CLIMATE CHANGE AND TOURISM: AN ASSESSMENT OF

KASENNA NANKANA WEST DISTRICT AS A TOURISM

DESTINATION

By

MORO ALI

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTEDIN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR

THE AWARD OF A BACHELOR OF ARTS
(BA HONS) DEGREE IN CULTURE AND TOURISM

THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
COLLEGE OF ART AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI

MAY, 2013
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 DECLARATION

I declare that I have personally, under supervision, undertaken the study herein submitted. All

references have dully been acknowledged and I take responsibility for any omission and

commission.

Student Signature Date: 17 / 05 /2013

……………………….. ……………………..

I have supervised the student in undertaking the study submitted herein and I confirm that He has

my permission to present it for submission.

Signature: …………………………………….. Date: 17/ 05 /2013

Ms Lawrencia Pokuah-Nimo

(Supervisor)

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 DEDICATION

THIS THESIS IS DEDICATED TO MY PARENTS, MR. JOHN ABANGTOAMORO AND

MRS. GEORGINA AKOLBA WITHOUT WHOM I WOULD’NT HAVE BEEN

PRIVILAGED TO ATTAIN THIS LEVEL OF EDUCATION. I LOVE YOU AND GOD

RICHLY BLESS YOU.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge the efforts, support, guidance, cooperation and encouragement of

numerous people who have made it possible for me to undertake this study.

I wish to first and foremost express my sincere gratitude to the almighty God for His grace,

blessing and protection all through this work.

I want to also show my appreciation to my supervisor Ms. Lawrencia Pokuah-Nimo for her time,

her guidance, and encouragement. She was there for me every step of the way acting not only as

a supervisor but also as a mother, and I could not have completed this without her. I would also

like to thank the following people who in various ways helped in completing this work; Dr.

Gabriel Eshun, Mr. Foster Frempong, Mr. Dominic Adjei, Mr. Abuga John and Mr.

Robert Akum.

My appreciation also goes to my family for the moral support and encouragement during the

whole time especially my Mum and Dad.

I want to express my gratitude to the informants who kindly accepted to be interviewed and all

the people that I met during the field visit to the Kassena Nankana west district for the

welcoming and cooperative attitude they have never failed to show me

Finally, I would also like to thank all of you who I may not have mentioned but provided

valuable support to this work.

To all of you I wish you God’s blessings!

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ABSTRACT

Climate and Tourism can be said to be “bed-mate” because Tourism is a climate-dependent

industry, and many destinations owe their popularity to their pleasurable climate whereas

tourism also play a vital role in global climate change. According to David King (chief scientific

advisor to United Kingdoms’ government), climate change is the most severe predicament facing

the world today in the 21st century, more severe even than the threat of terrorism. Therefore the

risk posed to tourism by climate change is threatening.

The general objective of this research was to provide an in-depth assessment of climate change

and tourism with respect to the Kassena Nankana West district as a tourist destination. Cross-

sectional study design was used to conduct this study meaning the respondents were contacted

only once. A sample of 130 respondents was considered of whom 110 were residents, tour

guides, GTA officials and the district assembly officials while the remaining 20 were tourist. The

study revealed that the tourism resources in this district are greatly threatened by increasing

climate change events such as drought, increasing temperatures, rainfall and burning of ‘dark

carbon’.

Free distribution and planting of trees, educating the farmers on the effects of bushfires and bad

farming practices, the introduction of environmental clubs in the basic school and installation of

task forces at the various forests that are doted in the district were all suggested ways of

combating climate change and variation in the district.

Keywords: climate change and variability, tourism, Kassena Nankana, temperature and rainfall.

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 Table of Contents
DECLARATION………………………..……………………………………………………….II
DEDICATION…….…………………..…………………………………………………………III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT….……………………………………………………………………IV
ABSTRACT…….……………….……………………………………….…………………….....V
TABLE OF CONTENT…………………………………………………………………………VI
LIST OF TABLES…….………….……………………………………………………………VIII
LIST OF FIGURES……..……………………………………………………………………….IX
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS……………….......…………………………X
1.0 CHAPTER ONE…….……………………………………………………………….............1
1.1 General Background to the Study…………………………………………………….….........1
1.2 Problem Statement…………………………………………………...……………….….……3
1.3 Statement of Objectives………………………………………………………………….........6
1.4 Research Propositions………………………………………………………………………....6
1.5 Methodology ……………………………………..…...............................................................7
1.5.1 Study Design………………………………………………………………………………...7
1.5.2 Study Population……………………………………………………………………….........7
1.5.3 Sampling Procedure………………………………………………………………..……......8
1.5.4 Sources of Data…………………………………………………………...…………………9
1.5.5 Data Collection Techniques………………………………………………………….…….10
1.5.6 Data Analysis and Presentation……………………………………………………...…….10
1.6 Operational Definition……………………………………………………………………….11
1.7 Justification of the Study…………………………………………….……………………...11
1.8 Delimitation………………………………………………………………………………….13
1.9 Limitation…………………………………………………………………………….……....14
1.1.1 Chapter Organization……………………………………………………………..………..14
1.1.2 Summary of Chapter…………………………………………………………….......……..15
2.0 CHAPTER TWO……………..………………………………………………………….....17
2.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………...………………...17
2.2 Weather, Climate and Tourism……………………………………………………………....18
2.3 Impacts of Climate Change On Tourism………………………………………..………...…21
2.4 Impacts of Tourism on Climate Change…………………………………….………..…..….31
2.5 Climate Change and Tourism Demand………………………………………….………......33
2.6 Policies on Climate Change……………………………….………………………………....35
2.1.1 Conceptual Framework……………………………………………………………….........37

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3.0 CHAPTER THREE………..……………………………………………………………….42
3.1 Study Area…………………………………………………………………………...………42
3.2 Location & Size………………………………………………………………………….......43
3.3 Topography & Drainage……………………………………………………………………..43
3.4 Climate & Vegetation………………………………………………………………………..43
3.5 Geology & Soil………………………………………………………………………………44
3.6 Tourism Development in the District…………….………………………………………….45
4.0 CHAPTER FOUR……………………………..……………………………………………47
4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………..…………47
4.2 Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents………………………………..……….47
4.3 Awareness and Evidence of Climate Change and Variability in the Kassena Nankana West
District………………………………………………………………………………………........50
4.4 Causes of Climate Change……………………………………………………………..…….54
4.5 Tourism in Kassena Nankana West District…………………………………………………59
4.6 Climate Change and Tourism Resource…..............................................................................61
4.7 Climate and Tourist Demand/Arrivals…………………………………………………….....65
4.7.1 Temperature, Rainfall and Tourist Arrivals…………………………………………......…67
4.8 Policies in Place to Curb the Problem of Climate Change…………………………………..72
5.0 CHAPTER FIVE..……………………………………………………………………....….75
5.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………….….…………...75
5.2 Summary of Major Findings……………………………………………………....................75
5.2.1 Awareness and Evidence of Climate Change and Variability in the Kassena Nankana West
District…………………………………………………………………………………………....75
5.2.2 Causes of Climate Change………………………………………………………………....76
5.2.3 Tourism in Kassena Nankana West ……………………………….………...……….........76
5.2.4 Climate Change and Tourism Resource..……………..………………….…………….….77
5.2.5 Climate and Tourist Demand/Arrivals ...…………………………………………….…….77
5.2.6 Policies in Place to Curb the Problem of Climate Change ………………….…………….77
5.3 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………...78
5.4 Recommendations ……………………………………………………………………….…..79
References…………………………………………………………………………………….….81
Appendices…………………………………………………………………………………..…...90

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 List of tables

Table 2.1 Main impacts of climate change and their implications for tourism

Table 2.2 emissions from international tourism in 2005 (including same-day visitors)

Table 4.1 Gender respondents

Table 4.2 Evidence of global climate change and variation

Table 4.3 change in rainfall pattern for the past years

Table 4.4 Cross tabulation of annual temperature changed over the past years and how?

Table 4.5 Cross tabulation: number of people in the household * Source of energy

Table 4.6 Participation in tourism activity

Table 4.7 how climate change and variation affect the tourism resources in the district

Table 4.8 Cross tabulation: How temperature has changed* how can climate change and

variation affect the tourism resources in this district

Table 4.9 Cross tabulation: How rainfall pattern has changed * how can climate change and

variation affect the tourism resources in this district

Table 4.1.1Period of the year tourist mostly visit this district

Table 4.1.2 regression output on rainfall and temperature, and tourist arrivals

Table 4.1.3 Measures taken by the authorities to curb the problem of CC in this community

List of pictures

Plate 1.Fuel wood read to be sold

Plate 2.Deforested piece of land

Plate 3: pictorial evidence of the pond drying up

Plate 4: a stretch view of the pond

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 List of figures

Figure 2.1 the relationship between temperature and recreational use

Figure 2.2 a system approach to the tourism-climate relation

Figure 4.1 the age group of respondents

Figure 3.1 map of Kassena Nankana west district

Figure 3.2 district map of Ghana showing the Kassena Nankana West district

Figure 4.2 educational levels of respondents

Figure 4.3 sector of employment of respondents

Figure 4.4 change in rainfall pattern over the past years

Figure 4.5 Cause of Climate change

Figure 4.6 major energy uses

Figure 4.7 the awareness of the various attractions in the KNW district

Figure 4.8 changes in the size and depth of the Paga crocodile pond

Figure 4.9 tourist views on whether rainfall and temperature play a role in their decision making
process

Figure 4.1.1the opinions of respondents on how to curb climate change

Figure 4.1.2Relationship between Mean Max Temperature and Tourist Arrivals

Figure 4.1.3 relationship between annual rainfall and tourist arrivals

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CC Climate Change

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

IPCC Inter-Panel on Climate Change

KNW Kassena Nankana West

MoFA Ministry of Food and Agriculture

UER Upper East Region

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

GTA Ghana Tourism Authority

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 CHAPTER 0NE

1.1 GENERAL BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Tourists love fine weather conditions. There are few other economic activities that are as reliant

on climate as tourism. The majority of tourism activities take place outdoors, so having a clean

environment and complimentary weather conditions are key to visitor satisfaction and

fundamental to the continued success of any tourism destination (UNWTO, 2007).

Although the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) and the entire UN system have been

working on the issue of climate change for many years, it emerged at the forefront of the global

agenda in 2007 when the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) confirmed that

global warming is “unequivocal”. The IPCC predicted that warming likely caused by human

activities that emit greenhouse gases will cause the earth’s temperature to rise between 1.8° and

4° C. by the end of the 21st century (UNWTO, 2007).

Even if all greenhouse gas emissions were to abruptly stop tomorrow – something that cannot be

expected to happen – the IPCC said inertia in the earth’s climate system is so great that global

warming will continue for several decades due to the degree of emissions already released into

the atmosphere (UNWTO, 2007).

The Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (1997) state that apart from the current

floods and drought situations common in the Kassena Nankana west district and UER region of

Ghana, future scenarios for the country indicate increases in temperatures and reductions in

rainfall.

The Tourism industry cannot escape this observable fact. Destinations are already being affected

by climate change and variations and the public is becoming increasingly insightful to the

environmental impact on their everyday life decisions – including where to go on holiday.

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Tourism is one of the fastest growing businesses (Hamilton 2003). It has been exponentially

expanding during the course of the past decades due to the amalgamation of the various social,

economical and technological changes that have occurred on a global scale although at different

degrees (Rodolfo Gaita, 2007). The expansion of complex and integrated transportation systems,

the modification of lifestyle patterns and rising disposable incomes allowed for increasing flows

of tourists (mainly from the so called developed countries) to travel to, visit and reach

increasingly remote destinations (Todd 2003). The Ghanaian tourism sector has also had its fair

share of this growth and expansion (tourism receipts in 1995 was around 471.01 million dollars.

This number soared to 986.80 million dollars in 2006). Tourist arrivals to the Kassena Nankana

west district also have been on the rise (823 arrivals in 1980 and 4671 tourist arrivals in 2012).

Climate change and variation on the other hand has emerged as a major concern in the tourism

industry in recent years. It has been the area under discussion of meetings of the climate

commission of the International Society of Biometeorology and the World Tourism organization

(WTO) (Hall et al, 2005). Tourism is a climate-dependent industry, and many destinations owe

their popularity to their pleasurable climate during traditional holiday season (B. Amelung,

2007). For some destinations, certain climatic distinctiveness’s are marketed as an attraction on

their own and they are the most important reasons for the tourists to travel to these regions. This

is the case for example of Tarifa (south coast of Spain), a destination that specializes in windsurf

tourism due to the year round strong winds (Gomez Martin, 2005). Also, most of the West

African countries that are into beach tourism attract tourist because of their all year round

summer weather conditions.

The international significance of climate change for the future growth of the tourism industry,

particularly in developing countries, has been recognized with the agreements on the Djerba

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Declaration (UNWTO 2003). After Djerba, not only the World Tourism Organization (2007)

affirmed that climate change is one of its top priorities, but this is also acknowledged by the

World Travel & Tourism Council (2007), the tourism industry, and non-governmental

organizations. Impacts of climate change on the tourism industry have also been not long

recognized and integrated into tourism strategies by national and local tourism authorities. For

case in point, the German National Tourism Board (GNTB, 2007) has incorporated climate

change issues in their contemporary Strategic Guidelines in order to adapt to the consequences of

national climate change: “One of the German National Tourism Board's key long-term objectives

is to work in partnership with the tourist regions to develop products that take account of and are

geared to these changes.”(J. Fischer, 2007).

The challenge of climate change and variability is particularly significant for African countries

and Ghana for that matter. The tourism sector is both a victim (i.e. increased health and natural

disaster risks) and contributor to greenhouse gas emissions (Uchegbu, 2011). African countries

including Ghana are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, such as rise in temperature,

rainfall, sea-level rises, coral bleaching, increased storm intensity, saline intrusion, food shortage

and unemployment. The vice president of Ghana under the president Mills administration of the

fourth republic in March 2012 Mr. John Dramani Mahama called for a national concerted effort

to deal with the problems of climate change as Ghana is not exempted from its adverse

consequences. He said the challenge that climate change poses demands that “the country cannot

continue with the business as usual approach to development”. (GNA, March 2012)

Until relatively recently, the relationship between climate and tourism was not a key area for

research. Scholarly interest in the link between weather and climate on one hand and recreation

and tourism on the other started just about the 1950s (Scott etal. 2006). Climate was considered a

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more or less stable asset of destinations (Abegg et al., 1997), which could not account for any

long-term trends in tourism demand. This position is gradually being discarded because of the

increasing evidence that the global climate is changing (A. Moreno, 2010)

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Tourism reached an estimated 806 million international arrivals in 2005, recording an annual

average growth of 6.5%; it is forecasted to exceed the 1.5 billion international arrivals by the

year 2020 (BEA, 2011). Although its importance within the national and local economies can

vary depending on the destination, in some extreme cases it can represent the local main

economic engine. Research also shows that climate, referred to as the pattern of meteorological

manifestations, has a key influence on the way tourist activities are developed; at the same time

is also recognized that a particular destination’s climate acts upon its environment and is likely to

be included within the parameters that take part in the choice-making process of the tourist when

planning his holidays (R.Gaita, 2007)

Climate change and tourism both have a direct and an indirect impact on one another. Seeman

(2004) stated that not only does climate change and variation have an impact on tourism, for

example the Scottish Ski resort, but also an indirect impact because of changes in resources that

are part of the tourism product offerings. The effects of climate change on tourism cause changes

in the ecosystems and natural resources needed to sustain the tourism economy. Climate-change

impacts that affect tourism in African countries include: beach erosion, saline intrusion,

droughts, flash floods and landslides, coral-reef bleaching, less productive fisheries and

agricultural systems, changes in the preferences of tourists, etc. Studies reveal that there are

some climate-induced challenges facing African countries in general (Uchegbu and Kanu, 2011).

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Natural disasters, such as rising sea levels, flooding, desertification, erosion and other health-

related problems, are now rampant in African countries. These serious issues, most of which

have been linked to the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs), could be addressed in part by

change of habit and new ways of thinking to reduce the effect on tourism in Africa.

Tourism also has a negative impact on the climate which can also lead to climate change. The

emission of GHGs from tourist vehicles and planes, the burning of fossil fuel, the destruction of

the vegetation to develop tourist facilities etc all go a long way to affect the climate in one way

or the other.

Climate change may provoke shifts in tourist flows, with large economic implications.

Higham and Hall (2005) identified climate change as the number one challenge to tourism in the

21st century.

Climate Change has been the subject of debate globally and locally for more than two decades.

Climate Change implications for tourism, and tourism implications for climate change represent

a relatively recent facet of this discussion on global level. This study aims at surveying whether

this aspect of the global debate has any reflection locally, and what are its attributes.

The research objective is, thus, to assess climate change and variation, and its potential

implications for the tourist industry in Ghana with much emphasis on the Kassena Nankana west

District of the Upper East Region.

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1.3 STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this study was to provide an in-depth assessment of climate change and

tourism with respect to the Kassena Nankana west district as a destination. The specific were as

follows:

 To find out the effects of climate change on tourism resources at the Kassena Nankana

west district

 To find out how both the local residents and tourists causes climate change in the district.

 To identify evidence of climate change and variability in the district and the awareness

level of the locals.

 To find out measures to combat the effects of climate change.

 To ascertain the impacts of climate change on tourism demand and arrivals.

1.4 RESEARCH PROPOSITIONS

1. The traditional ways of livelihood (human action) has a significant impact on climate

change.

2. Climate change has an impact on the tourism resources of the Kassena Nankana west

district.

3. The people of the Kassena Nankana west district are well informed with respect to

climate change and are already taking measures to curb the situation.

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1.5 METHODOLOGY

This section dealt with the study design, study population, sample size determination, sampling

procedure, sources of data, data collection techniques, research instrument (s), pre – testing, data

analysis, field challenges and opportunities and summary of chapter.

1.5.1 STUDY DESIGN

This study used the descriptive approach. This descriptive type of research included interview,

observation and questionnaires. To illustrate the descriptive type of research, the researcher was

guided by Calmorin, when he stated: “Descriptive method of research is to gather information

about the present existing condition”. The purpose of employing this method was to describe the

nature of a situation as it existed at the time of the study and to explore the impacts of a

particular phenomenon.

The study population was contacted once. This implies that the researcher used the cross-

sectional study design. This design is also known as the ‘one-shot’ study design. It is best suited

to studies aimed at finding out the prevalence of a phenomenon, situation, problem, attitude or

issue and this was done by taking a cross-section of the population.

1.5.2 STUDY POPULATION

This research focused mainly on residence of the Kassena Nankana west district of the upper east

region of Ghana. The researcher also took into account the views of Managers and caretakers of

both developed and potential tourism resources, District Assembly employees and District

Tourism Authority. The researcher selected residence because they are the best people who can

ascertain the impacts of climate change on the actual tourism and other potential resources. They

are also the best people to trace how the attraction(s) started to its present state. The managers

and caretakers were also selected because they are the best people who can give the day to day

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information about the attraction. They can also provide concrete information about how climate

change and variability affect the biodiversity, cultural, physical, archeological and historical

resources. The managers of attractions and the Tourism Authority officials will also be able to

give account of the various tourism activities that may have an effect or influence on climate

change. Finally, twenty (20) of tourists were also interviewed so as to get the other view (tourist

view) of the story.

1.5.3 SAMPLING PROCEDURE

Fisher, Laing, Stoeckel and Towllsend (1998), categorically stated that when the population of

an area is more than 10,000 (Kassena Nankana west district has 70,667 people according to the

Ghana statistical service), the desired sample size is calculated as follows:

n= z2pq

d2

n = desired sample size when the population is more than 10,000

z = standard normal deviate (1.96). It is usually set at 1.96 and corresponds to 95% confidence

level.

p = population of the target population estimated to have a particular characteristic. In the

absence of a reasonable estimate, 50% is used. Therefore this study will go by the 50%

estimation once there is no authoritative population figure available with knowledge in tourism.

q = 1- p

d = degree of accuracy desired and is usually set at 0.05 (95%)

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n = (1.96)2(0.50) (1- 0.50)

(0.05)2

n = 3.6895

0.0025

n = 1475.8

However hundred and ten (110) sampled residents and twenty (20) tourists were considered.

Despite the fact that an appropriate sample size can be technically calculated, there are usually

limits to the sample that can be chosen. Some researchers have suggested that the decision on

sample size is always a matter of judgment rather than calculation (Hoinville and Jowell, 1978

cited in Rahman 2012). The sample size adopted in this study is based on a consideration of the

objectives of the study, the time needed to complete it and the costs involved. Based on these

considerations, this number was decided on as manageable for an individual researcher working

alone (i.e. not too large, or costly in time or money), yet suitable for a simple disaggregation of

data for analysis (i.e. not too small) and will be representative.

For the purpose of this study, the simple random method of sampling was used in the collection

of data. Out of the hundred and ten (110) questionnaire that was administered to the residents;

eighty (80) was administered to the local residence. While ten (10) each was given to the

managers of the pond and the District Tourism Authority officials and the final 10 to the district

assembly.

1.5.4 SOURCES OF DATA

This study touched on the relationship between climate change and tourism. The primary source

of data came from self administered questionnaire. The respondents of this study were randomly
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selected residents from the Kassena Nankana district. For this research, the researcher obtained

secondary data from the meteorological station department (Navrongo sub-station), The Ghana

Tourism Authority reports, collated published studies, articles, journals and made a content

analysis of collected documentary and verbal material. Afterwards, the researcher summarized

all the information, made conclusions based on the objectives and proposition of the study and

provided insightful knowledge on climate change and tourism with respect to the Kassena

Nankana West District of Ghana.

1.5.5 DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

Self administered questionnaires were used for this study. The questionnaire was used with

respect to the nature of the research topic, the observational method could not be used neither

could interview techniques. It was hoped that these interviews will ensure quick and high

response rates from the interviewees. Since the topic is dealing with climate change, researcher

could observe how climate changes over time and the people involved due to the fact that it takes

longer time to do observation for a research of this nature, but it is prudent to note that some

level of observational techniques were employed were possible. With the interviews, getting a

voice recorder is quite expensive and it will take time to encode and decode the information

collected therefore the questionnaire was preferred since it is cheaper in terms of cost and

operation.

1.5.6 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used to analyze the field data. Qualitative data

resulting from questionnaires and observations were analyzed descriptively. The closed ended

questions were analyzed using the quantitative descriptive analytical tools of frequencies and

20
cross-tabulations of the Statistical Product for Service Solutions (SPSS) and the output displayed

by Microsoft excel in the forms of tables, pie and bar charts.

1.6 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

CLIMATE-According to advanced Collins dictionary, Climate is defined as a long-term weather

patterns that describe a region or the general weather conditions of a particular place usually

above 30 years.

CLIMATE CHANGE-This a long-term change in the statistics of weather expressed as a

probable change in mean or extreme weather conditions. The UNFCC’s (1994) definition

specifically refers to climate change as the influence of human activity that alters the

composition of the global atmosphere, which is in addition to natural climate variability. Climate

variability refers to variations in the climate on all temporal and spatial scales beyond that of

individual weather events (Christensen et al. 2007).

TOURISM- This is the Temporary short-term movement of people to destination outside the

places where they normally live and work, and activities during their stay at these destinations; it

includes movement for all purposes, as well as day visits or excursions (Tourism Society, 1976)

1.7 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

Tourism is a fast growing industry world over and contributes meaningfully to the economy of

many countries. In Ghana, it is estimated that tourism is the fourth foreign exchange earner

(Forbes Magazine, 2012). This reinforces the fact that the role of tourism in the economy of our

country cannot be underestimated. On the other hand, Climate is one of the main drivers of

tourism, as the majority of tourists seek to relax in the sun or the snow (Aguiló et al. 2005).

The question that may ring in the minds of readers is “how significant is climate change to

tourism and vice versa?” it is however very important to note that the study will expose into

21
details how climate change directly and indirectly impacts on tourism. Michael Hall (2005)

stated that, climate change can directly impact tourist behavior because of changed perceptions

not only of the climate appeal and image of a certain destination but also the activities that can be

engaged in. Moreover climate change may impact patterns of seasonality attractions and

associated visitor flows. At a broad scale analysis climate change will likely mean not that

people will stop travelling, but that they will change their travel preference in both space and

time. This study will also examine the positives of climate change to tourism. Australia is

becoming one of the world’s leading tourism destinations. This is because of continuous rise in

global temperature.

This study will also go further to access the destruction of both actual and potential tourism

resources as a result of climate change. It is important to note that as tourism continues to write

its name in the history books climate change has also been on the rise. The advancing

desertification especially in sub-Saharan Africa and also in Central Asia, is “swallowing up”

most of the tourism resources in these regions. Kenya’s Lake Nakuru which attracts tourists to

see its immense bird populations is already suffering from insufficient water inflow. In

neighboring Tanzania, it is projected that by 2020 the famous snows of Mt. Kilimanjaro will

have totally disappeared (G. Gathura, 2009). Where the desert advances and where forests

retreat, so does the habitat for wildlife (IPCC, 2007). There has already been a spectacular

decrease in the number of lions, elephants and rhinoceroses in Africa which makes safari tourism

more difficult. The IPCC report in 2007 estimated that 20-30% of animal and plant species risk

extinction with every 1.5°-2.5° C. rise in temperature. It is also very important to note that if the

climate in Ghana and Africa change to that of the Polar Regions very few or no tourist will travel

from Europe to visit. The same thing will happen if tourism activities result in the excessive

22
release of CFC gases as tourist will not want to inhale “unclean” air. Tourism has a strong impact

on the environment (Goessling 2002), and a substantial impact on climate, not just through the

emissions of CO2 (particularly from air travel), but also through the direct impact of flying

(Moreno, 2010).

Finally, this study will go the extra mile to assess the policies that have been put in place and will

make suggestions to the stakeholder in both the tourism industry and the climate change expects.

In Ghana, tourism represents a vital resource for the economy. With the continuing increase in

globalization and arrivals, it is very important that people increase their awareness of the impact

of some factors such as climatic change, which can really affect the tourism industry with a

wide range of consequences. Also, this study will bring to mind that although climate change is

already underway which it has been estimated by scientist that it will take up to 100 years for

Carbon emissions currently in the atmosphere to dissipate, it is not too late to act now.

Despite the increasing attention for the tourism and climate change relationship since the 1990s,

the field is still relatively unexplored. In reality, it has been noted that tourism is lagging a

decade at the back of other sectors with regard to impact assessments and more extensively

adaptation and mitigation (Ceron & Scott, 2007) as sited by Moreno (2010). This study will

therefore provide the bases for the assessment of the impact of climate change on tourism and

vice versa with respect to Ghana.

1.8 DELIMITATION

The subject climate change and tourism is a very broad one and it includes wide variety of

issues. However this study will not concentrate much on such broad areas of the topic such as the

impacts of climate change and variability on tourism demand and the health implications of

climate change on tourist though the topic may call for such dimensions. The study will

23
concentrate mainly on assessing climate variability and change and its impact on tourism

destination, tourism resources and policies in place to curb the rate of climate change. This study

will also assess the impacts tourism has on climate change. This study will take the views of all

stakeholders into consideration.

1.9 LIMITATION

Like all other research work seek to address social phenomenon, this work “Climate change and

tourism” tries to find out more about how the global issues of climate change really reflect on the

local realities. Though this research is to draw the attention of stakeholders in the tourism

industry to the issues of climate change its credibility may be questioned due to the following

limitations that are likely to affect the research.

The time limit given for this study was less as the study was expected to be conducted

concurrently with other academic activities.

The study also faced the problem of funds since a research of this kind need greater funding. The

problem of funding resulted because the research was fully financed by the researcher who is a

student and earns no income.

The research also faced the problem of little corporation from stakeholders as most were be busy

doing their routine activities while others demanded to be remunerated before they cooperated in

the study.

1.1.1 CHAPTER ORGANIZATION

This research work is written in five (5) chapters. In these chapters several aspects of the

research has been discussed. Within the chapters there will be various sections which will follow

a particular order. The contents of these five chapters are as follows:

24
Chapter one dealt with the Background to the study, problem statement, objectives, justification,

scope of the study, limitation and the chapter organization. It went further to talk about the

research methodology under which some areas are talked about. These include the study area,

research design, study population/target population, sample size determination, sampling

procedure, research instrument, pre-test, data collection procedure, data analysis, field challenges

and opportunities and also a summary of chapter.

Chapter two discussed the literature review. It includes various sections namely, introduction,

sections for the review, conceptual framework, statement of hypothesis and summary of the

chapter.

Chapter three basically dealt with the study area. Under this, the study concentrated on Location

& size, Topography & drainage, Climate & vegetation, Geology & soil and the tourism attraction

and activities of the area.

Chapter four went further to deal with the analysis of both the primary and secondary data.

Under this chapter also the following will be discussed: introduction, data analysis with respect

to the structure of the objectives and summary of the Chapter.

Chapter five will deal with the summary of the work, conclusions and recommendations. Here,

introduction, summary of problem statement, objectives and summary of methods used will be

mentioned. Also, a summary of the main findings from the field will be discussed. The

conclusion of the entire work will be written in this section as well as recommendation.

1.1.2SUMMARY OF CHAPTER

This chapter dealt with the introduction and background to the study, problem statement, and

objectives of the study, justification of the study and the limits and delimitations.

25
The second section has eight sub-sections. The study area; which talks about the area where the

population is taken from; that is the Kassena Nankana west district of the upper east region of

Ghana. The study design was also discussed. Here, the researcher made mention of the method

of data gathering being the cross-sectional study design. This method was used because the

population will be contacted once. Again the population was talked about. The information given

on the population included the reasons why the population was selected.

The method of sampling was also mentioned. The research made mention of means of gathering

the data which is through the administration of questionnaires and the number of questionnaires

to be administered. The technique used in the data collection was also discussed under this

chapter. Also, the research instruments were discussed. In that section it was mentioned that the

questionnaire would be administered. The advantages of using the questionnaire and the

disadvantaged of using the other research instruments were also mentioned.

26
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Issues of climate change dates back to the 1930’s (Scott, 2004). In 1936, for example, Selke

wrote on the geographic aspects of the German tourist trade. But emerged on the international

scene as a new field of concern for the tourism sector in 2003 (Amelung, 2003). According to

Scot et al, the overall development of tourism and climate research can be categorized into four

stages; an initial period of activity from before the 1960’s to the 1970’s. This stage has been

labeled as the “formative stage”. During this period, research works were basically concerned

with climate requirement for tourist, tourism, and out-door leisure. The next stage was the

stagnation period, this was during the 1980s, a few papers started analyzing the potential impact

of climate change on tourist activities, particularly with case studies relating to ski resorts. The

first peer-reviewed journal publications on the implications of climate change for tourism and

recreation appeared in the mid- 1980s (Harrison et al, 1996). Most of the publications in the late

1980s were regarded as signifying the state of the third stage (‘the emergence of climate

change’), which pre-dated the formation of the UN intergovernmental panel on climate change

(IPCC) by two years. The final era is labeled ‘maturation’. The 1990s were marked by a bulk of

publications on the topics of impact and adaptation, whereas the other sides of the interactions-

the impacts of tourism on climate change were not stressed (Scout, 2004). As stated in Moreno,

2010, Scott (2003) suggested that one of the possible explanations for the lack of research on the

tourism- climate change relation is that a resource management perspective is almost absent from

tourism discourse.

27
Most of the tourism resources in Ghana depend heavily on the climate. Ranging from natural to

built resources. The subsequent analysis will be looking at the topic under the following thematic

areas;

 Weather, climate and tourism

 Impacts of climate change on tourism

 Impacts of tourism on climate change

 Climate change and tourism demand

 Climate change policies in Ghana and the role of stakeholders

Tourism businesses and the destinations in which they operate are clearly sensitive to variability

and change. Climate defines the length and quality of tourism seasons and plays a major role in

destination choice. In addition, climate affects a wide range of environmental resources that are

critical to tourism such as snow depth, biodiversity and stocks of fresh waters. It also influences

various facets of tourism operations, including heating, cooling and snow making.

2.2 WEATHER, CLIMATE AND TOURISM

Scholarly concentration in the relationship between weather and climate on one hand and

recreation and tourism on the other started around the 1950s (Scott et al., 2006).Weather can be

defined as the condition of the atmosphere at a specific time in a specific place. Temperature,

cloudiness, humidity, precipitation, and winds are examples of weather elements. But out of all

this rainfall and temperature can be said to affect tourism most. Thunderstorms, tornadoes, and

monsoons are also part of the weather of some places during some seasons. Weather and climate

play an important role in tourism destination selection because tourists are sensitive to climate

and to climate change (Maddison, 2001; and Hamilton and Lau, 2005). Climate is an important

28
component in a destination's image (Lohmann and Kaim, 1999). As a destination with very good

climatic conditions will attract more tourists, destinations with violent or not favorable climates

will repel tourist except the adventurous.

The recognition of the role that climate and weather play in tourism and recreation has acquired a

new dimension over the last few years with the identification of climate change as a powerful

factor shaping tourism activities (Matzarakis et al., 2004; UNWTO et al., 2008). According to

the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007d), the global mean temperature is

likely to increase by 1.1 to 6.4 degrees Celsius (best estimate: between 1.8 and 4 degrees) over

the course of this century. With respect to Ghana, the Mean annual temperature has increased by

1.0˚C, at an average rate of 0.21˚C per decade. The rate of increase has been higher in the

northern regions of the country than in the south. The Global average sea level is projected to

rise by 18 to 59 cm or more in the same period. These projections have led to a renewed interest

in the relationship between the weather and tourism, and the impacts that a changing climate

could have on the tourism sector (UNWTO et al., 2008).

Weather and climate are very significant for tourism and outdoor activities, and the interrelation

is particularly significant for coastal recreation. Climate influences the global temporal

circulation of tourists through the year, and determines the environmental context (e.g. flora,

fauna, resources such as rivers or glaciers, etc.) in which tourism activities develop or are

developing (Moreno, 2010). In many cases this environmental context is the tourist attraction

itself, e.g. coastal glaciers such as the Ilulissat Icefjord in Greenland (UNESCO, 2007). Several

studies from the 1970’s found that “natural beauty and climate” were of universal importance in

defining destinations attractiveness. A good climate and the possibility to sunbathe were

included in Shoemaker’s (1994) list of destination attributes. Although this is still the case in

29
many respects, issues of service quality and accessibility assuming the front role in defining the

21st century destination. While it may not be the principal reason for selecting destinations,

climate influences tourists' decisions on where and when to go (Giles and Perry, 1986):In fact

Hamilton and Lau (2005) confirmed that climate is at least the third most common attribute in

tourists' decision making. Hence, climate and its changes are likely to influence tourists'

decisions on selecting a destination and participating in tourism activities, as well as tourism

demand and seasonality (Lise and Toi, 2002; Scott et al., 2004, 2007; Higham and Hall, 2005;

Jones and Scott, 2006). For some destinations, certain climatic characteristics are marketed as

attractions on their own and they are the main reason for the tourists to travel to the regions. For

example, most international tourist visits Ghana and other African countries because of their “all-

year-round sunshine”.

At the destinations, weather has an effect on the timing of certain activities and it influences

participation rates as for many activities a minimum value for certain weather parameters is

required (e.g. warm and sunny weather for swimming and sunbathing) (Alvaro Moreno, 2010).

In Paga for example, it is not advisable to visit the crocodile pond during the periods of intense

rainfall (July-September) as the reptiles will not feel comfortable coming out for the tourist to

see.

Personal safety and comfort are also affected by weather, for example in the case of extreme

events such as hurricanes, flash-floods or heat waves. In this sense, and with few exceptions,

regions where climatic disasters are frequent are in general incompatible with mainstream

tourism. Visitors satisfaction is also influenced by experienced versus expected weather

conditions. As a consequence of this interdependency between weather and recreation, the

30
profitability of climate-dependent segments of the tourism sector –such as coastal and marine

recreation– is also at risk (Gomez Martin, 2005).

Until recently, the relationship between climate and tourism was not a major area for research.

Climate was considered a more or less stable property of destinations (Abegg et al., 1997), which

could not account for any long-term trends in tourism demand. This position is gradually being

abandoned because of the increasing evidence that the global climate is changing.

2.3 IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON TOURISM

The interest of researchers to analyze climate change impacts on tourism is a very new research

field with first comprehensive assessments on how climate change affects tourism appearing in

the end 1990s (Viner 2006 and Scott, Wall & Mcboyle2005) (J. Fischer, 2007). However, more

than 10 years later the subject has not been sufficiently understood, not only due to the

difficulties of the natural science community, but especially the lack of understanding of tourists'

behavior regarding climate change (Dawson 2007).Most of the early approaches to assessing the

impact of climate change on tourism focused on a single variable: temperature. One of the

earliest studies in the area, Abegg and Koenig (1997), evaluated the impact of predicted changes

in weather conditions on the winter tourism industry in Switzerland (Alvaro Moreno, 2010).

Destinations which rely primarily upon their natural resource base to attract visitors, such as

mountains and coasts, are likely to be more at risk than those which depend upon cultural or

historical attractions (Amelung et al, 2007).Abegg and Koenig (1997) as sited in (Alvaro

Moreno, 2010) reported that, under current climate conditions, 85% of all Swiss ski areas are

snow-reliable. However, this number would drop to 63% if temperatures were to rise by 2ºC and

therefore have implications for regionally balanced economic growth. Since this initial study,

there have been numerous studies employing a similar approach (Scott, 2003).Under the Ghana

31
Dry climate scenario, while temperatures in the three regions of the North are projected to

increase by 2.1–2.4°C, Total annual rainfall is projected to decline by 1.1%, and 20.5% in 2020

and 2080, respectively. What this implies is that while evaporation on the Paga crocodile pond

for example will be on an increase, water into the pond will be on the decrease as rainfall is the

only source of water to the pond.

Small islands and low lying coastal areas are at the greatest risk from any rises in sea level,

caused by melting polar ice caps. Scientists disagree on how much the seas will rise, but warn it

could be up to one million tons by the end of 21st century. Places like the Maldives, which

prospers due to tourism, risk losing entire islands with even a small increase in sea level. The

historic centre of Venice and lower Manhattan would also likely be submerged, along with most

beaches that exist today (UNWTO, 2007).

This body of literature suggests that climate change is likely to have two main effects: (1) the

length of the tourist season, and; (2) the natural environment. Climate is one of the main drivers

of international tourism, as the majority of tourists seek to relax in the sun or the snow (Aguiló et

al. 2005). In some instances climate change may results in an improvement in the length and

quality of the tourist season while in others it may have a negative implication. Ironically,

climate change may have some positive effects on tourism, by extending the summer season in

northern countries like the United Kingdom, Canada or Russia and perhaps even opening up new

sights in previously inaccessible Polar Regions. But on balance the effects are overwhelmingly

negative and should not be underestimated (Page, 2009).

The immediate impacts of global warming identified by the IPCC include: higher maximum

temperatures and more hot days worldwide; more severe tropical storms with higher speed

winds; more intense rains; and more severe droughts (UNWTO, 2007).These effects have

32
already been observed in the regions of the world, signifying that climate change is not a far-off

prospect event for tourism.

Two of the most popular types of holidays are already being affected: beach tourism and winter

sports. Beach resorts have experienced erosion from intense storms, as well as algae blooms and

infestations by jellyfish due to warmer than normal sea temperatures. Ski resorts have had to

cope with lack of snow and a shorter season. Abegg (1996) analyzed the impact of changes in

temperature on snow profundity and coverage and the consequences of these changes on ski

season time-span and the usability of ski facilities (Hamilton, 2004). Similar studies were carried

out for winter sports tourism in Scotland, Switzerland, alpine Austria and Canada. (Harrison et

al, 1999; Kromp-Kolb and Formayer, 2001; Elsasser and Bürki, 2002; and Scott et al, 2001)

33
Figure 2.1 relationships between temperature and recreational use

Source: Huron River Watershed Council

Additionally, devastating hurricanes, cyclones, floods, and drought – sometimes accompanied by

violent wildfires – have all been taking place more frequently over the past few years (UNWTO,

2007). The outlook for the future is far bleaker. The tourism sector will need to prepare for the

inter-related threats of: rising sea levels; receding ice caps, snow and glaciers; and increasing

desertification (UNWTO, 2007). In Ghana, The average number of ‘hot’ days8 per year

increased by 48 between 1960 and 2003. While the average number of ‘hot’ nights per year

34
increased by 73 in the same period. Also the average number of ‘cold ‘days per year decreased

by 12 (3.3% of days) between 1960 and 2003. While the average number of ‘cold’ nights per

year decreased by 18.5 (5.1% of days) in the same period (Climate Risk and Adaptation Country

Profile-Ghana, 2011).

The other effect is the effect of climate change on the environment. The environmental impacts

of climate change include; rise in temperature, rainfall, sea-level rises, coral bleaching, increased

storm intensity, saline intrusion, food shortage and unemployment (Uchegbu and Kanu, 2011).

Beach erosion can result from a number of factors, including the simple inundation of the land

by rising sea levels resulting from melting of the polar ice caps and frequency of harsh storms.

One of the hot spots of beach erosion is found in bar beach, Lagos, Nigeria (Pickering and Owen

1995). An important direct impact of climate on tourism is tourism seasonality (Uchegbu and

Kanu, 2011). Seasonality is one of the most representative attributes of tourism, and the vast

majority of tourism destinations are characterized by systematic fluctuations of visitation

(Kennedy, 1999; Baum and Lundtorp, 2001; Lim and McAleer, 2001). The seasonal pattern

varies with the location of the destination as well as tourism activity (Ahas et al., 2007).

The importance of coastal zones to the tourism industry and the need to protect such resources is

not only vital to the economy of nations but presents a growing dilemma for many localities and

regions. Beaches have become synonymous with tourism and with current predictions of climate

change and sea-level rise; they are under significant threat of erosion worldwide (Uchegbu and

Kanu, 2011)

35
Table 2.1Main Impact of Climate Change and Their Implications for Tourism

IMPACT IMPLICATIONS FOR TOURISM

Warmer temperatures Altered seasonality, heat stress for tourists,

cooling costs, changes in: plant-wildlife-insect
populations and distribution range, infectious
disease ranges
Decreasing snow cover and shrinking glaciers Lack of snow in winter sport destinations,
increased snow-making costs, shorter winter
sports seasons, aesthetics of landscape reduced
Increasing frequency and intensity of extreme Risk for tourism facilities, increased insurance
costs/loss of insurability, business interruption
storms costs

Reduced precipitation and increased Water shortages, competition over water

evaporation in some regions between tourism and other sectors,
desertification, increased wildfires threatening
infrastructure and affecting demand
Increased frequency of heavy precipitation in Flooding damage to historic architectural and
some regions cultural assets, damage to tourism
infrastructure, altered seasonality (beaches,
biodiversity, river flow)
Sea level rise Coastal erosion, loss of beach area, higher
costs to protect and maintain waterfronts and
sea defenses
Sea surface temperature rise Increased coral bleaching and marine resource
and aesthetic degradation in dive and snorkel
destinations
Changes in terrestrial and marine biodiversity Changes in terrestrial and marine biodiversity
Loss of natural attractions and species from
destinations, higher risk of diseases in tropical-
subtropical countries
More frequent and larger forest fires Loss of natural attractions, increase of flooding
risk, damage to tourism infrastructure

Soil changes (e.g. moisture levels, erosion and Loss of archaeological assets and other natural
resources, with impacts on destination
acidity) attractions.

Source: WTO-UNEP-WMO (2008) Climate Change and Tourism: Responding to Global

Challenges.

36
Furthermore Global warming has resulted in higher temperatures bring about a decline in

vegetation and cause wildlife to migrate toward areas that still have water. Rivers and dams or

ponds that were known to be permanent in the1960s have now turned into seasonal rivers and are

drying up.

Coral bleaching is another environmental effect of climate change on tourism. Coral bleaching

otherwise known as whitening of coral reefs, is an occurrence affecting coral reefs by which they

lose their usual color as a result of increased water temperature or other ecological stressors.

Coral bleaching occurs when ocean waters becomes too warm, causing stress on the

zooxanthellae algae that live inside coral animals and provide them with food in a symbiotic

relationship (Calthorpe, 1993). As a result of this stress response, the relationship between the

corals and the zooxanthellae breaks down; the corals lose their color, and become white. These

bleached corals are still alive, but they are weakened. If excessively warm-water conditions

continue for too long, the bleached corals will die (Uchegbu and Kanu, 2011). The death of the

coral reefs in a particular area can lead to the collapse of the tourism industry in that area. Coral

reefs are one of the tourism resources that attract tourist to the seas and other water bodies

(Uchegbu and Kanu, 2011).

Again, Climate change, with its effects on temperature, precipitation and other weather/climate

elements, will surely impact biodiversity. Biodiversity can be said to include all life forms, such

as fungi, protozoa, bacteria, plants, insects, fish and mammals (Uchegbu, 2002).

Climate-change-induced rises in temperature may lead to sea-level rise with its consequent

flooding, which may tend to disturb the biodiversity-ecosystem balance (Uchegbu, 2009).

37
A decrease in rainfall and persistence of dry seasons may lead to drought conditions, which in

turn negatively affect biodiversity by reducing the lifespan of livestock and other species –

resulting in lost in important tourism resources (flora and fauna) (Uchegbu and Kanu, 2011).

Other impacts of climate change on tourism include the Changes in Tourist Preferences.

Changing climate and weather patterns at tourist destinations and African countries can

significantly affect the tourists’ comfort and their travel decisions. Changing demand patterns

and tourist flows have impacts on the tourism businesses and host communities, as well as

“knock-off” effects on related sectors, such as agriculture, handicrafts or construction. Lise and

Tol (2002), using temperature as their main measure of the effects of climate change, use

regression techniques to find the optimal or preferred temperatures of visitors emanating from

the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) group of countries. The

authors report that visitors from these countries tend to prefer a temperature of around 21ºC at

their choice of holiday destination. Bigano et al (2006a:400) conclude after the analysis of the

holiday destination choice of tourists from 45 countries (based on UNWTO data) that “Climate

change would drive tourists towards the poles and, for those not interested in sea and sand, up

the mountains.”, and in another study, they state that “Domestic tourism may double in colder

countries and fall by 20% in warmer countries and by 2100, for individual countries,

international arrivals may fall by up to 60% of the base value or increase by up to 220% of the

base value”, but “In most places, the impact of climate change is small compared to the impact

of population and economic growth.”

Amelung et al., 2007 based on their model on a Tourism Climate Index (TCI) which refers to the

“human comfort", measured in max. / mean daily ºC, min. / mean daily relative humidity (%),

precipitation (mm), daily sunshine (hours), wind speed, in combination with IPCC scenarios in

38
the form of grid cells across the land surface. The results of their estimation come across, in

accordance to Bigano et al., 2006a and b), “[…] that the locations of climatically ideal tourism

conditions are likely to shift pole ward under projected climate change. Whereas destinations

such as the Mediterranean may see shifts in their peak seasons from summer months to current

shoulder periods, regions with higher latitudes are likely to experience a lengthening of their

summer seasons.”

WALL (2006:175), who analyses climate change impacts from destination perspective,

generalizes that international tourism flows will be much more sensitive to climate change than

domestic tourism, because the last “[…] often takes place in relatively short periods of free time

and time limitations place constraints on the destination choice of travelers.

Conversely, long-haul destinations are more at risk than those depending largely on a local

market” which would particularly affect developing countries. At risk are especially destinations

with high reliance on natural resource, like coastal destinations and mountain regions.

Ecological imbalance, such as destabilization and destruction of a fragile environment, as a result

of economic development has been observed. A change in the food chain may also lead to

ecological imbalance (Environmental Agency, 1998).

Climate, however, is changing and likely to continue to change for decades to come. Climate

change and variability would substantially affect tourism (Smith et al. 2001, Scott et al. 2004).

On the positive sides, the Antarctic continent has become a regular target for mass tourism today

because of climate change (Holloway, 2006) with cruise ships which can carry 600 passengers

now visiting the peninsula on a regular basis. Packaged tourist can now enjoy visits to this least

explored continent which, in addition to penguin watching, can include anything from travel by

snowmobile to adventure flights to the South Pole itself.

39
In other studies of tourism redistribution that could arise from climate change, Scott et al. (2004)

and Amelung et al. (2007) applied comfort indices to measure the potential impacts of global

warming on the attractiveness of a destination in terms of climate assets. These analyses found

that a substantial spatial and temporal redistribution of climate resources for tourism was

possible as a result of projected climate change in the 21st century. Already, recent climate

change is affecting many ski resorts, especially those in lower altitudes. These resorts face

economic hard- ship (Koenig and Abegg, 1997; Scott et al., 2006) to the extent that the

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) warns that "Climate change

is threatening Europe's skiing trade." Germany is most at risk among those countries studied

"with the 1°C warming scenario leading to a 60% decrease in the number of naturally snow-

reliable ski areas" (OECD, 2006).

It can therefore be concluded that Tourism industry, based in many cases on natural resources

can’t escape the implications of climate change. (Bâc Dorin, 2007).

Climate change is also thought to pose a risk to future economic growth and the political stability

of some nations (Cooper et al, 2008:289). According to the influential stern Review (2006), there

could be an eventual permanent reduction in consumption per capita of 20% later in the twenty-

first century or early twenty-second century, if nothing is done to slow down climate. Any

reductions of global GDP due to climate change would be likely to have negative implications

for anticipated future growth in tourism spending.

Tourism can be seen as being sensitive to security issues (Cooper et al, 2008). Regional climate

change can bring about the degradation of fresh water resources, declining food production,

increase storm related disasters and trans-boundary environmental migration. All these impacts

can overwhelm local capacities to respond to them and result in violence and the destabilization

40
of a fragile tourism destination. Climate change-associated security risks have been identified in

a number of regions where tourism is highly important to the local economies, such as the

Caribbean and Central America, Mediterranean and North Africa and china (Cooper et al, 2008).

2.4 IMPACTS OF TOURISM ON CLIMATE CHANGE

Tourism has a strong impact on the environment (Goessling 2002) and a substantial impact on

climate. Large-scale tourist movement requires the use of mass transportation, particularly by air.

In 2007, the UNWTO had a meeting in Davos, Switzerland which the outcome was the ‘Davos

declaration’ which states that: climate is a key resource for tourism and the sector is highly

sensitive to the impacts of climate change and global warming, many elements of which are

already being felt. It is estimated to contribute some 5% of global CO2 emissions. (UNWTO et

al., 2008)

Tourism has a two way effect on climate change, thus positive and negative. Anthropogenic

climate change is caused by greenhouse gasses emitted into the atmosphere, primarily through

the burning of fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most important greenhouse gas,

accounting for an estimated 60% of the warming caused by emissions of greenhouse gas

emissions. According to UNWTO-UNEP-WMO (2008), emissions from tourism, including

transports, accommodation and activities (excluding the energy used for constructions and

facilities for example) account for about 5% of global CO2 emissions. However, other

greenhouse gases also make significant contributions to global warming. In the tourism sector,

this is particularly relevant for emissions from aviation.

In 2005, tourism’s contribution to global warming was estimated to contribute between 5% and

14% to the overall warming caused by human emissions of greenhouse gasses. Of the 5% of the

global total of CO2 emissions contributed by tourism, transport generates around 75%, and in

41
terms of the radioactive forcing specific to transport, the share is significantly larger ranging

from 82% to 90%, with air transport alone accounting for 54% to 75% of the total (UNWTO-

UNEP-WMO 2008).

Table 2.2Emissions from International Tourism in 2005 (Including same-day visitors)

INTERNATIONAL TOURISM CO2(mt)

AIR TRANSPORT 517

OTHER TRANSPORT 468

ACCOMMODATION 274

ACTIVITIES 45

TOTAL 1,307

WORLD TOTAL 26,400

SHARE (%) 4.95

Source: UNWTO and IPCC for world total

There is tremendous variation in emissions across tourism sectors and within individual trips.

Trips by coach and rail account for 34% of all trips, but for only 13% of all CO2 emissions

(excluding emissions from accommodation/activities). Conversely, long haul travel accounts for

only 2.7% of all tourist trips, but contributes 17% to global tourist emissions. As for other trips,

emissions can be close to zero (for instance a holiday by bicycle and tent) (UNWTO-UNEP-

WMO, 2008).

By 2035, tourism’s contribution to climate change may have grown considerably. A recent

scenario developed by the expert team of the technical report in the UNWTO-UNEP-

WMO (2008) publication considers different emission pathways, including a ‘business as usual’

projection based on anticipated growth rates in tourist arrivals, as well as distances travelled by

42
various means of transport. These projections indicate that in terms of the number of trips made,

global tourism will grow by 179%, while guest nights will grow by 156%. Passenger kilometers

travelled will rise by 222%, while CO2 emissions will increase at somewhat lower levels (152%)

due to efficiency improvements. Tourism’s contribution to global warming including all

greenhouse gasses will be even larger, with an expected increase in radioactive forcing of up to

188%, most of this once again caused by aviation.

Furthermore, the UNEP and UNWTO in 2007 stated that the accommodation sector accounts for

approximately 20% of emissions from tourism. This involves heating, air-conditioning and the

maintenance of bars, restaurants, pools and so on. Clearly, this varies according to the location

and size of the accommodation, as well as the type of establishments – hotels having greater

energy consumption than pensions or camping sites while activities such as museums, theme

parks, events or shopping also contribute to certain amounts of emissions (approx.

3.5%)(UNWTO-UNEP-WMO, 2008).

2.5 CLIMATE CHANGE AND TOURISM DEMAND

Tourism has become the biggest industry in the world, a fact that is not reflected in the attention

research pays to it. O’Hagan and Harrison (1984) blame the lack of adequate data and the special

nature of tourism demand. While climate is obviously important for international tourism, only a

few tourism studies make a link with climate change. The larger part of the literature on tourist

demand (Crouch, 1994b; Lim, 1997; Witt and Witt, 1995, for surveys) takes the climate of

tourists’ homes and destinations for granted, focusing on factors such as prices and expenditures,

and sociological and psychological considerations. In addition, these studies have a short time

horizon, assuming that the climate at the tourist destination is constant. In the longer term,

43
however, climate is not constant. Climate is expected to change at an accelerating pace due to

human activities, particularly fossil fuel combustion (Houghton et al., 1996).

The impact of climate change on tourism demand has been quantified in several recent studies.

Lise and Toi (2002) conducted a cross-sectoral analysis to estimate the relationship between

international tourist arrivals and climate variables (temperature, precipitation), controlling for

other explanatory variables such as price, trend, population density, length of coast, and area of

the country. Using 17 years of data (1980-96) from 210 countries, this study suggested that there

is an optimal average summer temperature (about 21°C) for tourism and concluded that climate

change probably does not affect global tourism demand. Instead the authors surmise that climate

change causes a redistribution of tourists among destinations. Amelung and Viner (2006) suggest

that if current climate projections prove correct, popular destinations in the Mediterranean will

be less attractive in the 2050s because the summer climate will be too hot. Scott et al. (2007),

who modeled the direct impact of climate change on visitations to Canada's Waterston Lakes

National Park using data from 1996 to 2003, show a significant positive relationship between

monthly visitation and minimum temperature. Their model projects that annual visitation would

increase 6-10% by the 2020s, 10-36% by the 2050s, and ultimately 11-60% over cur- rent

baseline conditions under different climate change scenarios (Moreno, 2010).

According to Hamilton, 2004, various authors have looked at the potential impact of climate

change on the tourism and recreational industry. UKCCIRG (1991, 1996) has qualitatively

discussed the impact of climate change on tourism in Great Britain. Mendelssohn and

Markowski (1999) and Loomis and Crespi (1999) have investigated the impact of climate change

on outdoor recreation in the U.S.A. Agnew (1997) has looked at the quantitative impacts of

weather variability on tourism in the U.K. Wall (1998) has looked at the impact of climate

44
change on skiing in Canada. Gable (1997) has looked at the implication of climate change and

sea level rise for tourism supply in the Caribbean (Hamilton, 2004).

2.6 POLICIES ON CLIMATE CHANGE

The response of the tourism community to the challenge of climate change has visibly increased

over the last five years (UNWTO, 2007). The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), together

with the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP), the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), the

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the

Government of Tunisia hosted the First International Conference on Climate Change and

Tourism in Djerba, Tunisia in 2003 (UNWTO, 2007). The conference aimed to develop

awareness among government administrations, the tourism industry and other tourism

stakeholders, highlighting both current, and anticipated climate change impacts affecting tourism

destinations and the need to carefully consider the consequences of climate change mitigation

policies on tourism as well as the responsibility of the tourism sector to be a part of the solution

by reducing its greenhouse gas emissions (UNWTO, 2007).

Subsequent workshops supported by the European Science Foundation (ESF) (Milan 2003), the

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) (Warsaw 2003), the European Forum on Integrated

Environmental Assessment (EFIEA) (Genoa 2004), and the Experts on Climate Change and

Tourism group (eCLAT) (Netherlands 2006, Paris 2007), as well as the Helsingborg Meeting on

Sustainable Tourism (Helsingborg 2007; cf. Gössling et al. 2007a) and the Marrakech Task

Force on Sustainable Tourism Development further contributed to the development of

collaborative research and practical case studies by a network of international tourism

stakeholders and scientists (UNWTO, 2007).

45
Following the first International Conference on Climate Change and Tourism in2003, the WMO

and UNWTO took steps to strengthen the working arrangement that had been in force between

these agencies since 1992. In particular, WMO’s Commission for Climatology, at its fourteenth

session (Beijing, China, November 2005) established a new Expert Team on Climate and

Tourism, which has contributed to the knowledge base and the partnerships that will support

sustainable development of the tourism industry.

In March 2007, UNWTO, UNEP and WMO commissioned a review report on tourism and

climate change, including impacts and adaptation, changes in tourism demand patterns,

emissions from tourism, and mitigation policies and measures. The Executive Summary of this

report UNWTO-UNEP-WMO (2008) was presented during the Second International Conference

on Climate Change and Tourism, which took place in Davos, Switzerland, 1-3 October 2007.

The conference resulted in the Davos Declaration (UNWTO-UNEP-WMO 2007a), a document

asking the tourism sector to “[…] rapidly respond to climate change, within the evolving UN

framework and progressively reduce its Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions”. The report

(UNWTO-UNEP-WMO 2008) and its contents were embraced by the London Ministers’

Summit which met during the ‘World Travel Market 2007’, by the UNWTO 2007 General

Assembly, and introduced at the Bali UN Climate Summit. To this end, the Davos Declaration

demands the simultaneous implementation of actions to mitigate the impact of tourism on

climate change, adapt to current and future climate changes, to develop new or apply existing

technology to enhance energy efficiency and to secure financial resources to ensure poorer

regions or countries are also able to meet the recommendations.

46
2.1.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

All natural and social systems can be characterized as being complex and adaptive (Farrell &

Twining-Ward, 2004). In the case of the tourism system, it is complex because it is the outcome

of an amalgam of components which are interlinked in a nonlinear and unpredictable manner. It

is adaptive, because it has the chance of learning, evolving and adjusting itself to new conditions

or market forces. This complexity and capacity to adapt has brought some authors to advocate

that the tourism system is an ‘ecosystem’ (Farrell & Twining-Ward, 2005). This recognition

implies that tourism interacts with other natural and social systems at a larger scale than the

destination where tourists spend their holidays. Tourism has been traditionally approached from

individual disciplines; geography, economy and anthropology are fields that have focused on

tourism issues in the past (Holden, 2000). Few scholars now question the need to approach

tourism as a system.

Thinking about tourism as a system provides a holistic view and a better understanding of the

functioning of the sector as it moves from the traditional mono-disciplinary, reductionist

approach towards a trans-disciplinary perspective. For example, according to Gössling & Hall

(2006) one of the weaknesses of tourism models in predicting travel flows is the unrealistic

assumption of linearity of change in tourists’ behavior. Chaos complexity theory provides an

alternative approach to this deterministic view and this approach is gaining importance in

tourism research. As compared with the Cartesian/Newtonian paradigm, chaos/complexity

theory is based on biological models of living systems, which tend to be unstable. In these

complex systems, non-linear relationships are more prevalent and externalities and individual

differences are seen as the driving force for variety, adaptation and complexity (Russell &

Faulkner, 1999). The other attribute that characterizes natural and social systems is the ability to

47
learn and to adapt to shocks and changing situations. This means that the actors that make up the

tourism system have the capacity to position themselves in a permanent creative process in

which new connections and structures are created leading to a different complex order (Farrell &

Twining-Ward, 2004; McKercher, 1999; Russell & Faulkner, 1999). Not all destinations have

been able to take advantage of this capacity.

Due to the ‘lock-in effect’ (i.e. the idea that certain historical events or initiatives taken by

individual entrepreneurs can initiate a strong network of mutually reinforcing relationships that

continue long after the initiating event has been outdated by new developments

(Russell & Faulkner, 1999)), many traditional destinations for example across the Mediterranean

have built a standardized tourism product based on sun, sea and sand which limited diversity and

therefore increased their vulnerability to changes in the market or other external conditions. As

in the case of monoculture (i.e. the agricultural practice of growing a single crop over a large

area), these destinations have based their survival on a single product and have managed their

destination to reach and maintain an idealized state of growth. Some of these destinations have

witnessed in the last few years a stagnation or reduction in the numbers of tourists, which has

forced them to rethink their management and future development. Many other destinations have

faced this same need to recover, usually as a response to crises or shocks.

In both cases, managerial intervention has typically been reactive and has attempted to recover

the previous state, instead of trying to anticipate potential changes and build a stronger, more

resilient, tourism industry. Nevertheless, a tourism industry that anticipates potential changes is

more likely to be less affected by these changes (less vulnerable), has more possibilities to

recover from external and internal shocks (more resilient) and has more possibilities to take

advantage of the new conditions. Destinations that explore the future and do ‘management of

48
resilience rather than equilibrium’ (Farrell & Twining-Ward, 2005, p. 115) are more likely to be

successful in the era of rapid change in which we are at the moment.

Climate –a complex system itself (Rind, 1999) – is closely interrelated with the tourism system.

Figure 2.2 depicts a schematic representation of the interactions between these two systems, the

connections between the sub-systems that compose them, and the influences of other external

systems which affect them. The tourism system influences the climate system mainly by the

emission of greenhouse gases, both directly as a consequence of for example transport and

indirectly through electricity uses1. Elements in the tourism system that can affect the climate

system include changes in tourists’ demand for certain activities or destinations: for example,

more or less demand for holidays using planes as the means of transport significantly affect the

carbon footprint of tourism. Changes in the offer can also have an impact on the climate system

as destinations might choose to promote activities with greater or lesser energy use than others.

Finally, providers such as tour operators can influence demand, promoting short or long-haul

destinations, whereas transport providers can invest in energy efficiency to reduce emissions

related with the movement of tourists. The climate system also influences the tourism system as

it is a key attribute of many destinations, affecting attractiveness in many cases and the seasonal

distribution of arrivals (e.g. the tourism low season in Seville –Andalucía, south Spain–

coincides with the hottest months of the year). The climate system determines the offer as certain

activities can only be performed if certain weather conditions are met (e.g. availability of snow

for skiing). Finally, tourism providers are influenced as they will promote one or another

destination based on its attributes, including its climate. To this, already complex relationship, it

is necessary to add other elements that influence both the tourism and the climate system, such as

49
policies directly or indirectly influencing tourism (e.g. increased taxation of flights), changes in

popularity and the effect of media.

Figure 2.2a system approach to the tourism-climate relationship

Changes in the climate system will therefore be a new and important element shaping tourism.

Using chaos-complexity theory to analyze climate change impacts on coastal destinations has

two important implications. First, climate change has the potential to significantly disrupt coastal

tourism destinations. Due to the ‘butterfly effect’, small changes in the climate system might

significantly affect the tourism system, both through direct impacts on the physical resources

50
(e.g. disappearing beaches due to sea level rise) and indirect consequences such as problems with

water availability.

Second, the scale of tourism in many coastal destinations is so great (e.g. mass tourism

destinations in the Mediterranean) that, due to the ‘lock-in effect’, the size of the industry may

remain as under current circumstances even when climate change impacts become apparent (on a

report about the attitudes of Europeans towards tourism it was shown that as much as 54% of

Europeans prefer to spend their holidays in conventional, well-known tourist destinations, and

indication of how important the lock-in effect might be in the future (EC, 2009)). Nevertheless,

this possibility will be greatly conditioned by the magnitude of the climate change impacts and

the development of other political, social, economic and environmental issues; complexity and

uncertainty are at the core of the climate change and tourism relationship.

The recognition of the complex relationship between tourism and climate change demands the

use of new approaches towards its analysis. Complexity theory helps understanding this

relationship as the result of multiple elements interacting at different spatial and temporal scales.

Analyzing the impacts of climate change on tourism requires the use of methodologies to deal

with this complexity and uncertainty: Integrated Assessment provides the tools to address this

need.

51
 CHAPTER THREE

3.1 STUDY AREA

52
Kassena Nankana west district is one of the nine districts in the upper east region in northern

Ghana. Its capital is Paga. This district was officially inaugurated on the 29th of February 2008.

The district has a total population of 70,667 people (statistical service, 2010)

3.2 LOCATION & SIZE:

The Kassena-Nankana District lies within the Guinea Savannah woodlands. The district falls

approximately between latitude 11°10’ and 10°3’ North and longitude 10°1’ West. It is one of

the eight (8) districts in the Upper East Region of the Republic of Ghana.

The District has a total land area of about 1,674 sq.km and stretches about 55km North-South

and 53km East-West. The District shares boundaries to the North with Burkina Faso, to the East

with Bongo and Bolgatanga Districts, West with the Builsa District and Sissala District (in the

Upper West Region) and South with Kassena Nankana East District. The District has a total of 9

communities.

53
3.3 TOPOGRAPHY & DRAINAGE

The topography is low-lying with an average height of 100 meters above sea level. The terrain is

undulating with isolated hills dotting the landscape.

The District is generally low-lying. The landscape is generally undulating with isolated hills

rising up to about 300 meters in the western parts of the District. Notably among these hills

include Fie (280 meters), Busono (350 meters) and Zambao (360 meters).

The drainage system of the District is constituted mainly around the tributaries of the Sissili

River – Asibelika, Afumbeli, Bukpegi and Beeyi. A tributary of the Asibelika River (Tono

River) has been dammed to provide irrigation facilities, which is of great economic importance

to the entire District. There are some few dugouts and ponds, which are used for livestock, crop

farming and domestic purposes.

3.4 CLIMATE & VEGETATION

The vegetation of the district is of the Sudan and savannah type with grassland separating

deciduous trees. The District is covered mainly by the Sahel and Sudan-Savannah types of

vegetation; comprising open savannah with fire-swept grassland and deciduous trees.

Some of the most densely vegetated parts of the District can be found along river basins and

forest reserves. Examples are the Sissili and Asibelika basins, Kologo and Naaga forest reserves.

Most of these trees in the forest areas shed off their leaves during the dry season.

However, the activities of man over the years have affected the original (virgin) vegetation

cover. Common trees found are dawadawa, baobab, sheanut and mangos.

54
The climate conditions of the District are characterized by the dry and wet seasons, which are

influenced mainly by two (2) air masses – the North-East Trade winds and the South-Westerlies

(Tropical Maritime).

The Harmattan air mass (North-East Trade Winds) is usually dry and dusty as it originates from

the Sahara Desert. During such periods, rainfall is virtually absent due to low relative humidity,

which rarely exceeds 20 per cent and low vapour pressure less than 10mb.

Day temperatures are high recording 42° Celsius (especially February and March) and night

temperatures are as low as 18° Celsius. The District experiences the tropical maritime air mass

between May and October. This brings rainfall averaging 950mm per annum.

The District is covered mainly by the Sahel and Sudan-Savannah types of vegetation; comprising

open savannah with fire-swept grassland and deciduous trees. Some of the most densely

vegetated parts of the District can be found along river basins and forest reserves. Most of these

trees in the forest areas shed off their leaves during the dry season.

The Kassena-Nankana west District lies within the dry land zone. The natural environment is

fairly degraded as it faces severe threat of severe drought with high temperatures and perennial

outbreak of bush fires. It is evident that high population densities (especially in towns) with high

demand for land for constructional activities, extensive cultivation, over-grazing, erratic rainfall

and the extent of devastation do affect the natural environment thereby exposing it to

desertification.

3.5 GEOLOGY & SOIL

The geology of the district comprises granite and shale, although the rock formations are actually

of a diverse nature. Two main types of soil are present within the District namely the Savannah

55
ochrosols and groundwater laterite. The northern and eastern parts of the district are covered by

the Savannah ochrosols, while the rest of the District has groundwater laterite.

The Savannah ochrosols are porous, well drained, loamy, and mildly acidic and interspersed with

patches of black or dark-grey clay soils. This soil type is suitable for cultivation and hence

accounts for the arable land sites including most parts of the Tono Irrigation Project sites where

both wet and dry season farming activities are concentrated.

The groundwater laterites are developed mainly over shale and granite and covers approximately

60 per cent of the District’s land area. Due to the underlying rock type (granite), they become

waterlogged during the rainy season and dry out during the dry season, thus causing cemented

layers of iron-stone (hard pan), which makes cultivation difficult.

3.6 TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN THE DISTRICT

There are several attractive physical and cultural landscapes worth developing into tourist

centers. The district has one of the most renowned attractions in the country, the Paga crocodile

pond where tourist can have a closer contact with crocodiles and even feed them without danger.

Other attractions include the whistling rock at Chiana, Kayoro Kukula River and the captivating

architectural forms at Sirigu and its surrounding settlements. Others include the slave camp of

Pikworo at Nania, the Paga chief’s palace and the Fao festival which is celebrated annually in

December, to give thanks to the gods for a bumper harvest.

56
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with the analysis of data collected from the field of study. It further discusses

these results from the field.

The sample consisted of one hundred and ten (110) respondents from three communities namely

Paga, Nania and Sirigu. Five (5) staff of the district assembly and two (2) tour guides at each site

were also included. Twenty (20) separate questionnaires were administered to tourist at the

various sites.

The analysis in this chapter covers the research objectives under the following headings: Socio-

demographic characteristics of respondents, evidence of climate change and variability in the

Kassena Nankana west district, causes of climate change and variability in the area, tourism in

Kassena Nankana west, climate change and tourism resource, climate and tourist

demand/arrivals and policies in place to curb the problem of climate change in the district.

4.2 SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS

This section examines the social and demographic characteristics of the respondents. From table

4.1, it can be seen that majority of the respondents which is sixty two (62) representing 56.4% of

the total sample were females while forty eight (48) respondents representing 43.6% were males.

57
Table 4.1 Gender of respondents

Sex Frequency Percent (%)

Male 48 43.6

Female 62 56.4

Total 110 100

Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

From figure 4.1, it can be seen that twenty nine (29) respondents representing 26.4% of the

hundred and ten (110) sampled respondents were 20 years and below, twenty seven (27)

representing 24.5% of the total respondents fall within the ages of 21years and 25years. Age

group 26-30years had twenty two (22) respondents representing 20% of the total samples, while

a majority of the respondents were above 30years (29.1%).

Figure 4.1Age group of respondents

35

30

25

20
32
15 29 27
22
10

0
below 20 21-25 26-30 above 30

Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

58
Figure 4.2 is a pie chart showing the educational levels of the respondents from the Kassena

Nankana west district of the upper east region. Twenty nine (29) respondents representing 26.4%

have not had any form of formal education. The same number also represents respondents who

had junior high school as the highest level of education. Furthermore, six (6) respondents

representing 5.5% only had education to the primary level. Twenty eight respondents which

represent 25.5% of the total sample had also attained education up to the senior high school

level. Finally, eighteen (18) respondents representing 16.3 had tertiary education.

Figure 4.2Educational levels of respondents

Primary
None 5.5%
Junior High
26.4% 26.4%

Tertiary
16.3% Senior High
25.5%

Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

With respect to the occupation of the respondents, figure 4.3 reveals that most of the respondents

are self employed (with 51 responses representing 46.4% out of the 110 respondents). This is

followed by students who represent nineteen (19) of the respondents representing a percentage of

17.3. Government employees make up sixteen (16) of the respondents representing 14.5% while

eighteen 18 respondents representing 16.4% are unemployed. A minority of six (6) respondents

work for private organizations.

59
Most of the active youth of this district are interested in doing menial jobs such as hair dressing,

shoe shining, money laundering, fuel business etc which earns them quick money since this

District is a border District. This accounts for the higher number of the responses falling within

the self employed category and also the higher numbers of people not going beyond the senior

high school level of education. An employee at the district information center who spoke on

anonymity said “the youth prefer being at the border changing currencies for travelers or at the

various tourist sites where they can get tips from tourist than staying in school”.

Figure 4.3Employment sectors of respondents

60

50

40

30
51
20

10 16 18 19
6
0
government self employed work for private none student
worker organization

Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

4.3 AWARENESS AND EVIDENCE OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND VARIABILITY IN THE

KASSENA NANKANA WEST DISTRICT

The earth’s climate has changed throughout history. Most climate scientists are of the view that

the evidence of climate change and variability is now stronger and clearer in the 21st century than

ever. From table 4.2, out of the total respondents of hundred and ten (110) people, one hundred

and five (105) of them representing 95.5%were aware of global climate change and variability

60
while five (5) people representing 4.5%were unaware of the incidence of climate change. One

respondent stated “we are predominantly farmers in this district, and any farmer who is not

aware of climate change and variability is not a good one”. He went further to explain that the

pattern of rainfall has changed drastically as it rains less and this affect their yield. This goes a

long way to indicate that though the people of this district may rank low in terms of education

(with 16.3% of the respondents going beyond the senior high school level of education), they are

well vest with the evidence of climate change and variability.

Table 4.2 Awareness of global climate change and variation

Evidence of CC Frequency Percent (%)

Yes 105 95.5

No 5 4.5

Total 110 100

Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

Temperature, precipitation, wind, sunshine, and relative humidity are all important elements

defining Ghana’s climate. Among these, temperature and precipitation are the most obvious and

easiest to observe, but the other, more subtle elements are important and have significant

influences on the daily lives of the citizenry.

Precipitation/rainfall varies greatly across the country-even across relatively short distances. The

Kassena Nankana west experiences a single maximum rainy season, from May to September

(Navrongo Meteorological sub-station, 2013).

61
Table 4.3 Change in rainfall pattern for the past years

Change in rainfall pattern Frequency Percent (%)

yes 94 85.5

no 16 14.5

Total 110 100

Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

On the issue of whether or not the rainfall pattern of the district has changed, ninety four (94)

respondents out of the total sampled population representing 85.5% believed that the pattern of

rainfall/precipitation has changed while a minority of sixteen (16) respondents representing

14.5% believed that the rainfall pattern has not changed. This can be seen from table 4.3.

Going further to find out how the rainfall pattern in this district has changed as can be seen from

figure 4.4, fifty three (56) of the ninety four (94) that asserted that the rainfall pattern has

changed representing 50.9% were of the view that it rains less in recent times than it did

previously. Twenty eight (28) of the respondents representing 25.5% were of the view that it

rains irregular and the rains are very unpredictable. However, ten (10) of the ninety four (94)

indicated that it rather rains more heavily and frequently in recent times than it did before. The

above report has been validated by the Ghana Dry Scenario project which forecasted in 2008 that

Total annual rainfall has been on the decline and will continue to decline by 1.1%, and 20.5% in

2020 and 2080, respectively.

62
Figure 4.4 Change in rainfall pattern over the past years

60

50

40

30
56
20
28
10
10
0
it rains less as compared to the its irregular and unpredictable it rains more than it used to
past

Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

Temperature varies considerably across the country, depending on location, elevation, time of

day, and season even though average temperatures follow a fairly predictable pattern. In the

Kassena Nankana west District, maximum temperature readings are normally recorded between

March and April and minimum readings in December and January (Navrongo meteorological

sub-station).

From table 4.4, eighty two (82) of the sample hundred and ten (110) respondents representing

74.5% said that the annual temperature pattern of this community has changed over the past

years while the remaining twenty eight (28) representing 25.5% were of the view that the

temperature pattern has not changed over the past years. This may be due to the fact that it is

very difficult for someone to actually notice changes in daily, monthly and hence yearly

temperatures if one is not directly involved in temperature related activities or occupation such as

agriculture and tourism (Ghana meteorological report, 2007).

63
Table 4.4 Change in temperature pattern over the past years

Has annual temperature changed over How has temperature changed?

the past years It is higher than It is lower than

before before
Total
yes 70 16 86

no - - 24

Total 70 16 110

Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

Out of the eighty six (86) respondents that believed that the temperature pattern has changed

over the years, seventy (70) of them representing 63.6% agreed that the temperature in recent

times is higher than in the past, whereas sixteen (16) of them representing 14.5 were with a

different opinion-thus the temperatures in recent years are lower than that of the past. The

farmers said the “redishing” of their fruits (Mango, cashew and tomato) even before they are

ready for harvest is clear evidence that temperatures in recent times are higher. This affirms what

the UNWTO country report stated in 2007 “the Mean annual temperature has increased by 1.0˚C,

at an average rate of 0.21˚C per decade. The rate of increase has been higher in the northern

regions of the country than in the south”, the report stated. It is however important to note that

twenty four (24) respondents were with the view that the annual temperature over the past years

has not changed as can be seen from table 4.4.

4.4 CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

This section of the chapter tries to assess their knowledge on the causes of climate change and

variability in the Kassena Nankana west district.

64
From figure 4.5, it reveals that 28% of the sampled respondents were of the view that climate

change is caused by bushfires in the district. Again 27.1% of the sampled respondents believed

the major cause of climate change is deforestation. While 24.2% and 15.3% of the respondents

were of the view that climate change is caused by bad farming practices and expansion of

settlement respectively. Interestingly, 5.5% of the respondents attributed climate change to be the

results of failure to offer sacrifices to the rain gods in the district.

Figure 4.5perceived Cause of Climate change by respondents

30

25

20

15
28% 27.1%
24.2%
10
15.3%
5
5.5%
0
bad farming practices bushfire deforestation expansion of failure to sacrifice to
settlement the rain gods
causes of limate changea

Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

Despite the significant investments in Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and climate efficient

sources of energy by the government of Ghana, this study revealed that majority of the

respondents from the Kassena Nankana west district used fuel wood as their major source of

energy. This can be seen from figure 4.6. Forty nine (49) out of the sampled 110 respondents

representing 44.5% use wood fuel as their major source of energy while thirty (30) of the

65
respondents representing 27.3%also use charcoal as their main source of energy. Twenty two

(22) representing 20% and nine (9) representing 8.2% of the respondents use hydro-electricity

and gas as their main source of energy respectively.

Figure 4.6 Major energy uses by responses

60

50

40

30

49
20
30
10 22
9
0
fuel wood charcoal gas hydro-electricity

Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

This implies that fuel wood and charcoal account for 71.8% of the energy that is used in this

district. Most of the respondents were quick to justify the reason why they use fuel wood and

charcoal and among these reasons were; it is very cheap as compared to electricity and gas, it is

easy to transport, distribute and store, it is less risky, it is reliable and easily accessible. With

respect to the rapid population growth is this district, the amount of fuel wood and charcoal

consumed is expected to rise in the coming years. Also, the relative price increases in the world

crude oil and the constant increases in prices of hydro-electrical power installations and bill will

also lead to the continued use of fuel wood and charcoal in the near future.

66
Picture 1&2 below were taken from the study area and as it can be seen, the fuel wood has

already been harvested in plate 1 ready to be sold while plate 2 gives a classical evidence of

deforestation in the district.

Not only does deforestation lead to climate change and desertification, the smoke from the

burning of these woods also plays a vital role in climate change.

The Guardian paper on Tuesday the 15th of January, 2013 (12.13) reported that “soot from wood

and diesel and exhausts may have twice the impact on global warming than previously thought”.

It went further to say that the “black carbon” is the second most important man-made agent of

climate change.

Plate 1.Fuel wood ready to be sold Plate 2. Deforested piece of land

From table 4.5, which is the number of people in a house hold versus their major source of

energy it can be seen that 82.2% of the respondents are from households with at least 4 people

and at most 9 people. Out of this 82.2%, 69.1% of them uses charcoal and fuel wood as their

major source of energy while the remaining 30.9 use hydro-electric power and LP gas. 11.8% of

67
the respondents are from households with 10-15 people where 84.6 % of them use charcoal and

fuel wood as their major source of energy and the remaining 15.4% use hydro-electric power and

gas. Finally 14.5% of the respondents hail from home with household numbers less than 3

people.

Table 4.5 Cross tabulation: number of people in the household * Source of energy

Source of energy

Wood charcoal Gas Hydro-

Number of people in the household fuel electricity Total

1-3 6 6 2 2 16

4-6 19 14 3 9 45

7-9 16 7 4 9 36

10-12 6 3 0 0 9

13-15 2 0 0 2 4

Total 49 30 9 22 110

Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

The above analysis confirms the preposition that the traditional ways of livelihood has a

significant impact on climate change as demonstrated by the people of the Kassena Nankana

west district. Bushfire is rampant because the people still use primitive measure in handing and

same applies to their methods (slash and burn). Majority of the people uses wood fuel and

charcoal (71.8%) as their major source of energy and this has a significant impact on climate.

68
4.5 TOURISM IN KASSENA NANKANA WEST DISTRICT

Tourism in this district is not a new phenomenon since it has existed with the residence since

time immemorial. People travel across the world to see predominantly four attractions in this

district. They are; the famous Paga crocodile pond, the Pichoro slave camp, the Sirigu pottery

and the border.

Although these attractions especially the crocodile pond and the slave camp have gained

international recognition, it appears that some of the residence are not familiar with some of the

attractions in their district. Out of the hundred and ten (110) sampled respondents, it can be seen

from figure 4.7 that hundred (100) of the respondents representing 90.9%were aware or familiar

with the Paga crocodile pond while ten of the respondents are not aware of its existence.

Also, eighty four (84) of the respondents’ representing76% were aware of the Pichoro slave

camp. And finally 40 respondents representing 36.4% and 31 people representing 28.2%were

aware of the border and the Sirigu pottery respectively. It is also very import to state that some of

the respondents are aware of the existence of these attractions in the district but only that they do

not consider them as tourist attractions. One respondent was quoted saying “why would someone

travel to come and see the border? People only pass through it to Burkina Faso.

69
Figure 4.7Awareness of attractions in the KNW district

sirigu pottery,
31

crocodile
pond, 100
border, 40

slave camp, 84

Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

Furthermore, it can be seen from table 4.6 that sixty nine (69) of the respondents representing

62.7% participate in tourism activities ranging from attending funerals to travelling for holiday.

Forty one (41) representing 37.3% of the sampled respondents however do not participate in

tourism activity of any sought. This is partly because a majority of the populace are farmers and

do not have discretionary income to spend on tourism.

Table 4.6 participation in tourism activities

Do you participate in tourism activities?

Frequency Percent (%)

yes 69 62.7

no 41 37.3

Total 110 100.0

Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

70
4.6 CLIMATE CHANGE AND TOURISM RESOURCE

Climate change and variability does not only affect tourist arrivals and change in taste and

preference but also has a great impact on tourism resources. This impact can be positive or

negative. It is however surprising that all the respondents from table 4.7 below had something

negative to say about climate change and variability and its impact on the tourism resources in

the Kassena Nankana west district. Not even one respondent said anything positive about climate

change with respect to its impact on tourism resources.

Table 4.7how climate change and variation affect the tourism resources in the district

Percent

How CC affect tourism resources Frequency (%)

it cause the pond to dry up 71 64.5

hot temperatures prevent tourist from coming 9 8.2

erosion and weathering 9 8.2

death and migration 21 19.1

Total 110 100

Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

According to Seeman (2004), not only does climate change and variation have an impact on

tourism for example the Scottish Ski resort but also an indirect impact because of changes in

resources that are part of the tourism product offerings. This assertion has been confirmed in this

research as follows;

Out of the sampled 110 respondents, 64.5% were of the view that as a result of climate change

and variation, the major tourist attractions in the district that is the Paga crocodile pond is drying

up at a faster rate. Table 4.8 which is a cross tabulation of temperature change and climate

71
change impact on tourism resources indicates that, out of the eighty five (85) respondents who

were with the opinion that the temperature of the district has changed over the past years, fifty

two (52) who said the temperature is constantly on the rise also were of the view that climate

change is causing the crocodile pond to dry up. More so, out of fifty five (55) of the respondents

who agreed that it rained less in recent times than before, thirty seven (37) of them also agree

that climate change is the cause of the rapid drying up of the pond (as can be seen from table

4.9). This goes a long way to once again confirm the assertion by the Ghana Dry Scenario

project which forecasted in 2008 that Total annual rainfall has been on the decline and will

continue to decline by 1.1%, and 20.5% in 2020 and 2080, respectively.

Table 4.8 Cross tabulation: How temperature has changed* how can climate change and
variation affect the tourism resources in this district.
how can climate change and variation affect the
tourism resources in this district
How has temperature changed for it can hot erosion and death and
the past years cause temperatures weathering migration Total
the prevent tourist
pond to from coming
dry up
the temperature is higher than 52 4 5 8 69
before
the temperature is lower than 4 0 3 9 16
before
Total 56 4 8 17 85
Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

72
Table 4.9 Cross tabulation: How rainfall pattern has changed * how can climate change and

variation affect the tourism resources in this district

how can climate change and variation affect the tourism

resources in this district

How has rainfall changed for the it can hot erosion and death and

past years cause temperatures weathering migration Total

the pond prevent tourist

to dry up from coming

it rains less as compared to the past 37 5 1 12 55

its irregular and unpredictable 19 3 1 5 28
it rains more than it used to 4 0 6 0 10
Total 60 8 8 17 93
Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

Continuing from table 4.7, nine (9) respondents representing 8.2% were of the opinion that

climate change and variation has resulted in very hot temperatures which prevents tourist from

visiting the district. The tourism resource in this sense therefore is favorable climate. Nine (9)

respondents also were with the view that climate change and variability has the ability to

stimulate erosion and weathering and this destroys the resources at the slave camp and the Sirigu

pottery. Last but not least, twenty one (21) of the respondents had a strong conviction that as a

result of climate changes and variations, most of the crocodiles at the pond migrate to nearby

ponds. Others get killed or die in the process. Not only do the reptiles migrate, but also the mites

that produce clay also migrate due to rapid evaporation of underground water.

In addition, it can be realized from figure 4.8 that majority of the respondents agreed that the size

and depth has changed over the past years. One respondent who is a fisherman had this to say

“when we were kids, our parents use to fish at this pond with canoes but now my children can

even walk across the pond”. This shows how shallow the pond has become.

73
One of the tour guides at the Paga crocodile pond was also quoted saying “this pond is our
history, our heritage and our source of income; we do not need someone to tell use the pond is
gradually drying up”.
Plate 3: pictorial evidence of the pond drying up

Plate 4: a stretch view of the pond

74
Figure 4.8 changes in the size and depth of the Paga crocodile pond

70

60

50

40
61
30

20
30
10 19

0
it has decreased it has increased it has not changed

Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

The analysis under this thematic area (climate change and tourism resources) also affirms the

proposition that climate change has an impact on the tourism resources in this district. Climate is

a very important resource of tourism and therefore any negative change will affect tourism. It

was also realized that high temperatures and less rains are causing the crocodile pond to dry up.

Climate change has also caused erosion of the rocks at the Pichoro slave camp.

4.7 CLIMATE AND TOURIST DEMAND/ARRIVALS

Dividing the calendar year into three equal parts, thus from January-April, May-August, and

September-December as can be seen from table 4.9. A majority of fifty seven (57) representing

51.8% of the respondents said tourists usually visit the district (Kassena Nankana west) between

September and December. Thirty three (33) respondents representing 30% also said tourists

mostly visit the district in January and April. While twenty (20) of the respondents representing

18.2 of the total said tourists mostly visit the district in between May and August.

75
Though the traditional summer month (that is from May-June) which is the second division

receives high international arrivals, the contrary is recorded in the Kassena Nankana west

district. Several factors can account for this gradual change in tourist season but climate change

leads them all. A tourist at the site said “I would not like to come here during May-August

because the temperature is usually very high while the rainy season is always at its peak.”

Another in the same vain also said “due to the unpredictability of the rains in recent times, I

would rather prefer coming here either in November or in December.

Table 4.1.1 Period of the year tourist mostly visit this district

Period most tourist visit Frequency Percent (%)

January-April 33 30

May-August 20 18.2

September- December 57 51.8

Total 110 100

Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

From the twenty tourist that were interviewed at the Paga crocodile pond, eighteen of them were

of the view that rainfall and temperature play a vital role in their decision making process and

therefore affect the period of the year that they visit the destination. This can be seen in figure

4.9.

76
Figure 4.9 tourist views on whether rainfall and temperature play a role in their decision making

20
18
16
14
12
10
18
8
6
4
2
2
0
yes no

Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

While it may not be the most important reason for selecting destinations, climate influences

tourists' decisions on where and when to go (Giles and Perry, 1986): Hamilton and Lau (2005)

confirmed that climate is at least the third most common characteristic in tourists' decision

making. R. Gaita (2007) also agreed that rainfall and temperature are likely to be included within

the parameters that take part in the choice-making process of the tourist when planning his

holidays.

4.7.1 TEMPERATURE, RAINFALL AND TOURIST ARRIVALS

Tourist love good weather. The majority of tourism activities in this destination (Kassena

Nankana West) take place outdoors, so having a clean environment and favorable weather

conditions are key to visitor satisfaction and fundamental to the continued success of any tourism

destination. This research therefore considered the two most important elements of climate

(Abegg 1997, Moreno 2010, Amelung 2007, Hamilton 2004 and Scott 2008) and how they relate

with tourism arrival. Using 1980 as the base year, it can be realized that tourism arrivals have

77
constantly been on the rise except on few occasions that it dropped slightly. It is interesting to

note that most of these fall in numbers occurred in years in which the country had its general

elections.

The first relationship that will be looked at briefly is between Mean Maximum temperature and

annual tourist arrival. Taking a glance at the diagram below, one will be tempted to conclude that

the two variables have no relation whatsoever. The highest temperature ever recorded in this

district was in March 2005 with a monthly temperature average of 41.1 oc. It is not surprising that

the highest annual temperature ever recorded was 2005 with an average of 35.88 oc. In 2005 the

annual tourist arrivals at the district was 4,072 tourists. This was an increment over 2004’s 3,855

tourist arrivals with an annual temperature of 35.14 oc. However, in the year 2006, tourist

arrivals reduced to 3,985 with a temperature of 35.63 oc. another interesting year worth noting is

the year 1983. This was the year that the entire nation experienced bushfires. Tourist arrivals

dropped from 938 as in 1982 to 873 in 1983 with temperature increasing from 34.54 oc to

35.35oc. Arrivals however in 1984 shot up to 1,176 with annual temperature falling to 34.84 oc.

Also, in the year 2000, annual temperature drastically reduced from 35.27 to 32.12. All the same

tourist arrivals also reduced from 3,823 to 3,576. As temperatures rose again in 2001 to 35.86,

arrivals dropped to 3,423.

From what has been said above and taking a critical look at the graph below, one can say there is

no direct relationship between annual tourist arrivals and annual temperatures with respect to the

Kassena Nankana west district.

78
Figure 4.1.1Relationship between Mean Max Temperature and Tourist Arrivals

6000 36.5

36
35.86 35.88
35.76
5000 35.61 35.63 5018
35.56 488035.6335.5
35.5
35.42 35.43 35.3835.47 35.43
4671
35.3235.35
35.25 35.32 35.27 4567
35.16
4298
35.08
34.98 34.99
34.95 41524072 35.03 35
4000 34.8434.83 34.87 39854003
3823 3855
34.57 34.63 3668
34.54 34.49 35763663 34.5
3423
3275
3000 34 TA
2924
MMT
26202611
23392331 33.5

2000 2088
17991865
1846 33
1601
1553
1394
1176 32.5
1000 938 32.31
881
823 872
32.12
32

0 31.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

The next relationship to be examined is the relationship between annual rainfall and tourist

arrivals. Using 1980-2012 still as the base limits, it can be seen that rainfall dropped from

73.03mm to 59.92mm in 1983. Arrivals as already stated above dropped from 938 to 872 and

from then has been on the raise until 1994. Rainfall however did not follow a particular pattern

as it rose in 1984, 1985, 1986 but dropped in 1987 and further dropped in 1988. The lowest

rainfall ever recorded was in 1995 with an annual rainfall of 52.58mm, in the same year tourism

arrivals rose from 2331 in 1994 to 2611. Interestingly, while rainfall increased in 1996 to 92mm,

arrivals increased magnificently to 2924 in the same year. More so, the year 1999 recorded the

79
highest annual rainfall with an average of 113.78mm. It is worth noting that in the same year,

tourist arrival to the district rose from 3668 in 1998 to 3823. From the trends analyzed above and

a critical examination of the chart below it will be right to state that there is also no direct

relation between rainfall and tourist arrivals.

Figure 4.1.2 relationship between annual rainfall and tourist arrivals

6000 120
113.78

102.1 102.54
5000 100.32 5018 100
96.82 4880
97.25
94.33 95 4671
92 456790.57
89.818
86.07 87.03 4298
85.23
83.43 4152
4000 80.38 81.38 79.98 4072
39854003 80
78.325 78.33
3823 74.683855 76.61
76.21
3668
73.03
71.03 72.56 71.335763663 73.075
67.44 3423
66.08 3275
62.53 Tourist Arrivals
3000 59.92 2924 60
262052.58
2611 Annual Rainfall
23392331
2000 2088 40
1865
1846
1799
1601
1553
1394
1176
1000 938 20
881
823 872

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

To further prove that there is no any direct significant relationship between annual rainfall and

mean maximum temperature at one side and annual tourist arrivals at the other, if one take a look

at the table below which is a regression output from spss with focus on the coefficient of

determination.

80
Table 4.1.2 regression output on rainfall and temperature, and tourist arrivals

Model Summary

Model R R Square

1 .331a .109

a. Predictors: (Constant), mean maximum temperature, annual rainfall

 Coefficient of determination (r2) = 0.109.

Therefore percentage of determination =0.109x100%= 10.9%

This means that only 10.9% of the changes in the dependent variable (Tourist arrivals) can be

accounted for by changes in the independent variables (rainfall and temperature) with respect to

this data set. In all, this confirms what Abegg et al., 1997 stated, that Climate was considered a

more or less stable asset of destinations, which could not account for any long-term trends in

tourism demand. Lise and Toi (2002) also conducted a cross-sectoral analysis to estimate the

relationship between international tourist arrivals and climate variables (temperature,

precipitation), controlling for other explanatory variables such as price, trend, population density,

length of coast, and area of the country. Using 17 years of data (1980-96) from 210 countries,

this study suggested that there is an optimal average summer temperature (about 21°C) for

tourism and concluded that climate change probably does not affect global tourism demand.

Instead the authors surmise that climate change causes a redistribution of tourists among

destinations.

81
4.8 POLICIES IN PLACE TO CURB THE PROBLEM OF CLIMATE CHANGE

The advent of climate change in this district is not a new thing and has not gone unnoticed.

According to the district director of Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA), several measures

have been adapted to curb this problem of climate change in the district. Some of the measures

are: Free distribution and planting of trees, educating the farmers on the effects of bushfires and

bad farming practices, the introduction of environmental clubs in the basic school and

installation of task forces at the various forests that are doted in the district.

On the issue of policies to curb the problem of climate change, the traditional authority thus the

chief and his council have also put in place a bye-law that prohibit people from felling trees

within the main city center and also some reserves. People who go contrary to this bye-law are

punished severely. Contrary to what J. Fischer stated in 2007 in her paper “current issues in the

interdisciplinary research field of climate change and tourism”, that climate change strategies are

usually not incorporated in tourism strategies, the district director of the Ghana metrological

station stated that all their strategies in relation to climate change are always incorporated in

tourism strategies and this was confirmed by the district tourism district.

With regards to the tourism attractions, mango trees are being planted around the pond to serve

as a cover and reduce the rate of evaporation. Trees are also planted within and around the slave

camp and also the area where the camp is located is part of the areas that have been demarcated

by the local authorities where people are not permitted to enter and harvest forest products.

It was also realized that the Ghana water resource commission has also been in the forefront in

the efforts to combat climate change in the district.

Although the people in authority had a lot to say with regards to the policies that are in place to

solve the problem of climate change and variability, it is very interesting that out of the total

82
hundred and ten(110) sampled respondents, a majority of 74 people representing 67.3% had no

idea of any measure that has been put in place to solve the menace of climate change as can be

seen from table 4.1.1 While a minority of thirty six (36) representing 32.7% were aware of at

least one measure put in place.

Awareness of
measures to combat
CC in the community
Frequency Percent (%)

yes 36 32.7

no 74 67.3

Total 110 100.0

Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

Figure 4.1.3 is a bar chat which sought to find out what the sampled respondents think can be

done to solve the problem of climate change and variability.

Figure 4.1.3 Opinions of respondents on how to curb climate change

45
40
35
30
25
44
20
15 27
10 18
13
5 8
0
planting of provision of punishing of sacrifices to education
trees seedlings for people found the gods
planting felling trees

Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork 2013.

83
Out of the hundred and ten (110) respondents, forty four (44) of them were with the view that

planting of more trees within and around the district has the tendency of solving the problem of

climate change. Twenty seven (27) of them were also with the opinion that more education in

and out the classrooms about the effects of climate change and variability can go a long way to

reduce if not eliminate the incidence of climate change. Interesting enough eighteen (18) of the

respondents also said that continuous sacrifice to the “rain god” can help stop climate change.

One respondent was quoted saying “the climate is changing because the current generation is

very immoral and also the gods are not respected again, therefore if the gods are appeased

climate change will be a thing of the past”. thirteen (13) of the respondents also asserted that

punishment given to people who wrongfully fall trees will help in reducing the rate of climate

change in the district. Finally, a small proportion of the respondents (eight people) said that

provision of free seedlings to farmers and interested parties will help in reducing and eventually

eliminating climate change.

It can however be realized that the proposition which states that the people of the Kassena

Nankana west district are aware of climate change and variation is true since 95.5% of the

respondents are well informed on the issue. There is however a contradiction with respect to

measures taken to curb climate change since only 32.7% of the respondents are aware of at least

one measure to curb the situation of climate change.

84
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with a summary of the major findings, conclusion and recommendations on

the assessment of climate change and tourism in the Kassena Nankana West District. The chapter

is thus divided into three broad thematic areas as stated above.

5.2 SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDINGS

The major findings of the study are organized under the five specific objectives. These include,

5.2.1 AWARENESS AND EVIDENCE OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND VARIABILITY IN

THE KASSENA NANKANA WEST DISTRICT

The study revealed that the people of this district are well aware of the incidence of climate

change and variability. This is because 105 of the total sampled respondents representing 95.5%

were aware of the prevalence of climate change and variability. The study also revealed that

farmers in the district are easily affected by climate change and variability and this account for

the high level climate change awareness in the district since most of residence are involved in

farming directly or indirectly.

The study also showed that it rains less in recent times than it did in the past while present day

temperatures are also higher in this district than the past.

85
5.2.2 CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Despite the significant investments in LPG and climate efficient sources of energy by the

government of Ghana, this study revealed that majority of the respondents from the Kassena

Nankana west district use wood fuel and charcoal as their major source of energy which is a

major cause of global warming and climate change. The study also revealed reasons why the

residents of this district use fuel wood and charcoal but not the other climate friendly sources of

energy and these included;

A. Fuel wood and charcoal is very cheap as compared to electricity and gas

B. It is easy to transport, distribute and store

C. It is less risky

D. It is reliable

E. it is easily accessible

The study also revealed that households with people between four (4) and five (9) members

mostly use fuel wood and charcoal as their major source of energy and this account for 71.8% of

all the energy consumed in the district.

According to the study, bushfires, bad farming practices, urbanization and deforestation are the

major human causes of climate change while natural disasters are the major non human causes of

climate change.

5.2.3 TOURISM IN KASSENA NANKANA WEST

Although tourism in this district is not a new phenomenon, the study revealed that most of the

respondents easily identified the crocodile pond and the slave camp as tourist attractions (90.9%

and 76% respectively) while failing to recognize the Ghana-Burkina Faso border (no man’s land)

86
and Sirigu pottery as tourism attractions with a percentage of 36.4% and 28.2% respectively. The

study also showed that only 62.7% of the respondents participate in tourism related activities.

5.2.4 CLIMATE CHANGE AND TOURISM RESOURCE

Climate change and variability does not only affect tourist arrivals and change in taste and

preference but also has a great impact on tourism resources. Though impacts of climate change

on tourism resources can either be positive or negative all the respondents however gave only

negative impacts. On how climate change affect the tourism resources in the district, the study

showed that it is causing the crocodile pond which is the major attraction in the district to dry up.

Other impacts include; erosion and weathering of the rocks at the slave camp, death and

migration of the living and aquatic animals.

From the study it was revealed that the pond is also decreasing in both depth and size due to the

reduction in the amount of annual rainfall in the district and the increase of temperature leading

to evaporation

5.2.5 CLIMATE AND TOURIST DEMAND/ARRIVALS

The study revealed that majority of the tourist (51.8%) visits this district between September and

December because it hardly rain during this month and also the temperature is always low. The

study also showed that rainfall and temperature plays a vital role in the decision making process

of tourist with respect to this district. The study however revealed that there is no direct

significant relationship between annual rainfall and mean maximum temperature at one side and

annual tourist arrivals at the other.

5.2.6 POLICIES IN PLACE TO CURB THE PROBLEM OF CLIMATE CHANGE

According to the district director of Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA), several measures

have been adapted to curb this problem of climate change in the district. Some of the measures

87
are: Free distribution and planting of trees, educating the farmers on the effects of bushfires and

bad farming practices, the introduction of environmental clubs in the basic school and

installation of task forces at the various forests that are doted in the district. Also, the traditional

authorities have put in place a bye-law that prohibit people from felling trees within the main city

center and also some reserves. However, the study revealed that a majority of 67.3% of the

respondents had no idea of any measure that has been put in place to solve this menace of

climate change and variability in the district.

5.3 CONCLUSION

The Kassena Nankana West District is undoubtedly the tourism ‘back born’ of the Upper East

Region with the Paga crocodile pond being the major attraction. However this district is being

confronted with the challenge of climate change and variability. Interesting enough, most of the

residents in this district are aware of this phenomenon since they deal with it directly and

indirectly daily. Some of the evidence of climate change in this district according to the

respondents include; reduction in rainfall amount, increase temperature and the unpredictability

nature of weather. There are several causes to this climate change and variability in the district

such as bad farming practices, bushfires, and urbanization. The study however revealed that most

of the people in this community use fuel wood and charcoal as their major source of energy and

the “black carbon” from burning charcoal and wood is the second most important man-made

agent of climate change. This assessment shows that climate change is projected to have

significant impacts on the physical resources supporting tourism resources in this district.

According to the respondents of the study, the gradual drying up of the crocodile pond, erosion

of the suitable clay at Sirigu, weathering of the rocks at the slave camp and the death and

migration of the aquatic animals are some of the impacts that the changing climate has on the

88
tourism resources in the district. Furthermore, Climate change has direct influence on tourism via

the decision-making process though it has been revealed that there is no any direct significant

relationship between annual rainfall and mean maximum temperature at one side and annual

tourist arrivals at the other. On the issue of policies that have been put in place to curb the

problem of climate change, the study revealed contrast views between the authorities and the

respondents. As the authorities were with the view that policies were in place to solve the

negative effects of climate change and variability, majority of the respondents had no idea of any

policy that has been put in place.

5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS

A comparative analysis of both primary and secondary data in cognizance with the literature on

Climate change and tourism in the Kassena Nankana West District, the study recommends the

following;

1. It is strongly recommended that afforestation and reforestation programs be established in

all communities. To promote these programs, the district assembly should provide dug-

out ponds and wells and other sources of water to enhance tree planting even in the dry

season and times of drought. The development of shrubs into trees adopted at the Paga

crocodile pond should be highly promoted and spread to the slave camp and the Sirigu

community. There should be motivation for those engaged in tree planting since it will

facilitate the success of afforestation and reforestation programs in the district.

2. The study further recommends that periodic educational programs should be designed to

enlighten the people on the negative effects of charcoal and wood fuel burning. It should

also aim at introducing farmers to good farming practices and the avoidance of bush

burning. This should be done by the opinion leaders in the district.

89
3. It is also strongly recommended that the local authorities (chief and elders), the district

assembly and the District Tourism Authority should ensure that the crocodile pond is

desilted very soon since it risk drying up.

4. The study recommends that the Ghana Tourism Authority, the local authorities and

private investors should aim towards designing and developing an indoor pond with other

indoor tourism activities so as to make the district an all-year-round tourism destination.

The study also proposes events tourism should be introduced in the district to augment

the tourism experience since climate change and variability has minimal impact on

events.

90
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ABEGG, B., KONIG, U., BURKI, R., & ELSASSER, H. (1997). Climate impact assessment im
Tourismus. Die Erde, 128(2), 105-116.

Agnew, M.D. and J.P. Palutikof, 2001: Climate impacts on the demand for tourism. In:
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AGUILO, E., ALEGRE, J., & SARD, M. (2005). The persistence of the sun and sand tourism
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Allan Beaver (2005).A Dictionary of Travel and Tourism Terminology, 2nd edition pg. 313.
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Alvaro Moreno (2010). Climate change and tourism: Impacts and Vulnerability in Coastal
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AMELUNG, B. (2006). Global (environmental) change and tourism - Issues of scale and
distribution. Maastricht University, Maastricht.

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 APPENDICES

Appendix 1:

KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

THE SOCIAL SCIENCE FACULTY
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

QUESTIONNAIRE
(This study is strictly for academic purposes and responses provided will be treated with the
strictest confidentiality and anonymity)
Date administered………………………………………..
SECTION A- DEMOGRAPHICS
1. Age:
a) Below 20 years
b) 21-25 years
c) 26-30 years
d) Above 30 years
2. Sex:
a) Male
b) Female
3. Marital status:
a) Single
b) Married
c) Divorced
d) Widowed
4. Educational Level:
a) Primary b) Junior High c) Senior High d) Tertiary
e) Postgraduate f) None
SECTION B-BACKGROUND INFORMATION
5. What is your occupations: ……………………………………….
6. How long have you stayed in this area? ………………years
7. How many people are in your household? ……………………

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 8. What is your major source of energy?
a) Fuel wood
b) Charcoal
c) Gas
d) Hydro-electricity
e) Other specify………………………………..
9. How do you usually travel to the following destinations?
(Please put a code in the appropriate box to indicate your main method of transport)
Codes: 1 = Walk, 2 = Cycling, 3 = Motorbike, 4 = Taxi, 5 = Car, 6 =Bus, 7= Other
School …..… [ ]
Work …...… [ ]
Market ..…... [ ]
Place of worship (church, mosque etc) ………. [ ]
Hospital/Health Centre ……………………….. [ ]
Visit friends and relations …………………….. [ ]

SECTION C- CLIMATE CHANGE AND TOURISM AWARENESS

10. Are you aware of any evidence of global climate change and variation?
a. Yes
b. No
11. Has the rainfall pattern of this community changed for the past years?
a. Yes
b. No
If yes to the above question, how?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
12. Has the annual temperature of this community changed over the past years?
a. Yes
b. No
If yes to the above question, how?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

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 13. How has human actions contributed to this change or variation in the climate
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
14. What other activities do you think causes climate change and variation?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
15. Do you participate in any tourism activity
a. Yes
b. No
Specify ……………………………………………
SECTION D - CLIMATE CHANGE AND TOURISM
16. How can climate change and variation affect the tourism resources in the district?
(E.g. the pond)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
17. What period of the year do people (tourist) mostly visit this district?
a. January-April
b. May-August
c. September-December
18. Does rainfall and temperature affect the number of people who visit this district
a. Yes
b. No
19. Do you know emissions from cars can cause climate change?
a. Yes
b. No
20. How has the size and depth of the crocodile pond change over the past year?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

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 21. What actions of tourist do you think is environmentally unfriendly?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
22. Climate Change can result in unpredictable weather patterns. Does this affect tourism
development in this community?
a. Yes
b. No
23. Are there any measures taken by the local authorities to curb the problem of climate
change in this community?
a. Yes
b. No
If yes, what are they
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
24. In your opinion, what measures can be taken to control the rate of climate change in this
community?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
THANKS FOR YOUR TIME

Appendix 2:

KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

THE SOCIAL SCIENCE FACULTY
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

A BRIEF QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TOURIST

(This study is strictly for academic purposes and responses provided will be treated with the
strictest confidentiality and anonymity)
Date administered………………………………………..

103
 1. Does temperature and rainfall situations at the destination affect your decision making
process on where to go and when to go there?
a. Yes
b. No

How?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………

2. How has the physical environment (including climate) of this district changed since your
last visit?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………….
3. In your opinion, what is climate change and how does it impact on the tourism resources
in this district?
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
Thanks for your time

104
Appendix 3: The relationship between temperature and recreational use

Source: Huron River Watershed Council

105
Appendix 4: Main Impact of Climate Change and Their Implications for Tourism

IMPACT IMPLICATIONS FOR TOURISM

Warmer temperatures Altered seasonality, heat stress for tourists,

cooling costs, changes in: plant-wildlife-insect
populations and distribution range, infectious
disease ranges
Decreasing snow cover and shrinking glaciers Lack of snow in winter sport destinations,
increased snow-making costs, shorter winter
sports seasons, aesthetics of landscape reduced
Increasing frequency and intensity of extreme Risk for tourism facilities, increased insurance
costs/loss of insurability, business interruption
storms costs

Reduced precipitation and increased Water shortages, competition over water

evaporation in some regions between tourism and other sectors,
desertification, increased wildfires threatening
infrastructure and affecting demand
Increased frequency of heavy precipitation in Flooding damage to historic architectural and
some regions cultural assets, damage to tourism
infrastructure, altered seasonality (beaches,
biodiversity, river flow)
Sea level rise Coastal erosion, loss of beach area, higher
costs to protect and maintain waterfronts and
sea defenses
Sea surface temperature rise Increased coral bleaching and marine resource
and aesthetic degradation in dive and snorkel
destinations
Changes in terrestrial and marine biodiversity Changes in terrestrial and marine biodiversity
Loss of natural attractions and species from
destinations, higher risk of diseases in tropical-
subtropical countries
More frequent and larger forest fires Loss of natural attractions, increase of flooding
risk, damage to tourism infrastructure

Soil changes (e.g. moisture levels, erosion and Loss of archaeological assets and other natural
resources, with impacts on destination
acidity) attractions.

Source: WTO-UNEP-WMO (2008) Climate Change and Tourism: Responding to Global

106
Appendix 4: Emissions from International Tourism in 2005 (Including same-day visitors)

CO2(mt)

AIR TRANSPORT 517

OTHER TRANSPORT 468

ACCOMMODATION 274

ACTIVITIES 45

TOTAL 1,307

WORLD TOTAL 26,400

SHARE (%) 4.95

Source: UNWTO and IPCC for world total

Appendix 6: a system approach to the tourism-climate relationship

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Appendix 7: annual rainfall, mean maximum temperature and tourist arrivals

Mean Maximum Annual tourism

Year Annual Rainfall Temperature Arrivals
1980 78.325 35.25 823
1981 66.08 35.32 881
1982 73.03 34.54 938
1983 59.92 35.35 872
1984 71.03 34.84 1176
1985 80.38 34.98 1394
1986 102.1 34.83 1553
1987 94.33 35.76 1601
1988 76.21 34.99 1799
1989 96.82 34.95 1846
1990 72.56 35.42 1865
1991 81.38 34.57 2088
1992 86.07 34.49 2339
1993 67.44 35.43 2620
1994 83.43 34.63 2331
1995 52.58 35.32 2611
1996 92 35.38 2924
1997 78.33 34.87 3275
1998 71.3 35.47 3668
1999 113.78 35.27 3823
2000 102.54 32.12 3576
2001 79.98 35.86 3423
2002 74.68 35.56 3663
2003 95 35.61 4152
2004 87.03 35.16 3855
2005 62.53 35.88 4072
2006 73.075 35.63 3985
2007 100.32 35.08 4298
2008 85.23 35.03 4003
2009 76.61 32.31 4567
2010 97.25 35.5 4880
2011 90.57 35.43 5018
2012 89.818 35.63 4671

108