. holder farmers, scale up climate change adaptation in rural
Environment and Climate Change is one of eight thematic development programmes and mainstream climate adapta-
areas supported by the MDG-F. tion into IFAD’s work.
The objective of this part of the fund is to help reduce Amazon Fund (Fundo Amaz nia)
poverty and vulnerability in eligible countries by support-
ing interventions that improve environmental management • Administered by Brazilian Development Bank (BNDES)
and service delivery at the national and local level, increase • Area of focus - Mitigation - REDD
access to new financing mechanisms and enhance capacity • Date operational – 2009
to adapt to climate change. The Amazon Fund was created to raise donations so that
This part of the fund is now closed, although finance for investments can be made in efforts to prevent, monitor and
approved projects is still being disbursed and monitored combat deforestation, as well as to promote the conserva-
by CFU. tion and sustainable use of forests in the Amazon Biome.
Although the Amazon Fund was created by the government
and is managed by a public bank, it is a private fund. Do you know?
Earth Overshoot Day is the Calendar date on which
Do you know? human resource consumption for that particular
A senior official of the Bangladesh Forest Depart- year exceeds Earth’s capacity to regenerate those
ment has said that the Farakka barrage constructed resources required for the human consumption for
on the Indian part of the Ganga in 1975 has contrib- the entire year. It is calculated by Global Footprint
uted in large measure to the decline of gharial popu- Network, an independent think tank.
lation in the Padma river in Bangladesh. This was on
account of the silting up of the river and the conse- Indonesia Climate Change Trust Fund
quent destruction of gharial habitat. Fishing nets,
riverbank erosion, sand mining from rivers, water • Administered by Indonesia’s National Development
pollution, scarcity of fish species and poor water flow Planning Agency
in rivers are believed to be among the major threats • Area of focus - Adaptation, Mitigation - general, Mitiga-
to gharials. tion - REDD
Congo Basin Forest Fund The Indonesia Climate Change Trust Fund (ICCTF) is a
• Administered by African Development Bank national funding entity which aims to develop innovative
• Area of focus - Mitigation - REDD ways to link international finance sources with national
• Date operational – 2008 investment strategies.
The Congo Basin Forest Fund (CBFF) is a multi-donor fund Created by the Government of Indonesia (GOI), it acts as a
set up in June 2008 to take early action to protect the catalyst to attract investment and to implement a range of
forests in the Congo Basin region. alternative financing mechanisms for climate change
It aims to support transformative and innovative projects mitigation and adaptation programmes.
to be complemented to existing activities, which will The ICCTF receives non-refundable contributions from
develop the capacity of people and institutions of the Congo
bilateral and multilateral donors.
Basin to enable them to preserve and manage their forests.
The main funding mechanism of the ICCTF is the ‘Innova-
It provides a source of accessible funding, and encourages
governments, civil society, NGOs and the private sector to tion Fund’, which provides grants to line ministries to
work together to share specific expertise. support climate change related projects within the GOI.
 
PART - IV
CHAPTER - 24
AGRICULTURE
“A man without food
For three days will quarrel,
For a week will fight and
For a month or so will die”
24.1 AGRICULTURE • Hydroponics is a method of growing plants using min-

• The term agriculture is derived from two Latin words eral nutrient solutions, in water, without soil.
ager or agri meaning soil and cultura meaning cultiva- • Terrestrial plants may also be grown with their roots
tion. Agriculture is a broad term encompassing all as- in the mineral nutrient solution only or in an inert me-
pects of crop production, livestock farming, fisheries, dium, such as perlite, gravel, mineral wool, expanded
forestry etc. clay or coconut husk.
• Silviculture is the art of cultivating forest trees. • Geoponic in farming practice, refers to growing plants
• Sericulture is the rearing of silkworms for the produc- in normal soil
tion of raw silk.
• Apiculture is the maintenance of honey bee colonies, Scope and Importance of Agriculture
commonly in hives, by humans • With a 17.2 per cent contribution to the gross domestic
• Olericulture is the science of vegetable growing, dealing product (GDP), agriculture provides livelihood support
with the culture of non-woody (herbaceous) plants for to about two-thirds of country’s population.
food.
• The sector provides employment to 56.7 per cent of
• Viticulture is the science, production and study of country’s work force and is the single largest private
grapes sector occupation.
• Floriculture is a discipline of horticulture concerned
• Agriculture accounts for about 14.7 per cent of the total
with the cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants
export earnings and provides raw material to a large
for gardens
number of Industries (textiles, silk, sugar, rice, flour
• Arboriculture is the cultivation, management, and study mills, milk products).
of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial
woody plants • The agriculture sector acts as a bulwark in maintaining
food security and, in the process, national security as
• Pomology is a branch of horticulture which focuses
well.
on the cultivation, production, harvest, and storage of
fruit, etc. • The allied sectors like horticulture, animal husbandry,
dairy and fisheries, have an important role in improving
• Aeroponics is the process of growing plants in an air or
mist environment without the use of soil or an aggre- the overall economic conditions and health and nutri-
gate medium tion of the rural masses.
Problems of Indian Agriculture Classification based on climate
• Fragmentation of land holding. 1. Tropical: Crops grow well in warm & hot climate. E.g.
• Existence of small and marginal farmers. Rice, sugarcane, Jowar etc
• Regional variation. 2. Temperate: Crops grow well in cool climate. E.g. Wheat,
Oats, Gram, Potato etc.
• Dependence of seasonal rainfall.
• Low productivity of land. Classification Based on growing season
• Increasing of disguised unemployment. 1. Kharif/Rainy/Monsoon crops: The crops grown in
• Disorder in marketing of Agricultural products. monsoon months from June to Oct-Nov, Require warm,
• Weak land reformation. wet weather at major period of crop growth, also re-
quired short day length for flowering. E.g. Cotton, Rice,
Revolutions in Agriculture Jowar, bajara.
2. Rabi/winter/cold seasons crops: The crops grown in
Revolution Related with winter season from Oct to March month. Crops grow
Green Food grain Production well in cold and dry weather. Require longer day length
for flowering. E.g. Wheat, gram, sunflower etc.
Golden Fruit Production
3. Summer/Zaid crops: crops grown in summer month
Grey Fertilizer Production from March to June. Require warm dry weather for
Blue Fish Production major growth period and longer day length for flower-
ing. E.g. Groundnuts, Watermelon, Pumpkins, Gourds.
Black Petroleum Production
Pink Prawn Production Agronomic Classification of Crops
Round Potato Production Cereals
Red Meat/Tomato Production • Cereals are cultivated grasses grown for their edible
starchy grains. Larger grains used as staple food are
Silver Egg/Poultry Production cereals. Rice, wheat, maize, barley and oats. The impor-
White Milk Production tant cereal of world is rice.
Bread wheat
Yellow Oil seeds Production
Macaroni wheat
Emmer wheat
Do you know? Dwarf wheat
The Rajasthan government has decided not to set up Millets
any windmills for wind power projects in the areas
inhabited by the Great Indian Bustard (GIB). A major-
• They are also annual grasses of the group cereals. But
they are grown in less area or less important area
ity of wind power projects in Rajasthan have come up whose productivity and economics are also less.
in and around the desert town of Jaisalmer which is
also one of the main areas for these birds. • These are staple food of poor people. In India pearl mil-
let is a staple food in Rajasthan
• 1) Major millets and 2) Minor millets
24.2 CROP AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS • It is based on area production and productivity and
grain size.
• Agronomy is a Greek word derived from agros meaning
‘field’ and nomos meaning management. It is a special- Major millets
ized branch in agriculture dealing with crop production 1. Sorghum /Jowar
and soil management. Crops refer to plants that are
grown on a large scale for food, clothing, and other 2. Pearl Millet /Bajra/cumbu
human uses. 3. Finger millet or ragi
Minor millets • Molasses used for alcohol and yeast formation
1. Fox tail millet • Bagasse for paper making and fuel
2. Little millet • Pressmud used for soil amendment
3. Common millet •Trash (green leaf + dry foliage) – the waste is used
4. Barnyard millet for cattle feed
5. Kodomillet 2. Sugar beet – Tuber for extraction of sugar
Pulses or Grain Legumes

• Tubers and tops are used as a fodder for cattle feed
• Pulses are major source of protein in Indian diet and Starch Crops or Tuber Crops
providing most of the essential amino acids to a certain 1. Potato
degree. Economically, pulses are cheapest source of pro- 2. Tapioca or cassava
tein.
3. Sweet potato
• It is cultivated to enrich the soil, to utilize the residual
moisture and to give revenue in a shorter period. Fibre Crops
Red gram • Epidermal hairs of seed coats is the economic portion
Black gram • Lint (cappas – seed) has industrial value (fibre)
Green gram • Stalk is of fuel nature, garment purpose, seed for cattle
feed and Oil is edible
Cowpea
Bengalgram Cotton
Horsegram • Karunganni
Dewgram • Uppam cotton
Soyabean • American cotton or Cambodium cotton
Peas or gardenpea • Egyptian cotton or Sea island cotton
Garden bean
Stem Fibres
Oil Seed Crops a) Jute
• These crops are cultivated for the production of oil. b) Mesta
Either for edible on industrial or medicinal purpose.
c) Sun hemp
They contain more of fat.
d) Sisal hemp
Groundnut or peanut
Sesamum or gingelly Narcotics
Sunflower • Stimulates Nervous System
Castor i) Tobacco
Linseed or flax ii) Betelvine
Niger iii) Arecanut
Safflower
Rapeseed & Mustard
• 45 – 50% oil content is present in these seeds. Do you know?
Special measures are being initiated in the keoladeo
Sugar Crops
National Park (NP) to eradicate the African catfish
Juice extracted from known locally as the Mangur, this invasive species has
1. Sugar stem used for jaggery or sugar rapidly come to dominate the park’s water bodies and
• Number of by products like Molasses, bagasse, is threatening aquatic and avian fauna here.
pressmud
Forage and Fodder Crops • Aromatic plants such as lemon grass, citronella grass,
palmorsa, Japanese mint, peppermint, rose, jasmine,
Forage Crops
henna etc.
• The entire vegetative part is used as green fodder
• the stalks and leaves are the major economic portion Classification based on life of crops/duration of
for hay making crops:
• Hay is cut into pieces and mixed with concentrated 1. Seasonal crops: A crop completes its life cycle in one
animal feed and is fed to animals season. E.g. rice, Jowar, wheat etc.
Grasses 2. Two seasonal crops: crops complete its life cycle in two
• Napier grass seasons. E.g. Cotton, turmeric, ginger.
• Para grass 3. Annual crops: Crops require one full year to complete
• Bermuda grass its life cycle. E.g. sugarcane.
• Guinea grass 4. Biennial crops: Crops requires two year to complete its
life cycle E.g. Banana, Papaya.
• Rhodes grass
5. Perennial crops: crops live for several years. E.g. Fruit
Legumes
crops, mango, guava etc.
Lucerne (Alfalfa)
Classification based on cultural method/water:
Egyptian clover (Bersemm)
1. Rain fed: Cultivation of crop mainly based on the avail-
Indian clover (Fodder senji)
ability of rain water. E.g. Jowar, Bajara, Mung etc.
Sirato
2. Irrigated crops: Crops cultivated with the help of irriga-
Stylo
tion water. E.g. Chili, sugarcane, Banana, papaya etc.
Subabul
Classification based on root system
Velvet bean
1. Tap root system: The main root goes deep into the soil.
Plantation Crops E.g. Tur, Grape, Cotton etc.
• Plants and its .......... ............ 2. Fiber rooted: The crops whose roots are fibrous shal-
• 1) Tea – leaf; 2) Coffee – seed; 3) Rubber – milk exuda- low & spreading into the soil. E.g. Cereal crops, wheat,
tion; 4) Cocoa - seed rice etc.
Spices and Condiments Classification based on economic importance
1. Cash crop: Grown for earning money. E.g. Sugarcane,
Do you know? cotton.
The Madhya Pradesh (MP) government’s decision to 2. Food crops: Grown for raising food grain for the popu-
develop Kuno-Palpur as a tiger reserve has brought lation and & fodder for cattle. E.g. Jowar, wheat, rice etc.
relief to officials of the forest department (FD) in Gu-
Classification based on No. of cotyledons
jarat, who had been fighting a long battle in the apex
court over the issue of translocation of lions to Kuno- 1. Monocots or monocotyledons: Having one cotyledon in
Palpur. the seed. E.g. all cereals & Millets.
2. Dicots or dicotyledonous: Crops having two cotyledons
in the seed. E.g. all legumes & pulses and almost all the
• Products of crop plants are used to flavor taste and trees.
sometime color the fresh preserved food. E.g. ginger,
garlic, chili, cumin onion, coriander, cardamom, pepper, Classification based on length of photoperiod
turmeric etc. required for floral initiation
• Medicinal plants includes cinchona, isabgoli, opium • Most plants are influenced by relative length of the day
poppy, senna, belladonna, rauwolfra, iycorice. & night, especially for floral initiation, the effect on
plant is known as photoperiodism depending on the Types of preparatory tillage
length of photoperiod required for floral ignition, plants 1. Primary tillage
are classified as:
2. Secondary tillage
1. Short-day plants: Flower initiation takes place when
days are short less then ten hours. E.g. rice, Jowar, • Primary tillage: The tillage operation that is done after
the harvest of crop to bring the land under cultivation
green gram, black gram etc.
is known as primary tillage. Ploughing is the opening
2. Long day’s plants: require long days are more than ten of compact soil with the help of different ploughs. Coun-
hours for floral initiation. E.g. Wheat, Barley, etc. try plough, mould board plough, bose plough, tractor
3. Day neutral plants: Photoperiod does not have much and power tiller are used for primary tillage.
influence for phase change for these plants. E.g. Cotton, • Secondary tillage: The tillage operations that are per-
sunflower, etc. formed on the soil after primary tillage to bring a good
soil tilth are known as secondary tillage. Secondary
tillage consists of lighter or finer operation which is
Do you know? done to clean the soil, break the clods and incorporate
The Maharashtra government has proposed setting the manure and fertilizers. Harrowing and planking is
up a tiger research institute in the state. The proposal done to serve those purposes
was submitted to the central government during the • Dry tillage: Dry tillage is practiced for crops that are
‘Third Asia Ministerial Conference on Tiger Conserva- sown or planted in dry land condition having sufficient
tion’ that was held recently in New Delhi. The location moisture for germination of seeds. This is suitable for
proposed is Nagpur or Chandrapur, as there are 13 crops like broadcasted paddy, jute, wheat, oilseed crops,
tiger reserves with 350 tigers located within a 300-km pulses, potato and vegetable crops.
radius of either of these two places.
• Wet or puddling tillage: The tillage operation that is
done in a land with standing water is called wet or pud-
dling tillage. Puddling operation consists of ploughing
24.3 TILLAGE repeatedly in standing water until the soil becomes soft
• Tillage is the mechanical manipulation of soil with tools and muddy. Puddling creates an impervious layer below
and implements for obtaining conditions ideal for seed the surface to reduce deep percolation losses of water
germination, seedling establishment and growth of and to provide soft seed bed for planting rice.
crops. • Off-season tillage: Tillage operations done for condi-
tioning the soil suitably for the forthcoming main sea-
• Tilth: It is the physical l condition of soil obtained out
son crop are called off-season tillage. Off season tillage
of tillage (or) it is the result of tillage. The tilth may be
may be
a coarse tilth, fine tilth or moderate tilth. Based on the
requirement of crops being grown and the soil where 1. Post harvest tillage
we are cultivating. 2. Summer tillage
• Types of tillage: Tillage operations may be grouped 3. Winter tillage
into 4. Fallow tillage
1. On season tillage 2. Off-season tillage • Special purpose tillage: Tillage operations intended to
• On-season tillage: Tillage operations that are done for serve special purposes are said to be special purpose
raising crops in the same season or at the onset of the tillage. They are, 1) sub soiling, 2) levelling, 3) clean
crop season are known as on season tillage. tillage, 4) blind tillage, 5) wet tillage and 6) zero tillage.
• Preparatory tillage: This refers to tillage operations • Sub soiling: To break the hard pan beneath the plough
layer special tillage operations (chiselling) are per-
that are done to prepare the field for raising crops. It
formed to reduce compaction. Sub soiling is essential
consists of deep opening and loosening of the soil to
once in four to five years where heavy machineries are
bring about a desirable tilth as well as to incorporate or
used for field operations, seeding, harvesting, trans-
uproot weeds and crop stubble when the soil is in a
porting etc.
workable condition.
Advantages 24.3 CROPPING
• greater volume of soil may be obtained for cultivation • Cropping intensity: Number of crops cultivated in a
of crops piece of land per annum is cropping intensity. In Punjab
• excess water may percolate downward to recharge the and Tamil Nadu the cropping intensity is more than 100
permanent water table per cent i.e. around 140-150%. In Rajasthan the crop-
ping intensity is less.
• reduce runoff and soil erosion
Cropping pattern
• roots of crop plants can penetrate deeper to extract
moisture from the water table • The yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops
and fallow on a given area is called cropping pattern
• Clean tillage: It refers to working of the soil of the
entire field in such a way no living plant is left undis- Cropping system
turbed. It is practiced to control weeds, soil borne path- • The cropping pattern used on a farm and its interac-
ogen and pests. tions with farm resources, other farm enterprises, and
available technology which determine their makeup.
• Blind tillage: It refers to tillage done after seeding or
planting the crop (in a sterile soil) either at the pre – • Multiple cropping: Growing more than two crops in a
emergence stage of the crop plants or while they are in piece of land in a year in orderly succession. It is also
the early stages of growth so that crop plants (cereals, called as intensive cropping. It is used to intensify the
production. It is possible only when assured resources
tuber crops etc.) do not get damaged, but extra plants
are available (land, labour, capital and water)
and broad leaved weeds are uprooted.
• Zero tillage (No tillage): In this, new crop is planted
• Double cropping: Growing two crops a year in se-
quence. Example: Rice - Pulse
in the residues of the previous crop without any prior
soil tillage or seed bed preparation and it is possible • Triple cropping: Growing three crops a year in se-
quence. Example: Rice - Rice - Pulse
when all the weeds are controlled by the use of herbi-
cides. • Quadruple cropping: Growing four crops in a year in
sequence
Advantages of Zero tillage
• Monoculture: Repetitive growing of the same sole crop
1. Zero tilled soils are homogenous in structure with more in the same land.
number of earthworms • Mono cropping: Continuous production of one and the
2. Organic matter content increases due to less minerali- same crop year after year or season after season is
zation called mono cropping.
3. Surface runoff is reduced due to presence of mulch • Sole cropping: One crop variety grown alone in a pure
stand at normal density.
Disadvantages
Sequential cropping
1. Higher amount of nitrogen has to be applied for min-
eralization of organic matter in zero tillage • Growing of two or more crops in sequence on the same
field in a year. The succeeding crop is planted after the
2. Perennial weeds may be a problem preceeding crop has been harvested
3. High number of volunteer plants and buildup of pests • The crop intensification is done in time dimension
• Ex: Rice-rice-cotton
Do you know? • Relay cropping Growing the succeeding crop when pre-
vious crop attend its maturity stage-or-sowing of the
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has constituted a next crop immediately before the harvest of the stand-
high-powered committee of government officials to ing crops.
prepare guidelines for the restoration of the environ-
E.g. 1) Paddy-Lucerne.
ment and ecology destroyed as a result of coal mining
in Meghalaya. 2) Rice-Cauliflower-Onion-summer gourds.
Ratoon cropping • Groundnut + Redgram 6:1
• Raising a crop with regrowth coming out of roots or • Potato + Mustard 3:1
stocks of the harvested crop • Wheat + Mustard 8:1
• Ex: Sugarcane (8 ratoons in Cuba)
Types of intercropping
• Banana – one plant crop followed by two ratoon
• Strip intercropping
crops normally
• Sorghum and Lucerne fodder- many ratoons Ist cut-
• Parellel cropping
ting 70 DAS and thereafter every 35-40 days. • Synergistic cropping
• Pineapple crop is extensively ratooned. • Additive Series (Paired row intercropping)
Intercropping • Replacement Series
• Growing two or more crops simultaneously with dis- • Multi storey cropping
tinct row arrangement on the same field at the same • Relay intercropping
time. • Alley cropping
• Base crop: primary crop which is planted/ sown at Strip intercropping
its optimum sole crop population in an intercropping
situation.
• Growing of two or more crops simultaneously in strips
wide enough to permit independent cultivation but nar-
• Intercrop: This is a second crop planted in between row enough for the crops to interact each other.
rows of base crop with a view to obtain extra yields
with intercrop without compromise in the main crop • Ex:6 rows of groundnut and 4 rows of redgram in strips
yields Parellel cropping
• Growing of two crops simultaneously which have dif-
ferent growth habits and no competion among them-
Do you know? selves
Hi-tech patrolling is set to be introduced in the Simili-
pal tiger Reserve (STR) ahead of Maha Vishuva Sank-
• Ex: Blackgram with maize
ranti, a religious function when tribals indulge in a • Soybean with cotton
ritual of mass killing of wild animals in the forests Synergestic Cropping
here.
• Yields of both crops are higher than of their pure crops
on unit area basis
Advantages of Intercropping • Ex: Sugarcane + Potato

• Better use of growth resources including light, nutrients Multi storey cropping
and water • Cultivation of more than two crops of different heights
• Suppression of weeds simultaneously on a piece of land in any certain period
• Yield & stability - even if one crop fails due to unfore- • Ex: Coconut + Pepper + cocoa + pineapple
seen situations, another crop will yield and provides Relay intercropping
some secured income
• In a long duration base crop, growing two sets of inter-
• Successful intercropping gives higher equivalent yields crops one after another is called relay intercropping
(yield of base crop + yield of intercrop), higher cropping
intensity • Ex; Redgram – base crop 180 days
• Reduced pest and disease incidences • Groundnut/onion/coriander-I set of intercrops
• Improvement of soil health and agro-eco system • Samai/ thenai/panivaragu- 2nd set of intercrops
Alley cropping
Examples of Inter cropping
• Ex: Maize + Cowpea 1:1 • Alley cropping is a system in which food crops are
grown in alleys formed by hedge rows of trees or
• Sorghum + Redgram 2:2 shrubs. The essential feature of the system is that hedge
rows are cut back at planting and kept pruned during
Inter cropping Mixed cropping
cropping to prevent shading and to reduce competition
with food crops. Main and inter crops are There is no specific row
• Ex: Subabul raised at 6 m row spacing sown in definite row arrangement. Generally
arrangement crop seeds are mixed and
• The space between two rows called alleys
broadcasted
• The intercrops are raised in the alley space
The sowing time of both The sowing time of
• E.g. cotton, sorghum, blackgram the crops may or may component crops is same.
Mixed cropping not be the same.
Sometimes the main
• Growing of two or more crops simultaneously intermin- crops is sown earlier
gled without row arrangement is known as mixed crop-
ping than the inter crop
• It is a common practice in most of dryland tracts in

India
Do you know?
• Seeds of different crops are mixed in certain proportion
and are sown The Union Ministry of Ganga Rejuvenation has en-
trusted a pilot project to the Wildlife Institute of India
• The objective is to meet the family requirement of cere-
(WII) to work towards the restoration of select aquatic
als, pulses and vegetables, it is a subsistence farming
species that thrive in the Ganga. The three year pro-
• Ex: Sorghum, Bajra and cowpea are mixed and broad- ject will cost Rs. 25 crore and a Ganga Aqualife Con-
casted in rainfed conditions (with low rainfall situa- servation Monitoring Centre will also be set up at the
tions) to avoid complete crop failures and with WII as part of it.
ascertaining the minimum yields
Difference between inter cropping and mixed 24.4 FARMING SYSTEMS

cropping
Definitions
Inter cropping Mixed cropping
• Farm – is a piece of land with specific boundaries,
The main objective of The main objective of where crop and livestock enterprises are taken up under
inter cropping is to mixed cropping is common management
utilise the space between insurance against crop
rows of main crop and to failure.
• Farming – is the process of harnessing solar energy in
the form of economic plant and animal products
produce more grain per
unit area • System – a set of components which are interdependent
and interacting
There is no competition There is competition
between main and inter between component crops. Wetland farming
crop (subsidiary crop) Here all crops are given
equal importance and care.
• Wet land – soils flooded or irrigated through lake, pond
or canal and land is always in submerged condition
Hence, there is no
difference between • Wetland farming: is the practice of growing crops in
component crops soils flooded through natural flow of water for most
part of the year
In inter cropping, the Crops may or may not
main crop may be a be of same duration Garden land/ irrigated Dry land farming
long duration one and
the inter crop may be a
• Garden land – soils irrigated with ground water sources
short duration/early • Garden land farming: Growing crops with supplemen-
maturing one tal irrigation by lifting water from underground
sources.
Dry land farming
• Dry land – soils purely depends rainfall for moisture Do you know?
• Dryland farming: is the practice of crop production en- The Institute has selected a river stretch at Narora
tirely depending upon rainfall and the moisture con- near the Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttar
served in the soil Pradesh, were by an ideal environment of lesser pol-
lution will be created and a healthy population of spe-
• This is practiced in areas where annual rainfall is less
cies such as the gharial, turtle, otters, and fish species
than 750mm.The crops may face moisture stress fre-
will be rutured. The project will involve the local com-
quently due to erratic distribution or failure of monsoon
munity along with related government departments
such as irrigation and tourism for its execution.
Rain fed farming
• Crop production in areas where rainfall is more than
750mm (i.e assured rainfall areas). Here moisture stress
24.5 CROP ROTATION
will be minimum. Soil conservation is given more im-
portance • Growing of different crops on a piece of land is a pre-
planned succession. The principle of crop rotation is to
Mixed Farming utilise the available resources to the fullest extent in
order to harvest the maximum in a unit land without
• Mixed farming is defined as a system of farming on a
affecting the soil health.
particular farm which includes crop production, raising
live stock, poultry, fisheries, bee keeping etc. to sustain • Ex- Rice-Red Gram -Banana
and satisfy as many needs of the farmer as possible.
Subsistence is important objective of mixed farming. Principles of crop rotation
While higher profitability without altering ecological • Leguminous crops should be grown before non-legumi-
balance is important in farming system. nous crops because legumes fix atmospheric N into the
soil and add organic matter to the soil.
Advantages:
1. It offers highest return on farm business, as the by-
• Crops with tap roots (deep rooted like cotton) should
be followed by those which have fibrous (shallow
products of farm are properly utilized.
rooted crops like sorghum or maize) root system. This
2. It provides work throughout year. facilitates proper and uniform use of nutrients from
3. Efficient utilization of land, labour, equipment and the soil.
other resources. • More exhaustive crops should be followed by less ex-
4. The crop by-products such as straw, fodder etc. is used haustive crops because crops like potato, sugarcane,
for feeding of livestock and in return they provide milk. maize etc. need more inputs such as better tillage, more
5. Manures available from livestock to maintain soil fer- fertilizers, greater number of irrigation etc.
tility. • Selection of crop should be based on need or demand
6. It helps in supplying all the food needs of the family • Crops of same family should not be grown in succession
members. because they act as alternate hosts for insect pests and
diseases
Specialized Farming • The selection of crops should suit farmers financial con-
• The farm in which 50% or more income of total crop ditions
production is derived from a single crop is called spe- • The crop selected should also suit to the soil and cli-
cialized farming matic condition
Diversified Farming
24.6 SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
• A diversified farming has several production enterprises
or sources of income but no source of income equal as • It is a form of agriculture aimed at meeting the needs
much as 50% of the total income. It is also called as of the present generation without endangering the re-
general farming. source base of the future generations. It is considered
as a system of cultivation with the use of manure, crop
rotation and minimal tillage and with minimum de-
pendence on synthetic fertilizers, pesticides and anti- • Eco-farming: Farming in relation to ecosystem.
biotics. It is a balanced management system of • Biological farming: Farming in relation to biologi-
renewable resources including soil, wildlife, forests, cal diversity.
crops, fish, livestock, plant genetic resources and eco-
systems without degradation and to provide food, live-
• Biodynamic farming: Farming which is biologically
organic and ecologically sound and sustainable
lihood for current and future generations maintaining farming.
or improving productivity and ecosystem services of
these resources.
• Sustainable agriculture has to prevent land degradation Organic farming –Components:
and soil erosion. It has to replenish nutrients and con- • The components of organic farming are
trol weeds, pests and diseases through biological and
i) Organic manures
cultural methods.
ii) Non- chemical weed control and
• Degradation of natural resources is the main issue
threatening sustainable development of agriculture. iii) Biological pest and disease management.
Principles:
24.7 ORGANIC FARMING
• The three interrelated principles are
• Organic farming is a production system where all kinds
i) Mixed farming
of agricultural products are produced organically, in-
cluding grains, meat, dairy, eggs, fibers such as cotton, ii) Crop rotation
flowers, and processed food products iii) Organic cycle optimization
• Organic farming avoids or largely excludes the use of
synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and Eco-farming:
livestock feed additives. • It is the farming mutually reinforcing ecological ap-
proaches to food production. It aims at the maintenance
Components of organic farming of soil chemically, biologically and physically the way
• It largely rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal nature would do if left alone. Soil would then take proper
manure, legumes, green manure, on/off farm organic care of plants growing on it. Feed the soil, not the plant
wastes, mechanical cultivation, mineral bearing rocks is the watchword and slogan of ecological farming.
and aspects of biological control of pests and diseases
to maintain soil productivity and tilth to supply plant Organic Vs. Inorganic Fertilizers
nutrients.
Organic Fertilizers Inorganic Fertilizer
Scope
1. A sustainable agricultural system which maintains and Three common forms: Does not add humus to the
improves soil fertility so as to guarantee for adequate animal manure, green soil, resulting in less
food security in the future. manure and compost. ability to hold water and
support living organisms
2. It relies upon resources from its own area which is not (earthworms, beneficial
depended much on imported resources. bacterial, and fungi, etc.)
3. It helps in maintaining the stability of natural ecosys-
tem Improves soil texture, Lowers oxygen content of
adds organic nitrogen, the soil thereby keeping
Concepts and stimulates beneficial fertilizer from being taken
1. Building up of biological soil fertility bacterial and fungi. up efficiently.
2. Control of pests, diseases and weeds through develop- Improves water-holding Supplies only a limited
ment of an ecological balance within the system and by capacity of soil. number of nutrients
use of bioagents and various cultural techniques. (usually nitrogen and
3. It recycles all wastes and manure within the farm. phosphorus)
Organic Fertilizers Inorganic Fertilizer • It can be applied in any ecosystem, no matter how de-
graded.
Helps to prevent erosion Requires large amounts • It values and validates traditional knowledge and expe-
of energy to produce, rience.
transport, and apply.
Release nitrous • Incorporates sustainable agriculture practices and land
management techniques and strategies from around the
oxide (N2O) —a
world
greenhouse gas.
• It is a bridge between traditional cultures and emergent
earth-tuned cultures.
Do you know?
• It promotes organic agriculture, which does not use
pesticides.
The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) India, and
Ricoh India, a global technology company recently
• It aims to maximize symbiotic and synergistic relation-
ships between site components.
signed the ‘Project Nature Watch’ partnership to sup-
port conservation activities in India. The project aims • It’s design is site specific, client specific, and culture
at providing need-based infrastructure support to specific
frontline and field staff working in the forest and ma-
rine areas, for monitoring species such as the Red 24.9 INTEGR ATED FARMING SYSTEM
panda, Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhino. Olive rid- • Integration of farm enterprises such as cropping sys-
ley turtle and other threatened fish diversity, coral tems, animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry etc. for op-
reefs, cetaceans and marine mammals. timal utilisation of resources bringing prosperity to the
farmer. According to the availability of land, type of
land, water, capital, resources, technical skill of the
24.8 PERMACULTURE farmer, market facilities etc., and the components of
farming system are to be chosen and adopted for better
• Bill Mollison, an Australian ecologist, and one of his
results.
students, David Holmgren, coined the word “permacul-
ture” in 1978. It is a contraction of “permanent agricul- Benefits of Integrated Farming System
ture” or “permanent culture.” • Steady income other than income from regular crop-
• It is defined as a design system for creating sustainable ping
human environments. It uses ecology as the basis for • Risk coverage due to subsidiary allocation in the event
designing integrated systems of food production, hous- of unexpected crop failures
ing, appropriate technology, and community develop-
ment.
• Employment opportunity
• Permaculture is built upon an ethic of caring for the
• Higher productivity
earth and interacting with the environment in mutually • Augmented returns and recycling of organics
beneficial ways. • Easily adopted by marginal and submarginal farmers
• A central theme in Permaculture is the design of eco- • General uplift of farm activities
logical landscapes that produce food. Emphasis is placed • Better utilisation of land, labour, time and available
on multi-use plants, cultural practices such as sheet manures in the farm.
mulching and trellising, and the integration of animals
to recycle nutrients and graze weeds. 24.10 ELEMENTS REQUIRED IN PLANT
Characteristics GROWTH
• It is one of the most holistic, integrated systems analy- 1. Macronutrients:
sis and design methodologies found in the world. • Based on the relative abundance in plants, viz., Nitro-
• It can be applied to create productive ecosystems from gen (N); Phosphorous (P), Potassium (K), Sulfur (S),
the human- use standpoint or to help degraded ecosys- Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg)
tems recover health and wildness.
2. Micronutrients: 24.11 Manures
• Their concentration is very small. They are also referred • Manures are plant and animal wastes that are used
to as minor elements. as source of plant nutrients They release nutrients
• Iron (Fe); Zinc (Zn); Manganese (Mg),Copper (Cu),Boron after their decomposition .Manures can be grouped
(B), Chlorine (Cl) and Molybdenum (Mo) .In some into bulky organic manures and concentrated organic
plants, other than the above, Sodium (Na), Cobalt (Co), manures
Vanadium (Va), Nickel (Ni) and Silicon (Si) are consid-
ered as essential micronutrients Fertilizers
Nitrogen (N) • Fertilizers are industrially manufactured chemical con-

taining plant nutrients Nutrient content is higher in
a] N is an essential constituent of proteins and is present
fertilizers than organic manures and nutrients are re-
in many other compounds of great physiological impor-
tance in plant metabolism leased almost immediately
b] N is an integral part of chlorophyll, which is primary Role of manures
observer of light energy needed for photosynthesis. 1. Organic manures bind the sandy soil and improve its
c] N also imparts vigorous vegetative growth and dark water holding capacity.
green colour to plants.
2. They open the clayey soil and help in aeration better
• Phosphorus (P) is an essential part of the enzymes root growth.
which help the crop to fix light energy. It forms an in-
tegral part of nucleic acids, the carriers of genetic infor- 3. They add plant nutrients in small percentage and also
mation, and is important in stimulating root growth add micro nutrients which are essential for plant
growth the microbial activity is increased which helps
• Potassium (K) is involved in processes which ensure in releasing plant nutrients in available for e.g. bulky
carbon assimilation and the transportation of photo-
synthates throughout the plant for growth and the organic manures- FYM, compost from organic waste,
storage of sugars and proteins. The potassium ion is night soil, sludge, sewage, sheep folding, green ma-
also important for water regulation and uptake. Fur- nures, concentrated organic manures- oilcakes (edible,
thermore, the presence of potassium in sufficient non-edible), blood meal, fish meal, bone meal.
amounts ensures resistance to frost, drought and cer- 4. Organic manures should be incorporated before the
tain diseases sowing or planting because of slow release of nutrients
• Magnesium occurs in chlorophyll and is also an activa-
tor of enzymes, Classification of Organic manures
• Sulphur forms part of two essential amino acids which Farm Yard Manure
are among the many building blocks of protein. It
is also found in vitamin B1 and in several important • This is the traditional manure and is mostly readily
enzymes. available to the farmers. Farm yard manure is a decom-
• Calcium is required for plant growth, cell division and posed mixture of Cattle dung and urine with straw and
enlargement. The growth of root and shoot tips and litter used as bedding material and residues from the
storage organs is also affected by calcium as it is a com- fodder fed to the cattle..
ponent of cell membranes. Calcium is also vital for pol-
Compost Manure
len growth and to prevent leaf fall
• Compost is well rotted organic manure prepared by
decomposition of organic matter. Composting is largely
Do you know? a biological process in which micro-organisms of both
India’s National air-carrier Air India and two other types, aerobic (require oxygen for deep development)
Indian transportation companies, Jet Airways and Ap- and anaerobic (functions in absence of air or free oxy-
eejay Shipping, recently signed the Buckingham Palace gen), decompose the organic matter and lower down the
Declaration to fight criminal wildlife trafficking. C:N ratio of refuse. The final product of composting is
well rotted manure known as compost
Sheep and Goat droppings objective of increasing the numbers of such micro-or-
ganisms and accelerating those microbial processes
• It is also valuable organic manure. It contains about 0.5
which augment the availability of nutrients that can be
to 0.7 % N, 0.4 to 0.6% P2O5 and 0.3 –1.0% K2O. It is
effective to all types of crops easily assimilated by plants. Bio-fertilizers harness at-
mospheric nitrogen with the help of specialized micro-
Concentrated organic manures organisms which may be free living in soil or symbiotic
with plants.
Oil cakes
• There are many varieties of oil cakes which contains Nitrogen fixers
not only nitrogen but also some P and K along with 1. Symbiotic: - Rhizobium, inoculants for legumes.
large percentage of organic matter. These oil cakes are 2. Non-symbiotic: - For cereals, millets and vegetables.
of two types. a) Bacteria:-
i. Edible oil cakes- suitable for feeding cattle. i) Aerobic:-Azatobacter, Azomonas, Azospirillum.
ii. Non-edible oil cakes-not suitable for feeding cattle. ii) Anaerobic:- Closteridium, chlorobium
• Oil cakes are quick acting organic manure. Though they iii) Facultative anaerobes- Bacillus, Eisherichia
are insoluble in water, their nitrogen became quickly
available to plants in about a week or in 10 days after b) Blue green algae- Anabaena, Anabaenopsis, Nostoe
application. A. Phosphate solubilizing micro-organisms.
Bone Meal B. Cellulolytic and lignolytic micro organisms.
C. Sulphur dissolving bacteria.
• Bones from slaughter houses, carcasses of all animals
and from meat industry constitute bone meal, which is D. Azolla.
the oldest phosphatic fertilizer used. It also contains
some N. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)
Fish meal • Judicious combination of organic, inorganic and biofer-
tilizers which replenishes the soil nutrients which are
• Fish manure or meal is processed by drying non-edible removed by the crops is referred as Integrated Nutrient
fish, carcasses of fish and wastes from fish industry. It
Management system
contains 4.0-10.0 % nitrogen, 3.0-9.0 % P and 0.3 to
1.5 % K. Fishmeal is quick acting organic manure and • To sustain the productivity of different crops and crop-
is suitable for application to all crops on all soils. ping systems, efficient nutrient management is vital.
There is a need to develop more efficient, economic and
Green Manuring integrated system of nutrient management for realiz-
• It is a practice of ploughing in the green plant grown in ing high crop productivity without diminishing soil
the field or adding green plants from outside and incor- fertility
porating them into the soil for improving the physical
structure as well as fertility of the soil. E.g.: Sannhemp,
Dhaicha, Pillipesara, Shervi, Urd, Mung, Cowpea, Ber- Do you know?
seem, Senji, etc. The Buckingham Palace Declaration has been devel-
oped by the United for Wildlife International Taskforce
Green leaf Manuring on the Transportation of Illegal Wildlife Products.
• Green leaf manuring refers to adding the green leaf and
green twigs from legume plants or trees to a field and
then incorporating them into the soil by ploughing. E.g.: 24.12 WEEDS
Glyricidia, wild Dhaicha, Karanj (pongamia), leucaena.
• Weeds are unwanted and undesirable plant that inter-
Bio-fertilizers fere with utilization of land and water resources and
thus adversely affect crop production and human wel-
• Bio-fertilizers are the preparations containing live or fare
latent cells of efficient strains of nitrogen fixing, phos-
phate solubilizing or cellulolyotic micro-organisms used • They are gregarious in nature compared to crop
for application to seed or composting areas with the plants.
Harmful effects of weeds quency. The system has extensive network of pipes at
1. Weeds compete with main crop for space, light, mois- operated at low pressure. At pre-determined spacing
tire and soil nutrients thus causing reduction in yield. outlets are provided for emission water generally known
as emitters.
2. Affect quality of farm produce, livestock products such
as milk and skin
Sprinkler Irrigation
3. Act as alternate host for pests and pathogens
4. Cause health problems to human beings eg; Parthe-
• In the sprinkler method of irrigation, water is sprayed
into the air and allowed to fall on the ground surface
nium causes allergy
somewhat resembling rainfall. The spray is developed
5. Increase cost of cultivation due to weeding problem by the flow of water under pressure through small ori-
6. Aquatic weeds transpire large quantity of water, ob- fices or nozzles.
struct flow of water
7. Reduce the land value (if cynodon, parthenium are Drip irrigation:
present in the land ) • Drip irrigation is also called trickle irrigation and in-
8. Some weeds are poisonous to livestock. volves dripping water onto the soil at very low rates
Beneficial effects of weeds from a system of small diameter plastic pipes fitted with
outlets called emitters.
1. Weed as soil binders
2. as manure
• Water is applied close to plants so that only part of the
soil in which the roots grow is wetted, unlike surface
3. as human food and sprinkler irrigation, which involves wetting the
4. as fodder whole soil profile.
5. Weed as fuel
Terracing:
6. Weed as mats and screens
7. Weed as medicine: Many weeds have great therapeutic
• “A terrace is an embankment or ridge of earth con-
structed across a slope to control runoff and minimize
properties and used as medicine. Eg.
soil erosion”.
Phyllanthus niruri – Jaundice
Eclipta alba – Scorpion sting
• It reduces the length of the hill side slope, thereby re-
ducing sheet and rill erosion and prevents formation of
Centella asiatica – Improves memory
gullies.
Cynodon dactylon – Asthma, piles
Cyperus rotundus – Stimulates milk secretion
8. Weed as indicators: Weeds are useful as indicators of Do you know?
good and bad soils. Colonum occurs in rich soils while The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has suspended
Cymbopogon denotes poor light soil and Sedges are the environment clearance (EC) given to the 780 MW
found in ill-drained soils Nyamjang Chhu hydel power project in Arunachal
• Genetically modified crops (GM crops, or biotech crops) Pradesh.
are plants, the DNA of which has been modified using
genetic engineering techniques, which are then used in
agriculture. 24.13 SOIL
Watershed Management Soils are a thin layer on top of most of Earth’s land surface.
• A watershed is an area of land and water bounded by a This thin layer is a basic natural resource and deeply af-
drainage divide within which the surface runoff collects fects every other part of the ecosystem. Soils are composed
and flows out of the watershed through a single outlet of three main ingredients: minerals of different sizes, or-
into a lager river (or) lake. ganic materials from the remains of dead plants and ani-
mals, and open space that can be filled with water or air.
Micro Irrigation A good soil for growing most plants should have about 45%
• Micro irrigation is defined as the methods in which low minerals (with a mixture of sand, silt, and clay), 5% or-
volume of water is applied at low pressure & high fre- ganic matter, 25% air, and 25% water.
Soils develop in response to several factors: • There are 5 master horizons in the soil profile. Not all
1. Parent material: This refers to the rock and minerals soil profiles contain all 5 horizons; and so, soil profiles
from which the soil derives. The natural of the parent differ from one location to another.
rock, which can be either native to the area or trans-
ported to the area by wind, water, or glacier, has a di-
rect effect on the ultimate soil profile.
2. Climate: This is measured by precipitation and tem-
perature. It results in partial weathering of the parent
material, which forms the substrate for soil.
3. Living organisms: These include the nitrogen-fixing
bacterial Rbizobium, fungi, insects, worms, snails, etc.,
that help to decompose litter and recycle nutrients.
4. Topography: This refers to the physical characteristics
of the location where the soil is formed. Topographic
factors that affect a soil’s profile include drainage, slope
direction, elevation and wind exposure.
With sufficient time, a mature soil profile reaches a state
of equilbrium. Feedback mechanisms involving both abiotic
and biotic factors work to preserve the mature soil profile.
The relative abundance of sand, silt, and clay is called the
soil texture.
Soil Components
Clay: very find particles. Compacts easily. Forms large,
dense clumps when wet. Low permeability to water; there- Soil Profile
fore, upper layers become waterlogged.
Gravel: Coarse particles. Consists of rock fragments. • The 5 master horizons are represented by the letters:
Loam: About equal mixtures of clay, sand, slit, and humus. O, A, E, B, and C.
Rich in nutrients. Holds water but does not become water- • O: The O horizon is a surface horizon that is comprised
logged. of organic material at various stages of decomposition.
Sand: Sedimentary material coarser than slit. Water flows It is most prominent in forested areas where there is
through too quickly for most crops. Good for crops and the accumulation of debris fallen from trees.
plants requiring low amounts of water. • A: The A horizon is a surface horizon that largely con-
Slit: Sedimentary material consisting of very fine particles sists of minerals (sand, silt, and clay) and with appreci-
between the size of sand and clay. Easily transported by able amounts of organic matter. This horizon is
water. predominantly the surface layer of many soils in grass-
• Soil is a natural body of mineral and organic constitu- lands and agricultural lands.
ents differentiated into horizons usually unconsolidated, • E: The E horizon is a subsurface horizon that has been
of variable depth which differs among themselves as heavily leached. Leaching is the process in which soluble
well as from the underlying parent material in morphol- nutrients are lost from the soil due to precipitation or
ogy, physical makeup, chemical properties and compo- irrigation. The horizon is typically light in color. It is
sition and biological characteristics. generally found beneath the O horizon.
• Soil profile: The vertical section of the soil showing the • B: The B horizon is a subsurface horizon that has ac-
various layers from the surface to the unaffected parent cumulated from the layer(s) above. It is a site of deposi-
material is known as a soil profile. The various layers tion of certain minerals that have leached from the
are known as horizons. layer(s) above.
• C: The C horizon is a subsurface horizon. It is the least Podzolization:
weathered horizon. Also known as the saprolite, it is • It is a process of soil formation resulting in the forma-
unconsolidated, loose parent material. tion of Podzols and Podzolic soils.
• R: Unweathered rock exists below the parent material. • podzolization is the negative of calcification. The calci-
• Soil texture refers to the relative proportion of parti- fication process tends to concentrate calcium in the
cles or it is the relative percentage by weight of the three lower part of the B horizon, whereas podzolization
soil separates viz., sand, silt and clay or simply refers to leaches the entire solum of calcium carbonates.
the size of soil particles. • The other bases along with calcium are also removed
• Loam: A type of soil texture with good water holding and the whole soil becomes distinctly acidic. In fact,
capacity and drainage suitable for cultivation of variety the process is essentially one of the processes of acid
of crops. leaching.
• Soil structure: The arrangement and organization of

primary and secondary particles in a soil mass is known The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has set up an
as soil structure. eight-member experts’ panel to study various aspects
Saline soils of the proposed Rs.5,242 crore Renuka dam. It would
provide drinking water to Delhi and areas of Haryana
• Saline soils are characterised by higher amount of water and Uttar Pradesh such as Faridabad and Noida. The
soluble salt, due to which the crop growth is affected. project will come up across the Giri river, a tributary
Sodic soils of the Yamuna, in Sirmaur district.
• Sodic soils are characterised by the predominance of
sodium in the complex with the exchangeable sodium Laterization:
percentage exceeding 15 per cent and the pH more • The term laterite is derived from the word later mean-
than 8.5. ing brick or tile and was originally applied to a group
Acid soils of high clay Indian soils found in Malabar hills of Ker-
ala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra.
• Acid soils are characteristically low in pH ( < 6.0). Pre-
dominance of H + and Al3+ cause acidity resulting in • It refers specifically to a particular cemented horizon in
deficiency of P, K, Ca, Mg, Mo and B. certain soils which when dried, become very hard, like
a brick.
Sandy soils • Laterization is the process that removes silica, instead
• Sandy soils are containing predominant amounts of of sesquioxides from the upper layers and thereby leav-
sand resulting in higher percolation rates and nutrient ing sesquioxides to concentrate in the solum.
losses.
• Alkaline soil: A soil with pH above 7, usually above Gleization:
8.5 are considered alkaline. Alkaline soils often occur • It is a process of soil formation resulting in the develop-
in arid regions that receive less than 25 inches of rain ment of a glei (or gley horizon) in the lower part of the
per year. soil profile above the parent material due to poor
drainage condition (lack of oxygen) and where water-
• Calcariuos soil- Soils with kankar nodules in the plough
logged conditions prevail. Such soils are called hydro
zone and subsoil.
orphic soils.
• Alfisol: Soils with grey to brown surface horizons, me-
dium to high supply of bases and B horizons of illuvial Salinization:
clay accumulation. These soils formed mostly under • It is the process of accumulation of salts, such as sul-
forest or savanna vegetation in climates with slight to phates and chlorides of calcium, magnesium, sodium
pronounced seasonal moisture deficit. and potassium, in soils in the form of a salty (salic)
• Aridisol: Minerals soils that have an aridic moisture horizon.
regime. These are desert soil. • It is quite common in arid and semi arid regions.
• It may also take place through capillary rise of saline • Remediation: Take land out of production for a while;
ground water and by inundation with seawater in ma- and/or install underground perforated drainage pipes;
rine and coastal soils. flush soil with freshwater into separate lined evapora-
• Salt accumulation may also result from irrigation or tion ponds; plant halophytes (salt-loving plants) such as
seepage in areas of impeded drainage. barley, cotton, sugar beet and/or semi-dwarf wheat.
Desalinization: Water logging

• It is the removal of excess soluble salts by leaching from • Definition: Saturation of soil with water resulting in a
horizons or soil profile (that contained enough soluble rise in the water table.
salts to impair the plant growth) by ponding water and • Symptoms: Saline water envelops deep roots killing
improving the drainage conditions by installing artifi- plants; lowers productivity; eventual destruction of
cial drainage network. plant life.
• Remediation: Switch to less water-demanding plants in
Solonization or Alkalization: areas susceptible to water logging; utilize conservation-
• The process involves the accumulation of sodium ions tillage farming; plant water logging-resistant trees with
on the exchange complex of the clay, resulting in the deep roots; take and out of production for a while; and/
formation of sodic soils (Solonetz). or install pumping stations with drainage pipes that
lead to catchment-evaporation basins.
• All cations in solution are engaged in a reversible reac-
tion with the exchange sites on the clay and organic • Loam soils generally contain more nutrients and humus
matter particles. than sandy soils, have better infiltration and drainage
than silty soils and are easier to till than clay soils.
Solodization or dealkalization: • If the topsoil is brown or black, it is rich in nitrogen and
• The process refers to the removal of Na+ from the ex- is good for crops. If the topsoil is gray, yellow, or red, it
change sites. This process involves dispersion of clay. is low in organic matter and poor for crops.
Dispersion occurs when Na+ ions become hydrated.
• Much of the dispersion can be eliminated if Ca++ and or Do you know?
Mg++ ions are concentrated in the water, which is used The Pench Tiger Reserve (PTR) has launched a project
to leach the soonest. These Ca and Mg ion can replace to involve people in saving tigers and forests under its
the Na on exchange complex, and the salts of sodium are jurisdiction. Large-scale public participation is being
leached out. sought from villagers around five protected areas —
the Umred-Karhandla, Mansinghdeo, Tipeshwar,
Desertification Painganga Wildlife Sanctuaries and the Bor TR. The
• Definition: Productive potential of arid or semiarid land project, an inititative of the Pench Tiger Conservation
falls by at least 10% due to human activity and/or cli- Foundation, includes sensitization of women’s self-help
mate change. groups in 40 vulnerable villages around these PAs.
• Symptoms: Loss of native vegetation; increased wind
erosion; salinization; drop in water table; reduce surface
water supply. 24.14 STAGES OF SOIL EROSION
• Remediation: Reduce overgrazing; reduce deforestation; Splash erosion
reduce destructive froms of planting, irrigation, and • Splash erosion is the first stage of the erosion process.
mining. Plant trees and grasses to hold soil. It occurs when raindrops hit bare soil. The explosive
impact breaks up soil aggregates so that individual soil
Salinization particles are ‘splashed’ onto the soil surface.
• Definition: Water that is not absorbed into the soil and
Sheet erosion
evaporates leaves behind dissolved salts in topsoil.
• Symptoms: Stuned crop growth; lower yield; eventual
• Sheet erosion refers to the uniform movement of a thin
layer of soil across an expanse of land devoid of vegeta-
destruction of plant life.
tive cover. Raindrops detach soil particles, which go into
solution as runoff occurs and are transported down- • Cover crops: crops which are grown to cover the soil
stream to a point of deposition. in order to reduce the loss of the moisture from the soil
due to leaching and erosion.
Rill erosion
• When sheet flows begin to concentrate on the land sur- • Critical stage of irrigation: the period or the stage of
development of lifecycle of the crop when it is most
face, rill erosion occurs. While sheet erosion is gener-
sensitive to moisture stress, results in yield loss
ally invisible, rill erosion leaves visible scouring on the
landscape. This type of erosion occurs when the dura- • Hard pan: It is a hard and impermeable layer formed
tion or intensity of rain increases and runoff volumes in the soil profile by accumulation of materials such as
accelerate. salts, clay etc which impedes drainage
• Growth regulators: Organic substances which in min-
ute amount may participate in the control of growth
Do you know? processes Ex:Auxins, Cytokinins
The Satkosia Wildlife Sanctuary has witnessed an in- • Heliophytes: Plants of sun loving species, require in-
crease in crocodile population with about 123 gharials tense light for normal development Ex: Rice, Wheat,
and muggers found inhabiting the Mahanadi river Cotton, Sugarcane
gorge.
• Sciophytes: Plants which are shade loving and require
less light intensity
Gully erosion • Heliotropism: It is the movement of the plant parts
towards the sun Ex: Sunflower
• Rill erosion evolves into gully erosion as duration or
intensity of rain continues to increase and runoff vol- • Geotropism: A growth movement in response to grav-
umes continue to accelerate. A gully is generally defined ity. Eg Groundnut peg penetration into the soil
as a scoured out area that is not crossable with tillage • Herbicide: A chemical used for killing or inhibiting the
or grading equipment. growth of unwanted plants Ex: Atrazine
• Ammonification: Production of ammonia as a result of • Insecticide: It is the chemical used for killing the in-
the biological decomposition of organic nitrogen com- sects: Endosulfan
pounds.
• Hidden hunger: Is the condition where plants do not
• Border cropping: is growing of crops on the border exhibit visual symptoms of deficiency for the short sup-
areas of the plot or field ply of particular nutrients but will result in yield losses
• Ex; Safflower as border crop in potato • Humus: A brown or black organic substance consisting
• Border strip irrigation: It is an efficient method of of partially or wholly decayed vegetable or animal mat-
irrigation close growing crops. In this method the field ter that provides nutrients for plants and increases the
is divided by low flat levels into series of strips, each of ability of soil to retain water
which is flooded separately. • Mulching: Practice of covering the soil surface with
• Allelopathy: is defined as direct or indirect harmful materials like plant residues, straw, leaves or plastic film
effect of one plant over the other crop species through to reduce evaporation, restrict weed growth and main-
the exudation of toxic substances from the roots or the tain the soil temperature
decomposition of crop residues • Puddling: It is the ploughing operation carried out in
• C:N ratio: The ratio of the weight of organic C to the stagnated water conditions to create an impervious
weight of total N in the soil. layer below the plough pan
• Check basin: It is a method of irrigation with beds and • Shifting cultivation: It is the old practice of cutting
channel for retaining water to form a pond and clearing of forest for cultivating crops for a certain
• Heaving: Injury to plants caused by lifting upward of period of time as long as the soils having fertility
the plant along with soil from it’s normal position in • Subsidiary farming: Settled Farming in river banks
temperate regions where snowfall is common and streams in addition to gathering & hunting
• Contour farming: is the farming practice of ploughing • Subsistence farming: Raising the crops only for family
across a slope following its elevation contour lines. needs and not for commercial: “Grow it and eat it”
System of Rice Intensification (SRI) creased with less water and with reduction in chemical
• System of Rice Intensification (SRI) emerged in the inputs.
1980’s as a synthesis of locally advantageous rice pro- Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI)
duction practices encountered in Madagascar by Fr
Henri de Laulanie
• Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) is an innovative
set of agronomic practices that involves using less seeds,
• SRI is a combination of several practices those include raising seeds in a nursery, and following new planting
changes in nursery management, time of transplanting, methods, with wider seed spacing, and better water and
water and weed management. It emphasizes altering of nutrient management to increase the cane yields sig-
certain agronomic practices of the conventional way of nificantly.
rice cultivation. All these new practices are together
known as System of Rice Intensification (SRI).
• SSI methods can increase sugarcane yields by at least
20% with 30% less water and a 25% reduction in
• Principle - ‘More with Less’ chemical inputs.
• SRI is not a fixed package of technical specifications, but • The SSI method of sugarcane cultivation was evolved
a system of production with four main components, viz., from the principles of ‘More with Less’ followed in SRI
soil fertility management, planting method, weed con- (System of Rice Intensification) and introduced in India
trol and water (irrigation) management. Rice yield in- by the WWF-ICRISAT collaborative project in 2009.
 
PART - V
CHAPTER - 25
ACTS AND POLCIES

25.1. WILD LIFE PROTECTION ACT 1972 25.1.2. The Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972
• India is the first country in the world to have made • The passing of the Wildlife Act of 1972 constitutes an
provisions for the protection and conservation of envi- important landmark in the history of wildlife legislation
ronment in its constitution. On 5th June 1972, environ- in the country.
ment was first discussed as an item of international • This is because of the fact that the “Forest” including
agenda in the U.N. Conference of Human Environment “Wildlife” was then a State subject falling in Entry 20
in Stockholm and thereafter 5th June is celebrated all List II of Seventh Schedule, Parliament had no power to
over the world as World Environment Day. make law on the same except as provided in Articles
• Soon after the Stockholm Conference our country 249,250 and 252 of the constitution.
took substantive legislative steps for environmental • Having regard to the importance of the matter, the Act
protection. The Wildlife (Protection) Act was passed has been adopted by all the States except that of Jammu
in 1972, followed by the Water (Prevention and Con- and Kashmir which has a similar law enacted for the
trol of Pollution) Act 1974, the Forest (Conservation) purpose of wildlife protection. The operation of the Act
Act, 1980, Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) is mandatory in the Union Territories too.
Act, 1981 and subsequently the Environment (Protec-
tion) Act, 1986.
• The Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 provides the basic
framework to ensure the protection and management
of wildlife. The Act was amended subsequently in 1982,
25.1.1. Constitutional Provisions 1986, 1991 and 1993 to accommodate provision for its
• The provisions for environmental protection in the con- effective implementation.
stitution were made within four years of Stockholm
Conference, in 1976, though the 42nd amendment as The rationale for passing Act as stated in its
follows: Statement of Objects and Reasons are as follows:
• Article-48-A of the constitution provides: • The rapid decline of India’s wild animals and birds, one
• “The state shall endeavour to protect and improve the of the richest and most varied wildlife resources of the
environment and to safeguard forest and wildlife of the country has been a cause of grave concern.
country.” • Areas which were once teeming with wildlife have be-
• Article 51-A (g) Provides: come devoid of it and even in sanctuaries and National
• It shall be duty of every citizen of India to protect and Parks the protection afforded to wildlife needs to be
improve the natural environment including forests, improved.
lakes, rivers and wildlife an to have compassion for liv- • The Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1935 has
ing creatures.” become completely outdated.
• Thus our constitution includes environmental protec- • This existing laws not only have become outdated but
tion and conservation as one of our fundamental duties. also provide punishments, which are not commensu-
Some of the important Acts passed by the Government rate with the offence and financial benefits that occur
of India are discussed here. from poaching and trade in wildlife produce. Further,
such laws mainly relate to control of hunting and do • The genesis of the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986,
not emphasize the other factors which are also the thus, is in Article 48A (Directive Principles of State
prime reasons for the decline of India’s wildlife namely Policy) and Article 51A (g) (Fundamental Duties) of the
taxidermy and trade in wildlife and products there Indian Constitution.
from. • The Act empowers the Central Government to take all
appropriate measures to prevent and control pollution
25.1.3. Salient features of the Act: and to establish effective machinery for the purpose of
• The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 is a product of process protecting and improving the quality of the environ-
which started long ago in 1887 for the protection of a ment and protecting controlling and abating environ-
few wild birds and after addition of wild animals in 1912 mental pollution.
and specified plants in 1919 it covered almost all the • The Central Government or any other person duly au-
wildlife resources which need protection and manage- thorised is empowered to collect the samples of air,
ment. water, soil or other substances as evidence of the of-
1. The rating of the Schedules I to V is in accordance with fences under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
the risk of survival of the wildlife (fauna) enlisted in • The Act prescribes a special procedure for handling
them. Animals included Schedule are provided for total hazardous substances and the concerned person has to
protection from hunting and the trade and commerce handle the hazardous substances according to the pro-
related to such animals are strictly regulated. The cedure of the Act.
schedule VI has been added to include the specified
plant species to be protected by the Wildlife (Protec- • The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 has relaxed the
rule of “Locus Standi” and because of such relaxation
tion) Amendment Act of 1991.
even a common citizen can approach the Court provided
2. An expert committee, constituted by the Indian Board he has given a notice of sixty days of the alleged offence
of Wildlife considers amendments to the Act, as and and his intention to make a complaint to the Central
when necessary. Government or any other competent authority.
3. With the amendment of the Act in 1991, powers of the • This Act also empowers and authorises the Central Gov-
State Governments have been withdrawn almost to- ernment to issue directions for the operation or process,
tally. Now the State Governments are not empowered prohibition, closure, or regulation of any industry. The
to declare any wild animal a vermin. Further by addi- Central Government is also authorised to stop, regulate
tion of provision, immunization of livestock within a the supply of electricity or water or any other service
radius of 5 km from a National Park or sanctuary has directly without obtaining the order of the Court in this
been made compulsory. regard.
• The Act consists of and deals with more stringent penal
Do you know? provisions. The minimum penalty for contravention or
violation of any provision of the law is an imprisonment
Management Effective Evaluation (MEE), MEE con-
for a term which may extend to five years or fine up to
ducted by the National Tiger Conservation Authority
one lakh rupees, or both. The Act also provides for the
and the Wildlife Institute of India is the assessment of
further penalty if the failure or contravention continues
how well protected areas are being managed and their
after the date of conviction. It is Rs. 5000/- per day. If
effectiveness in conserving target flora and fauna, the
the failure of contravention continues beyond the period
reserves were put into four categories — ‘very good’,
of one year, then the offender is punished with impris-
‘good’, ‘fair’ and ‘poor’.
onment for a term which may extend to seven years.
• The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 grants im-
25.2. ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) munity to the officers of the Government for any act
ACT, 1986 done under the provisions of this Act or under the pow-
• As compared to all other previous laws on environment ers vested in them or functions assigned to them under
protection, the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 is a this Act.
more effective and bold measure to fight the problem of • The Act debars the Civil Courts from having any juris-
pollution. diction to entertain any suit or proceeding in respect of
an action, direction, order issued by Central Govern- • Conservation of Biological Diversity and Genetic Re-
ment or other statutory authority under this Act. sources of the country through ex-situ and in-situ con-
• Under the Act, there will be supremacy of provision. In servation measures.
other words, the provisions of this Act and the rules or • Significant contribution in maintenance of environment
orders made under this Act shall have effect and su- and ecological stability in the country.
premacy over anything inconsistent contained in any
enactment other than this Act 25.4. BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ACT, 2002
• The Biological Diversity Act 2002 was born out of In-
25.3. NATIONAL FOREST POLICY 1988 dia’s attempt to realize the objectives enshrined in the
• The principal aim of National Forest Policy, 1988 is to United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
ensure environmental stability and maintenance of eco- 1992 which recognizes the sovereign rights of states to
logical balance including atmospheric equilibrium use their own Biological Resources.
which are vital for sustenance of all life forms, human, • An Act to provide for conservation of biological diver-
animal and plant. sity, sustainable use of its components and fair and eq-
uitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of
25.3.1. Objectives biological resources, knowledge and for matters con-
nected therewith or incidental thereto.
• Conserving the natural heritage of the country by pre-
serving the remaining natural forests with the vast
variety of flora and fauna, which represent the remark- 25.4.1. Objectives
able biological diversity and genetic resources of the (i) Conservation of biological diversity;
country. (ii) Sustainable use of its components; and
• Checking soil erosion and denudation in the catch- (iii) Fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from
ments areas of rivers, lakes, reservoirs in the “interest the utilization of genetic resources.
of soil and water conservation, for mitigating floods • The Act envisages a three-tier structure to regulate ac-
and droughts and for the retardation of siltation of cess to the biological resources, comprising of National
reservoirs. Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity Boards
• Checking the extension of sand-dunes in the desert (SBB) and Biodiversity Management Committees (BMC)
areas of Rajasthan and along the coastal tracts. at the local level
• Increasing substantially the forest/tree cover in the
country through massive afforestation and social for- Do you know?
estry programmes, especially on all denuded, degraded
The Wildlife Institute of India (WII) has recommended
and unproductive lands. notification of the areas ‘above’ wildlife sanctuaries as
• Increasing the productivity of forests to meet essential a ‘silent zone’ by keeping the noise level of helicopters
national needs. within the limit of 50 db. This is the recommendation
• Encouraging efficient utilisation of forest produce and in WII’s interim report with regard to height and noise
maximising substitution of wood. level for flights over the Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary
(KWLS).
25.3.2. The major achievements of National
Forest Policy, 1988,
25.5. THE SCHEDULED TRIBES AND
• Increase in the forest and tree cover.
OTHER TR ADITIONAL FOREST
• Involvement of local communities in the protection, DWELLERS (RECOGNITION OF
conservation and management of forests through Joint FOREST RIGHTS) ACT, 2006
Forest Management Programme.
• Forest Rights Act, 2006 provides for the restitution of
• Meeting the requirement of fuel wood, fodder minor deprived forest rights across India, including both indi-
forest produce and small timber of the rural and tribal vidual rights to cultivated land in forestland and com-
populations. munity rights over common property resources.
• The Act is significant as it provides scope and historic • The Act recognizes the right of ownership access to
opportunity of integrating conservation and livelihood collect, use, and dispose of minor forest produce which
rights of the people. has been traditionally collected within or outside village
boundaries.
The Union Finance Ministry has also slashed the Cen- • The Act has defined the term “minor forest produce” to
tre’s share of non-recurring expenditure from 100% include all non-timber forest produce of plant origin,
to 60%, for Project Tiger, leaving the remaining including bamboo, brush wood, stumps, cane, tussar,
amount for the respective states to manage. However, cocoons, honey, wax, lac, tendu or kendu leaves, me-
in the case of special status states, which includes the dicinal plants and herbs, roots, tubers and the like.
three Himalayan states of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu- • The Act provides for the forest right relating to Govern-
Kashmir and Uttarakhand and the Northeastern ment providing for diversion of forest land for the pur-
states, the ratio is 90:10. pose of schools, hospitals, anganwadis, drinking water
supply and water pipelines, roads, electric and telecom-
munication lines, etc.
25.5.1. FRA is a potential tool
• The rights conferred under the Act shall be heritable
I. To empower and strengthen the local self governance but not alienable or transferable and shall be registered
II. To address the livelihood security of the people jointly in the name of both the spouses in the case of
III. To address the issues of Conservation and management married persons and in the name of the single head, in
of the Natural Resources and conservation governance the case of a household headed by a single person and
of India. in the absence of a direct heir, the heritable right shall
pass on to the next of kin
• For the first time Forest Rights Act recognises and se-
cures • The Act provides that no member of a forest dwelling
Scheduled Tribe or other traditional forest dwellers
i. Community Rights in addition to their individual rights
shall be evicted or removed from forest land under his
ii. Right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any occupation till the recognition and verification proce-
community forest resource which the communities dure is completed.
have been traditionally protecting and conserving for
sustainable use. • As per the Act, the Gram Sabha has been designated as
the competent authority for initiating the process of
iii. Right to intellectual property and traditional knowl- determining the nature and extent of individual or com-
edge related to biodiversity and cultural diversity munity forest rights or both that may be given to the
iv. Rights of displaced communities & Rights over devel- forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional
opmental activities forest dwellers.
25.5.2. Salient Features

Do you know?
• Nodal Agency for the implementation is MoTA.
The National Tiger conservation Authority (NTCA) has
• This Act is applicable for Tribal and Other Traditional
recommended Nandhaur Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS) to
Forest Dwelling Communities.
be the third tiger reserve in the Uttarakhand after
• The Act provides for recognition of forest rights of other Rajaji and Corbett. The sanctuary is situated between
traditional forest dwellers provided they have for at least the Gola and Sarda rivers. It is part of the Terai Arc
three generations prior to 13.12.2005 primarily resided landscape and the shivalik Elephant Reserve.
in and have depended on the forest or forest land for
bonafide livelihood needs. A “generation” for this pur-
pose would mean a period comprising of 25 years. 25.6 GREEN HIGHWAYS (PLANTATION,
• The maximum limit of the recognizing rights on forest TR ANSPLANTATION, BEAUTIFICATION
land is 4 ha. MAINTENANCE) POLICY - 2015
• National Parks and Sanctuaries have been included
• India has a total 46.99 lakh kms of road length and out
along with Reserve Forest, Protected Forests for the of which over 96214 kms are National Highways, ac-
recognition of Rights. counting 2% of total road length. The Highways carry
about 40% of the traffic load. The Ministry has decided
to develop all of existing National Highways and 40,000 Do you know?
kms of additional roads in the next few years as Green The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) is
Highways. awaiting a final nod from the Ministry of Defense
• The vision is to develop eco-friendly National Highways (MoD) to start its drone-monitoring project for com-
with participation of the community, farmers, NGOs, bating wildlife poaching and human-animal conflict.
private sector, institutions, government agencies and The NTCA has signed a memorandum of understand-
the Forest Department. ing (MoU) with the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) to
start monitoring by drones in five tiger reserves (TRs)
• The objective is to reduce the impacts of air pollution — Panna, Corbett, Kaziranga, Sundarbans and Sathy-
and dust as trees and shrubs along the Highways act as amangalam, and the permission being sought is to fly
natural sink for air pollutants and arrest soil erosion at the drones only within the boundary of the core area
the embankment slopes. Plants along highway median of these reserves.
strips and along the edges reduce the glare of oncoming
vehicles which sometimes become cause of accidents.
The community involvement in tree plantation directly 25.7 CHEMICAL SAFETY
benefits local people by generating employment. The • Government has notified two rules viz. Manufacture,
Panchayats, NGOs and other Self Help Groups (SHGs) Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989
will be involved in the process of planting and mainte- and Chemical Accidents (Emergency Planning, Prepar-
nance. The plant species selected will be region specific edness and Response) Rules, 1996 for ensuring chemical
depending on local conditions such as rainfall, climate safety in the Country. These Rules delineate the criteria
type of soil. for identification of Major Accident Hazard (MAH) unit,
As per these Rules, an off- site emergency plan for a
• 1% of the total project cost of all highways projects will district having MAH unit is required to be in place so
be kept aside for the highway plantation and its main- as to mitigate the impact of chemical accidents. As per
tenance, about Rs. 1000 crore per year will be available the information received from various Sate and Union
for plantation purpose. This policy will generate em- Territories, there are 1,861 MAH units in the Country,
ployment opportunities for about five lakh people from located in 303 districts.
rural areas.
• In the new policy, the provisions about the responsi- 25.8 COASTAL REGULATION ZONE, 2011
bilities attached have also been clearly defined. Now it In the 1991 Notification the CRZ area was classified as
will be the responsibility of the planting agency to en- CRZ-I (ecological sensitive),CRZ-II (built-up area), CRZ-III
sure that the condition of the site is good enough for the (Rural area) and CRZ-IV (water area). In the 2011 Notifica-
successful establishment of grasses. tion the above classification is retained. The only change
is the inclusionof CRZ-IV, which includes the water areas
• The monitoring of the plantation status has been in- upto the territorial waters and the tidalinfluenced water
cluded as an integral part of the policy, strong monitor- bodies.
ing mechanism in place by using ISRO’s Bhuvan and
For the very first time, a separate draft Island Protection
GAGAN satellite systems.
Zone Notification hasbeen issued for protection of the is-
• For Highway projects to be environmentally sustainable, lands of Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweepunder En-
it is necessary that the natural resources lost in the vironment (Protection) Act, 1986.
process of Highway construction are restored in one
way or the other. This requires that ecological needs are CRZ-I
taken into consideration from the stage of project plan- (i) Ecologically sensitive areas and the geomorphological
ning and designing to its execution. The Highways de- features that play aprimary role in maintaining the
veloped as green corridors not only sustain biodiversity integrity of the coast.
and regenerate natural habitat but also benefit all stake- • Mangroves, in case mangrove area is more than
holders, from road users to local communities and spur 1000 square metres, a bufferarea of 50 metres shall
eco-friendly economic growth and development. be provided;
• Corals and coral reefs and associated biodiversity; • Desalination plants;
• Sand Dunes; • Storage of non-hazardous cargo such as edible oil,
• Mudflats which are biologically active; fertilizers and foodgrain within notified ports;
• National parks, marine parks, sanctuaries, reserve • Construction of trans-harbour sea links, roads on
forests, wildlife habitatsand other protected areas stilts or pillars withoutaffecting the tidal fl ow of
under the provisions of Wild Life (Protection) Act, water.
1972, the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 or Environ-
ment (Protection) Act, 1986; including BiosphereRe- CRZ-II
serves encompassing; The areas which are developed upto or close tothe shore-
• Salt Marshes; line and falling within municipal limits.
• Turtle nesting grounds; Buildings are permissible on the landward side of the exist-
ing road, authorizedstructure or hazardous line where
• Horse shoe crabs habitats;
there are no authorised structures. Otheractivities such as
• Sea grass beds; desalination plants and storage of non-hazardous cargo are
• Nesting grounds of birds; alsopermissible.
• Areas or structures of archaeological importance
and heritage sites; CRZ-III
(ii) The area between Low Tide Line and High Tide Line. The areas that are relatively undisturbed and do not fall
undereither in Category I or II and also include rural and
The activities permitted in CRZ-I under the 2011 Notifica-
urban areas that are notsubstantially developed.
tion are
All permissible activities for CRZ-III as listed in the CRZ
(i) No new construction shall be permitted in CRZ-I except;
Notification, 1991 are retained in the Notification. Between
• Projects relating to the Department of Atomic En- 0-200 metres from HTL is a No DevelopmentZone where
ergy; no construction shall be permitted. Only certain activities
• Pipelines, conveying systems including transmission relating toagriculture, horticulture, gardens, pasture,
lines; parks, play field, forestry, projects ofDepartment of Atomic
• Facilities that are essential for activities permissible Energy, mining of rare minerals, salt manufacture from-
under CRZ-I; seawater, facilities for receipt, storage, regasification of
petroleum products and liquefied natural gas, facilities for
• Installation of weather radar for monitoring of cy- generating power by non-conventional energysources and
clones movement andprediction by the Indian Mete-
certain public facilities may be permitted in this zone.
orological Department;
Between 200-500 metres of HTL, construction and repair
• Construction of trans-harbour sea link and roads on of houses of localcommunities, tourism projects including
stilts or pillarswithout affecting the tidal fl ow of
green field airport at Navi Mumbai,facilities for receipt,
water, between LTL and HTL.
storage, degasification of petroleum products and lique-
• Development of green fi eld airport already permit- fiednatural gas, storage of non-hazardous cargo, desalina-
ted at onlyNavi Mumbai; tion plants, facilities forgenerating power by
• (ii) Between Low Tide Line and High Tide Line in non-conventional energy sources are permissible
areas which are not ecologicallysensitive, the follow-
ing may be permitted; CRZ-IV
• Exploration and extraction of natural gas; The aquatic area from low tide line upto territorial limits
• Construction of dispensaries, schools, public rain including the area of the tidal influenced water body.
shelter, communitytoilets, bridges, roads, jetties, In CRZ-IV areas, there is no restriction on the traditional
water supply, drainage, sewerage whichare required fishing and allied activitiesundertaken by local communi-
to meet the needs of traditional inhabitants living ties. However, no untreated sewage, effluents orsolid waste
within thebiosphere reserves after obtaining ap- shall be let off or dumped in these areas. A comprehensive
proval from concerned CZMA. plan fortreatment of sewage generating from the city must
• Salt harvesting by solar evaporation of seawater; be formulated within a periodof one year from the date of
issue of this Notification and be implemented withintwo The main objectives of the IPZ Notification, 2011are:
years thereafter • To ensure livelihood security to the fishing commu-
Significant new provisions in the Coastal RegulationZone nities, tribals and otherlocal communities living in
Notification, 2011 the coastal areas;
(i) The entire water area which includes 12 nautical miles • To conserve and protect coastal stretches and;
in the sea and theentire water area of a tidal water • To promote development in a sustainable manner
body such as creek, river, estuary will be regulated by based on scientificprinciples, taking into account the
the Notification. dangers of natural hazards in the coastalareas and
(ii) In order to safeguard livelihood and property of local sea level rise due to global warming
communities includingthe infrastructure along the
coastal areas the hazard line has been introduced-
which will be demarcated by the offices of the Survey Do you know?
of India. The Centre has extended the relaxation of green
(iii) Keeping in view the environmental and social issues, norms in Left Wing Extremism (LWE) affected areas
in the country till December 2018. The central govern-
special dispensationhas been provided to Greater
ment had in May 2011 granted relaxations under sec-
Mumbai, Kerala, Goa and Critically CoastalVulnerable
tion 2 of the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, to help
Areas such as the Sunderban.
expedite the creation of public utility infrastructure
(iv) In view of the erosion experienced along the coastal in 60 LWE affected districts identified by the planning
areas due to man-madeinterventions the shoreline will commission for implementation of the integrated Ac-
be mapped using up-to-date satellite imagesand the tion Plan.
shorelines will then be subsequently classified as ‘high
eroding’,‘medium eroding’ and ‘low or stable stretches’.
No foreshore developmentwould be permissible in high
25.10 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
eroding areas. RULES, 2016
(v) To meet the increasing demands of housing for fishing 62 million tonnes of waste is generated annually in the
communities andother traditional coastal communi- country at present, out of which 5.6 million tonnes is plas-
ties, the No Development Zone which is of200 metres tic waste, 0.17 million tonnes is biomedical waste, hazard-
from the High Tide Line is being reduced to 100m. ous waste generation is 7.90 million tonnes per annum and
15 lakh tonne is e-waste. The per capita waste generation
25.9 ISLAND PROTECTION ZONE in Indian cities ranges from 200 grams to 600 grams per
NOTIFICATION, 2011 day. 43 million TPA is collected, 11.9 million is treated and
Why is a separate Island Protection Zone Notification, 2011 31 million is dumped in landfill sites, which means that
required? only about 75-80% of the municipal waste gets collected
and only 22-28 % of this waste is processed and treated.
There are about 500 islands in Andaman & Nicobar and “Waste generation will increase from 62 million tonnes to
about 30 in Lakshadweep.These two groups of oceanic is- about 165 million tonnes in 2030”.
lands are home to some of the country’s mostthriving bio-
diversity hotspots. The A&N Islands are known for their Scientific disposal of solid waste through segregation, col-
terrestrial andmarine biodiversity including forest area lection and treatment and disposal in an environmentally
which covers 85% of the Andaman andNicobar geograph- sound manner minimises the adverse impact on the en-
ical area, while, Lakshadweep is a coral island. The geo- vironment. The local authorities are responsible for the
graphicalareas of these islands are so small that in most development of infrastructure for collection, storage, seg-
of the cases the 500 metresCoastal Regulation Zone regu- regation, transportation, processing and disposal of MSW.
lations overlap. Hence, a separate Notificationis being is- The Rules are now applicable beyond Municipal areas and
sued which takes into account the management of the extend to urban agglomerations, census towns, notified
entire island(except for four islands of A&N which include industrial townships, areas under the control of Indian
North Andaman, Middle Andaman,South Andaman and Railways, airports, airbase, Port and harbour, defence es-
Great Nicobar). tablishments, special economic zones, State and Central
government organizations, places of pilgrims, religious & or the authorized recyclers. The biodegradable waste shall
historical importance. be processed, treated and disposed of through composting
The source segregation of waste has been mandated to or bio-methanation within the premises as far as possible.
channelize the waste to wealth by recovery, reuse and re- The residual waste shall be given to the waste collectors or
cycle. agency as directed by the local authority.
Integration of waste pickers/ ragpickers and waste dealers/ The developers of Special Economic Zone, Industrial Estate,
Kabadiwalas in the formal system should be done by State Industrial park to earmark at least 5% of the total area of
Governments, and Self Help Group, or any other group to the plot or minimum 5 plots/ sheds for recovery and recy-
be formed. cling facility.
No person should throw, burn, or bury the solid waste
Duties of Ministry of Urban Development
generated by him, on streets, open public spaces outside
his premises, or in the drain, or water bodies. MoUD shall formulate National Policy and Strategy on Solid
Waste Management including policy on Waste to Energy
Generator will have to pay ‘User Fee’ to waste collector and
in consultation with stakeholders within 6 months from
for ‘Spot Fine’ for Littering and Non-segregation.
the date of notification of these Rules; review of the meas-
ures taken by the States and local bodies, undertake train-
Time frame
ing and capacity building of local bodies and other
i. setting up solid waste processing facilities by all local stakeholders; providing technical guidelines and project
bodies having 100000 or more population: within two finance to States, UTs and local bodies on solid waste man-
years agement to facilitate meeting timelines and standards
ii. census towns below 100000 population, setting up
Promotion of marketing and utilization of compost
common or stand-alone sanitary landfills by or for all
local bodies having 0.5 million or more population and The Department of Fertilisers, Ministry of Chemicals and
setting up common or regional sanitary landfills by all Fertilizers shall provide market development assistance on
local bodies and census towns under 0.5 million popu- city compost andensure promotion of comarketing of com-
lation-three years post with chemical fertilizers in the ratio of 3 to 4 bags: 6
to 7 bags by the fertilizer companies to the extent compost
iii. bio-remediation or capping of old and abandoned dump
is made available for marketing to the companies.
sites-five years.
The Ministry of Agriculture shall provide flexibility in Fer-
Duties of Waste generator tiliser Control Order for manufacturing and sale of com-
post , propagate utlisation of compost on farm land set up
Every waste generator shall segregate and store the waste
laboratories to test quality of compost produced by local
generated by them in three separate streams namely bio-
authorities or their authorized agencies and issue suitable
degradable, non-bio-degradable and domestic hazardous
guidelines for maintaining the quality of compost and ratio
wastes in suitable bins and handover segregated wastes to
of use of compost visa-a-vis chemical fertilizers while ap-
authorized rag-pickers or waste collectors
plying compost to farmland.
Event organizer of more than 100 persons shall intimate
the local authority, at least three working days in advance. Promotion of waste to energy plant
Such person or the organizer of such event shall ensure
Ministry of Power shall fix tariff or charges for the power
segregation of waste at source and handing over of segre-
generated from the Waste to Energy plants based on solid
gated waste to waste collector or agency as specified by
waste and ensurecompulsory purchase of power generated
local authority.
from such Waste to Energy plants by DISCOMs .
All Resident Welfare and Market Associations, Gated com-
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Sources shall
munities and institution with an area >5,000 sq m and all
facilitate infrastructure creation for Waste to Energy plants
hotels and restaurant shall, withinone year from the date
and provide appropriate subsidy or incentives for such
of notification of these rules and in partnership with the
Waste to Energy plants.
local authority by the generators as prescribed in these
rules, ensure segregation of waste at source, facilitate col- All industrial units using fuel and located within 100 km
lection of segregated waste in separate streams, handover from an solid waste based RDF plant shall make arrange-
recyclable material to either the authorized waste pickers ments within six months from the date of notification of
these rules to replace at least 5 % of their fuel requirement For the first time, Rules have been made to distinguish
by RDF so produced. between Hazardous Waste and other wastes. Other wastes
Non recyclable waste having calorific value of 1500 K/cal/ include: Waste tyre, paper waste, metal scrap, used elec-
kg or more shall not be disposed of on landfills and shall tronic items, etc. and are recognized as a resource for re-
only be utilized for generating energy either or through cycling and reuse. These resources supplement the
refuse derived fuel or by giving away as feed stock for industrial processes and reduce the load on the virgin re-
preparing refuse derived fuel. source of the country.
The salient features

Do you know? i. The ambit of the Rules has been expanded by including
The tiger population of Northeast India is genetically ‘Other Waste’.
different from the rest of the country. ii. Waste Management hierarchy in the sequence of prior-
ity of prevention, minimization, reuse, recycling, re-
covery, co-processing; and safe disposal has been
25.11 HAZARDOUS WASTE incorporated.
MANAGEMENT RULES, 2016 iii. All the forms under the rules for permission, import/
Hazardous waste means any waste, which by reason of export, filing of annual returns, transportation, etc.
characteristics, such as physical, chemical, biological, reac- have been revised significantly, indicating the stringent
tive, toxic, flammable, explosive or corrosive, causes danger approach for management of such hazardous and other
to health, or environment. It comprises the waste gener- wastes with simultaneous simplification of procedure.
ated during the manufacturing processes of the commer- iv. The basic necessity of infrastructure to safeguard the
cial products such as industries involved in petroleum health and environment from waste processing indus-
refining, production of pharmaceuticals, petroleum, paint, try has been prescribed as Standard Operating Proce-
aluminium, electronic products etc. As per the information dure (SOPs), specific to waste type, which has to be
furnished by CPCB in the year 2015, the total hazardous complied by the stakeholders and ensured by SPCB/
waste generation in the country is 7.46 million metric PCC while granting such authorisation.
tonnes per annum from about 44,000 industries. v. Procedure has been simplified to merge all the approv-
Unscientific disposal of hazardous and other waste through als as a single window clearance for setting up of haz-
burning or incineration leads to emission of toxic fumes ardous waste disposal facility and import of other
comprising of Dioxins & Furans, Mercury, heavy metals, wastes.
causing air pollution and associated health-related prob- vi. Co-processing as preferential mechanism over disposal
lems. Disposal in water bodies, or in municipal dumps for use of waste as supplementary resource, or for re-
leads to toxic releases due to leaching in land and water covery of energy has been provided.
entailing into degradation of soil and water quality. The
workers employed in such unscientific practices suffer from vii. The approval process for co-processing of hazardous
neurological disorders, skin diseases, genetic defects, can- waste to recover energy has been streamlined and put
cer etc. Hence, there is a need for systematic management on emission norms basis rather than on trial basis.
of hazardous and other waste in an environmentally sound viii. The process of import/export of waste under the Rules
manner by way of prevention, minimisation, re-use, recy- has been streamlined by simplifying the document-
cling, recovery, utilisation including co-processing and safe based procedure and by revising the list of waste reg-
disposal of waste. ulated for import/export.
Scientific disposal of hazardous waste through collection, ix. The import of metal scrap, paper waste and various
storage, packaging, transportation and treatment, in an categories of electrical and electronic equipments for
environmentally sound manner minimises the adverse re-use purposehas been exempted from the need of
impact on human health and on the environment. The obtaining Ministry’s permission.
hazardous waste can be disposed at captive treatment fa- x. The basic necessity of infrastructure to safeguard the
cility installed by the individual waste generators or at health and environment from waste processing indus-
Common Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage and Dis- try has been prescribed as Standard Operating Proce-
posal Facilities (TSDFs). dure (SOPs) specific to waste type.
xi. Responsibilities of State Government for environmen- Duties of waste Generators
tally sound management of hazardous and other • Every waste generator shall segregate construction and
wastes have been introduced as follows: demolition waste and deposit at collection centre or
• Toset up/ allot industrial space or sheds for recy- handover it to the authorised processing facilities
cling, pre-processing and other utilization of hazard- • Shall ensure that there is no littering or deposition so
ous or other waste as to prevent obstruction to the traffic or the public or
drains.
• To register the workers involved in recycling, pre-
processing and other utilization activities. • Large generators (who generate more than 20 tons or
more in one day or 300 tons per project in a month)
• To form groups of workers to facilitate setting up
shall submit waste management plan and get appropri-
such facilities; ate approvals from the local authority before starting
• To undertake industrial skill development activities construction or demolition or remodeling work,
and ensure safety and health of workers. • Large generators shall have environment management
xii. List of processes generating hazardous wastes has been plan to address the likely environmental issues from
reviewed taking into account technological evolution construction, demolition, storage, transportation pro-
in the industries. cess and disposal / reuse of C & D Waste.
xiii. List of Waste Constituents with Concentration Limits • Large generators shall segregate the waste into four
has been revised as per international standard and streams such as concrete, soil, steel, wood and plastics,
drinking water standard. bricks and mortar.
The following items have been prohibited for import: Duties of Service providers and Contractors
a. Waste edible fats and oil of animals, or vegetable • The service providers shall prepare a comprehensive
waste management plan for waste generated within
origin;
their jurisdiction, within six months from the date of
b. Household waste; notification of these rules,
c. Critical Care Medical equipment; • Shall remove all construction and demolition waste in
d. Tyres for direct re-use purpose; consultation with the concerned local authority on their
own or through any agency.
e. Solid Plastic wastes including Pet bottles;
Timeframe for implementation
f. Waste electrical and electronic assemblies scrap;
g. Other chemical wastes especially in solvent form.
• Million plus cities (based on 2011 census of India), shall
commission the processing and disposal facility within
xiv. State Government is authorized to prepare integrated one-and-a-half years from date of final notification of
plan for effective implementation of these provisions, these rules
and have to submit annual report to Ministry of Envi- • 0.5 to 1 million cities, shall commission the processing
ronment, Forest and Climate Change. and disposal facility within two years from date of final
xv. State Pollution Control Board is mandated to prepare notification of these rules
an annual inventory of the waste generated; waste • for other cities (< 0.5 million populations), shall com-
recycled, recovered, utilised including co-processed; mission the processing and disposal facility within
waste re-exported and waste disposed and submit to three years from date of final notification of these rules
the Central Pollution Control Board by the 30th day of Local Authority shall be responsible for proper manage-
September every year. ment of construction and demolition waste within its ju-
risdiction including placing appropriate containers for
25.12 CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION collection of waste, removal at regular intervals, transpor-
WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES, 2016 tation to appropriate sites for processing and disposal.
Procurement of materials made from construction and
The salient features are: demolition waste shall be made mandatory to a certain
Applies to everyone who generates construction and dem- percentage (say 10-20%) in municipal and Government
olition waste. contracts subject to strict quality control.
(c) Pre-treatment of the laboratory waste, microbiological
Do you know? waste, blood samples and blood bags through disinfec-
The decline in vulture population has had other indi- tion orsterilisation on-site in the manner as prescribed
rect costs, too. Anecdotal evidence shows that the by WHOor NACO;
population of secondary scavengers such as dogs, jack- (d) Provide training to all its health care workers and im-
als and rodents has been increasing. This might be munise all health workers regularly;
leading to increased expenditure on diseases such as (e) Establish a Bar-Code System for bags or containers
rabies, leptospirosis in humans and canine distemper containing bio-medical waste for disposal;
in tigers. Besides, the increase in feral dogs’ popula-
tion and the change in their feeding habits might also (f) Report major accidents;
have an impact on the prey base for large wild cats (g) Existing incinerators to achieve the standards for re-
like the tiger in future. tention time in secondary chamber and Dioxin and
Furans within two years;
(h) Bio-medical waste has been classified in to 4 categories
25.13 BIO-MEDICAL WASTE instead 10 to improve the segregation of waste at
MANAGEMENT RULES, 2016 source;
Biomedical waste comprises human & animal anatomical (i) Procedure to get authorisation simplified. Automatic
waste, treatment apparatus likeneedles, syringes and other authorisation for bedded hospitals. The validity of au-
materials used in health care facilities in the process of thorization synchronised with validity of consent or-
treatment and research. This waste is generated during ders for Bedded HCFs. One time Authorisation for
diagnosis, treatment or immunisation in hospitals, nursing Non-bedded HCFs;
homes, pathological laboratories, blood bank, etc. Total
bio-medical waste generation in the country is 484 TPD (j) The new rules prescribe more stringent standards for
from 1,68,869 healthcare facilities (HCF), out of which 447 incinerator to reduce the emission of pollutants in en-
TPD is treated. vironment;
The hospitals servicing 1000 patients or more per month (k) Inclusion of emissions limits for Dioxin and furans;
are required to obtain authorisation and segregate bio- (l) State Government to provide land for setting up com-
medical waste in to 10 categories, pack five colour backs mon bio-medical waste treatment and disposal
for disposal. facility;
The quantum of waste generated in India is estimated to (m) No occupier shall establish on-site treatment and dis-
be 1-2 kg per bed per day in a hospital and 600 gm per day posal facility, if a service of `common bio-medical
per bed in a clinic. 85% of the hospital waste is non-haz- waste treatment facility is available at a distance of
ardous, 15% is infectious/hazardous. Mixing of hazardous seventy-five kilometer.
results in to contamination and makes the entire waste
(n) Operator of a common bio-medical waste treatment
hazardous. Hence there is necessity to segregate and treat.
and disposal facility to ensure the timely collection of
Improper disposal increases risk of infection; encourages
bio-medical waste from the HCFs and assist the HCFs
recycling of prohibited disposables and disposed drugs; and
in conduct of training
develops resistant microorganisms
Scientific disposal of Biomedical Waste through segrega- Amendment Rules, 2018
tion, collection and treatment in an environmentally sound
manner minimises the adverse impact on health workers • Phase out chlorinated plastic bags (excluding blood
bags) and gloves by March 27, 2019.
and on the environment.
• All healthcare facilities shall make available the annual
The salient features report on its website within a period of two years (from
(a) The ambit of the rules has been expanded to include 2018).
vaccination camps, blood donation camps, surgical • Operators of common bio-medical waste treatment and
camps or any other healthcare activity; disposal facilities shall establish barcoding and global
(b) Phase-out the use of chlorinated plastic bags, gloves positioning system for handling of bio-medical waste in
and blood bags within two years; accordance with guidelines issued by the CPCB.
• Every person having administrative control over the returns it to the consumer along with interest when
institution generating biomedical waste shall pre-treat the end-of life electrical and electronic equipment is
it through sterilization on-site in the manner as pre- returned.
scribed by WHO and then sent to the Common bio- 9. The e-waste exchange as an option has been provided
medical waste treatment facility for final disposal. in the rules as an independent market instrument of-
fering assistance or independent electronic systems
25.14 E-WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES, offering services for sale and purchase of e-waste gen-
2016 erated from end-of-life electrical and electronic equip-
17 lakh tonnes of E-waste is generated every year, with an ment between agencies or organizations authorised
annual increase of 5 per cent of generation of E-waste. under these rules.
10. The manufacturer is also now responsible to collect
For the first time, the Rules will bring the producers under
e-waste generated during the manufacture of any elec-
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), along with tar-
trical and electronic equipment and channelise it for
gets. The producers have been made responsible for collec-
recycling or disposal and seek authorization from
tion of E-waste and for its exchange SPCB.
Salient features 11. The dealer, if has been given the responsibility of col-
lection on behalf of the producer, need to collect the
1. Manufacturer, dealer, refurbisher and Producer Re- e-waste by providing the consumer a box and chan-
sponsibility Organization (PRO) have been introduced nelize it to Producer.
as additional stake holders in the rules.
12. Dealer or retailer or e-retailer shall refund the amount
2. The applicability of the rules has been extended to com-
as per take back system or Deposit Refund Scheme of
ponents, consumables, spares and parts of EEE in ad-
the producer to the depositor of e-waste.
dition to equipment as listed in Schedule I.
13. Refurbisher need collect e-waste generated during the
3. Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) and other mercury
process of refurbishing and channelise the waste to
containing lamp brought under the purview of rules.
authorised dismantler or recycler through its collection
4. Collection mechanism based approach has been centre and seek one time authorization from SPCB.
adopted to include collection centre, collection point,
14. The roles of the State Government has been also intro-
take back system etc for collection of e-waste by Pro-
duced in the Rules in order to ensure safety, health and
ducers under Extended Producer Responsibility(EPR).
skill development of the workers involved in the dis-
5. Option has been given for setting up of PRO, e-waste mantling and recycling operations.
exchange, e- retailer, Deposit Refund Scheme as addi-
15. The transportation of e-waste shall be carried out as
tional channel for implementation of EPR by Producers
per the manifest system whereby the transporter shall
to ensure efficient channelization of e-waste.
be required to carry a document (three copies) pre-
6. Provision for Pan India EPR Authroization by CPCB pared by the sender, giving the details.
has been introduced replacing the state wise EPR au-
thorization. 16. Liability for damages caused to the environment or
third party due to improper management of e-waste
7. Collection and channelisation of e-waste in Extended including provision for levying financial penalty for
Producer Responsibility - Authorisation shall be in line violation of provisions of the Rules has also been intro-
with the targets prescribed in Schedule III of the Rules. duced.
The phase wise Collection Target for e-waste, which can
be either in number or Weight shall be 30% of the quan- 17. Urban Local Bodies (Municipal Committee/Council/
tity of waste generation as indicated in EPR Plan during Corporation) has been assign the duty to collect and
first two year of implementation of rules followed by channelized the orphan products to authorized disman-
40%during third and fourth years, 50% during fifth tler or recycler.
and sixth years and 70% during seventh year onwards.
Amendment Rules, 2018
8. Deposit Refund Scheme has been introduced as an ad-
ditional economic instrument wherein the producer • The e-waste collection targets under extended producer
charges an additional amount as a deposit at the time responsibility (EPR) have been revised. The phase-wise
of sale of the electrical and electronic equipment and collection targets for e-waste in weight shall be 10% of
the quantity of waste generation as indicated in the EPR 6. Use of plastic sheet for packaging, wrapping the com-
Plan during 2017-18, with a 10% increase every year modity except those plastic sheet’s thickness, which
until 2023. From 2023 onwards, the target has been will impair the functionality of the product are
made 70% of the quantity of waste generation as indi- brought under the ambit of these rules. A large num-
cated in the EPR Plan. ber of commodities are being packed/wrapped into
• Separate e-waste collection targets have been drafted plastic sheets and thereafter such sheets are left for
for new producers littered. Provisions have been introduced to ensure
their collection and channelization to authorised re-
• Under the Reduction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS)
cycling facilities.
provisions, cost for sampling and testing shall be borne
by the government for conducting the RoHS test. If the 7. Extended Producer Responsibility: Earlier, EPR was left
product does not comply with RoHS provisions, then to the discretion of the local bodies. First time, the
the cost of the test will be borne by the Producers. producers and brand owners have been made respon-
sible for collecting waste generated from their products.
25.15 PLASTIC WASTE MANAGEMENT They have to approach local bodies for formulation of
RULES, 2016 plan/system for the plastic waste management within
15, 000 tonnes of plastic waste is generated every day, out the prescribed time frame.
of which 9, 000 tonnes is collected and processed, but 6, 8. SPCBs will not grant/renew registration of plastic bags,
000 tonnes of plastic waste is not being collected. or multi-layered packaging unless the producer pro-
An eco-friendly product, which is a complete substitute of poses the action plan endorsed by the concerned State
the plastic in all uses, has not been found till date. In the Development Department.
absence of a suitable alternative, it is impractical and un- 9. Producers to keep a record of their vendors to whom
desirable to impose a blanket ban on the use of plastic all they have supplied raw materials for manufacturing
over the country. The real challenge is to improve plastic carry bags, plastic sheets, and multi-layered packaging.
waste management systems. This is to curb manufacturing of these products in
unorganised sector.
Salient features 10. The entry points of plastic bags/plastic sheets/multi-
1. Increase minimum thickness of plastic carry bags from layered packaging in to commodity supply chain are
40 to 50 microns and stipulate minimum thickness of primarily the retailers and street vendors. They have
50 micron for plastic sheets also to facilitate collection been assigned the responsibility of not to provide the
and recycle of plastic waste. commodities in plastic bags/plastic sheets/multi-lay-
2. To promote use of plastic waste for road construction ered packaging which do not conform to these rules.
as per Indian Road Congress guidelines or energy re- Otherwise, they will have to pay the fine.
covery, or waste to oil etc. for gainful utilization of 11. Plastic carry bag will be available only with shopkeep-
waste ers/street vendors pre-registered with local bodies on
3. Rural areas have been brought in ambit of these Rules payment of certain registration fee. The amount col-
since plastic has reached torural areas also. Responsi- lected as registration fee by local bodies is to be used
bility for implementation of the rules is given to Gram for waste management.
Panchayat. 12. CPCB has been mandated to formulate the guidelines
4. First time, responsibility of waste generators is being for thermoset plastic (plastic difficult to recycle). In the
introduced. Individual and bulk generators like offices, earlier Rules, there was no specific provision for such
commercial establishments, industries are to segregate type of plastic.
the plastic waste at source, handover segregated waste, 13. Manufacturing and use of non-recyclable multi-layered
pay user fee as per bye-laws of the local bodies. plastic to be phased in two years.
5. Plastic products are left littered after the public events
(marriage functions, religious gatherings, public meet- Amendment Rules, 2018
ings etc) held in open spaces. First time, persons organ- • Phasing out of Multilayered Plastic (MLP) is now
izing such events have been made responsible for applicable to MLP, which are non-recyclable, or non-
management of waste generated from these events. energy recoverable, or with no alternative use.
• Central registration system for the registration of the river channels, man-made wetlands will be no more effec-
producer/importer/brand owner. tive as they are not considered wetlands.
• A national registry has been prescribed for producers The definition of wetlands and its inclusion is done by the
with a presence in more than two states, a state-level respective state/ UT. This may lead to a lack of uniformity
registration has been prescribed for smaller producers/ in defining and conserving the wetlands in the country.
brand owners operating within one or two states.
The older provision of appealing to the National Green
• Explicit pricing of carry bags has been omitted. Tribunal does not exist in the 2017 Rules.
There is also no timeline specified for phasing out solid
25.16 WETLANDS (CONSERVATION AND
waste and untreated waste from being dumped into wet-
MANAGEMENT) RULES 2017
lands.
Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017 su-
persede the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) The new rules do not take into account the Jagpal Singh vs
Rules, 2010 for effective conservation and management of State of Punjab (2011) judgment of Supreme Court for the
wetlands in the country restoration of encroached wetlands throughout the coun-
try.
Key features Key to wetland conservation is not just understanding re-
Decentralisation of wetland management. Under the new gimes of multiple uses but conserving and managing the
rules, the powers have been given to the State governments integrity of the wetland ecosystem.
so that protection and conservation can be done at the local
level. The central government has mainly retained powers Do you know?
regarding monitoring.
• Gujarat has the largest area of wetland in the coun-
The new rules have replaced the Central Wetlands Regula- try. Lakshadweep has the highest percentage of
tory Authority (CWRA) with the National Wetland Com- wetland in its own geographical area for a state /
mittee, which has a merely advisory role. UT.
The State or UT Wetlands Authority will have to prepare
a list of all wetlands and also will develop a comprehensive
25.17 NATIONAL GREEN TRIBUNAL (NGT)
list of activities to be regulated and permitted within noti-
fied wetlands and their zone of influence. • The Preamble of the act provides for the establishment
of a National Green Tribunal for the effective and expe-
The new rules also prohibit encroachments on wetlands,
ditious disposal of cases relating to environmental pro-
solid waste dumping, discharge of untreated waste and
tection and conservation of forests and other natural
effluents from industries and human settlements.
resources, including enforcement of any legal right re-
It prescribes that conservation and management would be lating to environment and giving relief and compensa-
based on the principle of wise use, which is to be deter- tion for damages to persons and property and for
mined by the Wetlands Authority. matters connected therewith or incidental thereto (The
National Green Tribunal Act, 2010).
Shortfalls
We have earlier read the definition of wetland given by
• With the establishment of the NGT, India has joined the
distinguished league of countries that have a dedicated
Ramsar convention earlier in this topic. The 2010 wetland
adjudicatory forum to address environmental disputes.
rules followed the definition of Ramsar convention.
However, the 2017 rules, in the definition of wetland do not
• India is third country in the world to full fleged green
tribunal followed by new Zealand and Australia.
include river channels, paddy fields, man-made water bod-
ies/tanks specifically for drinking water purposes and • The specialized architecture of the NGT will facilitate
structures specifically constructed for aquaculture, salt fast track resolution of environmental cases and provide
production, recreation, and irrigation purposes. a boost to the implementation of many sustainable de-
By this new definition (exclusion of aforesaid wetlands) velopment measures.
close to 65 % wetland in the country will lose the status • NGT is mandated to dispose the cases within six months
of wetlands. The management and protection awarded to of their respective appeals.
• For more details on national green tribunal refer 2005 to facilitate implementation of ODS phase-out at
Shankar IAS academy’s polity part II material] enterprises in various sectors.
• These Rules prohibit the use of CFCs in manufacturing
25.18 THE OZONE DEPLETING various products beyond 1st January 2003
SUBSTANCES RULES • except in metered dose inhaler and for other medical
purposes.
• The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Con-
trol)Rules, 2000 under the Environment (Protection) • Similarly, use of halons is prohibited after 1st January
Act, in July 2000. 2001 except for essential use. Other ODSs such as carbon
tetrachloride and methylchoroform and CFC for metered
• These Rules set the deadlines for phasing out of various dose inhalers can be used upto 1st January 2010.
ODSs, besides regulating production, trade import and
export of ODSs and the product containing ODS.
• Further, the use of methyl bromide has been allowed
upto 1st January 2015. Since HCFCs are used as interim
• The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Con- substitute to replace CFC, these are allowed upto 1st
trol) Rule, 2000 were amended in 2001, 2003, 2004 and January 2040.
 
CHAPTER - 26
INSTITUTIONS AND MEASURES

26.1 NATIONAL WILDLIFE ACTION PLAN vii Human Resource Development and Personnel Plan-
ning
• The first National Wildlife Action Plan (NWAP) was
adopted in 1983, based upon the decision taken in the viii Ensuring Peoples’ Participation in Wildlife Conser-
XV meeting of the Indian Board for Wildlife held in 1982. vation
The plan had outlined the strategies and action points ix Conservation Awareness and Education
for wildlife conservation which are still relevant. x Wildlife Tourism
• In the meanwhile, however, some problems have become xi Domestic Legislation and International Conventions
more acute and new concerns have become apparent,
xii Enhancing Financial Allocation for Ensuring Sus-
requiring a change in priorities. Increased commercial
tained Fund Flow to the Wildlife Sector
use of natural resources, continued growth of human
and livestock populations and changes in consumption xiii Integration of National Wildlife Action Plan with
patterns are causing greater demographic impacts. Bio- Other Sectoral Programmes
diversity conservation has thus become a focus of inter-
est. The National Forest Policy was also formulated in 26.2 NATIONAL AFFORESTATION AND
1988, giving primacy to conservation. ECO-DEVELOPMENT BOARD
• The first National Wildlife Action Plan (NWAP) of 1983 • The Ministry of Environment and Forests constituted
has been revised and the Wildlife Action Plan (2002- the National Afforestation and Eco-development Board
2016) has been adopted. (NAEB) in August 1992. National Afforestation and Eco-
development Board has evolved specific schemes for
Strategy for Action promoting afforestation and management strategies,
which help the states in developing specific afforestation
• Adopting and implementing strategies and needs out-
and management strategies and eco-development pack-
lined above will call for action covering the following
ages for augmenting biomass production through a
parameters:
participatory planning process of Joint Forest Manage-
i Strengthening and Enhancing the Protected Area ment and microplanning
Network
ii Effective Management of Protected Areas National Afforestation Programme
iii Conservation of Wild and Endangered Species and • A National Afforestation Programme (NAfP) was
Their Habitats launched in 2002, which involves plantation in degraded
iv Restoration of Degraded Habitats outside Protected forests of the country.
Areas • NAfP is a flagship programme of National Afforestation
and Eco-development Board (NAEB) and provides phys-
v Control of Poaching, Taxidermy and Illegal Trade in
ical and capacity building support to the Forest Develop-
Wild Animal and Plant Species
ment Agencies (FDAs), which are the implementing
vi Monitoring and Research agencies.
26.3 COMPENSATORY AFFORESTATION India Programme, wildlife protection and other related
FUND MANAGEMENT AND activities and for matters connected therewith or inci-
PLANNING AUTHORITY (CAMPA) dental thereto.
• While according prior approval under the Forest (Con- Salient features
servation) Act, 1980 for diversion of forest land for non-
forest purpose, Central Government stipulates
• These Funds will receive payments for: (i) compensa-
tory afforestation, (ii) net present value of forest (NPV),
conditions that amounts shall be realised from the user and (iii) other project specific payments. The National
agencies to undertake compensatory afforestation and Fund will receive 10% of these funds, and the State
such other activities related to conservation and devel- Funds will receive the remaining 90%.
opment of forests, to mitigate impact of diversion of
forest land. • These Funds will be primarily spent on afforestation to
compensate for loss of forest cover, regeneration of for-
• In April 2004, the central government, under the orders est ecosystem, wildlife protection and infrastructure
of the Supreme Court, constituted the Compensatory development.
Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Author-
ity (CAMPA) for the management of money towards • The Bill also establishes the National and State Compen-
compensatory afforestation, and other money recover- satory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning
able, in compliance of the conditions stipulated by the Authorities to manage the National and State Funds.
central government and in accordance with the Forest
(Conservation) Act, 26.4 JOINT FOREST MANAGEMENT (JFM)
• CAMPA as envisaged by the Supreme Court of India vide • JFM is an initiative to institutionalize participatory gov-
its order dated 29/30.10.2002, could not become opera- ernance of country’s forest resources by involving the
tional due to non-passing of Compensatory Afforesta- local communities living close to the forest.
tion Fund Bill 2008 in the Parliament. But it got lapsed. • This is a co-management institution to develop partner-
• In compliance of Orders passed by the Hon’ble Supreme ships between forest fringe communities and the Forest
Court these amounts are deposited in the State-wise Department (FD) on the basis of mutual trust and
accounts operated by an Ad-hoc Authority consisting of jointly defined roles and responsibilities with regard to
two officials of the Ministry of Environment, Forests and forest protection and regeneration.
Climate Change one representative of the Comptroller • JFM started in consonance with the National Forest
and Auditor General and one representative of the Chair- Policy 1988, which has recognized the importance of
person of the Central Empowered Committee. involving the local communities and the government
• In the absence of permanent institutional mechanism has issued necessary resolutions and guidelines subse-
more than Rs.40,000 crores have accumulated with the quently to initiate such institutions and strengthen it
said ad-hoc Body. further.
• In order to provide for the establishment of funds under • Most of the states in India have adopted JFM and issued
the public accounts of India and the public accounts of resolutions permitting such partnership as per the pre-
each State and crediting thereto the monies received scribed guidelines though the institutional structure
from the user agencies towards compensatory afforesta- varies across the states.
tion, additional compensatory afforestation, penal com- • Under JFM, both forest departments and local commu-
pensatory afforestation, net present value and all other nities come to an agreement to form the committee to
amounts recovered from such agencies under the Forest manage and protect forests by sharing the costs and
(Conservation) Act, 1980 Central Government intro- benefits.
duced the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Bill, 2015
in the LokSabha on 8th May 2015. The Bill also provides • Forest departments take the initiative to form such
committees directly by talking to the local community
for constitution of an authority at national level and at
or through the help of NGOs working in specific areas.
each of the State and Union territory Administration for
administration of the funds and to utilise the monies so • NGOs are also involved for capacity building, informa-
collected for undertaking artificial regeneration (plantation dissemination, monitoring and evaluation and
tions), assisted natural regeneration, protection of for- often act as the facilitators in constituting these par-
ests, forest related infrastructure development, Green ticipatory institutions.
• One of the key objectives of the JFM programme is the Community forestry
rehabilitation of degraded forestlands with people’s par- • It is the raising of trees on community land and not on
ticipation involving Forest Protection Committees. private land as in farm forestry. All these programmes
• JFM brings a win-win situation for both forest depart- aim to provide for the entire community and not for any
ments as well as the local communities in terms of individual. The government has the responsibility of
greater access to minor forest produces from these re- providing seedlings, fertilizer but the community has
generated forests. to take responsibility of protecting the trees.
Extension forestry
26.5 SOCIAL FORESTRY
• Planting of trees on the sides of roads, canals and rail-
• The National Commission on Agriculture, Government ways, along with planting on wastelands is known as
of India, first used the term ‘social forestry’ in 1976. ‘extension’ forestry, increasing the boundaries of for-
• It was then that India embarked upon a social forestry ests. Under this project there has been creation of wood
project with the aim of taking the pressure off the for- lots in the village common lands, government waste-
ests and making use of all unused and fallow land. lands and panchayat lands.
• Government forest areas that are close to human set- Recreational forestry
tlement and have been degraded over the years due to
human activities needed to be afforested.
• Raising of trees with the major objective of recreation
alone.
• Trees were to be planted in and around agricultural
fields. Plantation of trees along railway lines and road-
sides, and river and canal banks were carried out. They Do you know?
were planted in village common land, Government The atapaka Bird Sanctuary, part of the Kolleru Lake,
wasteland and Panchayat land. has been identified as the world’s largest home for the
spot-billed pelican.
5 F’s
• Social forestry also aims at raising plantations by the
common man so as to meet the growing demand for 26.6 NATIONAL BAMBOO MISSION
food, fuel wood, fodder, fiber and fertilizer etc, thereby • The National Bamboo Mission is a Centrally Sponsored
reducing the pressure on the traditional forest area. Scheme with 100% contribution from Central Govern-
• With the introduction of this scheme the government ment. It is being implemented by the Horticulture Divi-
formally recognised the local communities’ rights to sion under Department of Agriculture and Co-operation
forest resources, and encouraged rural participation in in the Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi.
the management of natural resources. Through the so- • Bamboo Mission envisages integration of different Min-
cial forestry scheme, the government has involved com- istries/Departments and involvement of local people/
munity participation, as part of a drive towards initiatives for the holistic development of bamboo sector
afforestation, and rehabilitating the degraded forest and in terms of growth of bamboo through increase in area
common lands. coverage, enhanced yields and scientific management,
marketing of bamboo and bamboo based handicrafts,
Social forestry scheme can be categorized into generation of employment opportunities etc.
groups
Objectives of the Mission
Farm forestry
• To promote the growth of bamboo sector through an
• Individual farmers are being encouraged to plant trees area based regionally differentiated strategy;
on their own farmland to meet the domestic needs of
the family.
• To increase the coverage of area under bamboo in po-
tential areas, with suitable species to enhance yields;
• Non-commercial farm forestry is the main thrust of
• To promote marketing of bamboo and bamboo based
most of the social forestry projects in the country today. handicrafts;
• It is to provide shade for the agricultural crops; as wind • To establish convergence and synergy among stakehold-
shelters; soil conservation or to use wasteland. ers for the development of bamboo;
• To promote, develop and disseminate technologies Classification of industrial clusters:
through a seamless blend of traditional wisdom and
modern scientific knowledge; CEPI score status measures
• To generate employment opportunities for skilled and > 70 critically detailed investigations and
unskilled persons, especially unemployed youths. polluted appropriate remedial action
60 – 70 severely surveillance and
Strategy of the Mission polluted implementation of pollution
control
• Adopt a coordinated approach covering production and
marketing to assure appropriate returns to growers/ < 60 normal
producers.
• Promote Research and Development (R&D) of geneti- • The Central and state Pollution Control Board, in col-
cally superior clones of suitable species and technologies laboration with IIT, Delhi has applied the CEPI for en-
vironmental assessment of 88 Industrial Clusters across
for enhanced production.
the country. 43 such industrial clusters having CEPI
• Enhance acreage (in forest and non-forest areas) and greater than 70, on a scale of 0 to 100, have been iden-
productivity of bamboo through species change and tified as critically polluted.
improved cultural practices.
• The effective implementation of the remedial action
• Promote partnership, convergence and synergy among plan will help in pollution abatement and to restore the
R&D and marketing agencies in public as well as private environmental quality of respective industrial clusters
sectors, at all levels. and its sustainable use.
• Promote where appropriate, cooperatives and self- • The polluted industrial clusters/areas shall be further
help groups to ensure support and adequate return to explored in order to define the spatial boundaries as
farmers. well as the extent of eco-geological damages.
• Facilitate capacity-building and Human Resource De- • There are still some aspects that need to be improved
velopment. include, consistency in pollution monitoring data, selec-
• Set up National, State and sub-State level structures, to tion of sampling locations for the environmental moni-
ensure adequate returns for the produce of the farmers toring, and collection of data on adverse impact on
and eliminate middlemen, to the extent possible. human population and other geo-ecological features due
to industrial pollution.
26.7 COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL POLLUTION INDEX (CEPI) 26.8 LIGHTING A BILLION LIVES (LABL)
• Comprehensive Environmental Pollution Index (CEPI) • LaBL is a campaign by TERI that promotes the use of
solar lanterns specially designed and manufactured on
is a rational number to characterize the environmental
a decentralized basis.
quality at a given location following the algorithm of
source, pathway, receptor and various parameters like • LaBL has been able to engage with government inter-
pollutant concentration, impact on human health and ventions under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Madhya Pradesh
level of exposure have been taken into consideration for Rural Livelihood Project, Rasthriya Gramin Vikas Nidhi,
the calculation of pollution indices for air, water and and has facilitated the spread of mobile telephony with
support from Department of Telecommunications, Gov-
land.
ernment of India.
• The present CEPI is intended to act as an early warn-
ing tool. It can help in categorizing the industrial clus- • LaBL has successfully engaged the private sector and
leveraged Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR).
ters in terms of priority of planning needs for
interventions. • This initiative has the potential to contribute towards
the realization of the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) by improving energy access for the rural poor.
• Formation of more than 100 women-led Self Help 26.11 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
Groups (SHGs), and strengthening of around 150 SHGs RUR AL LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT
are among the impacts of this initiative. PROJECT (BCRLIP)
• The campaign has demonstrated how Public-Private- • Aim - conserving Biodiversity in selected landscapes,
People partnerships can support rural development including wildlife protected areas/critical conservation
schemes, particularly in the areas of health, education, areas while improving rural livelihoods through par-
environment and women’s empowerment. ticipatory approaches.
• The campaign has drawn support from public sector • Development of Joint Forest Management (JFM) and
units and corporate, among its various partners, to aid eco-development in some states are models of new ap-
the execution of the programme at the scale at which it proaches to provide benefits to both conservation and
exists today. local communities.
26.9 ECO MARK • The project intends to expand to other globally signifi-
cant sites in the country to strengthen linkages between
• a government scheme of labeling of environment conservation and improving livelihoods of local com-
friendly products to provide accreditation and labelling munities that live in the neighborhood of biodiversity
for household and other consumer products which meet rich areas-as well as to enhance the local and national
certain environmental criteria along with quality re-
economy.
quirements of the Bureau of Indian Standards for that
product. • The Project would be implemented as a Centrally Spon-
sored Scheme with five financiers (IDA loan, GEF grant,
• Objective - to recognize good environmental perfor-
contributions from Government of India, State Govern-
mance as well as improvements in performance of the
ments and beneficiaries), amounting to around Rs.
unit
137.35 crores, spread over six years.
• Any product, which is made, used or disposed of in a
way that significantly reduces the harm to environ- 26.12 NATIONAL CLEAN ENERGY FUND
ment, could be considered as ‘Environment Friendly
• ‘National Clean Energy Fund’ (NCEF) was constituted
Product’. in the public account of India in the Finance Bill 2010-11.
• The project would help in capacity building by conduct- • Objective - to invest in entrepreneurial ventures and
ing training, workshops, seminars, conference etc. on research & innovative projects in the field of clean en-
the issues pertaining to the industry and environment ergy technology.
interface. This would facilitate the change in attitude of
the stakeholders and the industry on the need to sup-
• The Central Board of Excise and Customs consequently
notified the Clean Energy Cess Rules 2010 under which
port the proactive industry. producers of specified goods namely raw coal, raw lig-
nite and raw peat were made liable to pay Clean Energy
26.10 URBAN SERVICES ENVIRON- Cess.
MENTAL R ATING SYSTEM (USERS)
• Any project with innovative methods to adopt to clean
• Project funded by UNDP executed by Ministry of Envi- energy technology and research & development shall be
ronment and Forests and implemented by TERI. eligible for funding under the NCEF.
• Aim - to develop an analytical tool to measure the per- • Government assistance under the NCEF shall in no case
formance, with respect to delivery of basic services in exceed 40% of the total project cost.
local bodies of Delhi and Kanpur. (identified as pilot • Indo-French Project to Study Effects of Climate Change
cities). on Farming
• Performance measurement (PM) tool was developed • The Indo-French Centre for the Promotion of Advanced
through a set of performance measurement indicators Research (CEFIPRA) launched a multi-disciplinary
that are benchmarked against set targets using the Indo-French research project titled ‘Adaptation of Irri-
inputs-outputs efficiency outcomes framework. gated Agriculture to Climate Change (AICHA).’
• The study aims at developing an integrated model for India from 5 June to 22 December 2012 (180 days) to
analysing the impact of climate change on ground wa- create widespread awareness on the unique biodiversity
ter-irrigated agriculture in south India. of the country.
• Berambadi village and surrounding areas in • SEBS is the fifth phase of the iconic and path-breaking
Hangla hobli of Gundlupet taluk in Chamaraja nagar Science Express.
district have been selected for a field study under the
project.
• The SEBS is a unique collaborative initiative of Depart-
ment of Science & Technology (DST) and Ministry of
• The project would explore adaptation strategies based Environment & Forests (MoEF), Government of India.
on innovative cropping systems and water resource
management policies, by considering a range of sce- • The state-of-the-art exhibition aboard SEBS aims to
narios for agricultural systems and policies, to be tested create wide-spread awareness on the unique biodiver-
at the farm and the watershed scale. sity of India, Climate Change, Water, Energy Conserva-
tion and related issues among various sections of the
• The methodology will combine remote sensing, field
society, especially students.
surveys and advanced numerical analysis with hydro-
logical, agronomical and economic modeling, and will
pay particular attention to sustainability and acceptabil- Do you know?
ity issues.
Under the leadership of NGO. aaranyak’s Greater ad-
jutant stork project team, 14 women self-help groups
26.13 NATIONAL MISSION FOR ELECTRIC of Dadara village in Kamrup district have formed a
MOBILITY ‘Hargila (Greater adjutant stork) army’, for the con-
• A National Mission for Electric Mobility (NCEM) to pro- servation and protection of these birds.
mote electric mobility and manufacturing of electric
vehicles in India.
• The setting up of NCEM has been influenced by the fol-
26.15 ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION,
lowing three factors:
AWARENESS TR AINING (EEAT)
• 1.Fast dwindling petroleum resources SCHEME
• 2.Impact of vehicles on the environment and climate • EEAT a Central Scheme launched during the 6th Five
change Year Plan in 1983-84 with the following objectives:
• 3.Worldwide shift of the automobile industry towards 1. To promote environmental awareness among all sec-
more efficient drive technologies and alternative fuels
tions of the society.
including electric vehicles
2. To spread environment education, especially in the non-
Barriers formal system.
• Higher cost of Electric Vehicles, Challenges in battery 3. To facilitate development of education/training materi-
technology, Consumer mindset, Inadequate government als and aids in the formal education sector.
support 4. To promote environment education through existing
• Objective to resolve these barriers by providing govern- educational/scientific institutions.
ment intervention/support, adoption of mission mode 5. To ensure training and manpower development for
approach for fast decision making and ensuring col- EEAT.
laboration amongst various stakeholders.
6. To encourage NGOs, mass media and other concerned
• The NCEM will be the apex body in the Government of organizations for promoting awareness about environ-
India for making recommendations in these matters. mental issues.
26.14 SCIENCE EXPRESS - BIODIVERSITY 7. To use different media (audio & visual) for spreading
SPECIAL (SEBS) messages concerning environment and awareness and
• SEBS is an innovative mobile exhibition mounted on a 8. To mobilize people’s participation for preservation and
specially designed 16 coach AC train, traveling across conservation of environment.
26.16 NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT • This programme, which unites students, teachers and
AWARENESS CAMPAIGN (NEAC) scientists all over the world, is aimed at school children.
• The NEAC was launched in 1986 with the objective of • The students of GLOBE schools are required to collect
creating environmental awareness at the national level. data about various basic environmental parameters
• It is a multi-media campaign which utilises conventional under the supervision of a GLOBE trained teacher and
and non-conventional methods of communication for use it for explaining hypothesis as well as to enhance
disseminating environmental messages. their scientific understanding of the earth.
• Under this campaign, nominal financial assistance is
26.18 MANGROVES FOR THE FUTURE
provided to registered NGOs, schools, colleges, univer-
sities, research institutions, women and youth organisa- • Mangroves for the Future are a partnership-based ini-
tions, army units, State Government Departments etc. tiative promoting investment in coastal ecosystems for
from all over the country for organising/ conducting sustainable development.
awareness raising activities.
• These activities which include seminars, workshops, Mission
training programmes, camps, rallies, exhibitions, com- • to promote healthy coastal ecosystems through a part-
petitions, folk dances and songs, street theatre, puppet nership-based, people-focused, policy-relevant and in-
shows, preparation and distribution of environmental vestment-orientated approach, which builds and applies
education resource materials etc., are followed by action knowledge, empowers communities and other stake-
like plantation of trees, management of household holders, enhances governance, secures livelihoods, and
waste, cleaning of water bodies etc. increases resilience to natural hazards and climate
change.
26.17 ECO-CLUBS (NATIONAL GREEN • Member countries: India, Indonesia, Maldives, Pakistan,
CORPS) Seychelles, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam. Outreach
• The main objectives of this programme are to educate countries: Bangladesh, Cambodia, Myanmar, Timor-
children about their immediate environment and im- Leste. Dialogue countries: Kenya, Malaysia, Tanzania.
part knowledge about the eco-systems, their inter-de-
pendence and their need for survival, through visits and
• MFF provides a collaborative platform to help countries,
sectors and agencies in the MFF region tackle the grow-
demonstrations and to mobilise youngsters by instilling
ing challenges to coastal sustainability.
in them the spirit of scientific inquiry into environmen-
tal problems and involving them in the efforts of envi- • MFF has adopted mangroves as its flagship ecosystem
ronmental preservation. in recognition of the important role that mangrove for-
ests played in reducing the impact of the 2004 Indian
• Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Envi-
Ocean tsunami, and the severe effect on coastal liveli-
ronment (GLOBE)
hoods caused by the loss and degradation of mangroves.
• The GLOBE is an International Science and Education
Programme, which stress on hands-on participatory • However MFF embraces all coastal ecosystems, includ-
approach. India joined this programme during the Au- ing coral reefs, estuaries, lagoons, wetlands, beaches
gust, 2000. and seagrass beds.
  
CHAPTER - 27
ORGANIZATIONS
27.1 THE ANIMAL WELFARE BOARD maintenance of slaughter houses or in connection with
OF INDIA slaughter of animals so that unnecessary pain or suf-
fering, whether physical or mental, is eliminated in the
• The Animal Welfare Board of India is a statutory advi-
pre- slaughter stages as far as possible, and animals are
sory body on Animal Welfare Laws and promotes ani-
mal welfare in the country. killed, wherever necessary, in as humane a manner as
possible.
• The Animal Welfare Board of India, the first of its kind
to be established by any Government in the world, was • To take all such steps as the Board may think fit to
set up in 1962, in accordance with Section 4 of the Pre- ensure that unwanted animals are destroyed by local
vention of Cruelty to Animals Acts 1960. authorities, whenever it is necessary to do so, either
instantaneously or after being rendered insensible to
• Shrimati Rukmini Devi Arundale pioneered the setting
pain or suffering.
up of the Board, with its Headquaters at Chennai. She
guided the activities of the Board for nearly twenty • To encourage by the grant of financial assistance or
years till her demise in 1986. otherwise, the formation or establishment of Pinjara-
poles, rescue homes, animals shelters, sanctuaries and
Functions the like, where animals and birds may find a shelter
when they have become old and useless or when they
• To keep the law in force in India for the Prevention of
need protection.
Cruelty to Animals under constant study and to advise
the government on the amendments to be undertaken • To co-operate with, and co-ordinate the work of asso-
in any such law from time to time. ciations or bodies established for the purpose of pre-
venting unnecessary pain or suffering to animals or for
• To advise the Central Government on the making of
the protection of animals and birds.
rules under the Act with a view to preventing unneces-
sary pain or suffering to animals generally, and more • To give financial assistance and other assistance to
particularly when they are being transported from one Animal Welfare Organisations, functioning in any local
place to another or when they are used as performing area or to encourage the formation of Animal Welfare
animals or when they are kept in captivity or confine- Organisations in any local area which shall work under
ment. the general supervision and guidance of the Board.
• To advise the Government or any local authority or • To advise the Government on matters relating to the
other person on improvements in the design of vehicles medical care and attention which may be provided in
so as to lessen the burden on draught animals. animal hospitals, and to give financial and other as-
• To take all such steps as the Board may think fit for sistance to animal hospitals whenever the Board think
amelioration of animals by encouraging, or providing it is necessary to do so.
for the construction of sheds, water troughs and the like • To impart education in relation to the humane treat-
and by providing for veterinary assistance to animals. ment of animals and to encourage the formation of pub-
• To advise the Government or any local authority or lic opinion against the infliction of unnecessary pain or
other person in the design of slaughter houses or the suffering to animals and for the promotion of animal
welfare by means of lectures books, posters, cinemato- Powers
graphic exhibitions and the like. • Recognition of zoos
• To advise the Government on any matter connected • Permission for acquisition of wild / captive animals
with animal welfare or the Prevention of infliction of
unnecessary pain or suffering on animals. • Cognizance of offences
• The Board consists of 28 Members. The term of office • Grant of licences, certificate of ownership, recognition,
etc
of Members is for a period of 3 years.
27.2 CENTR AL ZOO AUTHORITY 27.3 THE NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY

AUTHORITY (NBA) – CHENNAI.
• The amendment made to the Wild Life (Protection) Act
in 1991 added a new chapter dealing with zoos to the • The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) was estab-
Act and allowed for the Central Government to consti- lished in 2003 to implement India’s Biological Diversity
tute an authority known as the Central Zoo Authority Act (2002).
to oversee the functioning and development of zoos in • The NBA is a Statutory, Autonomous Body and it per-
the country. According to the provisions of this chapter, forms facilitative, regulatory and advisory function for
only such zoos which were operated in accordance with the Government of India on issues of conservation, sus-
the norms and standards prescribed by the Central Zoo tainable use of biological resources and fair and equita-
Authority would be granted ‘recognition’ to operate by ble sharing of benefits arising out of the use of biological
the Authority. resources.
Functions Objectives of the NBA

• The following are the functions of the Central Zoo Au- • Anybody seeking any kind of intellectual property
thority as specified in the Act: rights on a research based upon biological resource or
1. To specify the minimum standards for housing, upkeep knowledge obtained from India has to obtain prior ap-
and veterinary care of animals kept in a zoo proval of the NBA.
2. To evaluate and assess the functioning of zoos with • The NBA will impose benefit-sharing conditions.
respect to the standards or the norms as are prescribed • For ensuring equitable sharing of benefits arising from
3. To recognize and derecognize zoos the use of biological resources and associated knowl-
4. To identify endangered species of wild animals for pur- edge, Sections 19 and 21 stipulate prior approval of
poses of captive breeding and assigning responsibility the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) before their
in this regard to a zoo access.
5. To co-ordinate the acquisition, exchange and loaning • Ensures protection to the knowledge of local people
of animals for breeding purposes relating to biodiversity through measures such as reg-
istration of such knowledge.
6. To ensure maintenance of stud-books of endangered
species of wild animals bred in captivity Main functions:
7. To identify priorities and themes with regard to display (1) The National Biodiversity Authority may-
of captive animals in a zoo
(a) advise the Central Government on matters relat-
8. To co-ordinate training of zoo personnel in India and ing to the conservation of biodiversity, sustainable
abroad use of its components and equitable sharing of ben-
9. To co-ordinate research in captive breeding and edu- efits arising out of the utilization of biological re-
cational programs for the purposes of zoos sources;
10. To provide technical and other assistance to zoos for (b) advise the State Governments in the selection of
their proper management and development on scien- areas of biodiversity importance to be notified as
tific lines heritage sites and measures for the management of
11. To perform such other functions as may be necessary such heritage sites;
to carry out the purposes of this Act with regard to (c) perform such other functions as may be necessary
zoos to carry out the provisions of this Act.
(2) The National Biodiversity Authority may, on behalf of Functions
the Central Government, take any measures necessary (i) Collection, collation of intelligence and its dissemina-
to oppose the grant of intellectual property rights in tion and establishment of a centralized Wildlife Crime
any country outside India on any biological resource data bank;
obtained from India or knowledge associated with such
(ii) Co-ordination of actions by various enforcement au-
biological resource which is derived from India.
thorities towards the implementation of the provisions
of this Act.
Transfer of biological resource or knowledge
(iii) Implementation of obligations under the various inter-
• No person who has been granted approval, shall transnational Conventions and protocols
fer any biological resource or knowledge associated to
others except with the permission of the National Bio- (iv) Assistance to concerned authorities in foreign countries
and concerned international organizations to facilitate
diversity Authority
co-ordination and universal action for wildlife crime
• The National Biodiversity Authority grants approval for control;
transfer, after making enquiries subject to certain terms
(v) Development of infrastructure and capacity building
and conditions including the imposition of charges by for scientific and professional investigation;
way of royalty or for reasons to be recorded in writing,
reject the application. (vi) Advice the Government of India on issues relating to
wildlife crimes having national and international ram-
• The NBA gives public notice of approval granted under ifications, and suggest changes required in relevant
this section policy and laws from time to time.
The State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) 27.5 NATIONAL LAKE CONSERVATION

• The State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) focus on advising PLAN (NLCP)
the State Governments on matters relating to the con- • Ministry of Environment and Forests has been imple-
servation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its compo- menting the National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP)
nents and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out since 2001 for conservation and management of pol-
of the utilization of biological resources; luted and degraded lakes in urban and semi-urban
• The SSBs also regulate, by granting of approvals or areas
otherwise requests for commercial utilization or bio-
Objective
survey and bio-utilization of any biological resource by
Indians. • to restore and conserve the urban and semi-urban lakes
of the country degraded due to waste water discharge
• The local level Biodiversity Management Committees into the lake and other unique freshwater eco systems,
(BMCs) through an integrated ecosystem approach.
• The local level Biodiversity Management Committees
(BMCs) are responsible for promoting conservation, Activities Covered Under NLCP
sustainable use and documentation of biological diver- • Prevention of pollution from point sources by intercept-
sity and chronicling of knowledge relating to biological ing, diverting and treating the pollution loads entering
diversity. the lake. The interception and diversion works may in-
clude sewerage & sewage treatment for the entire lake
27.4 WILDLIFE CRIME CONTROL catchment area.
BUREAU (WCCB) (i) In situ measures of lake cleaning such as de-silting,
• The Government of India constituted a statutory body, de-weeding, bioremediation, aeration, bio-manipu-
the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau on 6th June 2007, lation, nutrient reduction, withdrawal of anoxic hy-
by amending the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. The polimn ion, constructed wetland approach or any
bureau would complement the efforts of the state gov- other successfully tested eco-technologies etc de-
ernments, primary enforcers of the Wildlife (Protec- pending upon the site conditions.
tion) Act, 1972 and other enforcement agencies of the (ii) Catchment area treatment which may include af-
country. forestation, storm water drainage, silt traps etc.
(iii) Strengthening of bund, lake fencing, shoreline de- • Maintenance of minimum ecological flows in the river
velopment etc. Ganga;
(iv) Lake front eco-development including public inter- • Measures necessary for planning, financing and execu-
face. tion of programmes for abatement of pollution in the
(v) Solid waste management2 & provision of dhobi ghats river Ganga including augmentation of sewerage infra-
is generally not covered under NLCP. structure, catchment area treatment, protection of flood
(vi) Prevention of pollution from non-point sources by plains, creating public awareness;
providing low cost sanitation.
• Collection, analysis and dissemination of information
(vii) Public awareness and public participation. relating to environmental pollution in the river Ganga;
(viii) Capacity building, training and research in the • Investigations and research regarding problems of en-
area of Lake Conservation. vironmental pollution and conservation of the river
(ix) Any other activity depending upon location specific Ganga;
requirements
• Promotion of water conservation practices including
27.6 NATIONAL GANGA RIVER BASIN recycling and reuse, rain water harvesting, and decen-
AUTHORITY (NGRBA) tralised sewage treatment systems;
• NGRBA was constituted on February 2009 under the • Monitoring and review of the implementation of various
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. programmes or activities taken up for prevention, con-
trol and abatement of pollution in the river Ganga;
• The NGRBA is a planning, financing, monitoring and
coordinating body of the centre and the states. • Issue directions under section 5 of the Environment
• The objective of the NGRBA is to ensure effective abate- (Protection) Act, 1986 for the purpose of exercising and
ment of pollution and conservation of the river Ganga performing these functions and for achievement of its
by adopting a river basin approach for comprehensive objectives.
planning and management.
• The Authority has both regulatory and developmental 27.7 WILDLIFE TRUST OF INDIA
functions. The Authority will take measures for effective • NGO founded: 1998
abatement of pollution and conservation of the river
Ganga in keeping with sustainable development needs.
• Aim: To conserve nature, especially endangered species
and threatened habitats, in partnership with communi-
These include ties and governments.
• Development of a river basin management plan; • The Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) is committed to the
protection of India’s wildlife; it achieves this by working
• Regulation of activities aimed at prevention, control and
in partnership with local communities and govern-
abatement of pollution in Ganga to maintain its water
quality, and to take measures relevant to river ecology ments on a range of projects, from species rehabilitation
and management in the Ganga basin states; to the prevention of the illegal wildlife trade.
 
CHAPTER - 28
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS
28.1 MAJOR ENVIRONMENT 18. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS Change (UNFCCC)
Nature conservation 19. Kyoto Protocol
1. United Nations Conference On Environment And De- 1. United Nations Conference On Environment
velopment (UNCED) And Development (UNCED)
2. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Also known as the Rio Summit, Rio Conference, Earth
3. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992.
4. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Spe- The issues addressed included:
cies of Fauna and Flora (CITES) • Systematic scrutiny of patterns of production — par-
5. The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network (TRAFFIC) ticularly the production of toxic components, such as
6. Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species lead in gasoline, or poisonous waste including radioac-
(CMS) tive chemicals
7. Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT) • Alternative sources of energy to replace the use of fossil
fuels which are linked to global climate change
8. International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTC)
9. United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF) • New reliance on public transportation systems in order
to reduce vehicle emissions, congestion in cities and the
10. International Union for Conservation of Nature and health problems caused by polluted air and smog
Natural Resources (IUCN)
11. Global Tiger Forum (GTF)
• The growing scarcity of water
The Earth Summit resulted in the following
Hazardous material documents:
12. Stockholm Convention • Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
13. Basel Convention • Agenda 21
14. Rotterdam Convention • Forest Principles
Land Moreover, two important legally binding
agreements
15. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
(UNCCD) 1. Convention on Biological Diversity
2. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
Marine environment The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development,
16. International Whaling Commission (IWC) often shortened to Rio Declaration, was a short document
produced at the 1992 United Nations “Conference on Envi-
Atmosphere ronment and Development” (UNCED), informally known
17. Vienna convention and Montreal Protocol as the Earth Summit. The Rio Declaration consisted of
27 principles intended to guide future sustainable develop- Rio 20
ment around the world. • “Rio+20” is the short name for the United Nations Con-
Agenda 21 ference on Sustainable Development which took place
• Agenda 21 is an action plan of the United Nations (UN) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 2012 – twenty years
related to sustainable development and was an outcome after the landmark 1992 Earth Summit in Rio.
of the United Nations Conference on Environment and • At the Rio+20 Conference, world leaders, along with
Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, thousands of participants from the private sector,
in 1992. NGOs and other groups, came together to shape how
• It is a comprehensive blueprint of action to be taken we can reduce poverty, advance social equity and en-
globally, nationally and locally by organizations of the sure environmental protection on an ever more
UN, governments, and major groups in every area in crowded planet.
which humans directly affect the environment. • The official discussions focussed on two main themes:
• The number 21 refers to an agenda for the 21st century. 1. how to build a green economy to achieve sustainable
Local Agenda 21 development and lift people out of poverty; and
• The implementation of Agenda 21 was intended to in- 2. how to improve international coordination for sustain-
volve action at international, national, regional and local able development.
levels. Some national and state governments have leg- • AT Rio+20, more than $513 billion was pledged to build
islated or advised that local authorities take steps to a sustainable future. It signaled a major step forward
implement the plan locally, as recommended in Chapter in achieving the future we want.
28 of the document. Such programmes are often known
as ‘Local Agenda 21’ or ‘LA21’. 2. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
Agenda 21 for culture • CBD is a Legally binding Convention recognized for the
• During the first World Public Meeting on Culture, held first time, that the conservation of biological diversity
in Porto Alegre, Brazil in 2002, it came up with the idea is “a common concern of humankind” and is an integral
to draw up document guidelines for local cultural poli- part of the development process. The agreement covers
cies, a document comparable to what Agenda 21 meant all ecosystems, species, and genetic resources.
in 1992 for the environment.
Objectives
• The Agenda 21 for culture is the first document with
worldwide mission that advocates establishing the • The conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable
groundwork of an undertaking by cities and local gov- use of its components and the fair and equitable shar-
ernments for cultural development. ing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of ge-
netic resources, including by appropriate access to
Rio 5
genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of rele-
• In 1997, the General Assembly of the UN held a special vant technologies, taking into account all rights over
session to appraise five years of progress on the imple- those resources and to technologies, and by appropriate
mentation of Agenda 21 (Rio +5). funding.
• The Assembly recognized progress as ‘uneven’ and iden- Three main goals:
tified key trends including increasing globalization,
widening inequalities in income and a continued dete- • The conservation of biodiversity
rioration of the global environment. • Sustainable use of the components of biodiversity
The Johannesburg Summit • Sharing the benefits arising from the commercial and
• The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, agreed at other utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equi-
the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Earth table way
Summit 2002) affirmed UN commitment to ‘full imple- The Convention acknowledges that substantial investments
mentation’ of Agenda 21, alongside achievement of the are required to conserve biological diversity. It argues,
Millennium Development Goals and other international however, that conservation will bring us significant envi-
agreements. ronmental, economic and social benefits in return.
must notify in writing the Party of import before the
Do you know? first proposed export takes place.
The current population of the Greater adjutant stork • The Party of import must acknowledge receipt of the
is only 1,200, of which, 80 percent are found in Assam. notification within 90 days and must communicate its
The bird’s habitat has been greatly impacted by decision on whether or not to import the LMO within
human development. 270 days.
• Parties are required to ensure that their decisions are
based on a risk assessment of the LMO, which must be
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the carried out in a scientifically sound and transparent
Convention on Biological Diversity manner.
Biosafety refers to the need to protect human health and • Once a Party takes a decision on the LMO, it is required
the environment from the possible adverse effects of the to communicate the decision as well as a summary of
products of modern biotechnology. the risk assessment to a central information system, the
The Convention clearly recognizes these twin aspects of Biosafety Clearing-House (BCH).
modern biotechnology. LMOs- food or feed, or for processing
1. Access to and transfer of technologies • Under the procedure for LMOs-FFP, Parties that decide
2. Appropriate procedures to enhance the safety of bio- to approve and place such LMOs on the market are re-
technology technologies. quired to make their decision and relevant information,
including the risk assessment reports, publicly available
Objective
through the BCH.
Is to contribute to ensuring an adequate level of protection
in the field of the safe transfer, handling and use of living Nagoya—Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol
modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology • The Cartagena Protocol is reinforced by the Nagoya—
that may have adverse effects on the conservation and Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol on Liability and
sustainable use of biological diversity, taking also into ac- Redress.
count risks to human health, and specifically focusing on • The Supplementary Protocol specifies response meas-
transboundary movements. ures to be taken in the event of damage to biodiversity
• The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety is an additional resulting from LMOs.
agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity. • The competent authority in a Party to the Supplemen-
• The Protocol establishes procedures for regulating the tary Protocol must require the person in control of the
import and export of LMOs from one country to an- LMO (operator) to take the response measures or it may
other. implement such measures itself and recover any costs
• The Protocol also requires Parties to ensure that LMOs incurred from the operator.
being shipped from one country to another are handled, Nagoya Protocol
packaged and transported in a safe manner.
The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and
• The shipments must be accompanied by documentation the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from
that clearly identifies the LMOs, specifies any require- their Utilization (ABS) to the Convention on Biological Di-
ments for the safe handling, storage, transport and use versity is a supplementary agreement to the Convention on
and provides contact details for further information. Biological Diversity.
There are two main sets of procedures, one for LMOs in- It provides a transparent legal framework for the effective
tended for direct introduction into the environment, implementation of one of the three objectives of the CBD.
known as the advance informed agreement (AIA) proce-
dure, and another for LMOs intended for direct use as food Objective
or feed, or for processing (LMOs-FFP). Is the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from
the utilization of genetic resources, thereby contributing
Advance Informed Agreement
to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
• Under the AIA procedure, a country intending to export
an LMO for intentional release into the environment
Obligations • Encourage contractual provisions on dispute resolution
The Nagoya Protocol sets out core obligations for its con- in mutually agreed terms
tracting Parties to take measures in relation to access to • Ensure an opportunity is available to seek recourse
genetic resources, benefit-sharing and compliance. under their legal systems when disputes arise from mu-
tually agreed terms
Access obligations
• Domestic-level access measures are to: • Take measures regarding access to justice
• Create legal certainty, clarity and transparency • Take measures to monitor the utilization of genetic re-
sources after they leave a country including by designat-
• Provide fair and non-arbitrary rules and procedures
ing effective checkpoints at any stage of the value-chain:
• Establish clear rules and procedures for prior informed research, development, innovation, pre-commercializa-
consent and mutually agreed terms tion or commercialization
• Provide for issuance of a permit or equivalent when
Traditional knowledge
access is granted
• Create conditions to promote and encourage research • The Nagoya Protocol addresses traditional knowledge
contributing to biodiversity conservation and sustain- associated with genetic resources with provisions on
able use access, benefit-sharing and compliance.
• Pay due regard to cases of present or imminent emer- • It also addresses genetic resources where indigenous
gencies that threaten human, animal or plant health and local communities have the established right to
grant access to them.
• Consider the importance of genetic resources for food
and agriculture for food security • Contracting Parties are to take measures to ensure
these communities’ prior informed consent, and fair
Benefit-sharing obligations and equitable benefit-sharing, keeping in mind com-
• Domestic-level benefit-sharing measures are to provide munity laws and procedures as well as customary use
for the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising and exchange.
from the utilization of genetic resources with the con-
Importance
tracting party providing genetic resources.
The Nagoya Protocol will create greater legal certainty and
• Utilization includes research and development on the transparency for both providers and users of genetic re-
genetic or biochemical composition of genetic re-
sources by:
sources, as well as subsequent applications and com-
mercialization. • Establishing more predictable conditions for access to
genetic resources.
• Sharing is subject to mutually agreed terms.
• Benefits may be monetary or non-monetary such as • Helping to ensure benefit-sharing when genetic re-
royalties and the sharing of research results. sources leave the contracting party providing the ge-
netic resources
Compliance obligations
By helping to ensure benefit-sharing, the Nagoya Protocol
Specific obligations to support compliance with the domes- creates incentives to conserve and sustainably use genetic
tic legislation or regulatory requirements of the contract- resources, and therefore enhances the contribution of bio-
ing party providing genetic resources, and contractual diversity to development and human well-being.
obligations reflected in mutually agreed terms, are a sig-
nificant innovation of the Nagoya Protocol. Contracting The Biodiversity Target
Parties are to: • It was adopted in May 2002 during the sixth Con-
• Take measures providing that genetic resources utilized ference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological
within their jurisdiction have been accessed in accord- Diversity.
ance with prior informed consent, and that mutually • The Target aimed to achieve, by 2010 ‘a significant re-
agreed terms have been established, as required by an- duction of the current rate of biodiversity loss at the
other contracting party global, regional and national level as a contribution to
• Cooperate in cases of alleged violation of another con- poverty alleviation and to the benefit of all life on
tracting party’s requirements earth’.
• Unfortunately, we were unable to meet the target. As 1. By 2020, the rate of loss of all natural habitats, includ-
we are facing an ever-increasing biodiversity crisis, we ing forests, is at least halved and where feasible brought
need a new, clear and realistic target to respond to it. close to zero, and degradation and fragmentation is
significantly reduced.
Strategic Plan For Biodiversity 2011-2020
2. By 2020 all fish and invertebrate stocks and aquatic
• In the tenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties, plants are managed and harvested sustainably, legally
held in 2010, in Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture, Japan, adopted
and applying ecosystem based approaches, so that
a revised and updated Strategic Plan for Biodiversity,
overfishing is avoided, recovery plans and measures
including the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, for the 2011-
are in place for all depleted species, fisheries have no
2020 period.
significant adverse impacts on threatened species and
• The tenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties vulnerable ecosystems and the impacts of fisheries on
agreed to translate this overarching international stocks, species and ecosystems are within safe eco-
framework into national biodiversity strategies and ac- logical limits.
tion plans within two years.
3. By 2020 areas under agriculture, aquaculture and for-
• Additionally, the meeting decided that the fifth national estry are managed sustainably, ensuring conservation
reports, due by 31 March 2014, should focus on the im- of biodiversity.
plementation of the 2011-2020 Strategic Plan and pro-
4. By 2020, pollution, including from excess nutrients, has
gress achieved towards the Aichi Biodiversity Targets.
been brought to levels that are not detrimental to eco-
system function and biodiversity.
28.2 AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS
5. By 2020, invasive alien species and pathways are iden-
Strategic Goal A: tified and prioritized, priority species are controlled or
Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by main- eradicated, and measures are in place to manage path-
streaming biodiversity across government and society ways to prevent their introduction and establishment.
1. By 2020, at the latest, people are aware of the values of 6. By 2015, the multiple anthropogenic pressures on coral
biodiversity and the steps they can take to conserve and reefs, and other vulnerable ecosystems impacted by
use it sustainably. climate change or ocean acidification are minimized,
2. By 2020, at the latest, biodiversity values have been so as to maintain their integrity and functioning.
integrated into national and local development and pov-
erty reduction strategies and planning processes and Strategic Goal C:
are being incorporated into national accounting, as To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding eco-
appropriate, and reporting systems. systems, species and genetic diversity
3. By 2020, at the latest, incentives, including subsidies, 1. By 2020, at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland
harmful to biodiversity are eliminated, phased out or water, and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas,
reformed in order to minimize or avoid negative im- especially areas of particular importance for biodiver-
pacts, and positive incentives for the conservation and sity and ecosystem services, are conserved through
sustainable use of biodiversity are developed and ap- effectively and equitably managed, ecologically repre-
plied, consistent and in harmony with the Convention sentative and well connected systems of protected areas
and other relevant international obligations, taking into and other effective area-based conservation measures,
account national socio economic conditions. and integrated into the wider landscapes and sea-
4. By 2020, at the latest, Governments, business and scapes.
stakeholders at all levels have taken steps to achieve or 2. By 2020 the extinction of known threatened species
have implemented plans for sustainable production and has been prevented and their conservation status, par-
consumption and have kept the impacts of use of natu- ticularly of those most in decline, has been improved
ral resources well within safe ecological limits. and sustained.
3. By 2020, the genetic diversity of cultivated plants and
Strategic Goal B: farmed and domesticated animals and of wild relatives,
Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote including other socio-economically as well as culturally
sustainable use valuable species, is maintained, and strategies have
been developed and implemented for minimizing ge- be subject to changes contingent to resource needs as-
netic erosion and safeguarding their genetic diversity. sessments to be developed and reported by Parties.
Strategic Goal D: CoP 11 hyderabad
Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosys- • One of the most important outcomes of the CoP is the
tem services commitment of the Parties to double the international
1. By 2020, ecosystems that provide essential services, financial flows for Bio Diversity by 2015. This will trans-
including services related to water, and contribute to late into additional financial flows to the developing
health, livelihoods and well-being, are restored and countries to the tune of about US $ 30 billion equivalent
safeguarded, taking into account the needs of women, to about Rs. 1,50,000 crore over the next 8 years.
indigenous and local communities, and the poor and • India has committed US $50 million towards strength-
vulnerable. ening the institutional mechanism for biodiversity con-
2. By 2020, ecosystem resilience and the contribution of servation in the country during its presidency of the
biodiversity to carbon stocks has been enhanced, Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) called the Hyderabad
through conservation and restoration, including resto- Pledge
ration of at least 15 per cent of degraded ecosystems, • The funds will be used to enhance technical and human
thereby contributing to climate change mitigation and capabilities at the national and state-level mechanisms
adaptation and to combating desertification. to attain the CBD objectives.
3. By 2015, the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Re- • The country has also earmarked funds to promote
sources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits similar capacity building in developing countries. India
Arising from their Utilization is in force and opera- formally took charge of the presidency of CBD from
tional, consistent with national legislation. Japan for the next two years on October 8 at the inau-
gural of the eleventh meeting of the Conference of Par-
Strategic Goal E:
ties (CoP 11) to CBD.
Enhance implementation through participatory planning,
knowledge management and capacity building
• India has instituted together with UNDP Biodiversity
Governance Awards. The first such awards were given
1. By 2015 each Party has developed, adopted as a policy during the CoP 11. It is now proposed to institute Rajiv
instrument, and has commenced implementing an ef- Gandhi International Award for Harnessing Biodiversity
fective, participatory and updated national biodiversity for Livelihood.
strategy and action plan.
2. By 2020, the traditional knowledge, innovations and 28.3 R AMSAR CONVENTION ON
practices of indigenous and local communities relevant WETLANDS
for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity,
and their customary use of biological resources, are
• The Convention on Wetlands waterfowl convention is
an intergovernmental treaty that provides the frame-
respected, subject to national legislation and relevant
work for national action and international cooperation
international obligations, and fully integrated and re-
for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their
flected in the implementation of the Convention with resources.
the full and effective participation of indigenous and
local communities, at all relevant levels. • It was adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and
came into force in 1975, and it is the only global envi-
3. By 2020, knowledge, the science base and technologies
ronmental treaty that deals with a particular ecosys-
relating to biodiversity, its values, functioning, status tem.
and trends, and the consequences of its loss, are im-
proved, widely shared and transferred, and applied. • Ramsar is not affiliated with the United Nations system
of Multilateral Environmental Agreements, but it works
By 2020, at the latest, the mobilization of financial re-
very closely with the other MEAs and is a full partner
sources for effectively implementing the Strategic Plan among the “biodiversity-related cluster” of treaties and
for Biodiversity 2011-2020 from all sources, and in ac- agreements.
cordance with the consolidated and agreed process in
the Strategy for Resource Mobilization, should increase • World Wetlands Day, 2 February every year. Number of
substantially from the current levels. This target will Contracting Parties: 163
Mission Indian wetland and the Montreux Record
“The conservation and wise use of all wetlands through • Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan and Loktak Lake,
local, regional and national actions and international co- Manipur have been included in Montreux Record in
operation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable 1990 and in 1993 respectively
development throughout the world”. • Chilika Lake, Orissa included in Montreux Record in
“Three pillars” of the Convention 1993 have been removed in November 2002. It is placed
on the Montreux Record due to problems caused by
The Parties have committed themselves to:
siltation and sedimentation which was choking the
• Work towards the wise use of all their wetlands through mouth of the lake; removed from the Record in 2002
national land-use planning, appropriate policies and following rehabilitation efforts for which the Chilika
legislation, management actions, and public education; Development Authority received the Ramsar Wetland
• Designate suitable wetlands for the List of Wetlands of Conservation Award for 2002.
International Importance (“Ramsar List”) and ensure
“IOPs”
their effective management; and
Five global non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have
• Cooperate internationally concerning transboundary
been associated with the treaty since its beginnings and
wetlands, shared wetland systems, shared species, and
were confirmed in the formal status of International Or-
development projects that may affect wetlands.
ganization Partners (IOPs) of the Convention.
The “Ramsar List” 1. BirdLife International (formerly ICBP)
• At the time of joining the Convention, each Contracting 2. IUCN – The International Union for the Conservation
Party designates at least one site for inclusion in the List of Nature
of Wetlands of International Importance (the “Ramsar
3. IWMI – The International Water Management Institute
List”).
4. Wetlands International (formerly IWRB, the Asian Wet-
• The addition of a site to the Ramsar List confers upon lands Bureau, and Wetlands for the Americas)
it the prestige of international recognition and ex-
presses the government’s commitment to take all steps 5. WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature) International
necessary to ensure the maintenance of the ecological The Changwon Declaration on human well-being and
character of the site. wetlands
Transboundary Ramsar Sites • The Changwon Declaration highlights positive action
• An ecologically coherent wetland extends across na- for ensuring human well-being and security in the fu-
tional borders and the Ramsar site authorities on both ture under the themes - water, climate change, people’s
or all sides of the border have formally agreed to col- livelihood and health, land use change, and biodiversity,
laborate in its management, and have notified the Sec- India and wetland convention
retariat of this intent.
• India became a contracting party to the Ramsar Con-
• This is a cooperative management arrangement and not vention in 1981 and has been implementing conserva-
a distinct legal status for the Ramsar sites involved. tion programmes for wetlands, mangroves and coral
The Montreux Record reefs.
• Adopted by the Conference of the Contracting Parties • India presently has 26 sites designated as Wetlands of
in Brisbane, 1996, accompanying the Guidelines for Op- International Importance.
eration of the Montreux Record • There is close coordination between implementing units
• The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites on of Ramsar with that of CBD at the national level. India
the List of Wetlands of International Importance where took a lead role in the formulation of Ramsar guidelines
changes in ecological character have occurred, are oc- on integration of wetlands into river basin management.
curring, or are likely to occur as a result of technologi- • The National Conservation Strategy and Policy State-
cal developments, pollution or other human interference. ments on Environment and Development (1992) and
• It is the the principal tool of the Convention and is National Water Policy (2002) highlight conservation and
maintained as part of the Ramsar List. sustainable development of wetlands.
28.4. CITES • The Parties have adopted a 5-year strategic vision to
guide CITES through 2013.
• In the early 1960s, international discussion began focus-
ing on the rate at which the world’s wild animals and The plan sets the following goals:
plants were being threatened by unregulated interna-
tional trade.
• Ensure compliance with and implementation and en-
forcement of the Convention.
• The Convention on International Trade in Endangered
• Secure the necessary financial resources and means for
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is an interna- the operation and implementation of the Convention.
tional agreement between governments entered into
force in 1975, and became the only treaty to ensure that • Contribute to significantly reducing the rate of biodi-
international trade in plants and animals does not versity loss by ensuring that CITES and other multilat-
threaten their survival in the wild. eral instruments and processes are coherent and
mutually supportive.
• Currently 176 countries are Parties to CITES.
• CITES is administered through the United Nations En-
vironment Programme (UNEP). A Secretariat, located Do you know?
in Geneva, Switzerland, oversees the implementation of The International Solar Alliance (ISA) is all set to
the treaty and assists with communications between usher in the introduction of solar energy technology
countries. to drive biodiversity conservation and livelihood ac-
tivities at Chilika.
Protecting Species from Unsustainable Trade
• Species for which trade is controlled are listed in one of
three Appendices to CITES, each conferring a different 28.5. TR AFFIC: THE WILDLIFE TR ADE
level of regulation and requiring CITES permits or cer- MONITORING NETWORK
tificates.
• TRAFFIC is a joint conservation programme of WWF
Appendix I: and IUCN.
• Includes species threatened with extinction and pro- • It was established in 1976 by the Species Survival Com-
vides the greatest level of protection, including restric- mission of IUCN, principally as a response to the entry
tions on commercial trade. Examples include gorillas, into force during the previous year of the Convention
sea turtles, most lady slipper orchids, and giant pandas. on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Appendix II: Fauna and Flora (CITES).
• Includes species that although currently not threatened • TRAFFIC is an international network, consisting of
with extinction, may become so without trade controls. TRAFFIC International, based in Cambridge, UK with
It also includes species that resemble other listed species offices on five continents.
and need to be regulated in order to effectively control • Since its founding, TRAFFIC has grown to become the
the trade in those other listed species. world’s largest wildlife trade monitoring programme,
and a global expert on wildlife trade issues.
Appendix III:
• This non-governmental organization undertakes its ac-
• Includes species for which a range country has asked tivities in close collaboration with governments and the
other Parties to help in controlling international trade. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Spe-
Examples include map turtles, walruses and Cape stag cies of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Secretariat.
beetles.
Goal
• Until CoP13, these meeting were held every two years;
since then, CoPs are held every three years. • To ensure that trade in wild plants and animals is not
a threat to the conservation of nature.
• CoP16 is scheduled to occur from March 3-14, 2013 in
Bangkok, Thailand. Vision
CITES Role in Conservation • Is of a world in which trade in wild animals and plants
will be managed at sustainable levels without damaging
• Over the last several decades, CITES has helped ensure the integrity of ecological systems and in such a manner
global conservation of species.
that it makes a significant contribution to human needs, • The development of models tailored according to the
supports local and national economies and helps to mo- conservation needs throughout the migratory range is
tivate commitments to the conservation of wild species a unique capacity to CMS.
and their habitats.
India signs Raptor MOU
28.6. CONVENTION ON THE • The Indian Government has signed ‘Raptor MoU’, on
CONSERVATION OF MIGR ATORY Conservation of Migratory Birds of Prey in Africa and
SPECIES (CMS) Eurasia, with the Convention on Conservation of Migra-
tory Species (CMS), or Bonn Convention, under the aus-
• The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Spe-
pices of the United Nations Environment Programme
cies of Wild Animals (also known as CMS or Bonn Con- (UNEP). The CMS aims to conserve migratory species
vention) aims to conserve terrestrial, aquatic and avian throughout their range.
migratory species throughout their range.
• India had become a party to the CMS since November
• It is an intergovernmental treaty, concluded under the 1, 1983. The ‘Raptor MoU’ is an agreement under Article
aegis of the United Nations Environment Programme, IV paragraph 4 of the CMS and is not legally binding.
concerned with the conservation of wildlife and habitats The ‘Raptor MoU’ extends its coverage to 76 species of
on a global scale. birds of prey, out of which 46 species, including vul-
• The Convention’s has membership of 117 Parties from tures, falcons, eagles, owls, hawks, kites, harriers, etc.
Africa, Central and South America, Asia, Europe and also occur in India. India has become the 56th signatory
Oceania. State to sign the ‘Raptor MoU’ that was concluded on
October 22, 2008 and came into effect on November 1,
• The only global convention specializing in the conserva-
2008.
tion of migratory species, their habitats and migration
routes, CMS complements and co-operates with a num-
28.7. COALITION AGAINST WILDLIFE
ber of other international organizations, NGOs and TR AFFICKING (CAWT)
partners in the media as well as in the corporate sector.
• The Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT) aims
Appendix I to focus public and political attention and resources on
• Migratory species threatened with extinction are listed ending the illegal trade in wildlife and wildlife products.
on Appendix I of the Convention. • Initiated in 2005, CAWT is a unique voluntary public-
• CMS Parties strive towards strictly protecting these private coalition of like-minded governments and or-
animals, conserving or restoring the places where they ganizations sharing a common purpose.
live, mitigating obstacles to migration and controlling CAWT is leveraging the combined strengths of
other factors that might endanger them. Besides estab- government and nongovernmental partners to:
lishing obligations for each State joining the Convention, • Improve Wildlife Law Enforcement by expanding en-
CMS promotes concerted action among the Range States forcement training and information sharing and
of many of these species. strengthening regional cooperative networks.
Appendix II • Reduce consumer demand for illegally traded wildlife
by raising awareness of the impacts of illegal wildlife
• Migratory species that need or would significantly ben-
trade on biodiversity and the environment, livelihoods,
efit from international co-operation are listed in Appen-
and human health; its links to organized crime; and the
dix II of the Convention. For this reason, the Convention
availability of sustainable alternatives.
encourages the Range States to conclude global or re-
gional Agreements. • Catalyse high-level political will to fight wildlife traffick-
ing by broadening support at the highest political levels
CMS as a framework Convention. for actions to combat the illegal trade in wildlife.
• The Agreements may range from legally binding trea- The Coalition complements and reinforces existing na-
ties (called Agreements) to less formal instruments, tional, regional and international efforts, including the
such as Memoranda of Understanding, and can be work of the Convention on International Trade in Endan-
adapted to the requirements of particular regions. gered Species, which monitors and regulates international
trade in endangered and threatened species and their de- Principal Functions
rivatives. The following are the principal functions in order to
The CAWT organisation is not directly involved in any achieve its objective
enforcement activities.
• To facilitate implementation of forest-related agree-
ments and foster a common understanding on sustain-
28.8 THE INTERNATIONAL TROPICAL able forest management;
TIMBER ORGANIZATION (ITTO)
• To provide for continued policy development and dia-
• ITTO is an intergovernmental organization, under UN logue among Governments, international organizations,
(1986) promoting the conservation and sustainable including major groups, as identified in Agenda 21 as
management, use and trade of tropical forest re- well as to address forest issues and emerging areas of
sources. Its members represent about 80% of the concern in a holistic, comprehensive and integrated
world’s tropical forests and 90% of the global tropical manner,
timber trade.
• Like all commodity organizations it is concerned with
• To enhance cooperation as well as policy and pro-
gramme coordination on forest-related issues
trade and industry, but like an environmental agree-
ment it also pays considerable attention to the sustain- • To foster international cooperation and
able management of natural resources. • To monitor, assess and report on progress of the above
• It manages its own program of projects and other ac- functions and objectives
tivities, enabling it to quickly test and operationalize its • To strengthen political commitment to the management
policy work. , conservation and sustainable development of all types
• ITTO develops internationally agreed policy documents of forests.
to promote sustainable forest management and forest • Enhance the contribution of forests to the achieve-
conservation and assists tropical member countries to ment of the internationally agreed development goals,
adapt such policies to local circumstances and to imple- including the Millennium Development Goals, and to
ment them in the field through projects. the implementation of the Johannesburg Declaration
• In addition, ITTO collects, analyses and disseminates on Sustainable Development and the Plan of Imple-
data on the production and trade of tropical timber and mentation of the World Summit on Sustainable De-
funds a range of projects and other action aimed at velopment, bearing in mind the Monterrey Consensus
developing industries at both community and industrial of the International Conference on Financing for De-
scales. velopment;
• Encourage and assist countries, including those with
28.9. UNITED NATIONS FORUM ON low forest cover, to develop and implement forest con-
FORESTS (UNFF) servation and rehabilitation strategies, increase the area
• The Economic and Social Council of the United Na- of forests under sustainable management and reduce
tions (ECOSOC), established the United Nations Forum forest degradation and the loss of forest cover in order
on Forests (UNFF) In October 2000, a subsidiary body to maintain and improve their forest resources with a
with the main objective to promote “the management, view to enhancing the benefits of forests to meet pre-
conservation and sustainable development of all types sent and future needs, in particular the needs of indig-
of forests and to strengthen long-term political com- enous peoples and local communities whose livelihoods
mitment to this end” based on the Rio Declaration, the depend on forests;
Forest Principles, Chapter 11 of Agenda 21 and the • Strengthen interaction between the United Nations
outcome of the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests Forum on Forests and relevant regional and subregional
(IPF) / Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF) Pro- forest-related mechanisms, institutions and instru-
cesses and other key milestones of international forest ments, organizations and processes, with participation
policy. of major groups, as identified in Agenda 21 and relevant
The Forum has universal membership, and is composed of stakeholders to facilitate enhanced cooperation and ef-
all Member States of the United Nations and specialized fective implementation of sustainable forest manage-
agencies. ment, as well as to contribute to the work of the Forum
IPF/IFF Process (1995-2000) 28.10. IUCN
• The Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) and the IUCN was founded in October 1948 as the International
Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF) represent Union for the Protection of Nature (or IUPN) following an
five years of international forest policy dialogue. international conference in Fontainebleau, France.
• The Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF), estab- The organization changed its name to the International
lished by the Commission on Sustainable Development Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(CSD) for two years (1995-97) to provide a forum for in 1956 with the acronym IUCN (or UICN) with its head
forest policy deliberations. quarters in Gland, Switzerland.
• Subsequently, in 1997, ECOSOC established the Inter- Vision
governmental Forum on Forests (IFF), for three years
(1997-2000). Just world that values and conserves nature.
Global Objectives on Forests Missionss
Member States reaffirm the following shared global objec- To influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the
tives on forests and their commitment to work globally, world to conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and
regionally and nationally to achieve progress towards their to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and
achievement by 2015 ecologically sustainable.
The four Global Objectives seek to: IUCN supports scientific research, manages field projects
Reverse the loss of forest cover worldwide through sustain- globally and brings governments, non-government organ-
able forest management (SFM), including protection, izations, United Nations agencies, companies and local
restoration, afforestation and reforestation, and in- communities together to develop and implement policy
crease efforts to prevent forest degradation; IUCN Members include both States and non-governmental
Enhance forest-based economic, social and environmental organizations.
benefits, including by improving the livelihoods of A neutral forum for governments, NGOs, scientists, busi-
forest-dependent people; ness and local communities to find practical solutions to
Increase significantly the area of sustainably managed for- conservation and development challenges.
ests, including protected forests, and increase the pro- Priority Areas oF IUCN
portion of forest products derived from sustainably
managed forests; and • Biodiversity
Reverse the decline in official development assistance for • Climate change
sustainable forest management and mobilize signifi- • Sustainable energy
cantly-increased new and additional financial resources • Human well-being
from all sources for the implementation of SFM.
• Green economy
Non-Legally Binding Instrument on All Types of
Forests (NLBI) 28.11. THE GLOBAL TIGER FORUM (GTF)
• The Seventh Session of the UNFF adopted the Non-Le- The Global Tiger Forum (GTF) is an inter-governmental
gally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests on and international body established with members from
April 2007. willing countries to embark on a worldwide campaign,
• It is the first time Member States have agreed to an common approach, promotion of appropriate programmes
international instrument for sustainable forest manage- and controls to save the remaining five sub-species of ti-
ment. gers in the wild distributed over 14 tiger range countries
• The instrument is expected to have a major impact on of the world.
international cooperation and national action to reduce Formed in 1994 with its secretariat at New Delhi, GTF is
deforestation, prevent forest degradation, promote sus- the only inter-governmental & international body cam-
tainable livelihoods and reduce poverty for all forest- paigning to save the TIGER worldwide.
dependent peoples. The General Assembly of GTF shall meet once in three
• The instrument is voluntary and non-legally binding years.
Goal: illegal trade in wildlife and for scientifically managing
To highlight the rationale for tiger preservation and pro- tiger landscapes in the face of mounting and varied
vide leadership and common approach throughout the threats;
world in order to safeguard the survival of the tiger, its • To curtail international demand for tiger parts and
prey and its habitat. other wildlife that has been responsible for drastic de-
Objectives: clines in tiger populations;
• To promote a worldwide campaign to save the tiger, its • To develop mechanisms for safeguarding habitats from
prey and its habitat; development through planning ‘smart, green’ infra-
• To promote a legal framework in the countries involved structure and sensitive industrial development;
for bio-diversity conservation; • To create innovative and sustainable financing mecha-
• To increase the protected area network of habitats of nisms for tiger landscapes including protected areas;
the tiger and facilitate their interpassages in the range
countries;
• To build strong local constituencies for tiger conserva-
tion through development of economic incentives and
• To promote eco-development programmes with the par- alternative livelihoods for local people;
ticipation of the communities living in and around pro-
tected areas; • To spread the recognition among governments, inter-
national aid agencies and the public that tiger habitats
• To urge countries to enter into relevant conventions for are high-value diverse ecosystems with the potential to
conservation of tiger and elimination of illegal trade;
provide immense benefits-both tangible and intangible
• To promote and carry out scientific research to generate
information useful for tiger, it’s prey and its habitat to 28.12 THE STOCKHOLM CONVENTION
disseminate such information in an easily accessible ON POP
manner;
The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollut-
• To promote the development and exchange among ants was adopted at a Conference of Plenipotentiaries on
themselves , of appropriate technologies and training
programmes for scientific wildlife management; 22 May 2001 in Stockholm, Sweden and entered into force
on 17 May 2004,
• To encourage range countries to prepare and implement
their individual action plans for protection and growth POPs
of the tiger population and its prey base. Improvement Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are organic chemical
of the habitat and common preservation programme can substances, that is, they are carbon-based. They possess a
be taken up bilaterally by the range countries having
particular combination of physical and chemical properties
adjoining habitats, but their implementation should be
such that, once released into the environment, they:
carried out separately by the respective range countries.
• To involve inter-governmental organisations in the pro- • remain intact for exceptionally long periods of time
tection of the tiger; (many years);
• To set up a participative fund of an appropriate size to • become widely distributed throughout the environment
engender awareness in all places where people consume as a result of natural processes involving soil, water
tiger derivatives for eliminating such consumption of and, most notably, air;
tiger products, and identifying substitutes, in the inter- • accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms in-
ests of conservation. cluding humans, and are found at higher concentrations
Global Tiger Initiative at higher levels in the food chain; and
An alliance of governments, international agencies, civil • are toxic to both humans and wildlife.
society, and the private sector united to save wild tigers In addition, POPs concentrate in living organisms through
from extinction another process called bioaccumulation. Though not solu-
Goals of GTI ble in water, POPs are readily absorbed in fatty tissue,
• To support capacity-building in governments for re- where concentrations can become magnified by up to
sponding effectively to the transnational challenge of 70,000 times the background levels.
The 12 initial POPs wastes” based on their origin and/or composition and their
Initially, twelve POPs have been recognized as causing ad- characteristics, as well as two types of wastes defined as
verse effects on humans and the ecosystem and these can “other wastes” - household waste and incinerator ash.
be placed in 3 categories: Principal aims:
1. Pesticides: aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, • The reduction of hazardous waste generation and the
heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex, toxaphene; promotion of environmentally sound management of
2. Industrial chemicals: hexachlorobenzene, polychlorin- hazardous wastes, wherever the place of disposal;
ated biphenyls (PCBs); and • the restriction of transboundary movements of hazard-
3. By-products: hexachlorobenzene; polychlorinated ous wastes except where it is perceived to be in accord-
dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans ance with the principles of environmentally sound
(PCDD/PCDF), and PCBs. management; and
The new POPs under the Stockholm Convention

• a regulatory system applying to cases where trans-
boundary movements are permissible.
Nine new POPs Waste under the Basel Convention
At its fourth meeting held in 2009, the CoP adopted Wastes are substances or objects which are disposed of or
amendments to Annexes A, B and C to the Stockholm Con- are intended to be disposed of or are required to be dis-
vention to list nine new persistent organic pollutants. posed of by the provisions of national law.
1. Pesticides: chlordecone, alpha hexachlorocyclohexane, Annex
beta hexachlorocyclohexane, lindane, pentachloroben-
Annex I of the Convention, as further clarified in Annexes
zene;
VIII and IX, lists those wastes that are classified as hazard-
2. Industrial chemicals: hexabromobiphenyl, hexabro- ous and subject to the control procedures under the Con-
modiphenyl ether and heptabro -modiphenyl ether, vention.
pentachlorobenzene, perfluorooctane sulfonic acid, its
Annex II of the Convention identifies those wastes that
salts and perfluorooctane sulfonyl fluoride, tetrabro-
require special consideration (known as “other wastes”,
modiphenyl ether and pentabromodiphenyl ether; and and which primarily refer to household wastes).
3. By-products: alpha hexachlorocyclohexane, beta hexa- Examples of wastes regulated by the Basel Convention
chlorocyclohexane and pentachlorobenzene.
• Biomedical and healthcare wastes
Endosulfan • Used oils
At its fifth meeting held in 2011, the CoP adopted an amend- • Used lead acid batteries
ment to Annex A to the Stockholm Convention to list tech-
nical endosulfan and its related isomers with a specific
• Persistant Organic Pollutant wastes (POPs wastes),
exemption. • Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs),
• Thousands of chemical wastes generated by industries
28.13 BASEL CONVENTION and other consumers
The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary
28.14 ROTTERDAM CONVENTION
Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal was
adopted on 22 March 1989 by the Conference of Plenipo- • It was adopted in 1998 by a Conference of Plenipotenti-
tentiaries in Basel, Switzerland, in response to a public aries in Rotterdam, the Netherlands and entered into
force on 24 February 2004.
outcry following the discovery, in the 1980s, in Africa and
other parts of the developing world of deposits of toxic • The Convention creates legally binding obligations for
wastes imported from abroad. the implementation of the Prior Informed Consent (PIC)
procedure. It built on the voluntary PIC procedure, ini-
Objective tiated by UNEP and FAO in 1989 and ceased on 24 Feb-
To protect human health and the environment against the ruary 2006.
adverse effects of hazardous wastes. Its scope of application • The Convention covers pesticides and industrial chem-
covers a wide range of wastes defined as “hazardous icals that have been banned or severely restricted for
health or environmental reasons by Parties and which fecting some of the most vulnerable people and ecosys-
have been notified by Parties for inclusion in the PIC tems in the world.
procedure.
• The convention aims at adaption and can, on implemen-
Objectives: tation, significantly contribute to achieving the Millen-
nium Development Goals (MDGs), as well as sustainable
• to promote shared responsibility and cooperative efforts development and poverty reduction by means of arrest-
among Parties in the international trade of certain haz-
ardous chemicals in order to protect human health and ing and reversing land degradation.
the environment from potential harm; • The convention promotes sustainable land management
• to contribute to the environmentally sound use of (SLM) as solution to global challenges. Land degrada-
those hazardous chemicals, by facilitating information tion is long-term loss of ecosystem function and pro-
exchange about their characteristics, by providing for ductivity caused by disturbances from which the land
a national decision-making process on their import cannot recover unaided. While Sustainable Land Man-
and export and by disseminating these decisions to agement is focused on changes in land cover/land use
Parties. in order to maintain and enhance ecosystems functions
and services.
Annex III Chemicals
• The chemicals listed in Annex III include pesticides and 28.16. INTERNATIONAL WHALING
industrial chemicals that have been banned or severely COMMISSION
restricted for health or environmental reasons by two • The International Whaling Commission is the global
or more Parties and which the Conference of the Parties intergovernmental body charged with the conservation
has decided to subject to the PIC procedure. of whales and the management of whaling with head-
• There are a total of 43 chemicals listed in Annex III, 32 quarters in Cambridge, United Kingdom.
are pesticides (including 4 severely hazardous pesticide
formulations) and 11 industrial chemicals.
• It was set up under the International Convention for the
Regulation of Whaling which was signed in Washington
One notification from each of two specified regions triggers DC on 2nd December 1946
consideration of addition of a chemical to Annex III of the
Preamble
Convention. Severely hazardous pesticide formulations that
present a risk under conditions of use in developing coun- To provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks and
tries or countries with economies in transition may also be thus make possible the orderly development of the whaling
proposed for inclusion in Annex III. industry.
• Main duty
28.15. UNCCD • To keep under review and revise as necessary the
• Established in 1994, UNCCD is the sole legally binding measures laid down in the Schedule to the Convention
international agreement linking environment and de- which govern the conduct of whaling throughout the
velopment to sustainable land management. world.
• The UNCCD is particularly committed to a bottom-up • These measures, among other things, provide for the
approach, encouraging the participation of local people complete protection of certain species; designate speci-
in combating desertification and land degradation. fied areas as whale sanctuaries; set limits on the num-
• The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertifica- bers and size of whales which may be taken; prescribe
tion (UNCCD) is one of the Rio Conventions that focuses open and closed seasons and areas for whaling; and
on desertification, land degradation and drought prohibit the capture of suckling calves and female
(DLDD). whales accompanied by calves.
• ‘Desertification’ as defined in the UNCCD refers to land • The compilation of catch reports and other statistical
degradation in the drylands (arid, semi arid and dry sub and biological records is also required.
humid regions) resulting from various factors and does • In 1986 the Commission introduced zero catch limits
not connote spread or expansion of deserts. for commercial whaling. This provision is still in place
• UNCCD with 194 Parties is a unique instrument that today, although the Commission continues to set catch
recognises land degradation as an important factor af- limits for aboriginal subsistence whaling.
• As well as keeping whale catch limits under review, the the industry and for accessing the Protocol’s Financial
Commission works to promote the recovery of depleted Mechanism in accordance with the requirements stipu-
whale populations by addressing a range of specific islated in the Montreal Protocol.
sues. These include ship strikes, entanglement events, • The Ministry of Environment and Forests established
environmental concerns and establishing protocols for an Ozone Cell and a steering committee on the Montreal
whale watching. Protocol to facilitate implementation of the India Coun-
try Programme for phasing out ODS (ozone depleting
28.17. VIENNA CONVENTION substances) production by 2010.
• Vienna convention adopted in the year 1985 and entered • In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, the In-
into force in 1988. dian government has granted full exemption from pay-
• It acts as a framework for the international efforts to ment of Customs and Central Excise Duties on import
protect the ozone layer however it does not include le- of goods designed exclusively for non-ODS technology.
gally binding reduction goals for the use of CFCs. • India has also been facilitating implementation of the
• The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Montreal Protocol in South and South East Asia and the
Layer and its Montreal Protocol on Substances that De- Pacific regions.
plete the Ozone Layer are dedicated to the protection of
the earth’s ozone layer. With 197 parties, they are the 28.18 KIGALI AGREEMENT
most widely ratified treaties in United Nations history. • Twenty-Eighth Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal
Montreal Protocol Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
held in Kigali, Rwanda amended the 1987 Montreal Pro-
• The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the
tocol to phase out Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).
Ozone Layer was designed to reduce the production and
consumption of ozone depleting substances in order to • Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were discontinued under
reduce their abundance in the atmosphere, and thereby the Montreal Protocol when scientists realised they
protect the earth’s fragile ozone Layer. were destroying the ozone layer.
• The treaty was opened for signature on September 16, • HFCs were introduced in the 1990s as an alternative to
1987, and entered into force on January 1, 1989, followed replace chemicals that had been found to erode the
by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it ozone layer, but turned out to be catastrophic for global
has undergone seven revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 warming.
(Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vi- • HFCs - though they are greenhouse gases like carbon
enna), 1997 (Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing). dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide - are not dealt with
under the Paris Agreement but under the Montreal Pro-
India and Protection of Ozone Layer
tocol.
• India became a Party to the Vienna Convention for the • The elimination of HFCs could reduce global warming
Protection of Ozone Layer on 19 June 1991 and the Mon-
by 0.5 degrees by 2100, according to a 2015 study by the
treal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer
Institute for Governance and Sustainable Development.
on 17 September 1992.
• Consequently, it ratified the Copenhagen, Montreal and • However, swapping HFCs for alternatives such as am-
monia, water or gases called hydrofluoroolefins could
Beijing Amendments in 2003.
prove costly for developing countries with high summer
• India produces CFC-11, CFC-12, CFC-113, Halon-1211, temperatures, such as India.
HCFC-22, Halon-1301, Carbontetrachloride (CTC), me-
thyl chloroform and methyl bromide. These ozone De-
• The Kigali Agreement for HFCs reduction will be bind-
ing on countries from 2019.
pleting Substances (ODS) are used in refrigeration and
air conditioning, fire fighting, electronics, foams,aerosol • Under legally binding Kigali Amendment, 197 countries
fumigation applications. have agreed to a timeline to reduce the use of HFCs by
roughly 85% of their baselines by 2045.
• A detailed India Country Programme for phase out of
ODS was prepared in 1993 to ensure the phase out of • Group 1 - Developed countries must reduce their use of
ODS according to the national industrial development HFCs by 10 percent by 2019 from 2011-2013 levels, and
strategy, without undue burden to the consumers and then by 85 percent by 2036.
• A second group of developing countries, including China It also controls the trans-boundary movement of mercury.
and African nations, are committed to launching the It does not include natural emissions of mercury.
transition in 2024. Mercury is considered to be one of the most toxic metals
• A reduction of 10 percent compared with 2020-2022 known. Once released into the environment, mercury bio-
levels should be achieved by 2029, to be extended to 80 accumulates and bio-magnifies up in the food chain, and
percent by 2045. easily enters the human body and impacts the nervous
• A third group of developing countries, which include system.
India, Pakistan, Iran, Iraq and Arab Gulf states, must
begin the process in 2028 and reduce emissions by 10 The Minamata Convention requires that party
percent by 2032 from 2024-2026 levels, and then by 85 nations:
percent by 2047. • Reduce and where feasible eliminate the use and release
of mercury from artisanal and small-scale gold mining.
Do you know?
• Control mercury air emissions from coal-fired power
The Rajasthan government is said to be setting up of a plants, coal-fired industrial boilers, certain non-ferrous
captive breeding centre for the Great Indian Bustard fol- metals production operations, waste incineration,and
lowing a proposal made by the Wildlife Institute of India. cement production.
• Phase-out or take measures to reduce mercury use in
28.19. GLOBALLY IMPORTANT certain products such as batteries, switches, lights, cos-
AGRICULTUR AL HERITAGE SYSTEMS metics, pesticides and measuring devices, and create
initiatives to reduce the use of mercury in dental amal-
The FAO recognizes the agricultural heritage regions of the
gam.
world under a programme titled Globally Important Agri-
cultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS). The purpose of GIAHS • Phase out or reduce the use of mercury in manufactur-
is to recognize “Remarkable land use systems and land- ing processes such as chlor-alkali production, vinyl
scapes which are rich in globally significant biological di- chloride monomer production, and acetaldehyde pro-
versity evolving from the co-adaptation of a community duction.
with its environment and its needs and aspirations for • In addition, the Convention addresses the supply and
sustainable development”. trade of mercury; safer storage and disposal, and strat-
In our country so far the following sites have received rec- egies to address contaminated sites.
ognition under this programme: • The Convention includes provisions for technical as-
1. Traditional Agricultural System, Koraput, Odisha sistance, information exchange, public awareness, and
2. Below Sea Level Farming System, Kuttanad, Kerala research and monitoring. It also requires Parties to re-
port on measures taken to implement certain provi-
In the Koraput system, women have played a key role in the
sions. The Convention will be periodically evaluated to
conservation of biodiversity. The Kuttanad system was de-
veloped by farmers over 150 years ago to ensure their food assess its effectiveness in meeting its objective of pro-
security by learning to cultivate rice and other crops below tecting human health and the environment from mer-
sea level. The Kuttanad System is now attracting worldwide cury pollution.
attention since one of the effects of global warming is sea The Minamata Convention entered into force on August
level rise. It has therefore been an act of vision on the part 2017. The first CoP to the Minamata Convention on Mer-
of Kerala government to have decided to set up an Interna- cury (COP1) took place in September 2017 at the Interna-
tional Research and Training Centre for Below Sea Level tional Conference Centre in Geneva. The COP 2 will take
Farming in Kuttanad. place in November 2018 in Geneva, Switzerland
The Union Cabinet has approved the proposal for ratifica-
28.20. MINAMATA CONVENTION tion of Minamata Convention on Mercury along with flex-
The Minamata Convention on Mercury is a global treaty to ibility for continued use of mercury-based products and
protect human health and the environment from anthro- processes involving mercury compound up to 2025 and
pogenic emissions and releases of mercury and mercury depositing the instrument of ratification enabling India to
compounds. It was adopted in 2013 in Kumamoto, Japan. become a Party of the Convention.
 
CHAPTER - 29
ENVIRONMENT ISSUES AND

HEALTH EFFECTS
29.1 TOXICOLOGY EFFECTS Neuromuscular effects - collectively called lead palsy, and
Eco-toxicology is “a study of the effects of released pol- impairment of muscle metabolism resulting into re-
lutants on the environment and on the biota that in- sidual paralysis and muscular atrophy.
habit it. Central nervous system effects - CNS syndrome - a pano-
ply of nervous system disorders, they may lead to de-
Rem lirium, convulsions coma and death.
It gives an indication of biological damage. It is an estimate
of the amount of radiation of any type which produces the Mercury
same biological injury in man as that resulting from the This is the most common and most toxic in water bodies.
absorption of a given amount of X-ray radiation or gamma It occurs in water as monomethyl mercury. Most industrial
radiation. effluents have mercury. Methyl mercury vapours cause
fatal poisoning.
Iodine - 131 High levels of mercury in fish stocks have been found,
Iodine - 131 produced by nuclear tests is passed to vegeta- mainly in coastal areas. Mumbai, Kolkata, Karwar (in Kar-
tion and then appears in milk of the cattle that consume nataka) and North Koel (in Bihar) are some of the severely
the contaminated vegetation and is passed to humans. affected areas.
Iodine-131 causes serious damage to thyroid gland, espe- The recent popularity of energy efficient compact to fluo-
cially among children. rescent lamps or CFLs has added another dimension to the
About 99% of long-term radioactivity from either stron- controversy.
tium or radium taken into the human body is found in the Toxicity of mercury is much greater than any other sub-
bones. stance, about 1000 times more potent than colchicines.
Lead Fluorine
Lead is highly toxic to plants and animals including man. It occurs in nature as fluoride, in air, soil and water. Fluor-
Lead generally affects children more severely than adults. isis is a common problem in several states of the country
Lead poisoning causes a variety of symptoms. These in- due to intake of high fluoride content water. Fluorides cause
clude liver and kidney damage, reduction in hemoglobin dental fluorisis, stiffness of joints (particularly spinal cord)
formulation, mental retardation and abnormality in fertil- causing humped back. Pain in bones and joint and outward
ity and pregnancy. Symptoms of chronic lead-poisoning bending of legs from the knees is called Knock-Knee syn-
are of three general types. drome. In cattle, fluoride intake causes staining, mottling
Gastrointestinal troubles - most common in industrial and abrasion of teeth, lameness and decrease in milk pro-
workers includes intestinal stress. duction.
DDT • Junk food high in transfats, salt and sugar, junk food
Toxic pesticides as BHC, PCB, DDT etc., are not easily de- gives no nutrition. In fact, getting addicted to it is mak-
graded and are long-lasting in the environment. Their ing the young vulnerable to hypertension, heart dis-
concentration therefore goes on increasing in water and eases, diabetes and obesity.
soil with successive applications.
HIGH CAFFEINE IN ENERGY DRINKS
DDT was sprayed for many years on marshes to control
mosquitoes. • Energy drinks are in controversy because of its high
caffeine content. Most of these brands have upto 320
The DDT has bio-magnified from water to fish eating birds ppm of caffeine in them. These drinks are marketed as
and humans. DDT is known to depress the activity of es- an instant source of energy.
trogen, the female sex hormone and testosterone, male sex
hormone. Fish die due to eating of DDT-killed insects; tur- • The manufacturers claim that it is the combination of
caffeine, taurine, glucoronolactone, vitamins, herbal
tles die because of eating DDT-killed fish and so on. DDT
supplements, and sugar or sweeteners that gives the
deposited in butter fat of milk is a potential danger to in-
energy.
fants.
The end result of DDT use is that whole population of • According to study reports, it is the sugar that gives the
energy rush, the caffeine only gives a ‘feeling’ of energy.
predatory birds such as the fist hawk (osprey) and of de-
tritus feeders as fiddler crab are wiped out. Birds are more • Energy drinks fall under the category of ‘Proprietary
vulnerable as DDT interferes with egg shell formation by foods’ in the Prevention of Food Adulteration (PFA) Act
causing a breakdown in steroid hormones which results in of 1954.
fragile eggs that break before the young can hatch. • An amendment in the PFA act 2009 ensured that caf-
feine in energy drinks should be capped at 145 ppm, the
LEAD IN PAINTS limit that was set for carbonated beverages.
• Modern houses are full of harmful chemicals. One of • However, Red Bull managed to get a stay order on the
them is lead, present in paints. amendment of the PFA act in 2010 and since then the
• Though several countries have banned the use of this energy drink market is expanding unregulated.
substance India is yet to do so, which is why paint mak- • The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
ers use them. (FSSAI) is currently making regulations on energy
• Inhaling lead dust like opening or closing windows is drinks.
the most common source of lead poisoning.
PESTICIDE IN HUMAN BLOOD
• The human body is not designed to process lead. Young
children are particularly vulnerable to lead as it can • Pesticides are commonly used in India but this comes
damage the central nervous system and the brain. at great cost to human health. It found that 15 different
pesticides in the 20 blood samples tested from four vil-
• If lead is so poisonous why do paint makers continue to lages in Punjab.
use it? Using lead susbtitutes increases the cost and also
reduces paint performance. TESTING OF PESTICIDE TOXICITY
TRANSFAT
• All pesticides are tested to establish toxicity — a dose
necessary to produce a measurable harmful effect, it is
• Transfats are formed during the process of addition usually established through tests on mice, rats, rabbits
of hydrogen atoms to oils, a process which industry and dogs.
prefers as it keeps the oil from turning rancid and
ensures a longer shelf life. (E.g trans-fatty acid in
• Results are then extrapolated on humans, and safe ex-
posure levels predicted.
vanaspati).
• Transfats are associated with a host of serious health
• The value commonly used to measure acute toxicity is
LD 50 (a lethal dose in the short term; the subscript 50
problems ranging from diabetes to heart disease to
indicates the dose is toxic enough to kill 50 per cent of
cancer.
lab animals exposed to the chemical). LD 50 values are
• The health ministry in 2008 came out with a notifica- measured zero onwards; the lower the LD 50 the more
tion for labelling food including trans fats. acutely toxic the pesticide.
• To illustrate, comparison of DDT — most used in India • The cadmium poisoning caused softening of the bones
up to the early 1990s — with monocrotophos, currently and kidney failure.
most used. • The cadmium was released into rivers by mining com-
• DDT’ S LD 50 is 113 mg/kg; monocrotophos, 14 mg/kg. panies in the mountains. The mining companies were
But never forget that lower LD 50 means higher acute successfully sued for the damage
toxicity.
d) Blue baby syndrome
• Pesticides once ingested, accumulate in the body fat or
• It is believed to be caused by high nitrate contamination
pass through. Organochlorine pesticides, for instance,
in ground water resulting in decreased oxygen carrying
accumulate in body fat and blood lipids. These fat-sol-
capacity of hemoglobin in babies leading to death.
uble chemicals persist in the body for many years.
• The groundwater is thought to be contaminated by
29.2 DISEASES CAUSED BY leaching of nitrate generated from fertilizer used in
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGR ADATION agricultural lands and waste dumps.
a) Minamata disease
• It may also be related to some pesticides (DDT, PCBs
etc), which cause eco toxicological problems in the food
• Minamata disease was first discovered in Minamata city chains of living organisms, increasing BOD, which kills
in Kumamoto prefecture, Japan in 1956. aquatic animals.
• It was caused by the release of methyl mercury in the
e) Pneumoconiosis
industrial wastewater from the Chisso Corporation’s
chemical factory, which continued from 1932 to 1968. • The coal miners are frequently caught by the black lung
disease, which is also called as Pneumoconiosis
• It is also referred to as Chisso-Minamata disease, is a
neurological syndrome caused by severe mercury poi- • Pneumoconiosis is caused due to the deposit of coal dust
soning. in the lungs of coal miners, leads to a serious lung dis-
ease called as Black Lung disease.
• Symptoms include ataxia, numbness in the hands and
feet, general muscle weakness, narrowing of the field f) Asbestosis
of vision and damage to hearing and speech. In extreme • Workers working in the asbestos industry are caught
cases, insanity, paralysis, coma, and death follow within by the serious lung disease called as asbestosis.
weeks of the onset of symptoms. A congenital form of
the disease can also affect fetuses in the womb. G) Silicosis
• This highly toxic chemical bioaccumulated in shellfish • It is caused due to the deposit of silica in the lungs of
and fish in Minamata Bay and the Shiranui Sea, which workers working in silica industries or at the sand blast-
when eaten by the local populace resulted in mercury ing sites
poisoning. While cat, dog, pig, and human deaths con- h) Emphysema
tinued over more than 30 years, the government and
company did little to prevent the pollution. • The breaking down of sensitive tissue of lungs due to
air pollution and smoke of cigarette is called as Emphy-
b) Yokkaichi asthma sema. Once this disease happens, the lungs cannot ex-
• Disease occurred in the city of Yokkaichi in Mie Prefec- pand and contract properly
ture, Japan between 1960 and 1972. I) Sick Building Syndrome (SBS)
• The burning of petroleum and crude oil released large • Sick building syndrome (SBS) is a combination of ail-
quantities of sulfur oxide that caused severe smog, re- ments (a syndrome) associated with an individual’s
sulting in severe cases of chronic obstructive pulmonary place of work or residence.
disease, chronic bronchitis, pulmonary emphysema, and
bronchial asthma among the local inhabitants. • Most of the sick building syndrome is related to poor
indoor air quality.
c) Itai-itai disease • Sick building causes are frequently pinned down to
• Itai-itai disease was the documented case of mass cad- flaws in the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
mium poisoning in Toyama Prefecture, Japan, starting (HVAC) systems. Other causes have been attributed to
around 1912. contaminants produced by out gassing of some types of
building materials, volatile organic compounds (VOC), International Standards and Environment
molds, improper exhaust ventilation of ozone, light in-
dustrial chemicals used within, or lack of adequate
• The ISO 14000 environmental management standards
exist to help organizations
fresh-air intake air filtration
• Minimize how their operations (processes etc.) neg-
29.4 MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS atively affect the environment (i.e. cause adverse
changes to air, water, or land)
CHIPKO MOVEMENT
• It is a social-ecological movement that practised the • Comply with applicable laws, regulations, and other
Gandhian methods of satyagraha and non-violent re- environmentally oriented requirements,
sistance, through the act of hugging trees to protect • Continually improve in the above.
them from falling.
• ISO 14000 is similar to ISO 9000 quality management
• The modern Chipko movement started in the early in that both pertain to the process of how a product is
1970s in the Garhwal Himalayas of Uttarakhand, with produced, rather than to the product itself.
growing awareness towards rapid deforestation.
• As with ISO 9000, certification is performed by third-
• The landmark event in this struggle took place on
party organizations rather than being awarded by ISO
March 26, 1974, when a group of peasant women in
directly.
Reni village, Hemwalghati, in Chamoli district, Uttara-
khand, India, acted to prevent the cutting of trees and • The ISO 19011 audit standard applies when auditing for
reclaim their traditional forest rights that were threat- both 9000 and 14000 compliance at once.
ened by the contractor system of the state Forest De- • List of ISO 14000 series standards
partment.
• ISO 14001 Environmental management systems—Re-
• Their actions inspired hundreds of such actions at the
quirements with guidance for use
grassroots level throughout the region.
• By the 1980s the movement had spread throughout India • ISO 14004 Environmental management systems—
General guidelines on principles, systems and sup-
and led to formulation of people-sensitive forest policies,
which put a stop to the open felling of trees in regions port techniques
as far reaching as Vindhyas and the Western Ghats. • ISO 14015 Environmental assessment of sites and
• The first recorded event of Chipko however, took place organizations
in village Khejarli, Jodhpur district, in 1730 AD, when • ISO 14020 series (14020 to 14025) Environmental
363 Bishnois, led by Amrita Devi sacrificed their lives labels and declarations
while protecting green Khejri trees, considered sacred
by the community, by hugging them, and braved the • ISO 14030 discusses post production environmental
axes of loggers sent by the local ruler, today it is seen assessment
an inspiration and a precursor for Chipko movement of • ISO 14031 Environmental performance evaluation—
Garhwal. Guidelines
APPIKO MOVEMENT • ISO 14040 series (14040 to 14049), Life Cycle Assess-
ment, LCA, discusses pre-production planning and
• Appiko movement was a revolutionary movement based
on environmental conservation in India. environment goal setting.
• The Chipko movement in Uttarakhand in the Himalayas • ISO 14050 terms and definitions.
inspired the villagers of the district of Karnataka prov- • ISO 14062 discusses making improvements to envi-
ince in southern India to launch a similar movement to ronmental impact goals.
save their forests.
• ISO 14063 Environmental communication —Guide-
• In September 1983, men, women and children of Sal- lines and examples
kani “hugged the trees” in Kalase forest. (The local term
for “hugging” in Kannada is appiko.) • ISO 14064 Measuring, quantifying, and reducing
Greenhouse Gas emissions.
• Appiko movement gave birth to a new awareness all
over southern India. • ISO 19011 which specifies one audit protocol
The National Wastelands Development Board (NWDB) • Example: Indian tiger, African elephant, giant panda of
• The National Wastelands Development Board (NWDB) China, mountain gorilla of Central Africa, orangutan of
was set up under the Ministry of Environment & Forests Southeast Asia and the leatherback sea turtle.
in 1985 with the objective of
Keystone species
• to increase tree and other green cover on wastelands,
• Keystone species is a species whose addition to or loss
• to prevent good land from becoming wasteland, and from an ecosystem leads to major changes in abundance
• to formulate within the overall nodal policy, perspective or occurrence of at least one other species. Certain spe-
plans and programmes for the management and devel-
cies in an ecosystem is considered more important in
opment of the wastelands in the country.
determining the presence of many other species in that
• In 1992, the Board was transferred to the Ministry of ecosystem.
Rural Development, putting under a New Department
of Wastelands Development under the charge of a Min- • All top predators (Tiger, Lion, Crocodile, Elephant) are
ister of State. considered as keystone species because it regulates all
other animals’ population indirectly. Hence top preda-
Bioassay
tors are given much consideration in conservation.
• Bioassay is a test in which organisms are used to de-
tect the presence or the effects of any other physical • Key stone species deserves special attention from the
factor, chemical factor, or any other type of ecological conservation point of view. Conservation of keystone
disturbance. species encourages conservation of all other relevant
• Bioassays are very common in pollution studies. Bio- species associated with this.
assays can be conducted by using any type of organ- • If keystone species is lost, it will result in the degrada-
isms. However, the fish and insect bioassays are very tion of whole ecosystem. For example certain plant spe-
common. cies (ebony tree, Indian-laurel) exclusively depends upon
• The aim is to find out either lethal concentration or ef- bats for its pollination. If the bat population is reduced
fective concentration causing mortality or other effects. then regeneration of particular plants becomes more
• Ultimately they are to be used for determination of safe difficult. This changes the vegetation structure which
concentration of a chemical or maximum acceptable adversely influence on the dependant animals.
toxicant concentration (MATC).
Indicator species
• The organism is exposed to different concentrations of
a toxicant for a definite period and mortality, behavioral • Indicator species is a species whose presence indicates
change or other signals of distress are noted periodi- the presence of a set of other species and whose absence
cally. indicates the lack of that entire set of species.
• Out of three types, static bioassay test is designed, • An indicator species is any biological species that de-
where the organisms are exposed to the same toxicant fines a trait or characteristic of the environment. For
solution for the whole experimental period. The other example, a species may delineate an ecoregion or indi-
two are, renewal bioassay and flow-through bioassays.
cate an environmental condition such as a disease out-
Flagship species break, pollution, species competition or climate change.
• A flagship species is a species chosen to represent an Indicator species can be among the most sensitive spe-
environmental cause, such as an ecosystem in need of cies in a region, and sometimes act as an early warning
conservation. These species are chosen for their vulner- to monitoring biologists.
ability, attractiveness or distinctiveness in order to en-
gender support and acknowledgement from the public
• Many indicator species of the ocean systems are fish,
invertebrates, periphyton, macrophytes and specific spe-
at large. Thus, the concept of a flagship species holds
that, by giving publicity to a few key species, the sup- cies of ocean birds (like the Atlantic Puffin). Amphibian
port given to those species will successfully leverage indicates chemicals, global warming and air pollution.
conservation of entire ecosystems are all species con- Lichens are indicators of air quality and are sensitive to
tained therein. sulfur dioxide.
Foundation species Umbrella species
• Foundation species is a dominant primary producer in • Umbrella species is a wide-ranging species whose re-
an ecosystem both in terms of abundance and influence. quirements include those of many other species. The
Example: kelp in kelp forests and corals in coral reefs. protection of umbrella species automatically extends
Charismatic megafauna protection to other species. These are species selected
for making conservation related decisions, typically be-
• These are large animal species with widespread popu- cause protecting these species indirectly protects the
lar appeal that environmental activists use to achieve
many other species that make up the ecological com-
conservation goals well beyond just those species. Ex-
amples include the Giant Panda, the Bengal Tiger, and munity of its habitat.
the Blue Whale.
 
GLOSSARY
• Warm-blooded is a term to describe animal species • Agroforestry Is an integrated approach of using the
which have a relatively higher blood temperature, and interactive benefits from combining trees and shrubs
maintain thermal homeostasis primarily through inter- with crops and livestock. It combines agricultural and
nal metabolic processes. Examples: Mammals and birds. forestry technologies to create more diverse, productive,
• Cold-blooded is a term often used to refer to animals profitable, healthy and sustainable land-use systems.
that do not use their metabolism to maintain body tem- • Habitat fragmentation is the emergence of disconti-
perature. Examples: reptiles, insects, arachnids, am- nuities (fragmentation) in an organism’s preferred en-
phibians and fish vironment (habitat), causing population fragmentation.
• Aestivation is a state of animal dormancy, character- • Habitat destruction - The process in which natural
ized by inactivity and a lowered metabolic rate that is habitat is rendered functionally unable to support the
entered in response to high temperatures and arid con- species present. In this process, the organisms which
ditions. It takes place during times of heat and dryness, previously used the site are displaced or destroyed, re-
the hot dry season, which is often but not necessarily ducing biodiversity
the summer months. Invertebrate and vertebrate ani- • Habitat conservation is a land management practice
mals are known to enter this state to avoid damage from that seeks to conserve, protect and restore, habitat areas
high temperatures and the risk of desiccation. Both ter- for wild plants and animals, especially conservation
restrial and aquatic animals undergo aestivation. reliant species, and prevent their extinction, fragmenta-
• Hibernation is a state of inactivity and metabolic de- tion or reduction in range
pression in animals, characterized by lower body tem- • Oligotrophic Lake is a lake with low primary produc-
perature, slower breathing, and lower metabolic rate. tivity, the result of low nutrient content. These lakes
Hibernating animals conserve food, especially during have low algal production, and consequently, often have
winter when food supplies are limited, tapping energy very clear waters, with high drinking-water quality
reserves, body fat, at a slow rate. It is the animal’s
slowed metabolic rate which leads to a reduction in body
• Eutrophic lake is a lake has high primary productivity
due to excessive nutrients and is subject to algal blooms
temperature and not the other way around.
resulting in poor water quality. The bottom waters of
• Reforestation Is the restocking of existing forests and such bodies are commonly deficient in oxygen, ranging
woodlands which have been depleted from hypoxic to anoxic.
• Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand • Mesotrophic lakes is a lake with an intermediate level
of trees in an area where there was no forest of productivity, greater than oligotrophic lakes, but less
• Deforestation Is the removal of a forest or stand of than eutrophic lakes. These lakes are commonly clear
trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non water lakes and ponds with beds of submerged aquatic
forest use. plants and medium levels of nutrients
• Forest cover is the presence of trees on lands more • Mull soil is one characterised by large soil animals
than one hectare in area with a tree canopy of more (especially plentiful earthworms), incorporation of or-
than 10 percent, irrespective of ownership and legal ganic matter through the topsoil and active bacterial
status. decomposition.
• Tree cover comprises the tree patches outside forest • Mor soil is on the other hand characterised by smaller
area and exclusive of forest cover that has less than a soil animals, the buildup of a litter layer on top and
minimum map-able area of one hectare. decomposition mainly led by fungi
• Calcifuge is a plant that does not tolerate alkaline soil. • Biological pump is the sum of a suite of biologically-
• Calcicole or Calciphyte is a plant that does not tolerate mediated processes that transport carbon from the
acidic soil. surface euphotic zone to the ocean’s interior.
• Ecotopes are the smallest ecologically-distinct land- • Standing crop is the quantity or total weight or energy
scape features in a landscape mapping and classification content of the organisms which are in a particular loca-
system. As such, they represent relatively homogeneous, tion at a particular time.
spatially-explicit landscape functional units that are • Endolith is an organism that lives inside rock, coral,
useful for stratifying landscapes into ecologically dis- animal shells, or in the pores between mineral grains
tinct features for the measurement and mapping of of a rock.
landscape structure, function and change. • Detritivores are heterotrophs that obtain nutrients by
• Ecozones delineate large areas of the Earth’s surface consuming detritus (decomposing organic matter). By
within which organisms have been evolving in relative doing so, they contribute to decomposition and the nu-
isolation over long periods of time, separated from one trient cycles. They should be distinguished from other
another by geographic features, such as oceans, broad decomposers, such as many species of bacteria, fungi
deserts, or high mountain ranges, that constitute bar- and protists, unable to ingest discrete lumps of matter,
riers to migration instead live by absorbing and metabolising on a mo-
• Productivity or production refers to the rate of gen- lecular scale. However, the terms detritivore and de-
eration of biomass in an ecosystem. composer are often used interchangeably
• Photoheterotrophs are heterotrophic organisms that • Carrying capacity of a biological species in an environ-
use light for energy, but cannot use carbon dioxide as ment is the maximum population size of the species that
their sole carbon source. Consequently, they use organic the environment can sustain indefinitely, given the
compounds from the environment to satisfy their car- food, habitat, water and other necessities available in
bon requirements. They use compounds such as carbo- the environment
hydrates, fatty acids and alcohols as their organic food • Brackish water is water that has more salinity than
• Chemotrophs are organisms that obtain energy by the fresh water, but not as much as seawater. It may result
oxidation of electron donors in their environments from mixing of seawater with fresh water.
• Phototrophs are the organisms (usually plants) that • Gene pool is the complete set of unique alleles in a spe-
carry out photosynthesis to acquire energy. They use cies or population
the energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and • Genetic erosion is a process whereby an already lim-
water into organic materials to be utilized in cellular ited gene pool of an endangered species of plant or
functions such as biosynthesis and respiration. animal diminishes even more when individuals from
• Hemotrophs are organisms that obtain energy by the the surviving population die off without getting a
oxidation of electron donors in their environments chance to meet and breed with others in their endan-
gered low population.
• Lithotroph is an organism that uses an inorganic sub-
strate to obtain reducing equivalents for use in biosyn- • Bioterrorism is terrorism involving the intentional re-
thesis or energy conservation via aerobic or anaerobic lease or dissemination of biological agents. These agents
respiration are (bacteria, viruses, or toxins), and may be in a natu-
rally occurring or a human-modified form.
• Lithophiles are micro-organisms that can live within
the pore interstices of sedimentary and even igneous • Bioleaching is the extraction of specific metals from
rocks to depths of several kilometers. their ores through the use of living organisms. This is
much cleaner than the traditional heap leaching using
• Organotroph is an organism that obtains hydrogen or
cyanide. Bioleaching is one of several applications
electrons from organic substrates
within bio hydrometallurgy and several methods are
• Mixotroph is a microorganism that can use a mix of used to recover copper, zinc, lead, arsenic, antimony,
different sources of energy and carbon. nickel, molybdenum, gold, silver, and cobalt.
• Photic zone or Euphotic zone is the depth of the water • Biochemical oxygen demand or B.O.D. is the amount
in a lake or ocean that is exposed to sufficient sunlight of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic biological organ-
for photosynthesis to occur. isms in a body of water to break down organic material
present in a given water sample at certain temperature • Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to
over a specific time period. which an individual person, incorporated association,
• Microclimate is a local atmospheric zone where the business enterprise, government instrumentality or
climate differs from the surrounding area. The term geographic community exceeds its permitted green-
may refer to areas as small as a few square feet or as house footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that
large as many square miles. contribute to global warming and climate change
• Biopiracy is the theft of genetic materials especially • Biocapacity is the capacity of an area to provide re-
plants and other biological materials by the patent pro- sources and absorb wastes. When the area’s ecologi-
cess. Biopiracy is a situation where indigenous knowl- cal footprint exceeds its biocapacity, unsustainability
edge of nature, originating with indigenous people, is occurs.
exploited for commercial gain without permission from • Global hectare is a measurement of biocapacity of the
and with no compensation to the indigenous people entire earth - one global hectare is a measurement of
themselves. the average biocapacity of all hectare measurements
• BioWeb is the connotation for a network of web-enabled of any biologically productive areas on the planet.
biological devices (e.g. trees, plants, and flowers) which • Carbon credit and carbon markets are a component of
extends an internet of things to the Internet of Living national and international attempts to mitigate the
Things of natural sensory devices. The BioWeb devices growth in concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs).
give insights to real-time ecological data and feedback One carbon credit is equal to one metric tonne of carbon
to changes in the environment dioxide, or in some markets, carbon dioxide equivalent
• Biomass is the amount of living or organic matter pre- gases. Carbon trading is an application of an emissions
sent in an organism. Biomass pyramids show how much trading approach.
biomass is present in the organisms at each tropic level, • Oil spill is a release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon
while productivity pyramids show the production or into the environment due to human activity, and is a
turnover in biomass. form of pollution. The term often refers to marine oil
• Ecological footprint is a measure of human demand spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal
on the Earth’s ecosystems. It is a standardized measure waters
of demand for natural capital that may be contrasted • Gene banks help preserve genetic material, be it plant
with the planet’s ecological capacity to regenerate or animal. In plants, this could be by freezing cuts from
• Algal bloom is a rapid increase or accumulation in the the plant, or stocking the seeds. In animals, this is the
population of algae in an aquatic system. Algal blooms freezing of sperm and eggs in zoological freezers until
may occur in freshwater as well as marine environments. further need.
• Carbon footprint is a measurement of all greenhouse • Biobank is a cryogenic storage facility used to archive
gases we individually produce and has units of tonnes biological samples for use in research and experiments
(or kg) of carbon dioxide equivalent. A carbon footprint • Xerosere is a plant succession which is limited by water
is made up of the sum of two parts, the primary foot- availability. It includes the different stages in a xerarch
print and the secondary footprint. succession. Xerarch succession of ecological communi-
• The primary footprint is a measure of our direct emis- ties originated in extremely dry situation such as sand
sions of CO2 from the burning of fossil fuels including deserts, sand dunes, salt deserts, rock deserts etc
domestic energy consumption and transportation (e.g. • Earth Hour is a global event organized by WWF and is
car and plane). We have direct control of these. held on the last Saturday of March annually, asking
• The secondary footprint is a measure of the indirect households and businesses to turn off their non-essen-
CO2 emissions from the whole lifecycle of products we tial lights and other electrical appliances for one hour
use - those associated with their manufacture and even- to raise awareness towards the need to take action on
tual breakdown. To put it very simply – the more we climate change.
buy the more emissions will be caused on our behalf. • Bioprospecting is an umbrella term describing the dis-
• Carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate covery of new and useful biological samples and mech-
change by reducing greenhouse gas (principally CO2) anisms, typically in less-developed countries, either
production, without lowering their standard of living with or without the help of indigenous knowledge, and
with or without compensation. In this way, bioprospect- • Ocean de-oxygenation is a term that has been sug-
ing includes biopiracy and also includes the search for gested to describe the expansion of oxygen minimum
previously unknown compounds in organisms that have zones in the world’s oceans as a consequence of anthro-
never been used in traditional medicine. pogenic emissions of carbon dioxide. Oceanographers
• Poaching is the illegal taking of wild plants or animals and others have discussed what phrase best describes
contrary to local and international conservation and the phenomenon to non-specialists.
wildlife management laws. Violations of hunting laws • Plasticulture refers to the practice of using plastic ma-
and regulations are normally punishable by law and, terials in agricultural applications. The plastic materials
collectively, such violations are known as poaching. themselves are often and broadly referred to as
• Hunting is the practice of pursuing any living thing, “ag plastics.” Plasticulture ag plastics include soil fumi-
usually wildlife, for food, recreation, or trade. In pre- gation film, irrigation drip tape/tubing, nursery pots
sent-day use, the term refers to lawful hunting, as dis- and silage bags, but the term is most often used to de-
tinguished from poaching, which is the killing, scribe all kinds of plastic plant/soil coverings. Such cov-
trapping or capture of the hunted species contrary to erings range from plastic mulch film, row coverings,
applicable law. high and low tunnels, to plastic greenhouses.
• Wildlife includes all non-domesticated plants, animals • Nanotoxicology is the study of the toxicity of nanoma-
and other organisms. Domesticating wild plant and terials. Because of quantum size effects and large sur-
animal species for human benefit has occurred many face area to volume ratio, nanomaterials have unique
times all over the planet, and has a major impact on the properties compared with their larger counterparts.
environment, both positive and negative.
• Wild crafting is the practice of harvesting plants from
CLIMATE CHANGE -
their natural, or “wild” habitat, for food or medicinal
purposes. It applies to uncultivated plants wherever they • “Climate change” means a change of climate which is
may be found, and is not necessarily limited to wilder- attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that
ness areas. Ethical considerations are often involved, alters the composition of the global atmosphere and
such as protecting endangered species. which is in addition to natural climate variability ob-
• Conservation biology is the scientific study of the na- served over comparable time periods.
ture and status of Earth’s biodiversity with the aim of • “Greenhouse gases” means those gaseous constituents
protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from of the atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic,
excessive rates of extinction. that absorb and re-emit infrared radiation.
• Extinction is the end of an organism or of a group of • “Source” means any process or activity which releases
organisms (taxon), normally a species. a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a green-
• Holocene extinction refers to the extinction of species house gas into the atmosphere.
during the present Holocene epoch (since around • “Reservoir” means a component or components of the
10,000 BC climate system where a greenhouse gas or a precursor
• Wildlife corridor or Green corridor is an area of habi- of a greenhouse gas is stored.
tat connecting wildlife populations separated by human • “Sink” means any process, activity or mechanism
activities (such as roads, development, or logging). This which removes a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a pre-
allows an exchange of individuals between populations, cursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere.
which may help prevent the negative effects of inbreed-
ing and reduced genetic diversity (via genetic drift) that Adaptation
often occur within isolated populations. • Adjustment in natural or human systems in response to
• Biolink zones are a land use category developed for actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which
biodiversity conservation and landscape adaptation moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.
under changing climates
Adaptation Fund
• Zero-emissions vehicle, or ZEV, is a vehicle that emits
no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of • The Adaptation Fund was established to finance con-
power. crete adaptation projects and programmes in develop-
ing country Parties to the Kyoto Protocol that are Kiribati, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Nauru,
particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate Netherlands Antilles, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea,
change. Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Seychelles, Singapore,
• The Adaptation Fund is financed from the share of pro- Solomon Islands, St. Kitts & Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent
ceeds on the clean development mechanism project ac- and the Grenadines, Suriname, Timor-Leste, Tonga,
tivities and other sources of funding. The share of Trinidad and Tobago, Tuvalu, US Virgin Islands, and
proceeds amounts to 2% of certified emission reduc- Vanuatu.
tions (CERs) issued for a CDM project activity.
Bali Action Plan (BAP)
• The Adaptation Fund is supervised and managed by the
Adaptation Fund Board (AFB). The AFB is composed of • Included in the Bali Road Map, agreed at the Conference
16 members and 16 alternates and meets at least twice of the Parties in Bali, Indonesia in 2007 (COP13), intro-
a year. duced AWG-LCA.
• Upon invitation from Parties, the Global Environment
Bali Road Map
Facility (GEF) provides secretariat services to the AFB
and the World Bank serves as trustee of the Adaptation • The Bali Road Map was adopted at the 13th Conference
Fund, both on an interim basis. of the Parties and the 3rd Meeting of the Parties in
December 2007 in Bali.
Adaptation Committee • The Road Map is a set of a forward-looking decisions
• As part of the Cancun Adaptation Framework, Parties that represent the work that needs to be done under
established the Adaptation Committee to promote the various negotiating “tracks” that is essential to reaching
implementation of enhanced action on adaptation in a a secure climate future.
coherent manner under the Convention through the • It includes the Bali Action Plan, which charts the course
following functions: for a new negotiating process designed to tackle climate
• Providing technical support and guidance to the Parties change, with the aim of completing this by 2009.
• Sharing of relevant information, knowledge, experience • It also includes the AWG-KP negotiations, the launch of
and good practices the Adaptation Fund, the scope and content of the Ar-
ticle 9 review of the Kyoto Protocol, as well as decisions
• Promoting synergy and strengthening engagement with
on technology transfer and on reducing emissions from
national, regional and international organizations, cen-
deforestation.
tres and networks
• Providing information and recommendations, drawing Biomass fuels or biofuels
on adaptation good practices, for consideration by the
COP when providing guidance on means to incentivize
• A fuel produced from dry organic matter or combustible
oils produced by plants.
the implementation of adaptation actions, including fi-
nance, technology and capacity-building • These fuels are considered renewable as long as the
vegetation producing them is maintained or replanted,
• Considering information communicated by Parties on
such as firewood, alcohol fermented from sugar, and
their monitoring and review of adaptation actions, sup-
combustible oils extracted from soy beans.
port provided and received
• Their use in place of fossil fuels cuts greenhouse gas
Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) emissions because the plants that are the fuel sources
capture carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
• An ad hoc coalition of low-lying and island countries.
• These nations are particularly vulnerable to rising sea Carbon market
levels and share common positions on climate change.
• A popular (but misleading) term for a trading system
• The 43 members and observers are American Samoa, through which countries may buy or sell units of green-
Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Cape house-gas emissions in an effort to meet their national
Verde, Comoros, Cook Islands, Cuba, Dominica, Do- limits on emissions, either under the Kyoto Protocol or
minican Republic, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, under other agreements, such as that among member
Grenada, Guam, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, states of the European Union.
• The term comes from the fact that carbon dioxide is the Coalition for Rainforest Nations
predominant greenhouse gas, and other gases are • A voluntary grouping of largely developing nations with
measured in units called “carbon-dioxide equivalents.” rainforests which addresses issues surrounding envi-
ronmental sustainability specific to tropical rainforests.
Cartagena Group
• Participation does not necessarily imply that countries
• A collection of 27 countries seeking ambitious outcomes adhere to any specific domestic policies or negotiating
from the UNFCCC process and low carbon domestic positions within the international context.
output. Founded in 2010.
• At September 2011, the group included Argentina, Bang-
• Participating countries include Antigua and Barbuda, ladesh, Belize, Cameroon, Central African Republic,
Australia, Bangladesh, Belgium, Colombia, Costa Rica, Chile, Congo, Costa Rica, Cote d’Ivoire, DR Congo, Dom-
Ethiopia, France, Germany, Ghana, Indonesia, Malawi, inica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea,
Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mexico, Netherlands, New El Salvador, Fiji, Gabon, Ghana, Guatemala, Guyana,
Zealand, Norway, Peru, Samoa, Spain, Tanzania, Thai- Honduras, Indonesia, Jamaica, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia,
land, Timor-Leste, Uruguay, UK and the European Madagascar, Malaysia, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Pakistan,
Commission. Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Samoa, Sierra
Leone, Solomon Islands, Suriname, Thailand, Uruguay,
Certified emission reductions (CER) Uganda, Vanuatu and Vietnam.
• A Kyoto Protocol unit equal to 1 metric tonne of CO2 • Countries participate on a voluntarily basis primarily
equivalent. CERs are issued for emission reductions through unified negotiating positions, workshops and
from CDM project activities. collaborative programs.
• Two special types of CERs called temporary certified
emission reduction (tCERs) and long-term certified Emission reduction unit (ERU)
emission reductions (lCERs) are issued for emission • A Kyoto Protocol unit equal to 1 metric tonne of CO2
removals from afforestation and reforestation CDM equivalent. ERUs are generated for emission reductions
projects. or emission removals from joint implementation pro-
jects.
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
• A mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol through which Emissions trading
developed countries may finance greenhouse-gas emis- • One of the three Kyoto mechanisms, by which an Annex
sion reduction or removal projects in developing coun- I Party may transfer Kyoto Protocol units to, or acquire
tries, and receive credits for doing so which they may units from, another Annex I Party.
apply towards meeting mandatory limits on their own
emissions. • An Annex I Party must meet specific eligibility require-
ments to participate in emissions trading.
“CO2 equivalent”?
Fugitive fuel emissions
• GHG emissions/removals can be expressed either in
• Greenhouse-gas emissions as by-products or waste or
physical units (such as grams, tonnes, etc.) or in terms
loss in the process of fuel production, storage, or trans-
of CO2 equivalent (grams CO2 equivalent, tonnes CO2
port, such as methane given off during oil and gas drill-
equivalent, etc.).
ing and refining, or leakage of natural gas from
• The conversion factor from physical units to CO2 equiv- pipelines
alent is the Global Warming Potential (GWP) of the cor-
responding GHG. Global warming potential (GWP)
• If X Gg of CH4 is to be expressed in terms of CO2 equiv- • An index representing the combined effect of the differ-
alent, then it is multiplied by 21, which is GWP of CH4 ing times greenhouse gases remain in the atmosphere
over 100 years timescale. and their relative effectiveness in absorbing outgoing
infrared radiation.
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) which must be signed and ratified by the Parties to the
• The atmospheric gases responsible for causing global convention concerned.
warming and climate change. The major GHGs are car- • Protocols typically strengthen a convention by adding
bon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH 4) and nitrous oxide new, more detailed commitments.
(N20).
• Less prevalent --but very powerful -- greenhouse gases Quantified Emissions Limitation and Reduction
are hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons Commitments (QELROs)
(PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). • Legally binding targets and timetables under the Kyoto
Protocol for the limitation or reduction of greenhouse-
“Hot air” gas emissions by developed countries.
• Refers to the concern that some governments will be
able to meet their targets for greenhouse-gas emissions Registries, registry systems
under the Kyoto Protocol with minimal effort and could • Electronic databases that tracks and records all trans-
then flood the market with emissions credits, reducing actions under the Kyoto Protocol’s greenhouse-gas
the incentive for other countries to cut their own do- emissions trading system (the “carbon market”) and
mestic emissions. under mechanisms such as the Clean Development
Mechanism.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change • “Registry” may also refer to current discussions on a
(IPCC) system for inscribing nationally appropriate mitigation
• Established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Or- actions.
ganization and the UN Environment Programme, the
IPCC surveys world-wide scientific and technical litera- Rio Conventions
ture and publishes assessment reports that are widely • Three environmental conventions, two of which were
recognized as the most credible existing sources of in- adopted at the 1992 “Earth Summit” in Rio de Janeiro:
formation on climate change. the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
• The IPCC also works on methodologies and responds to Change (UNFCCC), and the Convention on Biodiversity
specific requests from the Convention’s subsidiary bod- (CBD), while the third, the United Nations Convention
ies. The IPCC is independent of the Convention. to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), was adopted in
1994.
Land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF) • The issues addressed by the three treaties are related
• A greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions -- in particular, climate change can have adverse effects
and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct on desertification and biodiversity -- and through a
human-induced land use, land-use change and forestry Joint Liaison Group, the secretariats of the three con-
activities. ventions take steps to coordinate activities to achieve
common progress.
Least Developed Countries Fund
• The LDCF was established to support a work pro- Rio 20
gramme to assist Least Developed Country Parties • The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Develop-
(LDCs) carry out, inter alia, the preparation and implement, to be held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on June 4-6,
mentation of national adaptation programmes of action 2012.
(NAPAs). • The first UN Conference on Sustainable Development
• The Global Environment Facility (GEF), as the entity was the “Earth Summit”, held in 1992, and it spawned
that operates the financial mechanism, has been en- the three “Rio Conventions”-- the UNFCCC, the UNCCD,
trusted to operate this fund. and the UNCBD.
Protocol Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF)

• An international agreement linked to an existing con- • The Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) was estab-
vention, but as a separate and additional agreement lished under the Convention in 2001 to finance projects
relating to: adaptation; technology transfer and capac- Umbrella group
ity building; energy, transport, industry, agriculture,
forestry and waste management; and economic diver-
• A loose coalition of non-European Union developed
countries formed following the adoption of the Kyoto
sification.
Protocol.
• The Global Environment Facility (GEF), as an operating
entity of the financial mechanism, has been entrusted • Although there is no formal membership list, the group
to operate the SCCF. usually includes Australia, Canada, Iceland, Japan, New
Zealand, Norway, the Russian Federation, Ukraine, and
“Spill-over effects” (also referred to as “rebound the United States.
effects” or “take-back effects”)
• Reverberations in developing countries caused by ac- 2 degrees C goal
tions taken by developed countries to cut greenhouse- • A 2 degrees Celsius/Centigrade rise in global tempera-
gas emissions. tures from pre-industrial levels is the highest rise we
• For example, emissions reductions in developed coun- can afford if we want a 50% chance of avoiding the
tries could lower demand for oil and thus international worst effects of climate change.
oil prices, leading to more use of oil and greater emis-
sions in developing nations, partially off-setting the
• The current concentration of carbon dioxide in the at-
mosphere is 370 parts per million
original cuts.
• Current estimates are that full-scale implementation of • The concentration of carbon dioxide equivalent in
the Kyoto Protocol may cause 5 to 20 per cent of emis- the atmosphere that the world must stay at or under to
sions reductions in industrialized countries to “leak” stay true to the 2 degrees Celsius goal is 450 parts per
into developing countries. million.
 
APPENDIX
1. Ramsar wetland sites in India S.No Name State

The Ramsar Convention is an international treaty for the 22. Sambhar Lake Rajasthan
conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands, rec-
23. Point Calimere Tamil Nadu
ognizing the fundamental ecological functions of wetlands
Wildlife and Bird
and their economic, cultural, scientific, and recreational
Sanctuary
value.
24. Rudrasagar Lake Tripura
S.No Name State 25. Upper Ganga River Uttar Pradesh
1. Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh (Brijghat to Narora
Stretch)
2. Deepor Beel Assam
26. East Calcutta West Bengal
3. Nalsarovar Bird Gujarat
Wetlands
Sanctuary
4. Chandra Taal Himachal Pradesh
2. Tiger Reserves of India
5. Pong Dam Lake Himachal Pradesh
Project Tiger was launched by the Government of India in
6. Renuka Wetland Himachal Pradesh the year 1973 to save the endangered species of tiger in the
7. Hokersar Wetland Jammu and Kashmir country. Starting from nine (9) reserves in 1973-74 the
8. Surinsar-Mansar Jammu and Kashmir number is grown up to fifty two (52).
Lakes
Sl. No Name of Tiger Reserve State
9. Tsomoriri Jammu and Kashmir
1 Nagarjunsagar Srisailam Andhra Pradesh
10. Wular Lake Jammu and Kashmir (part)*
11. Ashtamudi Wetland Kerala 2 Namdapha Arunachal Pradesh
12. Sasthamkotta Lake Kerala 3 Pakke Arunachal Pradesh
13. Vembanad-Kol Kerala 4 Kamlang Arunachal Pradesh
Wetland
5 Orang Assam
14. Bhoj Wetland Madhya Pradesh
6 Manas Assam
15. Loktak Lake Manipur
7 Nameri Assam
16. Bhitarkanika Orissa
Mangroves 8 Kaziranga Assam
17. Chilika Lake Orissa 9 Valmiki Bihar
18. Harike Wetland Punjab 10 Udanti-Sitanadi Chattisgarh
19. Kanjli Wetland Punjab 11 Achanakmar Chattisgarh
20. Ropar Punjab 12 Indravati Chhattisgarh
21. Keoladeo National Rajasthan 13 Palamau Jharkhand

Park 14 Bandipur Karnataka
Sl. No Name of Tiger Reserve State Sl. No Name of Tiger Reserve State
15 Bhadra Karnataka 35 Satkosia Odisha
16 Dandeli-Anshi Karnataka 36 Ranthambore Rajasthan
17 Nagarahole Karnataka 37 Sariska Rajasthan
18 BiligiriRanganatha Karnataka 38 Mukandra Hills Rajasthan
Temple
39 Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tamil Nadu
19 Periyar Kerala
20 Parambikulam Kerala 40 Mudumalai Tamil Nadu
21 Kanha Madhya Pradesh 41 Sathyamangalam Tamil Nadu

22 Pench Madhya Pradesh 42 Anamalai Tamil Nadu
23 Bandhavgarh Madhya Pradesh 43 Kawal Telangana
24 Panna Madhya Pradesh
44 Nagarjunasagar Telangana
25 Satpura Madhya Pradesh Srisailam (part)
26 Sanjay-Dubri Madhya Pradesh *(atmakur)
27 Melghat Maharashtra 45 Dudhwa Uttar Pradesh
28 Tadoba-Andhari Maharashtra 46 Pilibhit Uttar Pradesh
29 Pench Maharashtra
47 a. Amangarh (buffer of Uttar Pradesh
30 Sahyadri Maharashtra Corbett TR)
31 Nawegaon-Nagzira Maharashtra b. Corbett Uttarakhand
32 Bor Maharashtra 48 Rajaji TR Uttarakhand
33 Dampa Mizoram 49 Sunderbans West Bengal
34 Similipal Odisha 50 Buxa West Bengal
3. Elephant Reserves of India

The Indian elephant Elephas maximus occurs in the central and southern Western Ghats, North-east India, eastern India
and northern India and in some parts of southern peninsular India. It is distributed in 16 of the 28 states in the country
and is showing an increasing trend across its distributional range.
Sl.No ELEPHANT RANGE ELEPHANT RESERVE STATE

1. East-Central Landscape (South-West 1. Mayurjharna ER West Bengal
Bengal-Jharkhand - Orissa) 2. Singhbhum ER Jharkhand
3. Mayurbhanj ER Orissa
4. Mahanadi ER Orissa
5. Sambalpur ER Orissa
6. Baitami ER Orissa
7. South Orissa ER Orissa
8. Lemru ER Chhattishgarh
9. Badalkhol - Tamorpingla ER Chhattishgarh
2. Kameng-Sonitpur Landscape (Arunachal 10. Kameng ER Arunachal
- Assam) Total 11. Sonitpur ER Assam
3. Eastern-South Bank Landscape 12. Dihing-Patkai ER Assam
(Assam - Arunachal) 13. South Arunachal ER Arunachal
Sl.No ELEPHANT RANGE ELEPHANT RESERVE STATE
4. Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong-Intanki Landscape 14. Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong ER Assam
(Assam - Nagaland) 15. Dhansiri-Lungding ER Assam
16. Intanki ER Nagaland
5. North Bengal- Greater Manas Landscape 17. Chirang-Ripu ER Assam
(Assam - West Bengal) 18. Eastern Dooars ER West Bengal
6. Meghalaya Landscape (Meghalaya) 19. Garo Hills ER Meghalaya
20. Khasi-hills ER Meghalaya
7. Brahmagiri-Nilgiri-Eastern Ghat Landscape 21. Mysore ER Karnataka
(Karnataka - Kerala-Tamilnadu- Andhra) 22. Dandeli ER Karnataka
23. Wayanad ER Kerala
24. Nilgiri ER Tamil Nadu
25. Rayala ER Andhra pradesh
26. Nilambur ER Kerala
27. Coimbatore ER Tamil Nadu
8. Anamalai-Nelliampathy- High Range 28. Anamalai ER Tamil Nadu
Landscape (Tamilnadu - Kerala) 29. Anamudi ER Kerala
9. Periyar-Agasthyamalai Landscape (Kerala 30. Periyar ER Kerala
- Tamilnadu) 31. Srivilliputhur ER Tamil Nadu
10. North-Western Landscape (Uttarakhand - 32. Shivalik ER Uttarakhand
Uttar Pradesh) 33. Uttar Pradesh ER U.P.
4 Mike Sites in India S.No Name Location (State)

S.No Name State 1. Achanakamar Covers parts of Anupur and
- Amarkantak Dindori districts of M.P. and
1. Chirang Ripu Assam
parts of Bilaspur districts of
2. Dhang Patki Assam Chhattishgarh State.
3. Eastern Dooars WB 2. Agasthyamalai Neyyar, Peppara and
4. Deomali Arun Pradesh Shendurney Wildlife
Sanctuaries and their
5. Garo Hills Meghalaya
adjoining areas in Kerala.
6. Mayurbhanj Orissa
3. Cold Desert Pin Valley National Park and
7. Mysore Karnataka surroundings; Chandratal
8. Nilgiri Tamil Nadu and Sarchu & Kibber
9. Shivalik Uttarakhand Wildlife Sancturary in
Himachal Pradesh
10. Wayanad Kerala
4. Dehang-Dibang Part of Siang and Dibang
5. Biosphere reserves Valley in Arunachal
Pradesh.
Biosphere reserves are sites established by countries and
recognized under UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere 5. Dibru-Saikhowa Part of Dibrugarh and
(MAB) Programme to promote sustainable development Tinsukia Districts (Assam)
based on local community efforts and sound science. The 6. Great Nicobar Southern most islands of
programme of Biosphere Reserve was initiated by UNE- Andaman And Nicobar
SCO in 1971. (A&N Islands).
S.No Name Location (State) 6. List of INDIA‘s Biosphere Reserves in
UNESCO’S WNBR.
7. Gulf of Mannar Indian part of Gulf of
Mannar between India S.No NAME STATE
and Sri Lanka
1. Nilgiri Tamil Nadu, Kerala,
(Tamil Nadu).
Karnataka
8. Kachchh Part of Kachchh, Rajkot,
Surendra Nagar and 2. Gulf of Mannar Tamil Nadu
Patan Civil Districts of
3. Sunderbans West Bengal
Gujarat State
9. Khang Parts of Khang chendzonga 4. Nanda Devi Uttarakhand
chendzonga hills and Sikkim.
5. Nokrek Meghalaya
10. Manas Part of Kokrajhar,
Bongaigaon, Barpeta, 6. Pachmarhi Madhya Pradesh
Nalbari, Kamprup 7. Similipal Orissa
and Darang districts
(Assam) 8. Achanakmar- Chhattishgarh
Amarkantak
11. Nanda Devi Part of Chamoli,
Pithoragarh, and 9. Great Nicobar Andaman & Nicobar
Bageshwar districts 10. Agasthyamalai Kerala and Tamil Nadu
(Uttarakhand). Biosphere Reserve
12. Nilgiri Part of Wayanad, Nagarhole, 11. Khangchendzonga Sikkim
Bandipur and Madumalai, National Park
Nilambur, Silent Valley
and Siruvani hills (Tamil 7. Natural World Heritage Sites
Nadu, Kerala and
World Heritage Site is a place that is listed by the UNESCO
Karnataka).
as of special cultural or physical significance.
13. Nokrek Part of Garo hills
(Meghalaya). S.No. Name of WH Site State Location
14. Pachmarhi Parts of Betul, Hoshangabad 1 Kaziranga National Assam
and Chindwara districts of Park
Madhya Pradesh. 2 Keoladeo Ghana Rajasthan
15. Seshachalam Seshachalam Hill National Park
Hills Ranges covering parts 3 Manas Wildlife Assam
of Chittoor and Sanctuary
Kadapa districts of Andhra 4 Nanda Devi National Uttarakhand
Pradesh Park and Valley of
16. Simlipal Part of Mayurbhanj district Flowers
(Orissa). 5 Sunderbans National West Bengal
17. Sunderbans Part of delta of Ganges and Park
Brahamaputra river system 6 Western Ghats Maharashtra, Goa,
(West Bengal). Karnataka, Tamil
18. Panna Part of Panna and Nadu and Kerala
Chhatarpur districts in 7 Great Himalayan Himachal Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh. National Park
8. List of Sacred Groves
Sl.No. State Local term for Sacred Groves No. of sacred groves
1 Andhra Pradesh Pavithravana 580
2 Arunachal Pradesh Gumpa Forests (attached to Buddhist monestries) 101
3 Goa Deorai, Pann 55
4 Jharkhand Sarana 29
5 Karnataka Devara Kadu 1531
6 Kerala Kavu, Sara Kavu 299
7 Maharashtra Devrai, Devrahati, Devgudi 2820
8 Manipur Gamkhap, Mauhak ( sacred bamboo reserves) 166
9 Meghalaya Ki Law Lyngdoh, Ki Law Kyntang, Ki Law Niam 101
10 Orissa Jahera, Thakuramma 169
11 Puducherry Kovil Kadu 108
12 Rajasthan Orans, Kenkris, Jogmaya 560
13 Tamil Nadu Swami shola, Koilkadu 752
14 UttaraKhand Deo Bhumi, Bugyal (sacred alpine meadows) 22
15 West Bengal Garamthan, Harithan, Jahera, Sabitrithan, Santalburithan 39
Similarly several water bodies are declared sacred by people. This indirectly leads to protection of aquatic flora and
fauna. (E.g. khecheoprai lake in Sikkim)
9. Mangrove sites in India State/Union Territories Mangrove areas
State/Union Territories Mangrove areas 15. Pulicat
West Bengal 1. Sunderbans 16. Kaznuveli
Orissa 2. Bhaitarkanika Andaman & Nicobar 17. North Andamans
3. Mahanadi 18. Nicobar
4. Subernarekha Kerala 19. Vembanad
5. Devi-Kauda 20. Kannur (Northern

6. Dhamra Kerala)
7. Mangrove Genetic Karnataka 21. Coondapur
Resources Centre
22. Dakshin Kannada/
8. Chilka Hannavar
Andhra Pradesh 9. Coringa 23. Karwar
10. East Godavari 24. Manglore Forest
11. Krishna Division
Tamil Nadu 12. Pichavaram Goa 25. Goa
13. Muthupet Maharashtra 26. Achra-Ratnagiri
14. Ramnad 27. Devgarh-Vijay Durg
State/Union Territories Mangrove areas
28. Veldur
29. Kundalika-
Revdanda
30. Mumbra-Diva
31. Vikroli
32. Shreevardhan
33. Vaitarna
34. Vasai-Manori
35. Malvan
Gujarat 36. Gulf of Kutchh
37. Gulf of Khambhat
38. Dumas-Ubhrat
10. List of Key Activities and Likely Associated Air Pollutants

S. No. Activity Significant Air Pollutants
A. EIA Notifications, 1994
1. Nuclear Power Plants Tritium, Radioactive elements
2. River Valley Projects TSPM/RPM, HC, CO etc.
3. Air Ports, Ports/Harbours TSPM/RPM, HC, NOx, etc.
4. Petroleum Refineries SO2, HC, Mercaptan, VOCs
5. Chemical fertiliser TSPM/RPM, Fluoride, Ammonia, NOx,SO2
6. Pesticides Odour, VOCs, HC, Cl2
7. Petrochemicals TSPM/RPM, SO2, NOx, CO, HC, VOCs
8. Bulk Drugs & Pharmaceuticals TSPM/RPM, VOCs
9. Exploration of Oil & Gas and their production, TSPM/RPM, HC, CO
transportation and storage
10. Synthetic Rubber TSPM/RPM, SO2, HC
11. Asbestos and Asbestos products TSPM/RPM, fibre
12. Hydrocyanic acid and its derivatives HCN Vapours
13. Metallurgical industries TSPM/RPM, SO2, CO, NOx Fluoride etc.
14. Electric arc furnaces TSPM/RPM, NOx,
15. Chlor-alkali industry Hg, Cl2, HCl vapours, H2
16. Integrated paint complex TSPM/RPM, SO2, Volatile Organic
17. Viscose Staple fibre and filament yarn H2S, CS2, SO2
18. Storage batteries TSPM/RPM, Pb
19. Tourism Project TSPM/RPM,
20. Thermal Power Plants TSPM/RPM, SO2, NOx.
S. No. Activity Significant Air Pollutants
21. Mining Activities TSPM/RPM, HC etc.
22. Highway Projects TSPM/RPM, HC, NOx CO.
23. Tarred roads in Himalayas TSPM/RPM, HC, NOx CO.
24. Distilleries TSPM/RPM, SO2
25. Raw Skins and Hides -
26. Pulp and Paper TSPM/RPM, H2S, Mercaptan
27. Dyes TSPM/RPM, SO2, NOx
28. Cement TSPM/RPM, NOx
29. Foundries TSPM/RPM, SO2, CO, Metal Fumes
30. Electroplating TSPM/RPM, Fumes of HCN, HCl Acid Fumes
11. Respiratory Irritants and Toxic Chemicals

Chemical Sources of exposure Injury produced
Acetaldehyde Plastics, synthetic rubber industry, Upper airway injury; rarely causes delayed
combustion products pulmonary edema
Acetic acid, organic acids Chemical industry, electronics, Ocular and upper airway injury
combustion products
Acid anhydrides Chemicals, paints, and plastics Ocular, upper airway injury, bronchospasm;
industries; components of epoxy pulmonary haemorrhage after massive
resins exposure
Acrolein Plastics, textiles, pharmaceutical Diffuse airway and parenchymal injury
manufacturing, combustion
products
Ammonia Fertilizers, animal feeds, chemicals, Primarily ocular and upper airway burn;
and pharmaceuticals massive exposure may cause bronchiectasis
manufacturing
Antimony trichloride, Alloys, organic catalysts Pneumonitis, non-cardiogenic pulmonary
antimony penta-chloride oedema
Beryllium Alloys (with copper), ceramics; Acute upper airway injury, tracheobronchitis,
electronics, aerospace and nuclear chemical pneumonitis
reactor equipment
Boranes (diborane) Aircraft fuel, fungicide Upper airway injury, pneumonitis with massive
manufacturing exposure
Hydrogen bromide Petroleum refining Upper airway injury, pneumonitis with massive
exposure
Methyl bromide Refrigeration, produce fumigation Upper and lower airway injury, pneumonitis,
CNS depression and seizures
Cadmium Alloys with Zn and Pb, Tracheobronchitis, pulmonary oedema (often
electroplating, batteries, delayed onset over 24–48 hours); chronic low
insecticides level exposure leads to inflammatory changes
and emphysema
Calcium oxide, calcium Lime, photography, tanning, Upper and lower airway inflammation,
hydroxide insecticides pneumonitis
Chlorine Bleaching, formation of chlorinated Upper and lower airway inflammation,
compounds, household cleaners pneumonitis and non-cardiogenic pulmonary
oedema
Chloroacetophenone Crowd control agent, “tear gas” Ocular and upper airway inflammation, lower
airway and parenchymal injury with masssive
exposure
o-Chlorobenzomalo-nitrile Crowd control agent, “tear gas” Ocular and upper airway inflammation, lower
airway injury with massive exposure
Chloromethyl ethers Solvents, used in manufacture of Upper and lower airway irritation, also a
other organic compounds respiratory tract carcinogen
Chloropicrin Chemical manufacturing, fumigant Upper and lower airway inflammation
component
Chromic acid (Cr(IV)) Welding, plating Nasal inflammation and ulceration, rhinitis,
pneumonitis with massive exposure
Cobalt High temperature alloys, Acute bronchospasm and/or pneumonitis;
permanent magnets, hard metal chronic exposure can cause lung fibrosis
tools (with tungsten carbide)
Formaldehyde Manufacture of foam insulation, Ocular and upper airway irritation;
plywood, textiles, paper, bronchospasm in severe exposure; contact
fertilizers,resins; embalming dermatitis in sensitized persons
agents; combustion products
Hydrochloric acid Metal refining, rubber Ocular and upper airway inflammation, lower
manufacturing, organic compound airway inflammation only with massive
manufacture, photographic exposure
materials
Hydrofluoric acid Chemical catalyst, pesticides, Ocular and upper airway inflammation,
bleaching, welding, etching tracheobronchitis and pneumonitis with
massive exposure
Isocyanates Polyurethane production; paints; Ocular, upper and lower inflammation; asthma,
herbicide and insecticide products; hypersensitivity pneumonitis in sensitized
laminating, furniture, persons
enamelling,resin work
Lithium hydride Alloys, ceramics, electronics, Pneumonitis, non-cardiogenic pulmonary
chemical catalysts oedema
Mercury Electrolysis, ore and amalgam Ocular and respiratory tract inflammation,
extraction, electronics manufacture pneumonitis, CNS, kidney and systemic effects
Nickel carbonyl Nickel refining, electroplating, Lower respiratory irritation, pneumonitis,
chemical reagents delayed systemic toxic effects
Nitrogen dioxide Silos after new grain storage, Ocular and upper airway inflammation,
fertilizer making, arc welding, non-cardiogenic pulmonary oedema, delayed
combustion products onset bronchiolitis
Nitrogen mustards;sulphur Military gases Ocular, upper and lower airway inflammation,
mustards pneumonitis
Osmium tetroxide Copper refining, alloy with iridium, Severe ocular and upper airway irritation;
catalyst for steroid synthesis and transient renal damage
ammonia formation
Ozone Arc welding, copy machines, paper Upper and lower airway inflammation;
bleaching asthmatics more susceptible
Phosgene Pesticide and other chemical Upper airway inflammation and pneumonitis;
manufacture, arc welding, paint delayed pulmonary oedema in low doses
removal
Phosphoric sulphides Production of insecticides, ignition Ocular and upper airway inflammation
compounds, matches
Phosphoric chlorides Manufacture of chlorinated organic Ocular and upper airway inflammation
compounds, dyes, gasoline
additives
Selenium dioxide Copper or nickel smelting, heating Ocular and upper airway inflammation,
of selenium alloys pulmonary oedema in massive exposure
Hydrogen selenide Copper refining, sulphuric acid Ocular and upper airway inflammation, delayed
production pulmonary oedema
Styrene Manufacture of polystyrene and Ocular, upper and lower airway inflammation,
resins, polymers neurological impairments
Sulphur dioxide Petroleum refining, pulp mills, Upper airway inflammation,
refrigeration plants, manufacturing bronchoconstriction, pneumonitis on massive
of sodium sulphite exposure
Titanium tetrachloride Dyes, pigments, sky writing Upper airway injury
Uranium hexafluoride Metal coat removers, floor sealants, Upper and lower airway injury, bronchospasm,
spray paints pneumonitis
Vanadium pentoxide Cleaning oil tanks, metallurgy Ocular, upper and lower airway symptoms
Zinc chloride Smoke grenades, artillery Upper and lower airway irritation, fever,
delayed onset pneumonitis
Zirconium tetrachloride Pigments, catalysts Upper and lower airway irritation, pneumonitis
Note:
• TSPM – Total Suspended Particulate Matter
• RPM – Respirable Particulate Matter
• VOCs – Volatile Organic Compounds
• HCN Vapours – Hydrogen Cyanide
  

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ENVIRONMENT

SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY BOOK PUBLICATIONS

1st Edition – 2012

PUBLISHED BY SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY BOOK PUBLICATIONS

2� FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM ������������������������������������������������������������ 11-21

3� TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM ������������������������������������������������������������������23-32

4� AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM ����������������������������������������������������������������������������33-53

5� ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION �������������������������������������������������������������55-82

6� RENEWABLE ENERGY���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 83-91

7� ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES������������������������������������������������������������������� 93-108

8� ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT ����������������������������������������� 109-119

9� BIODIVERSITY ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 123-127

10� INDIAN BIODIVERSITY ����������������������������������������������������������������������� 129-137

11� SCHEDULE ANIMALS OF WPA, 1972 ��������������������������������������������������� 139-152

12� ANIMAL DIVERSITY OF INDIA ����������������������������������������������������������� 153-159

13� PLANT DIVERSITY OF INDIA �������������������������������������������������������������� 161-169

14� MARINE ORGANISM ����������������������������������������������������������������������������171-173

15� PROTECTED AREA NETWORK ������������������������������������������������������������ 175-185

16� CONSERVATION EFFORTS ������������������������������������������������������������������� 187-199

18� OCEAN ACIDIFICATION �����������������������������������������������������������������������211-213

21� MITIGATION STRATEGIES ������������������������������������������������������������������227-231

22� INDIA AND CLIMATE CHANGE ���������������������������������������������������������� 233-250

23� CLIMATE CHANGE ORGANISATIONS ������������������������������������������� 251-271

26� INSTITUTION AND MEASURES ��������������������������������������������������� 313-319

27� ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANISATIONS ������������������������������������������������� 321-324

28� INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONVENTIONS �����������������������325-340

29� ENVIRONMENT ISSUES AND HEALTH EFFECTS ������������������������������ 341-346

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION PAPERS

ENVIRONMENTAL ECOLOGY & 3. Recycling of waste

1. Discharge of nutrients from the estuaries. 15� Consider the following:

2. Bhitarkanika a. Great Indian Bustard, Musk Deer, Red Panda and

ENVIRONMENTAL ECOLOGY, BIODIVERSITY, CLIMATE CHANGE, ACT &

21(a) 22(d) 23(a) 24(c) 25(b) 26(c) 27(a) 29(c) 30(d)

ENVIRONMENTAL ECOLOGY, 3. Gulf of Mannar

1. It is an intergovernmental organization formed by The phenomenon of hibernation can be observed in

E cology ‘Oikos’ meaning home or place to live in and

S�No� Name of Biome Region Flora and Fauna

S�No Aquatic ecosystem Characteristics

1�3�6� Biosphere Biosphere is absent at extremes of the North and South

sp recycled over and over again for life to continue.

Grazing Food Chain

For example, In terestrial ecosystem, grass is eaten up by

2�4�1� Pyramid of Numbers

2�4�2� Pyramid of Biomass

2�4�3� Pyramid of Energy

Now suppose an animal, say a deer, eats the plant contain-

2.5 POLLUTANTS AND TROPHIC LEVEL

2.6. BIOTIC INTER ACTION

The hydrologic cycle is the continuous circulation of water

There is an inexhaustible supply of nitrogen in the atmos-

Sulphur Cycle Ecological Succession

T he interrelations between organisms and environ-

3�2�2� Temperate deciduous forest:

3�2�7� Subtropical rain forests: 3�3�3� Tropical Moist deciduous forests

3�3�2� Tropical Semi-evergreen forests 3�3�8� Sub tropical Broad-leaved forests

3.5. GR ASSLAND ECOSYTEM

E cosystems consisting of water as the main habitat

Anoxia condition (Devoid of oxygen)

R - Restoration, reclamation and rejuvenation of denuded Degradation of aquatic ecosystem

4.5.3. Wetlands Classification

2� FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM �� 11-21

3� TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM ��23-32

4� AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM ��33-53

5� ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION ��55-82

6� RENEWABLE ENERGY�� 83-91

7� ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES�� 93-108

8� ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT �� 109-119

9� BIODIVERSITY �� 123-127

10� INDIAN BIODIVERSITY �� 129-137

11� SCHEDULE ANIMALS OF WPA, 1972 �� 139-152

12� ANIMAL DIVERSITY OF INDIA �� 153-159

13� PLANT DIVERSITY OF INDIA �� 161-169

14� MARINE ORGANISM ��171-173

15� PROTECTED AREA NETWORK �� 175-185

16� CONSERVATION EFFORTS �� 187-199

18� OCEAN ACIDIFICATION ��211-213

21� MITIGATION STRATEGIES ��227-231

22� INDIA AND CLIMATE CHANGE �� 233-250

23� CLIMATE CHANGE ORGANISATIONS �� 251-271

26� INSTITUTION AND MEASURES �� 313-319

27� ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANISATIONS �� 321-324

28� INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONVENTIONS ��325-340

29� ENVIRONMENT ISSUES AND HEALTH EFFECTS �� 341-346