AMWS Student Handout

Army Mountain Warfare School
Ethan Allen Firing Range

Jericho, VT 05465-9796
Military Mountaineer Course

Student Handout
June 2009
8 June 2009
ARMY MOUNTAIN WARFARE SCHOOL

Proponent The proponent for this document is the United States Army Infantry School.
Improvement Users are invited to send comments and suggested improvements on DA Form
Comments 2028, Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms. Completed
forms, or equivalent response, will be mailed or attached to electronic e-mail and
transmitted to:
COMMANDER
ARMY MOUNTAIN WARFARE SCHOOL
8 MOUNTAIN SCHOOL ROAD
JERICHO, VT 05465-9705
Telephone (Comm.): (802) 899-7202/7205

Telephone (DSN): 636-3000
e-mail: [email protected]
Security Unclassified
Clearance /
Access
Foreign FD6. The product developers in coordination with the (installation/activity name)
Disclosure foreign disclosure authority have reviewed this product/publication. This product is
Restrictions releasable to students from foreign countries on a case-by-case basis.
Soldier's Creed
I am an American Soldier.
I am a Warrior and a member of a team. I serve the people of the United States and live the
Army Values.
I will always place the mission first.
I will never accept defeat.
I will never quit.
I will never leave a fallen comrade.
I am disciplined, physically and mentally tough, trained and proficient in my warrior tasks and
drills. I always maintain my arms, my equipment and myself.
I am an expert and I am a professional.
I stand ready to deploy, engage, and destroy the enemies of the United States of America in
close combat.
I am a guardian of freedom and the American way of life.
I am an American Soldier.
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This handout includes lessons for all basic Military Mountaineer Courses.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Soldier's Creed ................................................................................................................................. 2
Welcome and Comments ................................................................................................................. 5
Safety Statement.............................................................................................................................. 6
Environmental Statement ................................................................................................................. 7
Basic Mountaineering Equipment .................................................................................................... 9
Basic Knot Tying ........................................................................................................................... 20
Rope Management......................................................................................................................... 42
Cold Weather Clothing ................................................................................................................... 44
Environmental Injuries.................................................................................................................... 53
Basic Mountain Casualty Evacuation............................................................................................. 61
Mountain Weather .......................................................................................................................... 71
Characteristics of Mountain Terrain ............................................................................................... 75
Soldier Load Management ............................................................................................................. 81
Mountain Travel Techniques.......................................................................................................... 83
Anchors .......................................................................................................................................... 87
High Altitude Illness and Prevention ............................................................................................ 102
Rappelling in Mountainous Terrain .............................................................................................. 108
Fixed Ropes ................................................................................................................................. 111
Water Procurement ...................................................................................................................... 118
Altimiter Land Navigation ............................................................................................................. 121
Avalanche Awarness and Rescue ..................................................... 124
Hauling Techniques .............................................................................................................. 135
Environmental Effects on Weapons ............................................................................................. 138
Animal Packing ............................................................................................................................ 153
Climbing Techniques.................................................................................................................... 158
Communications in a Mountainous Environment ........................................................................ 175
Additional Height Construction ..................................................................................................... 179
High Lines .................................................................................................................................... 182
Vertical Danger Areas .................................................................................................................. 186
Mountain Bivouac Operations ...................................................................................................... 192
Mountain Operations .................................................................................................................... 209
Field Expedient Aerial Resupply .................................................................................................. 213
Confined Space Exploration and Clearing ................................................................................... 216
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Welcome and Comments
1. Welcome to the Army Mountain Warfare School (AMWS) Military Mountaineer Course. During
this course, you will receive the finest training the US Army has to offer. The instructors are
ready to pass on knowledge gained from years of experience. While you are here, our first
concern is for your safety. For this reason, you must be totally focused at all times, as
training safely is our number one goal.
2. FM 3-0, Operations, states that, “US Army Forces must be prepared to fight and win on short
notice anywhere in the world.” As demonstrated during our recent conflict in Afghanistan,
combat will occur in a wide variety of terrain and environmental conditions that impose
special training and operational considerations. Approximately 50% of the earth's landmass
is mountainous - from the poles to the equator. Military operations under such conditions
require specialized equipment, training and doctrine, particularly for the military mountaineer.
3. Mountain training is a frequently overlooked aspect of our total training strategy. US Forces
do not routinely train in a mountainous environment and most commands lack the capability
of providing the specific training that is necessary to insure individual and unit effectiveness.
You will learn skills here that will enable you to use the mountain environment as a force
multiplier.
4. Untrained and unprepared, the mountain environment can be your worst enemy. Properly
trained and equipped, it can be your strongest ally. We will give you the training. The rest is
up to you.
“Training Mountain Warriors!”
//original signed//
NATHAN F. LORD
LTC, IN
Commanding
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Safety Statement
Safety considerations are everyone’s concern. Instructors will point out specific safety
requirements during each block of instruction. Always observe the following safety points:
1. Wear helmets when working on or near vertical surfaces.

2. Safety yourself when working on or near vertical surfaces.
3. Make sure all locking carabiners are locked or that non-locking carabiners have their gates
opposite and opposed.
4. Properly inspect and wear your climbing harness-check double pass buckles.
5. Inspect all equipment prior, during and after use.
6. Inspect all knots.
7. Falling while ice or rock climbing is not an easy option. Even a short fall can result in serious
injuries.
8. While rappelling, confirm that the rope hits the ground or tie a BIG knot in the end of the ropes
to prevent rappelling off.
9. Always position your belay off to one side while belaying when possible.
10. Be alert to changing climbing conditions.
11. Be aware of falling ice or rock at all times.
12. Triple check all anchors.
13. Never top rope through a pulley.
14. Climb within your ability.
15. Before starting up any climb, use your best judgment and do not take any unnecessary risks.
16. Use proper communication methods.
17. Use static double ropes in installations when possible.
18. When in doubt-ask questions!
19. Use the buddy system to monitor concerns such as dehydration, heat injuries and an
unusually high degree of fear or apprehension.
20. Always consider fixed protection "suspect" and back up whenever possible.
21. Do not be lulled into a false sense of security by the climbing difficulty rating. It is subjective.
22. Do not assume that there is adequate protection available higher.
23. If you have any equipment deficiencies or witness unsafe acts by soldiers or cadre, notify the
nearest instructor.
24. Keep in mind that experience is the best insurance and gravity never sleeps!
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Environmental Statement
1. Responsibility. It is the responsibility of all soldiers to protect the environment from damage.
Carefully planning and preparing for your mission can minimize impact on the environment.
We all have a responsibility to anticipate and reduce our impact upon others and are
considerate towards wild land environment and its animal inhabitants.
2. Planning. Plan and prepare. Careful planning can go a long way toward ensuring that impact
concerns and safety expectations are met.
3. Durable Surfaces. Bivouac and travel on durable surfaces. It is best to use surfaces that are
durable or highly resistant to impact. These include rock, sand, gravel, snow, pine needles
and leaf litter.
(a) Stay on marked trails unless otherwise directed by an instructor.

(b) Use bridges wherever and whenever possible.
(c) Take rest breaks on durable surfaces.
(d) Ground equipment and eat only in areas designated by the PI.
(e) Avoid fragile areas.
(f) Smoke only in areas designated by an instructor. Police all related refuse.
4. Avoidance. Avoid Places where impact is just beginning. Use already established well-worn
sites.
5. Reduce Wastes. Pack it in, pack it out. Reducing wastes helps prevent animals from
becoming habituated to humans and lessons the chances of them becoming nuisances
around bivouacs.
(a) Reduce your litter prior to packing it.

(b) Dispose of all waste items in an appropriate manner. If a trash bag is provided, use it. If
none is available, pack your trash out in your rucksack. Do not attempt to burn or bury
trash at any training site.
(c) Properly dispose of what you cannot pack out. Correctly disposing wastes, helps prevent
pollution of water sources, the spread of illness such as giardia and aesthetic impacts.
(d) Dispose of human waste properly. Use designated latrines only. "Cat Holes" are not
authorized.
6. Leave What You Find.
(a) Avoid damaging trees and plants.

(b) Avoid disturbing wildlife.
(c) Avoid contact with wildlife
7. Fires. Minimize use and impact of fires. All should remember that a fire should be viewed as
a tool to be used only when necessary.
(a) Do not start wood fires at any training site unless directed by an instructor.
(b) Make your fire small and safe.
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Basic Mountaineering Equipment

071E9005
INTRODUCTION: Many different manufacturers produce mountaineering equipment. Each item

is tested to extremely high standards to ensure safety when being used correctly. The weak link
in the safety chain is the user. Great care in performing preventative maintenance checks and
services (PMCS) and proper training in the use of the equipment is essential for safe operations.
The manufacturers provide recommendations on how to use and care for its product. It is
imperative to follow these instructions explicitly. During this lesson, you will learn the skills
necessary to select, maintain, and use your basic mountaineering equipment
Identify Criteria for Selecting Ropes. No one rope is ideal for all applications. The intended
use of the rope must be examined to select the best rope for the job.
(1) Diameter. Dynamic and static ropes come in various diameters.
(a) Cord. Static, comes in sizes 5mm to 8mm.
(b) Dynamic Rope. 7.8mm to 11mm.
(c) Static Rope. 7mm to 13mm.
(2)Length.
(a) Static rope and cord generally can be purchased and cut to any desired length.
(b) Dynamic rope generally comes in 50 or 60 meter lengths and may be cut shorter.
(3) Number of Falls Held. The UIAA (French acronym for International Climbing and
Mountaineering Federation) develops standards for testing ropes under various conditions, as
well as other standards for care and use of rope. The UIAA drop test shows how many severe
falls a dynamic rope can withstand before you retire it. The number of falls the rope holds in
the test is the falls held. To pass UIAA tests, a 2.8-meter (9-foot) sample of rope must sustain
five falls of an 80-kilogram (176-lb.) weight without failure. The positioned weight is for a fall of
5 meters (16-feet) with the peak force not exceeding 1200 kilograms (2650-lbs.) for the first
fall.
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(4) Impact Force. Impact force is the sudden stress put on the belay chain when a fall is
stopped. It is the maximum load placed on a rope after all of the energy from a fall has been
absorbed in the rope's stretch.
(5 Elongation. Elongation or stretch dissipates the energy produced during a fall throughout
the rope rather than directly to the climber's body or anchor system.
(6) Strength. Strength is an important safety factor when selecting a rope for a task. A
military safe working load is commonly defined as 1/5th of the TENSILE STRENGTH (TS) or
breaking strength of the rope. If the load on the rope were 500 lbs, it would be desirable to
have a rope with TS of minimum 2500 lbs. This applies to static ropes, not dynamic ropes.
(7) Repeated Loads. During usage, ropes are often subjected to repeated loadings. The
ability of a rope to withstand heavy loads without failure or loss of energy absorption capacity
is valuable to the user.
(8) Fall Factors. Fall factors measures the severity of a fall. Calculate this by dividing the
length of a fall by the amount of rope out from the belay point. The higher the fall factor, the
greater the amount of force generated. Rope drag, intermediate protection and other factors
of the safety chain reduce the fall factor.
(9) Knotability. This is the ease in tying and untying knots in the rope and the ability to hold a
knot once tied.
(10) Abrasion Resistance. Abrasion resistance is dependent on the rope construction.
Kernmantle ropes are more abrasion resistant than laid ropes. A static rope is more abrasion
resistant than laid or dynamic due to the tightly woven outer sheath.
(11) Temperature.
(a) Heat. Heat from friction can rapidly build up to a temperature high enough to cause
melting and failure. At 212 degrees F, there is a 20 to 30 percent strength loss and most
ropes fail at around 290 degrees F.
(b) Cold. Ropes are often used in extremely low temperatures. If the rope is dry, low
temperature has no effect on its strength. The rope does sustain a strength loss of 9 to
36% when it is wet and frozen.
Note: A soldier or unit must constantly consider the pros and cons of weight and bulk vs. safety
and versatility when selecting ropes for a mission. Generally, thinner diameter ropes have less
weight and bulk when carrying; however have a decreased safety margin when loaded over
sharp edges compared to larger diameter ropes. In regards to length, greater lengths will offer
greater versatility for rappelling or climbing greater distances, however this comes at a price,
since the additional weight and bulk cannot be distributed among the team.
Note: The climbing rope should be soft, flexible, resistant to kinking, durable, water repellant,
have a high fall rating (dynamic only) and have no sheath slippage (kernmantle only).
Note: The service life of a rope depends on the frequency of use, applications (rappelling,
climbing, rope installations), speed of descent, surface abrasion, terrain, climate and quality of
maintenance given to the rope. Any rope can fail under extreme conditions (shock load, sharp
edges, misuse) despite its service life.
Identify Kernmantle Ropes.

Kernmantle Rope Construction. Kernmantle or "jacketed-core" ("kern" means "core" and
"mantle" means "sheath") is constructed similarly to 550-parachute cord and are the only
approved ropes for military mountaineering. The internal core of the rope is constructed of a
continuous multi-filament nylon yarn, which is spun into a continuous core of twisted or braided,
parallel strands of nylon enclosed in a tightly woven outer sheath. While the jacket may puncture
or tear in use, usually enough of the jacket remains to securely hold the core fibers. Despite this,
kernmantle rope is considered far superior in design, manageability, strength and safety.
(1) Static Kernmantle. Static ropes are designed for rappelling, rescue operations, load
hauling and rope installations. The rope has a protective sheath woven tightly over a parallel-
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fiber-bundle core. Due to the internal parallel strand construction of the static rope, there is less
spinning and kinking than with dynamic rope.
Note: The minimum tensile strength for 11 mm (7/16 inches) static ropes for military use is 4,500
lbs / 20 kN.
(2) Dynamic Kernmantle. A dynamic rope is designed for climbing only. The rope has a
braided sheath woven over a twisted or braided-strand shock-absorber core. It is well suited
for climbing, due to the elastic elongation of the rope during a fall. Dynamic kernmantle ropes
have an elongation of about 40 percent at the point of failure and come in a variety of sizes,
lengths, stretch factors, tensile strengths and fall ratings. The best dynamic rope is a
compromise of the best blend of the following:
(a) Low-impact force.
(b) Low elongation under body weight.
(c) Flexibility.
(d) Easy to handle and lightweight.
(e) Water repellant and free of sheath slippage.
(f) High energy absorbing and abrasion resistance.
(g) It should sustain hard falls even after much use. Ropes that do not have military
specifications should meet UIAA-approved standards.
b. Preparation for Use. New kernmantle ropes come wrapped in a clear plastic bag and have a
specification tag located inside. Most ropes are factory coiled: To unwind, find the end of the
rope and slowly unwrap.
Figure 2
Kernmantle Rope (shown with sheath partially removed)
Identify Types of Webbing.
a. Description. Webbing is a flat or tubular nylon material that ranges in widths from 9 mm (3/8
inch) to 5 cm (2 inches) and has many uses in mountaineering operations. Webbing is lighter
than small diameter ropes or cords. It provides better adhesion than cord or rope whose circular
cross section can cause rolling. It is well suited for runners (which extend the length of a piece of
protection), slings (to carry hardware), etriers or stirrups for aid climbing, improvised harnesses,
and other purposes in mountaineering. The strength of the webbing depends on its width and
varies in tensile strength from 682 kg (1,500 lbs) to over 3,200 kg (7,000 lbs).
(1) Tubular Nylon Webbing. Tubular nylon webbing is constructed of a spiral weave with no
sewn seam and has a hollow interior. It is easy to manage and holds knots well. If the intended
use is known, it is better to presew slings, harnesses, runners and etriers. Sewn webbing is 10 to
15 percent stronger than knotted webbing.
(2) Flat Nylon Webbing. Flat nylon webbing has no separation in the webbing. It is more difficult
to handle and does not hold knots as well as the tubular nylon webbing. It lies flatter than the
tubular type and is not as prone to slipping or rotating. Generally, Flat Nylon Webbing is not used
for mountaineering.
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(3) Spectra. Spectra webbing consists of a blend of Spectra and Nylon fibers woven together to
form webbing that has superior properties. The bonus of Spectra fiber is that it is stronger, lighter
and absorbs less water compared to Nylon. The down side of Spectra is that it melts at a much
lower temperature than Nylon.
b. Maintenance. All nylon webbing (slings, runners) should be inspected daily before, during and
after use. The webbing ends should be cut with a hot knife or seared to prevent fraying.
Webbing should be kept away from heat, acids, oils and solvents that can harm synthetic fibers.
Rope or nylon items must not run over the top of webbing. Nylon on nylon creates friction, which
can be harmful to webbing. Sharp edges must be avoided. Do not exceed the specified safe
working load rating. The entire length of webbing should be inspected for cuts, frays, burns,
abrasions, and worn spots. Webbing abrades quickly. If excessive wear and damage are noted,
the webbing should be replaced. Like any nylon rope, webbing should be washed; air-dried and
stored in a cool, dry, area out of direct sunlight.
General rules of rope care.

(1) Always protect your rope at potential abrasion points. When possible, use runners or pads
to keep the rope away from sharp edges. Rock crystals, bolt hangers, glass and even pack
grommets can cut a rope’s sheath.
(2) Keep your rope clean. The best way to keep it clean is by being conscious of where you
coil and uncoil it. Dirt shortens the rope life by causing internal and external abrasion.
(3) Avoid stepping on the rope and use a protective rope bag/tarp when transporting and
managing it on the ground.
(4)Wash a dirty rope in cold or lukewarm water using mild soap. Do not use laundry detergent
as it can strip the oils from the nylon fibers. Do not use bleach! Do not dry in a dryer! Air-dry
your rope away from direct sunlight.
(5) Store your rope completely dry, free of all knots and coiled loosely away from heat sources
and any chemicals. Avoid contact with any petroleum products, bleach, battery acids, and other
substances that damage nylon and attract dirt.
(6) Never use a climbing rope for any purpose other than for what it was intended. It is not for
towing cars, trimming trees, working on the roof, etc.
Perform Maintenance Procedures for Rope and Cord.

a. Inspection. Inspect your rope before and after each use. It is the user’s responsibility to know
the history of the rope and to determine when it should be retired. Determining when to retire a
rope can be difficult but a few common sense rules will help. A rope should be retired after
holding a long, hard fall, if it has flat or soft spots, becomes too stiff or shows major sheath
damage. If you can see the core of the rope, it should be retired. Any time you "backstack" or
"backfeed" your rope is a great time to inspect it, simply by running your hands along it and
feeling for any bumps or soft spots, anything that might indicate damage to the core. Retire a
rope after no more than four years of occasional use, two years of weekend use or one year of
regular active use. Retiring a rope after only six months of hard use is not uncommon; some
climbing gym ropes wear out after only a few weeks of intense use. The bottom line in "When is
doubt, throw it out! “ In many cases, lead climbing ropes that have been retired due to number of
falls held are still adequate for top roping, rappelling, fixed ropes and other uses that don’t require
a great deal of dynamics. Damaged ropes should be cut up to avoid being used again
accidentally.
b. Record Keeping. Static ropes and dynamic ropes must not be interchanged. Ropes should be
color-coded or marked to identify its use (leader climbing rope, rope installation or rappelling
rope). A log should be maintained for each rope indicating the dates, use, weather condition and
duration of use. Portions of unserviceable ropes may be salvaged for use as sling ropes.
c. Maintenance Schedule. The rope should be inspected daily, before, during and after use. The
ends should be fused, whipped or taped to prevent unraveling. Rope should be kept away from
insect repellent, oils, acids, solvents and corrosives that can harm synthetic fibers. The entire
length should be inspected for burns, cuts, frays, dirt and damage.
d. Washing. Ropes should be periodically washed to remove the buildup of dirt inside the lay or
sheath. Many companies market a rope washer, which is a short length of modified pipe
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connectable to any standard faucet. Pinholes within the pipe force the water to circulate around
and scrub the rope as it is fed through the washer by hand, inches at a time. Another method is
to machine wash, on gentle cycle, in cold water with a nylon safe soap. Air-dry the rope out of
the sun by hanging in lazy loops. Care must be taken to insure that mechanical cutting or fraying
from the washing machines agitator does not occur during the washing process. In addition,
daisy chaining the rope will prevent it from becoming tangled.
Perform Maintenance Procedures for Carabiners.

a. Description. Carabiners can be steel or aluminum, oval, d-shaped, bent, and straight or wire
gate.
b. Inspection.
(1) Inspect closely for cracks and flaws in the metal. Be certain gates open and close smoothly
without binding.
(2) There should be good side-to-side rigidity in the gate when it is open.
(3) Check gate pins to see that they cannot work out of the holes.
c. Maintenance.
(1) Many sticky gate problems are the result of burrs that develop on the moving parts after hard
use. With care, the burrs can sometimes be lightly filed.
(2) Used carabiners sometimes start to close off center. If this happens, the carabiner is
probably bent and should be replaced.
(3) Never use oil on your carabiners; it will attract dirt and clog the gate. Instead, use a dry,
graphite-based lubricant.
Perform Maintenance Procedures for Belay/Rappel Device.

a. Description. Belay/Rappel devices can be made of either steel or aluminum.
b. Inspection. Check the device for grooves or burrs. File the burrs smooth if necessary.
c. Maintenance. Wipe down to remove dirt and grime when needed.
Note: If the device has deep grooves or sharp edges, turn in for a newer one.
Perform Maintenance Procedures for Ascenders.

a. Description: Designed for ascending fixed single ropes from 8 – 13 mm.
b. Inspection: Check aluminum alloy body to ensure there are not any cracks, and the spring
loaded toothed cam operates freely.
c. Maintenance: Keep clean, wash with warm water. Avoid contact with petroleum products.
Identify Breaking Strengths of Equipment.

Breaking Strengths. The following is a list of general breaking strengths of mountaineering
equipment that is issued in the military system or allowed to be locally purchased. Strengths vary
between manufacturers and from year to year based on design changes. Carabiner strength is
given in kilonewtons (kN), a measurement of force based on UIAA testing. Those given are with
the gates closed.
Note: 1 kN = 225 lbs.
ITEM BREAKING STRENGTH

11mm dynamic rope 10-fall rope, 9 kN impact force
11mm static rope 30 kN
1" tubular nylon webbing 18 kN
7mm cord 11 kN
Non-locking oval carabiner 22-30 kN
Non-locking d-shaped carabiner 31 kN
7/16" steel locking carabiner 53 kN
Pear-shaped locking carabiner 22-30 kN
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Identify the Features of a Commercially Manufactured Harness.

Identify a Manufactured Harness.
(1) Harness is made from sewn flat webbing.
(2) Sewn tie in loop at front center of harness is used for all harness operations.
(3) Buckles are speed version – they are pre-double passed for safety purposes.
PMCS a Commercially Manufactured Harness.

a. Maintenance for Commercially Manufactured Harnesses.
(1) Keep your harness out of direct sunlight, as ultraviolet rays weaken the nylon fibers.
(2) Keep your harness away from excessive heat
(3) Inspect the harness before and after each use for excessive wear, cuts, burns or the
presence of petroleum or chemicals.
(4) Inspect the stitching for weak points or damage.
(5) Inspect the buckles for sharp edges or damage.
(6) Cleaning.
(a)Wash it with a chemical-free detergent.
(b)Allow to air dry out of direct sunlight.
(7) Storage: Store in a cool, dark, well-ventilated area.
(8) Retire a harness after it has taken an excessively long fall or when it begins to show wear:
Particularly in the stitching. Nylon naturally weakens with age.
Note: If you note any of these problems, replace the harness.

Note: Do not use the harness after a severe fall.
b. Safety.
(1) Do not wear knives or other items on your belt while wearing a harness.
(2) Double pass all buckles on a commercial harness (if applicable).
(3) Lock all locking carabineers.
(4) Inspect your harness frequently.
Maintain an Ice Axe.

a. Description.
(1) Importance. The ice axe is one of the most versatile and important pieces of mountaineering
equipment that a soldier has. Without it, safe alpine travel is severely restricted. The axe is an
important part of balance, step cutting, probing, self-arrest, belays, anchors, ascending and
descending snow and ice covered routes.
(2) Design. The design of an axe is often a tradeoff between features that make the tool better
for specific uses. A longer axe (up to 90cm) is ideal for cross country travel, scrambling, glacier
travel and the one axe technique on low angle ice and snow. As the ice slope gets steeper the
axe length gets shorter (45-50 cm). Other design features become more specialized, such as the
droop of the pick, placement of the teeth, shape of the adze and the curves in the shaft.
(3) Ice Axe Parts.
(a) Head. The Head of an ice axe includes the pick, the adze or hammer. It is made of steel and
has a hole to attach a leash.
(b) Pick. The Pick is curved or drooped, to provide better hooking action on snow or ice. This
design causes the axe to dig in faster when you are trying to stop yourself (self-arrest) after a fall.
A moderate hooking angle of 65-70 degrees from the shaft is designed for general
mountaineering use. A sharper angle of 55-60 degrees is better for technical ice climbing. Teeth
on the pick provide grip for ice and hard snow.
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(c) Adze. The Adze of the axe is for step cutting on hard snow or ice and to chop through the
upper layers of rotten ice when setting ice screws. Adzes may be flat or curved, straight edged or
scalloped, straight out or drooped. Most general-purpose ice axes come with an adze on the
head. Shorter technical ice tools (used in pairs) come with an adze on one end and a hammer on
the other for pounding in protection.
(d) Shaft. The Shaft will most likely be metal, a composite (fiberglass, Kevlar, or carbon filament)
or a combination. Wooden shafts have become obsolete. The newer materials have greater
strength and durability with less weight.
(e) Spike. The Spike is important when using the axe as a cane for balance on low angle rock,
snow and ice and when plunging the axe into the snow for use as an anchor.
(f) Leash. The Ice Axe Leash provides a way to attach the ice axe to your wrist or harness. The
leash is protection against dropping or losing the axe especially during a self-arrest or crevasse
fall. Make the leash out of ½ or 1 inch webbing. It can be secured to the ice axe with a water
knot through the hole in the head of the axe. Make a fixed loop (double overhand) in the other
end large enough to accept a gloved or mittened hand. Adjust the length so that your gloved
hand can grip the shaft just above the spike.
b. Maintenance. Modern metal-shaft ice axes need little special care, but should be inspected
before and after each use.
(1) Daily PMCS.

(a) Check the shaft for dents, bends or cracks.
(b) Inspect the leash for cuts, frays and proper length. Check the knots and maintain
minimum four-inch pigtails.
(c) Ensure the pick, adze and spike are sharp and not bent or deformed.
(d) Ensure the pick; adze and spike are securely attached to the shaft.
(2) Repair. None. Turn in when needed.
(3) Storage.
(a) Place rubber protectors on the pick, adze and spike when not in use.
(b) Wipe down after each use and remove any rust.
Note: DO NOT USE ELECTRICAL GRINDERS to sharpen the pick or adze. The heat generated
will take the temper out of the metal greatly weakening the tool. Sharpen the pick from the sides
toward the tip with a file held at a 20-degree angle. Sharpen the adze from the underside only.
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Maintain Crampons.
a. Description. Crampons are worn to prevent slipping while moving over snow or ice covered
terrain. As with ice axes, different crampon designs involve a tradeoff between what is good for
general alpine use and what is good for technical ice climbing. Most crampons are chrome-moly
steel and have ten bottom points and two front points. The main choices are between hinged and
rigid: Strap-ons and step-ins.
(1) Hinged vs. Rigid. Rigid crampons are mainly for technical ice climbing. For most
mountaineering, hinged crampons are preferable. They are compatible with most military and
civilian boots. If attached to a full shank or plastic boot, they work nearly as well as rigid
crampons on technical ice. When attached to a flexible boot they allow the foot to flex naturally
with each step.
Note: Wearing rigid crampons with flexible soled boots may cause the crampons to fall off the
boots or break the crampons.
b. Adjustment. To ensure crampons stay attached and work properly, it is essential that they fit
correctly. Follow these guidelines:
(1) Adjust crampons to the boots you will be using. Refit if you change boots.
(2) When wearing gaiters with step-in bindings ensure the rand of the gaiter does not interfere
with the fit of the bail in the welt of the boot.
(3) The front points should extend between 3/4 and 1 inch beyond the toe of the boot.
(4) With step-in bindings, ensure the toe bail has full contact with the toe welt. You may need to
bend the toe bail to accomplish this.
(5) The heel bail should "click" into place firmly. The heel bail should be centered and make full
contact with the welt of the boot.
(6) Some climbers place a flat piece of foam, shaped like the boot sole, between the boot and the
crampon to insulate the foot from the snow or ice. If you want to do this remember to fit the
crampon with the foam in place.
c. Maintenance.
(1) Daily PMCS.
(a) Check all nuts and bolts frequently and tighten as necessary.
(b) Check all rivets, straps and buckles and replace or repair as necessary.
(2) Repair.
(a) Keep the four front points sharp. Use will dull the points. Careful filing will sharpen
the points and reduce the possibility of a slip or fall. Lightly file down the tops of the front points.
File the other points on the edges.
Note: DO NOT use power grinders to sharpen your crampons.
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8 June 2009
Figure 9
Correct Points to Sharpen
(b) Remove any rust with emery cloth or steel wool and wipe down with CLP (avoid
getting CLP on the straps).
(c) You may tape a piece of plastic to the underside of the crampons to help prevent
snow buildup.
(3) Storage. Store crampons in a cool dry place with rubber protectors on.
Maintain Snowshoes.
a. Description. The MSR Denali Ascent snowshoe is made out of a durable, lightweight
plastic. The bottom is molded to provide additional braking ability. A hardened steel
crampon and lateral traction bars provide for secure footing on all but the steepest
slopes. It is not meant to replace a true crampon.
b. Binding Adjustment. The binding is made up of four multi- position rubber straps that
secure the boot to the flexible foot bed. Avoid over-stretching the rubber straps to
prevent breakage and prolong service life. The pull-tabs of the straps will be to the
outside of the foot after securing the boot.
c. Maintenance.
(1) Daily PMCS. Inspect the snowshoes before and after each use. Look for bent
front crampon points. Check for cracks in the metal foot bed. Check that the
small split ring and pin at the pivot point are still in place. Check rivets on binding
fabric to see that they are not pulling through.
(2) Repair. Carefully straighten bent front crampon points with pliers as needed.
(3) Storage. When not in use, snowshoes should be placed in temporary racks,
hung in trees or placed upright in the snow.
d. Misc.
(1) Avoid drops or bridging small streams or logs to prevent unnecessary damage to
the snowshoe
(2) A televator© heel lift is able to be brought up to the locked position to ease strain
on calf muscles during steep climbs. The televator© can be adjusted forward or
back to place it directly under the heel. A tool may be needed to reposition the
spring steel bail, which stows flat when not in use.
(3) An 8” tail can be added to the snowshoe to provide additional floatation by
means of the two fixed posts on the snowshoe, and a captured tightening nut on
the tail. Simply line up the slots in the tail over and down on the pins in the shoe
and slide forward until seated firmly and tighten nut down. The maximum design
load is around 275lbs using the snowshoe with an 8” tail.
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8 June 2009
Maintain Ski Poles.
a. Ski Poles - Description. The life link pole is a two section adjustable pole. There is an
expansion sleeve in the upper part of the pole, while the bottom section has a threaded part those
mates with the sleeve. When tightened, the expansion sleeve does not rotate in the oval upper
section of the pole. The life link pole also serves as a two-meter avalanche probe by threading
the bottom section together and removing the baskets.
b. Ski Poles - Adjustment.

(1) Length. Size the pole length to the soldier's height. Place the handgrip on the floor to
measure the poles. Stand flatfooted with a pair of plastic mountaineering boots on. The
basket on the pole should be at approximately armpit level.
(2) Wrist Strap. Adjust the wrist strap on the pole to allow the hand up through the strap and
down with the strap between the thumb and first finger. Adjust pole straps for both the
right and left hand.
c. Ski Poles - Maintenance.

(1) Daily PMCS. Ensure poles are clean, free from burrs and in good condition. Insure the
lock washer is in place below the basket. Basket should not be torn or missing large
amounts of material.
(2) Storage. Poles should be matched, cleaned, repainted and repaired. Store them in a
cool dry place
Maintain Artificial Ice and Snow Protection.

a. Description. Ice screws, ice pitons, deadmen and pickets provide artificial protection for
climbers, rope installations and anchor systems in ice or snow covered terrain. There are many
different types available.
(1) Ice screws. Made of chrome-moly or stainless steel and usually range in size from 11 to
22 cm. They are threaded to screw into and out of the ice. The center of the screw is hollow
forming a tube shape to allow the displaced ice to move up inside the screw itself. The eye
(to attach a carabiner) is permanently fixed to the top of the shaft. The tip has three or four
teeth that cut the ice as the screw is turned. The ice screw has a right-hand thread.
Sometimes ice screws are difficult to start and once started may be difficult to turn. On the
plus side they are usually easy to recover. They are also reusable if undamaged.
(2) Deadmen. The wired snow anchor (deadmen) provides security for climbers in areas
where ice protection is inadequate. The deadmen are constructed out of aluminum. The
wired portion is made either out of galvanized or stainless steel.
(3) Pickets. The snow picket is used in constructing anchors in snow and aerated ice. The
snow picket is made of a strong aluminum and drilled to accommodate carabiners.
b. Maintenance.
(1) Daily PMCS. Inspect ice protection for cracks, bends and other deformities that may
impair strength and function. Ensure there are no cracks around the eye and that all welds
are intact. Keep ice protection as clean and dry as possible while conducting operations.
Care for pickets and deadman in much the same fashion as screws. Pickets are pound-in
protection, and they are often bent. If the bend is radical or if you cannot easily straighten it,
turn the item in. Check the cable on deadman for cuts or frays. If any cracks, broken wire
strands or slippage in the wire through the swage is noticed, it should be turned in. The snow
picket should be inspected for bends, chips, cracks, mushrooming ends and other
deformities. The ends should be filed smooth. If bent or cracked, it should be turned in for
replacement.
(2) Repair. Keep the teeth of the screws sharp and free of burrs with a file. If you cannot
correct any deficiencies, turn in the screw. Remove any rust found with steel wool. Once
screws are removed from the ice they cannot be reused until the ice inside has been
removed. Remove the inside ice by gently taping the piece on the sole of your boot, by using
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8 June 2009
a small piece of coat hanger carried on the rack or using your ungloved hand to warm the
piece (least preferred).
(3) Storage. Store when dry. Lightly coat with CLP for storage.
Perform Racking Techniques for Individual Climbing Equipment.

a. Basic Military Mountaineering Rack consists of the following:
(1) Belay/Rappel Device
(1) Pearabiner
(6) Non-locking carabiners
(3) 1 x 24 inch tubular webbing
(3) 7mm x 18 feet utility cord
(1) 11mm x 18 foot sling rope
(2) Steel locking carabiners
(1) 9/16 x 24 inch tubular webbing
(1) Mechanical Ascender
b. Racking the Equipment.

(1) Tie a loop with the 9/16 black tubular webbing. This will be the webbing all of the
equipment is placed on. Ensure the knot has 4” pigtails.
(2) Clip the figure 8 descender onto a carabiner along with the mechanical ascender.
(3) Tie each piece of the 1 x 24 inch webbing together using a water knot. Coil these up
individually and place them on one non-locking carabiner. Clip this onto the black piece
of webbing.
(4) Coil the 7mm x 18 foot utility cord individually. Two of the cords should be pre-joined
with a Figure 8 Bend knot. Place them on one carabiner. Clip this onto the black piece
of webbing.
(5) Coil the 11mm x 18 foot sling rope. Place this on one carabiner.
(6) With the remaining carabiners, clip two onto one, and then clip the one to the rack.
(7) Clip the pearabiner to the black piece of webbing with nothing on it.
(8) Chain the two locking steel carabiner together, then attach them to the rack.
c. Equipment Order (all placed on the black piece of webbing).

(1) Pearabiner and Lockers up front.
(2) Extra carabiners.
(3) Utility Cords.
(4) Webbing.
(5) Belay/Rappel Device with Mechanical Ascender.
(6) Sling Rope.
Notes
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Basic Knot Tying
071E9002
INTRODUCTION: There are many knots used in mountaineering. While some exotic knots show
a great deal of skill using such knots does not offset the safety margin gained when everyone is
familiar with a simpler system. Media: Small Group Instruction (SGI)
a. Basic Knot Considerations.

(1) Knot. A knot is a temporary condition in the rope. Knots have the ability to untie
themselves over a period of time. A permanent knot would be desirable, but no such
knot exists. All knots must be repeatedly checked and often re-tied.
(2) Adverse Conditions. Often there is a need to tie a knot under adverse circumstances.
You must know which knot is best for the purpose intended and how to tie the knot well.
Repeated practice is recommended.
(3) Selection. Strength should not be the sole basis of knot selection. Ease of tying, untying
after loading, chances of working loose, and allowance for quick inspection are all
factors.
(4) Strength of Knots for Single Kernmantle Rope.
No Knot: 100% Overhand: 60% to 65%

Clove Hitch: 60%to 65% Bowline: 70% to 75%
Water Knot: 60% to 70% Two Half Hitches: 60% to 70%
Figure Eight: 75% to 80%
a. Terms used in rope work.

(1) Bight: A bend in the rope in which the rope does not cross itself.
(2) Double Bight: A bend in a doubled rope in which the ropes do not cross themselves.
(3) Loop: A bend in the rope in which the rope crosses itself.
(a) Overhand Loop: The running end over the standing end.
(b) Underhand Loop: The running end under the standing end
(4) Half Hitch: A loop that runs around an object to lock or secure itself.
(5) Girth Hitch: A bight around an object securing the standing ends.
(6) Running End: Loose or working end of the rope.
(7) Standing End: Stationary or non-working end of the rope.
(8) Turn: A wrap of the rope around an object, providing 360-degree contact
(9) Round Turn: A wrap of the rope around an object 1 1/2 times. You can use it around
small diameter trees to prevent the rope from sliding up from the base.
(10)Pigtail: The pigtail is the portion of the running end after the safety knot and the end of
the rope. All pigtails will be a minimum of 4 inches long.
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8 June 2009
Figure 1 Figure 2
Bight Double Bight
Figure 3 Figure 4
Over Hand Loop Under Hand Loop
Figure 5 Figure 6
Half Hitch Running and Standing Ends
Note: For standardization and ease of inspection, always tie right to left for horizontal anchors or
top to bottom for vertical anchors.
OVERHAND KNOT.
(a) Purpose: To be used as a safety knot.
(b) Tying the Knot:
• Take the running end of the rope and form a loop.
• Place the running end through the loop.
• Dress the overhand knot down to the knot that it is securing.
(c) Checkpoints:
• A locking bar that secures the running end to the standing end.
• Minimum 4-inch pigtail.
Figure 7
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8 June 2009
Overhand
GIRTH HITCH.
(a) Purpose: To attach a piece of webbing or cord to an anchor or into a harness.
(b) Tying the knot:
• Take a pre-tied piece of tubular webbing and place a bight over the anchor or harness.
The joining knot should be offset.
• Pass the knotted side of webbing through the bight.
• Dress the wraps and locking bar down ensuring the joining knot is offset and out of the
girth hitch.
(c) Checkpoints
• Two turns around the object with a perpendicular locking bar.
• The joining knot is offset and out of the turns.
Figure 8
Girth Hitch
SQUARE KNOT.
(a) Purpose: To join the ends of two ropes of equal diameter when they are
under tension.
(b) Tying the Knot:
• Holding one running end in each hand, place the running end in
your right hand over the one in your left hand.
• Pull it under and then back over the top of the rope in your left hand.
• Place the running end in your left hand over the one in your right
hand and repeat as in Step 2.
• Dress the knot down and safety it with an overhand knot on each
side of the square knot.
(c) Checkpoints:
• Two interlocking bights.
• The running ends are on opposite ends of the knot and on the same side
of the standing ends.
• Minimum 4-inch pigtails after the overhand safety.
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8 June 2009
Figure 8
Square Knot
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8 June 2009
FIGURE EIGHT BEND.

(a) Purpose: To join the ends of two ropes up to a 5-mm diameter difference.
(b) Tying the Knot:
§ Grasp the top of a 2-foot bight.
§ With the other hand grasp the running end (short end) and make a 360-
degree turn around the standing end.
§ Place the running end through the loop you have just formed creating an
in-line figure eight.
§ Route the running end of the other rope back through the figure eight
starting from the original rope's running end. Trace the original knot to
the standing end.
§ Remove all twists and crossovers. Dress the knot down.
(c) Checkpoints:
§ Two ropes running side by side in the shape of a figure eight.
§ The running ends are on opposite ends of the knot and on opposite sides
of the standing ends.
§ Minimum 4-inch pigtails.
Figure 9
Figure Eight Bend
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8 June 2009
WATER KNOT.
(a) Purpose: To join the ends of tubular webbing.
(b) Tying the Knot:
• Tie an overhand knot in one end of the webbing.
• Route the other end of the webbing back through the overhand knot.
Follow the course of the original overhand knot.
• Ensure all the webbing is laying flat within the knot.
• Dress the knot down.
(c) Checkpoints:
• Two pieces of webbing running side by side in the shape of an
overhand.
• The running ends are on opposite ends of the knot and on the same
side of the standing ends.
• There are no twists in the webbing.
• Minimum 4-inch pigtails.
Figure 10
Water Knot
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8 June 2009
BOWLINE.
(a) Purpose: To anchor the end of a rope.
(b) Tying the Knot:
• Bring the running end of the rope around the anchor, from right to left,
top to bottom.
• With your right thumb facing toward you, form a loop in the standing
part by turning your wrist clockwise. Lay the loop to the right.
• Reach down through the loop with your right hand. Pull up a bight
from the standing part of the rope. Ensure the standing part of the
bight is facing toward you.
• Place the running end of the rope (on your left) through the bight from
left to right and bring it back on itself. Hold the running end loosely
and dress the knot down by pulling on the standing end.
• Dress the knot down and safety the bowline with an overhand knot.
(c) Checkpoints:
• A bight around the standing end, held in place by a loop.
• The running end of the bight is on the inside of the fixed loop.
• Minimum 4-inch pigtail after the overhand safety.
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8 June 2009
TRIPLE BOWLINE.
(a) Purpose: To anchor a bight of rope.
(b) Tying the Knot:
• Form a bight. Bring the running end of the rope around the anchor,
from right to left top to bottom.
• With your right thumb facing toward you, form a doubled loop in the
standing part by turning your wrist clockwise. Lay the loops to the
right.
• With your right hand, reach down through the loops and pull up a
doubled bight from the standing parts of the rope. Ensure that the
standing parts are facing toward you.
• Place the running end (bight) of the rope (on your left) through the
doubled bight from left to right and bring it back on itself. Hold the
running end loosely and dress the knot down by pulling on the
standing ends.
• Safety it off with a doubled overhand knot.
(c) Checkpoints:
• Two bights around the two standing ends, held in place by two loops.
• The running end of the double bight is on the inside of the fixed loops.
• Minimum 4-inch pigtail after the overhand safety.
Figure 29
Triple Bowline
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8 June 2009
CLOVE HITCH: End of rope (EOR).

(a) Purpose: To anchor the end of the rope under tension.
(b) Tying the Knot:
• Make a turn around the anchor, left to right.
• Bring the rope over the standing part and down continuing
around the anchor forming a diagonal locking bar.
• Continue wrapping around the anchor.
• Pass the running end under the locking bar just formed.
(c) Checkpoints:
• Two turns around the anchor with the diagonal locking bar in the
opposite direction of pull.
• The running and standing ends exit from the middle of the knot.
Figure 16
EOR Clove Hitch
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8 June 2009
CLOVE HITCH: Middle of the rope (MOR).

(a) Purpose: To form an anchor in the middle of a rope.
(b) Tying the Knot:
• Hold the rope in both hands, palms down about 12 inches apart.
• With the right hand, form a loop away from your body toward the
left hand. Hold the loop with the left hand.
• Again, with the right hand, form a loop away from your body
toward the left hand. Hold the loop with the right hand.
• Place the second loop on top of the first loop that you formed
without flipping it.
• Place both loops over the anchor and pull both ends of the rope
in opposite directions.
(c) Checkpoints:
• Two turns around the anchor with a diagonal locking bar.
• The running and standing ends exit from the middle of the knot.
Middle of the Rope Clove Hitch
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8 June 2009
DOUBLE FIGURE EIGHT.

(a) Purpose: To form a fixed loop in a rope.
(b) Tying the Knot:
• Form a 12-inch bight.
• With the bight, make a 360-degree turn around the standing end
forming a doubled loop in your hand.
• Place the bight through the loop.
• Remove all unnecessary twists and crossovers. Dress the knot
down.
• (VARIATION): A Doubled Double Figure Eight is tied the same,
but with a doubled rope.
(c) Checkpoints:
• Two ropes running side by side in the shape of a figure eight.
• The knot forms a fixed loop.
• Minimum 4-inch pigtail when tied at the end of the rope.
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8 June 2009
FIGURE EIGHT SLIP KNOT.

(a) Purpose: To form an adjustable bight in a rope.
(b) Tying the Knot:
• Take a bight in the rope. Holding the closed end, grasp the doubled
rope below the bight with the opposite hand. Make two twists in the
bight (360 degrees) with the top hand.
• Maintaining the two twists, reach through the loop and pull a bight
through the loop in your hand.
• Dress down the knot.
(c) Checkpoints:
• The knot is in the shape of a figure eight.
• An adjustable bight passes through one loop of the figure eight.
Figure 21
MOR Figure Eight Slip
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8 June 2009
MIDDLE OF THE ROPE PRUSIK.

(a) Purpose: To attach a moveable rope to a fixed rope.
(b) Tying the Knot:
• Place a bight of rope over the fixed rope. The closed end of the bight
is 4 to 6 inches below the fixed rope. The running ends are closest to
you.
• Reach down through the bight pulling both running ends through the
bight and continue around the anchor, passing it again through the
original bight. Repeat this step again with the running ends. You will
now have three round turns on the fixed rope and a locking bar
running across them.
• Dress the wraps and locking bar down to make sure they are tight
and not twisted.
(c) Checkpoints:
• Three round turns with a perpendicular locking bar.
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8 June 2009
END OF THE ROPE PRUSIK.

(a) Purpose: To attach a moveable rope to a fixed rope at the end of a rope.
(b) Tying the Knot:
• With the running end, make three turns around the fixed rope,
working to your right and top to bottom.
• With the running end, come back over the standing part and under
the fixed rope.
• Come over the fixed rope and make three turns working toward the
right, bringing the running end under the locking bar.
• Dress the knot down and stabilize with a safetied bowline.
(c) Checkpoints:
• Three round turns with a perpendicular locking bar.
• Stabilized with a bowline within six inches.
• Both ropes between the Prusik and bowline have equal tension.
Figure 30
EOR Prusik
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8 June 2009
REROUTED FIGURE OF EIGHT.

(a) Purpose: To tie the climbing rope around a fixed object or into a harness.
(b) Tying the Knot:
• Grasp the top of a 2-foot bight.
• With the other hand grasp the running end (short end) and make a
360-degree turn around the standing end.
• Place the running end through the loop you have just formed.
• Place the running end around the anchor (or into the harness).
• Route the running end back through the figure eight tracing the
original knot to the standing end.
• Remove all unnecessary twists and crossovers. Dress the knot
down.
(c) Checkpoints:
• Two ropes running side by side in the shape of a figure eight.
• The knot will form a fixed loop around a fixed object or harness.
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8 June 2009
MUNTER HITCH.
(a) Purpose: To form a mechanical belay.
(b) Tying the Knot:
• Hold the rope in both hands, palms down about 12 inches apart.
• With the right hand, form a loop away from your body toward the left
hand. Hold the loop with the left hand.
• With the right hand place the rope that comes from the bottom of the
loop over the top of the loop.
• Place the bight that you have formed around the rope into the
pearabiner. Lock the pearabiner.
(c) Checkpoints:
• A bight passing through a locked carabiner.
• The closed end of the bight is around either the running or standing
end.
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8 June 2009
AUTO BLOCK.
(a) Purpose: To attach a moveable piece of rope or webbing to a fixed rope that
is easy to release under tension.
(b) Tying the Knot:
• Join a utility rope to form an endless loop, about 24 inches. You may
use a standard length sewn runner or tubular webbing.
• Offset the joining knot. Form a 4-inch bight on the opposite end from
the joining knot. Wrap the long portion of the endless loop around the
rope a minimum of 4 times.
• Snap both bights into the carabiner.
(c) Checkpoints:
• Minimum of four turns around the rope.
• Both bights in the carabiner.
• The joining knot is offset and out of the turns.
Place tubular webbing inside locking

carabiner offsetting the knot about an
Inch from the locking carabiner
Do Not Use Sewn Webbing

Made of spectra
Minimum 4-inch
pigtails
½ Wrap Locking carabiner

½ Wrap 1 Wrap locked
1 Wrap 1 Wrap
1 Wrap 1 Wrap
____
½ Wrap ½ Wrap
____
3 Wraps
NO-GO 4 wraps
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8 June 2009
MUNTER MULE KNOT

(a) Purpose: To create a releasable anchor knot.
(b) Tying the Knot:
• Place a munter hitch into a locking carabiner.
• On the running ends of the rope or cord, place an overhand loop over the standing or
load side of the munter hitch.
• Bring a bight through the overhand loop creating a slipknot.
• Dress the slipknot down against the munter hitch.
• Place an overhand knot around the remaining strands on the load side.
(c) Checkpoints:
• A bight passing through a locked carabiner.
• The closed end of the bight is around the load side.
• Bight up through an over hand slipknot.
• Overhand knot around the load side.
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8 June 2009
BUTTERFLY COIL WITH FARMER'S TIE OFF.

(a) Purpose: To prepare a climbing rope for carrying on the body.
(b) Tying the Knot:
• Backfeed the doubled rope until you have the approximate center
bight.
• Place the center bight over your head and drape it in front, over your
shoulder so it hangs no lower than your waist.
• With the rest of the doubled rope in front of you make doubled bights
placing them over your head in the same manner as the first bite,
ensuring you alternate from side to side (right to left, left to right etc.)
while maintaining equal length bights.
• Continue coiling until you have approximately two arms lengths of
rope left. Carefully remove the coils from your neck/shoulders holding
the center in one hand.
• With the two ends, wrap the coils a minimum of three times ensuring
the first wrap locks on itself.
• Pass a doubled bight from the two loose ends up through the apex of
the coils, pull the two loose ends through the doubled bight and dress
it down.
• Place the Butterfly Coil on your back.
(c) Farmer's Tie Off:

• Place the Butterfly Coil on your back.
• Separate the two loose ends.
• Bring one over your right shoulder and one over left shoulder.
• Continue down under your arms and across your back.
• Ensure the rope crosses over the coils.
• Secure the two ends in front with a square knot without overhand
safeties.
(d) Checkpoints:
• Coils uniform and even, within 6 inches.
• A minimum of three turns around the coils, with the first one locking
on itself.
• A double bight through the top of the coils, securing the standing
ends.
• A minimum of one wrap around the body and the coils tied off with an
unsafetied square knot.
• Minimum 4-inch pigtails.
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8 June 2009
Figure 37 Figure 38
Butterfly Coil Butterfly Coil with Farmer’s Tie Off
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8 June 2009
FIELD EXPEDIENT SEAT HARNESS.

(a) Purpose: To form a seat harness out of tubular webbing for rappelling or climbing.
(b) Tying the Knot:
• Take a piece of tubular webbing 22 feet long.
• Leave about 24 inches of tail. Tie an overhand on a bight to form a fixed loop. Make
this loop slightly larger then your left thigh.
• Move 10 inches on the webbing and tie a second loop. Tie an overhand on a bight to
form another fixed loop. Make this loop slightly larger than your right thigh.
• Step into each loop and bring it up around your thighs, with the 24-inch tail on the
non-brake hand side. The 10-inch piece is in front and the long portion on the brake
hand side.
• Take the long end and run it around the back and just above the hipbone to the front.
• Run this end under and through the 10-inch section at the front and pull everything
snug.
• Repeat step e.
• Bring the end around the back again, to the side and tie it together with a water knot
(If enough webbing is left over run the long end around the waist an additional time
before tying off).
(c) Checkpoints:
• Two overhand knots on the front of the legs, 10 inches apart.
• Leg loops snug on the legs and above cargo pockets.
• A minimum of two turns around the body, snug and above the hips, the first wrap
around the body running through the webbing between the overhand knots.
• Minimum 4-inch pigtail after the water knot.
You can use an expedient seat harness with or without a chest harness. Construct the harness
from 22 feet of 1 or 2 inch tubular webbing. Inspect the webbing before and after each use. Use
the field expedient seat harness when falls are very likely or you will be operating on steep terrain
for long period.
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8 June 2009
RAPPEL SEAT.
(a) Purpose: To form a rope harness for rappelling.
(b) Tying the Knot:
• Find the middle of a sling rope, and make a bight.
• Decide which hand you will use as your brake hand and place the
bight on the opposite hip.
• Reach around behind you and grab a single strand of rope. Bring it
around to your front and tie two overhands on the other strand of
rope, creating a loop around your waist.
• Pass the two ends between your legs, ensuring they do not cross.
• Pass the two ends up under the loop around your waist, bisecting
your pocket flaps. Pull up on the ropes, tightening the seat.
• From rear to front pass the two ends through the leg loops creating a
half hitch on both hips.
• Bring the longer of the two ends across your front to your non-brake
hand hip and secure the two ends with a safetied square knot.
(c) Checkpoints:
• Two overhands around the body, above the hips.
• Ropes not crossed between the legs.
• Half hitch on each hip.
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Rope Management
071E9006
INTRODUCTION: There will be times that you will have to deploy your rope only to coil it back
up again. The ease and speed with which you deploy and recover your rope depends on how
much you practice. While there are several ways of coiling a rope, some are more preferred than
others.
Identify the Procedures to Uncoil a Rope.
a. Uncoiling/Back-feeding/Stacking. When you need to use your rope, you must be able to
uncoil and lay it on the ground properly to avoid kinks and snarls.
(1) After you have untied the Farmer's Tie-off, unfold the coils, drop the ends of the rope and
lay the coil on the ground.
(2) After you have uncoiled the rope and it is lying on the ground, you should back feed the
rope to minimize kinks and snarls.
b. Take one end of the rope in your left hand.
c. Run your right hand along the rope until both arms are outstretched.
d. Next lay the end of the rope in your left hand on the ground.
e. With your left hand, re-grasp the rope next to your right hand and continue laying the rope on
the ground.
f. The rope should be stacked in a neat manner on the ground.
Identify the Procedures to Throw a Rope.

a. To insure that the rope will not become kinked and snarled when thrown, it should be back
stacked.
b. Tie off the bottom end of the back stacked rope to ensure that you do not lose the entire rope
over the edge.
c. Single butterfly coil 10-12 coils.
d. A few preliminary swings will insure a smooth throw. The swings should be made with the
arm nearly extended and the coil should be thrown out and up. When possible, the rope
should be thrown so that the running end is thrown into the wind. In a strong crosswind, the
direction of throw can be angled into the wind so that the rope will land on the desired target.
e. As soon as the rope starts to leave the hand, the thrower shouts the warning "Rope" to alert
those below his position.
Note: Do not look up if you hear the command "rope" above you.
Identify the Procedures to Coil and Carry a Rope.

a. Coiling the Rope. Allow each loop to lie naturally as you coil, rather than forcing it into a neat
looking coil. This will reduce twists and kinks when you use it.
b. Butterfly Coil. This method is excellent for carrying a rope when you have to climb or carry
the rope for a short distance. The Butterfly coil can be started from the middle (called a
double butterfly) or from the end (single butterfly).
c. Hand Method (Double Butterfly).
(1) Back-feed the doubled rope until you have the center bight.
(2) With this bight in your left hand (the center of the rope) run your right hand along the rope
until you have approximately one arm length of rope.
(3) Let go of the bight in your left hand and re-grasp next to your right hand, palm up. Run
your right hand along the rope until both arms are outstretched.
(4) Bring your hands together, laying the rope in your left hand. Continue doing this,
ensuring that the rope re-enters your hand from the same direction it exited.
(5) Continue coiling bights until you have approximately twelve to fifteen foot tails.
(6) Carefully remove the coils from your neck/shoulders holding the center in one hand.
(7) With the two ends, wrap the coils a minimum of three times ensuring the first wrap locks
in it.
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(8) Pass a double bight from the two loose ends up through the top of the coils, pull the two
loose ends through the double bight and dress it down.
(9) Finish using the farmer's tie-off.
d. Buddy Team Method.

(1) Back feed the double ropes until you have the center bight.
(2) One team member stands with his feet shoulder width apart, arms down, waist bent,
palms facing ground.
(3) The other member wraps the rope around the hands and neck of the first man.
(5) The team member whose was coiling the coils around the first team member grabs the
center of the coils, removes the coils off the first member's neck.
on itself.
(8) Finish using the farmer's tie off.
e. Neck-Shoulder Method.
(1) Back feed the double ropes until you have the center bight.
(2) Place the center bight over your head and drape it in front, over your shoulder so it
hangs no lower than your waist.
(3) With the rest of the double rope in front of you make double bights placing them over
your head in the same manner as the first bight, ensuring you alternate from side to
side (right to left, left to right etc.) while maintaining equal length bights.
(5) Carefully remove the coils from your neck/shoulders holding the center in one hand.
in it.
(8) Finish using the farmer's tie off.
f. Farmer's Tie Off.

(1) Place the Butterfly Coil on your back.
(2) Separate the two loose ends.
(3) Bring one over your right shoulder and one over left shoulder.
(4) Continue down under your arms and across your back.
(5) Ensure the rope crosses over the coils.
(6) Secure the two ends in front with a square knot without overhand safeties.
g. Coiling the 15-foot, 7mm Utility Cord.

(1) Bring the two ends of the rope together, ensuring there are no kinks in the rope.
(2) Place the ends of the rope in your left hand with the two ends facing toward you.
(3) Coil the doubled rope in a clockwise direction forming 6-8 inch coils, until an
approximately 12-inch bight is left.
(4) Wrap that bight around the coil, ensuring that the first wrap locks on itself.
(5) Make 2-3 wraps.
(6) Feed the bight up through the bights formed at the top of the coil. Cinch down.
(7) Hang the bight on a carabineer IAW SOP.
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Cold Weather Clothing

071E9029
INTRODUCTION: Clothing is perhaps the most underestimated and misunderstood equipment in

the military inventory. The clothing system refers to every piece of clothing placed against the
skin, the insulation layers, and the outer most garments, which protect the soldier from the
elements. When clothing is worn properly, the soldier is better able to accomplish his tasks.
Identify the Principles of Cold Weather Clothing.

a. Clothing Principles.
(1) Goals. When dressing for a cold weather environment, the goals are the following:
(a) To be warm and dry.
(b) To have a system of layers that allow us to maintain heat or ventilate, based on
temperature and level of activity.
(c) To stay warm and get dry quickly if and when our clothing gets wet.
(2) Insulation. Insulating materials resist the transmission of heat. Air pockets within the
fibers or layers of clothing trap the air warmed by the body and hold it close to the skin.
Insulating materials are the following:
(a) Cotton. Cotton readily absorbs water and has no insulating value when wet.
(b) Wool. Wool also absorbs water, but retains dead air space structure when wet.
(c) Nylon. Nylon pile does not absorb much water, dries quickly and weight-for-weight is
warmer then wool.
(d) Synthetic. Non-cellular synthetic filaments such as polyesters and acrylics absorb
very little water and dry quickly. Spun synthetic filaments (Dacron Hollofil II, Lamilite,
Polarguard, Thinsulate) are lighter and unlike down, do not collapse when wet. They
are an excellent alternative insulation in areas with a moist climate. Synthetics are
heavier and less compressible than down. They also tend to hold odor.
(e) Down. Down has the best insulating value for its weight of all materials. It is also
very compressible. You can squeeze a down garment into an incredibly small space
and yet it will regain full loft. Never get down wet. Down does not loft when wet and
offers little insulation. Drying a down garment in the field is very difficult.
(f) Silk. Silk is the most versatile, breathable, durable and comfortable fiber in the world.
It is a natural insulator and possesses the unique ability to draw moisture away from
the skin.
(2) Layers. Several thin layers provide more warmth then a single heavy layer. The
windproof, water- repellent garment helps maintain the warm inner air. Adding or
removing the layers allow the body to maintain heat or ventilate, based on temperature
and activity.
(3) Ventilation. Perspiration fills the air spaces of the clothing with moisture. Once clothing
becomes wet, it becomes a heat conductor. The body cools as moisture evaporates.
Cold weather clothing combats these effects. Loosening or opening the neck, waist, hip,
sleeve and ankle fastenings provide ventilation.
Safety Note: All petroleum-based fabrics melt easily when exposed to heat. These include
nylon, polypropylene, capolene, Hollofil, Dacron, Polarguard, Thinsulate and others. Be careful
around stoves and fires.
b. Cold Weather Conditions. Two types of weather conditions affect the use of cold weather
clothing: wet and dry. Temperature and wind velocity amplify the conditions.
(1) Cold-Wet Conditions. Cold-wet conditions occur when temperatures alternate between
freezing and thawing. Freezing and thawing creates mud and slush on the ground. Often
rain and wet snow accompany these conditions. During these periods, soldiers should
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wear clothing that consists of a water-repellent, wind resistant outer layer and inner
layers with sufficient insulation to provide ample protection in moderately cold weather
(above 14 degrees F). Waterproof footwear is essential.
(2) Cold-Dry Conditions. Cold dry conditions occur when the average temperature is below
14 degrees F. The ground is frozen and the snow is dry. Strong winds cause low
temperatures to seem colder and increase the need for protection of the body from wind-
chill. During these periods, soldiers should have additional layers of insulation available.
This is particularly true when doing sedentary tasks after periods of exertion.
c. C-O-L-D-E-R Acronym.
(1) Clean. Keep Clothing Clean. Clothes matted with dirt and grease lose their
insulating property. Change clothing often. All outer garments of the cold weather
clothing system are washable. Each item has laundry instruction labels.
(2) Overheating. Avoid Overheating. Overheating causes perspiration, which in turn
causes clothing to become damp. Wear the minimum amount of clothing to avoid
overheating. Heat production is an individual thing. Clothing requirements are
different for each soldier. Adjust clothing based on the air temperature and on the
level of activity. Open or remove layers as necessary. It is better to be a little chilled
than to be excessively warm. This is especially true before heavy activity.
(3) Layers. Wear Clothing Lose and in Layers. Tight clothing and footgear restricts
circulation and promotes cold injuries. If the outer garments fit tightly, the layers
underneath it will restrict circulation. Tight garments lessen the volume of trapped air
and reduce the insulation.
(4) Dry. Keep Clothing Dry. Moisture will soak into clothing from the inside and the
outside. Snow and frost that collect on the uniform may melt from the heat radiated
by the body. Outer clothing is water repellent and will shed most of the water created
from melting snow and frost. The surest way to keep dry is to prevent snow and frost
from collecting. Before entering heated areas brush or shake snow off your uniform.
Do not try to rub snow off as this works it into the fabric.
(5) Examine. Examine for Holes, Tears, and Broken Fasteners. Like any piece of
equipment, you should inspect your clothing prior to use. Holes, rips or broken parts
make your clothing perform less efficiently.
(6) Repair or Replace. Repair or Replace Damaged Clothing. Damaged clothing should
be turned into prior to use so you are prepared to conduct your mission. Re-supply in
the field is difficult and not always possible.
Identify the Methods of Heat Loss.

a. Conduction. Heat transfer from one solid object to another.
b. Convection. Heat transfer from one solid object to air (i.e. wind).
c. Radiation. Infrared energy given off by warm objects.
d. Evaporation. Heat transfer to water during liquid to gas exchange.
e. Respiration. Heat loss from exhale.
Identify the Components of the Gen I Cold Weather Clothing.

a. Description and Wear of Extended Cold-Weather Clothing System [ECWCS] Gen I
[modified]. The ECWCS provides for extended field operations in the temperature range of +
400 F through - 600 F. Components use the most recent materials and technology. The
result is a reduction in weight and bulk without loss of protection from the cold. The ECWCS
uses the layer approach that draws moisture away from the body.
(1) First Layer. This layer consists of polypropylene underwear, worn next to the skin. This
material draws moisture away from the skin, reducing conductive heat loss. Make sure
there is no other layer between this layer and your skin. This could be a lightweight or a
mid-weight layer.
(2) Second Layer. The second is both the synthetic fiber pile (SFP) shirt and trousers or the
polyester batting field jacket and field pant liners. The SFP shirt and trousers dry quickly
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when wet and provide a high degree of insulation. Neither the SFP shirt and trousers nor
the wool shirt or sweater should be worn as an exterior garment in wet or windy
conditions. Wear the SFP trousers during periods of relative inactivity only. You should
not wear them while snowshoeing or skiing.
(3) Third Layer. This layer consists of polyester batting field jacket liner and field trouser
liner. Use the jacket for extra insulation only during periods of light activity. Use this liner
as a separate jacket. Do not attach the liner to the parka. (The field trousers provide a
durable, wind resistant, water-repellent layer to protect the insulating underpants and
trouser liners).
(4) Fourth Layer. Windproof, waterproof parka and trousers make up this layer, which
protects the inner layers. Care must be taken when wearing an outer shell garment
because even a Gore-Tex shell has a limited vapor transfer rate that cannot keep up with
sweat caused by high activity levels. Shells should only be worn when physical activities
are low and protection is required from wind or rain/snow. The parka has underarm
zippers to allow air to circulate during heavy activity.
(5) Fifth Layer. This layer consists of the standard camouflage overwhites.
Identify the Components of the Gen III Cold Weather Clothing System.
a. Description and Wear of Extended Cold-Weather Clothing System [ECWCS] Gen III. The 3rd
Generation of the Army’s Extended Cold Weather Clothing System (ECWCS) is a radical re-
design of the cold weather clothing system for the U.S. Army. The GEN III ECWCS includes
seven layers of cold weather protection. Field-testing of GEN III is complete and the Army is
fielding complete systems (every layer) as a kit.
Level 1
a. First Layer. Undershirt. A lightweight crew neck undershirt and elastic waistband drawers
constructed with Polartec® Powerdry® Silk weight material, which is highly breathable
and has moisture wicking properties. Desert sand in color. Kit includes two (2) sets.
Level 2
a. Second Layer. Shirt. A mid-weight long sleeve shirt and elastic waistband drawers constructed
with Polartec® Powerdry® Heavyweight material, which offers stretch to allow for
increased comfort during movement, is highly breathable and has moisture wicking properties.
Desert sand in color. Kit includes one (1) set.
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Level 3
a. Third Layer. Jacket Fleece A zipper jacket with raglan sleeves and chest pockets constructed
with Polartec® Thermal Pro® material, which creates air pockets that trap air and retain
body heat providing outstanding warmth without weight. This material also offers excellent
breath ability and the ability to dry quickly. Foliage Green in color. Kit includes one (1) piece.
Level 4
a. Fourth Layer. Jacket Wind a nylon/spandex zippered jacket with angled chest pockets
(1) Offers wind protection and environmental comfort with low weight and bulk
(2) Angled chest pockets
(3) Velcro closure sleeve pockets
(4) Full-length zipper, Elasticized cuffs
(5) Identification Friend or Foe Tape
(6) Kit includes one (1) piece).
Level 5
a. Fifth Layer. Soft Shell Jacket and Trousers
(1) Jacket has center front opening with wind protection flap, collar with cover for an
enclosed collapsible hood, raglan sleeves, and two front pockets.
(2) Trousers have a front fly opening with wind protection flap, two front pockets, belt loops,
and provisions for suspenders.
(3) Constructed with Nextec® fabric
(4) Resists penetration by water
(5) Highly durable and breathable
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Level 6
a. Sixth Layer. Wet Weather Jacket and Trousers
(1) The jacket has a front zipper with zipper pass through front middle pockets. An
adjustable hood, a visor, and a hide-away collar. Elastic wrist cuffs with a strap
for adjustability.
(2) The trousers have a front fly opening, two pass through pockets with flaps for
water protection, an elastic waistband, and belt loops. A zipper on each leg that
goes approximately ¾ of the length of the leg with flap cover for water protection.
Elastic leg cuffs with a strap for adjustability.
(3) Constructed with 2 Layer Gore-tex® fabric
(4) Waterproof and windproof
(5) Extremely breathable
(6) Sealed seams
Level 7
a. Seventh Layer. Extreme Cold Parka and Trousers
(1) The jacket has a front double zipper, which permits opening of the jacket
from the top or bottom. The jacket has a draw-cord closing hood and
bottom. The jacket has two vertical zippered outer pockets and two inner
mesh pockets.
(2) The trousers have a 3-piece elastic webbing waistband with a front fly
opening with 2-way zipper. Trouser has an elastic leg cuff with a full-
length 2-way leg zipper.
(3) Three Layer Construction
(4) Fabricated with an outer layer, an insulation layer, and an inside layer of
lightweight rip-stop material.
(5) Water Resistant
(6) Highly durable and breathable
(7) Urban Gray in color.
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Identify Cold Weather Handwear and its Proper Wear.

a. Description.
(1) Liners/Inserts. These thin gloves can be made of wool, cotton or polypropylene. They
are the first layer used in your glove system.
(2) Gloves. Wear standard black leather gloves in mild weather. In colder weather, wear the
same gloves with wool inserts.
(3) Mitten Shells, Cold Weather with Trigger Finger and Mitten Inserts. These mittens
provide greater warmth by reducing the surface area exposed to the cold and by keeping
the fingers together. The elasticized, extended cuff overlaps the parkas lower sleeve to
protect the wrist from snow and cold air.
(4) Mittens, Arctic. During periods of extreme cold, wear the arctic mitten set. The mitten has
liner, a leather palm, a cheek warmer and a snap fastener on the back. The neck strap
allows the mittens to be conveniently carried snapped together behind the back. Carry
the arctic mitten set whenever there is a possibility of the onset of severe cold weather.
b. Use of Handwear.
(1) The outer shells should be worn with the minimum insulation necessary to provide
protection, thus avoiding perspiration. You can interchange trigger finger inserts with
either hand. Changing them to opposite hands frequently will ensure even wear.
(2) When handling cold metals, cover your hands to protect against frostbite. Always have a
thin contact glove to wear when doing tasks that require dexterity in cold weather.
(3) To keep hands warm when wearing mittens, curl your fingers (inside the mittens) against
the palm of the hand, thumb underneath the fingers or flexed inside the mitten whenever
possible to increase blood circulation. Stimulate circulation by swinging the arms in
vertical circles. Carry an extra pair of inserts.
c. Equipment Security Cords. When wearing gloves or mittens it often becomes difficult to
operate zippers. It is helpful to attach a short section of 550 cord to zipper tabs for cold weather
use. If mittens or gloves do not already have an attachment system, tie 550 cord to them and
attach the cord to the Velcro wrist closures on the Gore-Tex jacket.
Identify Cold Weather Footwear and its Proper Wear.

a. Footwear.
(1) General Principles.
(a) Feet. Feet are more vulnerable to cold then are other part of the body. They get wet
easily, from external moisture sources and perspiration. Restricted circulation is
often a problem. Footwear gets wet more often than any other item of equipment.
Always carry a change of dry socks. At every opportunity dry your feet and change
your socks. Wipe out the inside of your boots to get them as dry as possible.
Exercise and massage your feet when changing socks.
(b) Socks. Socks carry out four vital functions: cushioning, insulation, absorption of
perspiration and reduction of foot-to-boot friction. The toes must always be free to
wiggle. Three tightly packed pairs of socks give less protection from the cold than
two looser layers. The compression of fiber reduces the dead air space that is the
chief source of insulation. AVOID LACING FOOTWEAR TOO TIGHTLY.
(c) Types of Socks.
• Polypropylene. Use as a base layer to transport moisture away from the
feet.
• Insulating. Use to provide warmth. Could be wool or synthetic.
• Vapor Barrier Socks. Vapor Barrier socks (VB socks) keep your feet
warm by using heat lost through perspiration. They are constructed from
Ripstop coated nylon with factory-sealed seams and have a draw cord
with cord lock at the cuff. They can be worn between a liner sock and
your insulation sock. This keeps your insulating heating sock from
getting wet from perspiration. Another option is to wear the VB sock
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between your insulating sock and your boot. Although this will require
changing of your insulating sock, it is less likely to produce blisters and
an insulating sock should maintain some insulating value when wet. Dry
the vapor barrier socks by turning them inside out and letting them air
dry. Carry additional polypropylene socks or insulating socks and
change them as time permits. Improvised vapor barrier may be
fashioned from plastic bags.
Safety Note: Air out your feet whenever possible. Prolonged wear of the vapor barrier sock
without proper foot care could lead to immersion foot.
(2) Types of Boots.

(a) Intermediate Cold/Wet Boot (ICWB). The ICWB is to be worn in mean temperatures
ranging between 14 – 68 degree F. A Gore Tex liner has been designed to protect your
feet from wet environments and cold injuries. This boot should not be used in sustained
cold weather operations and must not be fitted to tight.
(b) Plastic Mountaineering Boots. There are many brands of plastic mountaineering
boots currently in use by the military, each with its own specifications, advantages
and disadvantages. They can be best described as a "flexible ski boot". They allow
the soldier mobility with many different types of equipment, including snowshoes, skis
and crampons. They are flexible enough to walk for extended periods, yet rigid
enough to provide support for skiing and ice climbing. They provide much more
warmth than all other military boots except the Vapor Barrier Boot. Most of the boot
is waterproof.
• Inner Boot. These boots have a soft, flexible inner boot. The hard shell outer boot has a
hinge at the ankle for flex when walking. Both the inner and outer boots have lace-up
tightening systems. This system allows the soldier to fit the boots properly. Remove the
inner boots each night and air dry. Use a dry cloth to wipe off the inside of the outer boot and
the outside of the inner boot. Avoid getting the boots close to a heat source. Contact with
liquid petroleum products will cause damage.
• In the field, after wiping dry, hang the inner boot from the tent drying lines or place in your
sleeping bag. Place the outer boot between the sleeping bag and the pad to keep warm.
• The range of protection provided by the plastic boot depends on the manufacturer, activity
level and gaiter system used. The addition of super-gaiters or over boots dramatically
increases the efficiency of the boots.
• Adjustment. Adjust boots by tightening or loosening the laces, on the shell, the liner or both if
laces are present. The fit should be snug but not so tight to cut off circulation to the foot.
(c) Leather Mountaineering Boot.

• Construction. Leather Mountaineering Boots have either a 3/4-length shank (semi-rigid) or a
full shank (rigid). Shanks, once made from steel, could bend or break over a long period of
use. Now, very few shanks are made of steel. Most are now carbon fiber or fiberglass and
are much less prone to snapping or bending. Leather offers greater comfort and allows a
wider range of movement and flexibility. They must be regularly waterproofed and never
allowed to dry out completely as cracking can occur. If you are on a mission with no method
to dry the boots out, there is a risk of foot injuries.
• Crampon Compatibility. You cannot fit all types of crampons to leather boots. Only leather
boots with a toe groove and heel lug will take a snap-on crampon. Strap-on crampons on
leather boots should not be tightened up to the same degree as they might be on plastic
because you might restrict the circulation of blood to your feet. Single leather boots are not
going to be suitable for high altitude climbing or if extremely low temperatures are to be
encountered. They can be made warmer by inserting a thermal insole into the boot and/or by
wearing an insulated super-gaiter over the top.
(3) Maintenance of Boots.
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(a) Treat leather boots with a non-petroleum product. Petroleum-based products tend to
break down the leather and stitching.
(b) You can usually repair VB boots with tire patching material. When regular patching
material is not available use duct tape to prevent moisture from reaching the insulation in
the boot. Turn in the boot for replacement at the earliest possible time. Wash the inside
of the boots at least once a month with a mild solution of soap and water. Do not clean
the boots with an abrasive cleanser. Do not apply polish or paint to any part of the boot,
as it will cause the rubber to deteriorate
(c) The plastic boots differ only slightly and the inspection and care are the same. Check
the outer shell for cracks and cuts. Insure that there is no separation between the sole
and the boot shell. Insure that the flexible gusset and the neoprene seal at the bottom
are intact. Inspect the inner boot for tears and splits. Finally insure that both inner and
outer boots have serviceable eyelets, hooks and laces.
(d) Storage. Boots should be cleaned with a cloth utilizing mild soap and water and
thoroughly dried; do not immerse the inner boot. Wipe the gusset and outer boot with a
plastic preservative such as Armor-All. Loosely lace them to maintain the shape of the
molded plastic. Store boots in a cool dry place away from direct sunlight.
b. Gaiters. Gaiters are used to prevent snow, ice, mud, twigs and stones from entering your
footwear. The use of waterproof fabrics or other breathable materials laminated to the nylon
makes the gaiter an integral component of the cold weather clothing system. Gaiters are
available in three styles.
(1) Nylon Shell. The most common is a nylon shell that may or may not have a
breathable material laminated to it. The open front allows the boot to slip easily into it and
is closed with a combination of zipper, hook-pile tape and snaps. It will have an
adjustable neoprene strap that goes under the boot to keep it snug to the boot. The
length should reach to just below the knee and will be kept snug with a drawstring and
cord lock.
(2) Full Gaiter. This gaiter completely covers the boot down to the welt. It can be
laminated with a breathable material and can also be insulated if necessary.
(3) Overboot. The overboot is specific to high-altitude mountaineering or extremely cold
temperatures. It is worn completely over the boot and must be worn with crampons
because it has no traction sole.
Identify Methods of Protecting the Face and Head.

a. Face Protection.
(1) Cold Weather Mask. Wear the cold weather mask during severe wind-chill conditions.
Remove the mask regularly to check for frostbite.
(2) Wool Scarf. Covering as much of your face as possible with a wool scarf will give some
protection. Frost will cover the area over the mouth and nose. Keep the wet area outside the
parka. Like the mask, remove the scarf regularly to check for frostbite.
(3) Balaclava. Wear the balaclava alone as a hat, under a helmet as a liner.
(4) Goggles. Goggles will also provide protection from the wind and blowing snow.
(5) Neck Gaiter. This item is a tube of material that fits around the neck and can reach up
over the ears and nose.
b. Headgear. Heat loss through an uncovered head is extremely rapid, due to the excellent
blood supply to the brain. There are several varieties of headgear:
(1) Helmet, Combat. The Kevlar helmet frequently is the designated outer layer of
headgear. An additional layer may be necessary. For better protection against the
elements, wear the hood under the helmet. If the tactical situation requires full
peripheral vision and maximum hearing neither of theses options are acceptable.
(2) Cap, Camouflage Pattern, Woodland Camouflage. Use the BDU cap for warmer
temperatures in Wet-Cold conditions. Wear it under the Kevlar helmet. Lower the
earflaps for better coverage of the head.
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(3) Cap, Cold Weather Insulating, Helmet Liner (Pile Cap). Use the liner to protect your
lower face by bringing down and closing the Velcro flaps. You can wear the helmet
liner as a separate hat if the tactical situation permits.
(4) Cap, Wool, Black. The issued black watch cap is warm but can be bulky and difficult
to fit under a helmet.
(5) Cap Fleece, Black or Olive. The Gen III cap is lighter than the Wool Cap has better
wicking capabilities and fits well under a helmet.
(5) Hood, Combat Vehicle Crewman Coverall, Balaclava. The balaclava protects against
extreme cold and is well suited for stationary activities in Dry-Cold or Wet-Cold
conditions.
Identify Winter Camouflage Clothing and its Proper Wear.
a. Camouflage Clothing. The use of camouflage clothing is METT-TC dependent. The articles
worn will vary from mission to mission and may vary during the mission.
(1) White winter camouflage clothing (over whites) consists of trousers, parka with hood,
mitten shells and rucksack cover.
(2) Use of the white camouflage clothing is dependent on the background, vegetation and
the amount of snow on the ground. Wear the complete white suit only when the terrain is
completely snow covered. Use mixed clothing, white parka and dark trousers, or vice
versa for mottled backgrounds.
(3) Soiled camouflage clothing loses its effectiveness. Exercise care when handling stoves,
digging in dirt, cleaning weapons and other "dirty" tasks. Avoid scorching or burning the
garments. Change or wash your clothing frequently. Overwhites should fit over the
winter garments without causing any restriction of movement.
Identify Leader's Responsibilities for Clothing Selection.

a. Leader's Responsibilities.
(1) Many factors will influence the leader’s decision to the clothing and equipment his
soldiers should wear or carry. These include the weather, mission, and general physical
condition of personnel and degree of group proficiency. Under normal winter conditions,
sixty-five to seventy pounds are the maximum weight a man can carry and still be
effective upon reaching his destination.
(2) Leaders should give particular attention to the additional organizational equipment
required for a given operation. The individual soldier’s combat load in cold weather
operations exceeds that of a temperate climate load by more then twenty pounds.
(3) The leader must ensure that soldiers operating in a cold weather environment know how
to dress appropriately for their activity level and use that knowledge.
Note: Commanders must not be arbitrary in delineating strict uniform requirements because of
the differences in individual metabolism. Allow some choice of inner and outer layers.
Notes
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8 June 2009
Environmental Injuries
071E9028
INTRODUCTION: Recent lessons learned demonstrate that despite technological advancements

in soldier clothing and equipment, the risk for environmental injuries is significant. The ability of
soldiers to perform and thrive in a hostile environment requires knowledge and understanding of
both the nature of the environmental threat and methods of coping with it.
Identify Risk Factors.
a. Risk Factors.
(1) Previous Injury. Individuals who have suffered from previous injuries usually have an
increased sensitivity and are prone to the injury happening again.
(2) Fatigue. Physical and mental weariness both contribute to neglect of vital tasks.
(3) Discipline, Training and Experience. Injuries are entirely preventable in a training
environment. Reinforcement of these principles is essential to reduce the incidence of
weather related injuries in combat.
(4) Psychological Factors. Injuries tend to occur in passive, negative and hypochondriac
soldiers. Such people are less active in situations in which activity is unrestricted and are
careless about precautionary measures.
(6) Geographic Orientation. Soldiers with dark skin color and non-acclimatized
personnel are more prone to cold weather injuries than less pigmented and local
personnel.
(7) Drugs and Medication. Any drug modifying judgment or the circulatory system can
have disastrous effects on individual performance and survival in the cold.
(8) Other Injuries. Other injuries associated with reduction of blood flow increase the risk
of cold weather injuries.
Identify cold weather injuries.
Prevent and Treat Dehydration.

a. Definition. Dehydration is the loss of water by the body.
b. Cause.
(1) You lose 1.5 to 2 quarts a day through sweating, breathing and urinating.
(2) Cold weather or altitude increases the loss to 4 or more quarts a day because of low
humidity and cold diuresis.
(3) Diuretics increase urine output and contribute to dehydration.
(4) Diuretics are found in alcohol, chocolate, caffeine soda, tea and coffee.
c. Signs and Symptoms.
(1) Orange "snow flowers" from urination, dry mouth, tongue and throat, difficulty swallowing,
tiredness, weakness, nausea, fainting, dizziness, vomiting, muscle cramping or difficulty
focusing eyes.
(2) Constriction of the peripheral blood vessels (so the remaining blood goes to more vital
organs) increases the probability of frostbite.
(3) Severe shock may develop following even minor injuries.
(4) Clots may form in the legs and can result in pulmonary embolism.
d. Treatment.
(1) Administer fluids orally for mild dehydration and with an I.V. for more serious cases.
(2) Keep the patient warm, but avoid overheating.
(3) Loosen clothes sufficiently to allow proper circulation.
(4) Allow plenty of rest.
(5) Have trained medical personnel treat and monitor.
e. Prevention.
(1) Make a conscious effort to drink more when it is cold (by the time you are thirsty, you are
already dehydrated).
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8 June 2009
(2) Drink a minimum of two quarts of water a day. Three or four quarts are necessary with
increased exertion or higher altitude.
(3) Eating snow or ice does not provide enough water and it drains additional body heat.
(4) Light yellow urine is a good indicator of proper hydration. If using diuretics, compensate
with extra water.
Prevent and Treat Constipation.

a. Definition. Constipation refers to the passage of hard, dry stools, not to frequency of bowel
movements.
b. Cause. Reduced water intake and eating dehydrated foods, the disruptions of normal
schedules and infrequent stops.
(1) Fecal Impaction. The normal bowel reflexes become insensitive and allow a bulky,
hard impacted mass.
(2) Anal Fissure. The passage of a hard, bulky stool causes a small tear (fissure) in the
anus. Subsequent bowel movements are painful and may have a small amount of
bleeding.
d. Treatment. Fluid and a high-fiber diet are normally sufficient. Laxatives are usually not
necessary.
(1) Fecal Impaction. There is no alternative to manually breaking and extracting a fecal
impaction. Enema fluids will not enter the solidified fecal mass; laxatives do not affect the
dilated rectal wall. Insert a finger (preferably gloved and lubricated) into the rectum.
Break up the mass and gently remove. Give an enema after removal of the impaction.
(2) Anal Fissure. A low-fiber diet (milk, soups, and carbohydrates) for a few days often
allows healing.
e. Prevention.
(1) Fluid and dietary fiber.
(2) Do not resist the urge to defecate. Even when you are tent-bound in foul weather,
answer nature's call.
Prevent and Treat Frostbite.

a. Definition. Frostbite is frozen tissue.
b. Cause. Exposure to extreme cold temperatures.
(1) Most commonly affected are hands, feet, ears and face. There is sudden blanching
(whitening), followed by a momentary "tingling" sensation, then lack of pain and feeling in
the affected area. White skin looks pale and waxy, dark-skin, dull and grayish. Tissue
feels hard and cold to the touch.
(2) Upon thawing, living tissue is very painful; dead tissue is not. Blisters can appear up to
36 hours later. Blisters with clear fluid suggest live underlying tissue; bloody fluid
suggests dead underlying tissue. With the most severe frostbite, damage restricts the
circulation that the tissue does not blister and commonly is a deep purple color. Dead
tissue separates spontaneously within weeks or months. Complete separation of larger
extremities may require surgery.
d. Treatment.
(1) A hospital is the best place for rapid rewarming in a large water bath with the temperature
precisely controlled between 110 F and 115 degrees F. Avoid rewarming in a wilderness
environment, which results in more tissue loss.
(2) Loosen constricting clothing and remove jewelry. Do not attempt to thaw. Insulate and
protect frozen tissue from cold or trauma. Evacuate to a hospital. If a patient must walk
with frostbitten feet, it is better to walk on frozen feet (walking on thawed feet will increase
the trauma). Never allow thawed tissue to refreeze. The damage will be worse than
before.
(3) Do not massage, rub with snow or apply cold-water soaks. Do not rewarm by exposing
to open flame or other dry heat. Do not allow alcohol or tobacco. Alcohol increases loss
of body heat and tobacco causes constriction of blood vessels in the extremities.
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8 June 2009
e. Prevention.
(1) You can prevent frostbite. In extreme circumstances, such as those surrounding an
accident, emergency bivouac or unexpected storm, it may be difficult to avoid. There is no
reason to get frostbite in a training environment.
(2) Keep socks and boots dry. Avoid tight fitting clothing, especially boots. "If your feet are
cold, put on a hat."
(3) Use the buddy system to check ears and noses.
(4) Be careful when handling gasoline ("frostbite in a can").
(5) Think before touching metal (i.e. zippers) with bare skin.
(6) Smoking constricts blood vessels.
(7) If your skin goes numb, rewarm immediately! Rewarm your face with your hands.
Rewarm your hands in your armpits.
(8) Rewarm feet by wiggling your toes, walking or running. If necessary, place them skin-to-
skin against a buddy's abdomen.
f. Misc.
(1) The extent of damage varies with ambient temperature, length of exposure, moisture,
clothing, activity, etc.
(2) Frostbite is divided into two categories, superficial and deep. Only the skin is frozen with
superficial frostbite. Deep frostbite involves deeper tissues. Estimating the depth is
notoriously difficult.
(3) Only time will reveal the extent of damage.
Prevent and Treat Immersion Foot.

a. Definition. Damage to the entire foot due to continued exposure to water or to moisture.
b. Causes. Immersion Foot (Trench foot) Immersion foot results from exposure to cold water for
prolonged periods.
(1) Minimal: red skin, variable sensory changes (numbness, tingling and pain).
(2) Mild: swelling, reversible sensory changes.
(3) Moderate: swelling, redness, blisters, mottling, irreversible nerve damage.
(4) Severe: tissue death.
d. Treatment.
(1) Dry and elevate feet.
(2) Do not massage feet.
(3) Avoid walking.
(4) Protect from further damage.
(5) Evacuate to a medical facility.
e. Prevention.
(1) Avoid prolonged immersion in cold water.
(2) When using foot powder, do not let it become caked. Rub off excess powder.
(3) Change to dry socks as frequently as required.
f. Misc.
(1) Immersion foot is more of a problem for military personnel than for civilians.
(2) In the Falkland Islands, 14 percent of the hospitalized British battle casualties suffered
immersion injuries (this reflects only the most severe cases).
(3) The colder the water, the sooner the injury.
(4) Cold wet socks and boots alone can make you a casualty. The cold induces intense
vasoconstriction, depriving the feet of an adequate blood supply.
(5) The injury may occur after a few hours or several days.
(6) After a period of days or weeks, permanent damage results, particularly to the nerves.
The resulting injury may be so painful that it requires amputation.
(7) Sensitivity to cold is usually life long.
(8) It can occur in a hot or cold climate in a situation in which it is not possible to maintain
proper foot hygiene.
Note: An antiperspirant with aluminum chlorohydrate may help.
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8 June 2009
Prevent and Treat Carbon Monoxide Poisoning.

a. Definition. Carbon Monoxide is a deadly, odorless gas that results from combustion.
b. Cause. Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin (the oxygen-carrying compound in blood cells)
200 times greater than oxygen.
(1) Mild. Headache, dizziness, yawning, weariness, nausea, ringing in the ears and heart
flutters.
(2) Severe. Bright red fingernail beds and cheek lining, sudden collapse, inability to walk
or crawl, unconsciousness and death.
d. Treatment.
(1) Move the victim into fresh air at once. Synchronize rescue breathing with the gasps of
the victim. Perform CPR as necessary.
(2) Keep the victim warm (i.e. sleeping bag). Exposure to cold might cause collapse.
(3) Never exercise a carbon monoxide victim. Exercise will increase the victim's oxygen
demand.
(4) Transport the victim to a medical facility when possible.
(5) Oxygen in a hyperbaric chamber is the preferred treatment.
(6) Cerebral edema may be a complication.
e. Prevention.
(1) A steady supply of fresh air in living and working quarters is vital.
(2) Properly ventilate any source of combustion.
(3) Using a stove, fire, gasoline heater or internal combustion engine indoors can be fatal.
Prevent and Treat Hypothermia.

a. Definition. Hypothermia is a lowering of the body's core temperature.
b. Cause.
(1) Heat Loss. Heat is lost to the environment by four means: conduction, convection,
radiation and evaporation.
(a) Conduction. Heat is lost by touching objects such as cold metal, sitting on ice, snow
or cold rock. Wet clothing speeds the heat loss. Wet clothing can conduct as much
as 240 times the heat from your body as dry clothing. Wet clothing acts much as a
wick and if exposed to the wind will drain away heat much faster than the soldier can
generate it.
(b) Convection. Heat is lost through air or water movement. Wind-chill is a convection
effect upon exposed skin. Wind-chill is the “real feel”, not the actual temperature.
(c) Radiation. Heat is transferred via infrared radiation. Radiation accounts for about
65% of total body heat loss. 85% of that loss is from the head and neck.
(d) Evaporation. The conversion of water from liquid to gas. Evaporation accounts for
20 - 30% of heat loss. Two-thirds of the evaporation occurs on the skin and one-
third from the respiratory tract.
(2) Heat Production. Humans are tropical animals built to get rid of heat, not keep it.
Without clothing, shelter, and fire, we cannot survive at temperatures below 82oF. Most
heat-producing metabolisms take place within the muscles and the liver. You can
increase your body temperature by exercise, but it will not compensate for severe heat
loss (i.e. cold-water immersion).
c. Signs and Symptoms. Hypothermia has no absolute diagnostic sign or symptom except a
measured low body temperature. Other conditions may mask or mimic hypothermia. The
following core temperature range is only a rough guide:
(1) Mild Hypothermia
(a) 98 to 95oF - Chills, shivering, loss of fine finger movement (winding a watch, tying
knots), lagging behind, stumbling over rough ground, withdrawn, denial.
(b) 95 to 93oF - Appears capable but uncooperative, errors in judgment, confusion,
difficulty using hands, slow stumbling pace, mild apathy and weakness.
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8 June 2009
(c) 93 to 90oF - Frequent stumbling and falling, inability to use hands, slow thought and
speech, not fighting cold, retrograde amnesia.
(2) Severe Hypothermia

(a) 90 to 86oF - Shivering stops, slurred speech, staggering gait, vital signs below
normal, incoherence, confusion, irrationality (i.e. paradoxical undressing), blindness,
coma.
(b) 86 to 82oF - Severe muscular rigidity, semi-consciousness, dilation of pupils,
unapparent heartbeat or respiration.
(c) Below 82oF - Unconsciousness, death due to ventricular fibrillation.
d. Treatment. Mild and severe hypothermia are approached as two entirely different problems.
(1) Mild Hypothermia. Decrease heat loss (insulate from ground, protect from wind, remove
wet clothing, cover head and neck, move to warm environment, heat packs at neck,
armpits, groin and belly).
(a) Increase heat production: exercise, warm sweet liquids and food, fire, hot bath or
shower.
(b) Do not give alcohol.
(2) Severe Hypothermia.
(a) If conscious, do NOT let the victim exert himself. Exertion can kill due to ventricular
fibrillation (v-fib). TREAT VERY GENTLY (a slight bump can cause v-fib).
(b) If unconscious, assess pulse and respiration for one to two minutes.
(c) If no pulse and respiration, start CPR.
(d) Severe hypothermia victims have been successfully resuscitated without brain
damage after one and one-half hours of CPR.
(e) If transfer to a medical facility is possible within 6 hours, do not attempt to rewarm.
The victim is often in a "metabolic icebox." Do hypothermia wrap and evacuate.
Even in a hospital, the mortality rate is up to 80%.
(f) If transfer is not possible within 6 hours, slowly rewarm ONLY the trunk via skin-to-
skin contact with another person in a sleeping bag. Do not immerse in a warm water
bath, which can cause rewarming shock.
Note: Hypothermia Wrap-Outer layer: plastic/vapor barrier, Inner Layer: sleeping bag with heat
packs next to armpit, neck and groin.
Note: "No hypothermia victim is cold and dead; only warm and dead.”
e. Prevention.
(1) Body Mechanisms. Exposed to cold, blood vessels in the skin constrict. This shunts
warm blood to the heart and brain (so that they can survive) but allows the body's
periphery to cool.
(2) Behavior. A human's greatest protection against the cold is intelligent behavior.
Hypothermia is called the "killer of the unprepared." Most wilderness cases of
hypothermia occur in the summer. Preventing hypothermia simply requires enough
water, food, clothing and shelter to spend the night.
(3) Water. Failure to replace lost water results in dehydration. Dehydration is found in all
hypothermia cases.
(4) Food. Eat small amounts throughout the day to maintain a steady energy supply.
(5) Clothing. Layers should be dry, protect from the weather and allow adjustments.
Note: Plan for the worst possible conditions and know how to build emergency shelters.
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Identify Solar Injuries.
Prevent and Treat Sunburn.

a. Definition. Sunburn is a thermal burn on the outer layers of skin caused by exposure to
ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
b. Causes. Exposure to ultraviolet radiation.
(1) Mild exposure produces redness and slight swelling, especially on the roof of the
mouth and under the chin or the nose.
(2) Moderate exposure causes pain and blistering.
(3) Severe burns can cause chills, fever or headache. Herpes simplex infections ("fever
blisters" or "cold sores") often follow sunburn of the lips.
e. Treatment. For mild sunburn, soothing creams will help. Anesthetic sprays and ointments
(Solarcaine) are effective but carry a risk of allergic reactions. Extensive first or second-degree
sunburn may require hospitalization.
d. Prevention.
(a) Clothing (including nose shields).
(b) Baby oil, olive oil, lanolin and coconut oil provide no protection at all.
(c) Sunscreens filter out some ultraviolet radiation.
(d) The SPF (sun protective factor: 2-35+) indicates how much longer you are protected
than with no sunscreen at all. Individuals allergic to thiazides or sulfa drugs may also be
allergic to sunscreens. You can replace normal sunscreens with hypoallergenic
products.
(e) Sun blocks stop all ultraviolet radiation. Apply to areas that sunburn easily and are
hard to cover (nose, lips and ears).
f. Misc. Info.
(1) The four middle hours of the day receive two-thirds of the day's ultraviolet radiation.
The lighter your skins color the more at risk you are.
(2) Many drugs may increase sensitivity to sunlight. These include sulfonamides and
their derivatives (Bactrim and Septra), most tetracycline, particularly oxycycline
(Vibramycin), which has been recommended for preventing traveler's diarrhea.
(3) Repeated sun exposure over a period of many years produces degenerative
changes in the skin, often leading to cancer in lighter skinned individuals.
(4) Ultraviolet exposure is much greater at high elevation than at sea level. At high
altitudes, the atmosphere filters out less sunlight. Snowfields and glaciers reflect about
75 percent of the incident ultraviolet radiation, exposing climbers to more radiation.
Atmospheric scattering allows ultraviolet radiation to reach climbers shielded from the
direct sun.
(5) Sunburn can occur even on an overcast day or during a snowstorm.
Prevent and Treat Snow Blindness.

a. Definition. Irritation of the conjunctiva caused by reflection of the sun on the snow.
b. Cause. Snow Blindness is the result of excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation on the
surface of the eye.
(1) May develop up to twelve hours later and can last several days.
(2) Eyes feel irritated, dry or full of sand.
(3) Extreme pain upon moving, blinking or exposing to light.
(4) Eyelids swelling; eyes red, excessive tearing and headache.
(5) Complications include corneal ulceration and permanent damage.
d. Treatment.
(1) It often heals spontaneously in a few days with cold compresses and a dark
environment for pain relief.
(2) Early, hourly application of an ophthalmic medicine also helps.
(3) Do not rub eyes.
(4) Avoid local anesthetics because they may damage the cornea.
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e. Prevention.
(1) Wear large curved glasses with side covers that block UV radiation from all sides.
(2) Goggles are safer but are less comfortable and may fog.
(3) You can make emergency lenses from cardboard with a thin slit or pinhole to see.
f. Misc. Any source of ultraviolet radiation (sun, ultraviolet lamps, welding equipment) can burn
the eye. Just like sunburn of the skin, you may not know its happening.
Identify Hot Weather Injuries.
Prevent and Treat Heat Exhaustion.

a. Definition. Is caused by loss of body fluids through sweating without adequate fluid
replacement
b. Cause. The excessive loss of salt through heavy sweating and several hours of sustained
exertion
(1) Excessive sweating with pale, moist, cool skin.
(2) Headache
(3) Weakness
(4) Dizziness
(5) Loss of appetite
(6) Cramping
(7) Nausea with or without vomiting
(8) Urge to defecate
(9) Chills (goose flesh)
(10) Rapid breathing
(11) Tingling in hands and/or feet
(12) Confusion
d. Treatment.
(1) Move to shaded area
(2) Loosen clothing pour water on him and fan him
(3) Slowly drink 1 canteen of water
(4) Elevate legs
(5) Monitor casualty until symptoms are gone or medical assistance arrives
(6) Check casualty for signs and symptoms of Heat Stroke
e. Prevention.
(1) Follow the fluid replacement guidelines for warm weather training
(2) Implement a work rest plan for any activity in a warm weather environment.
(3) Acclimatize
Prevent and Treat Heat Stroke.

a. Definition. The body's normal mechanisms for dealing with heat stress, such as sweating and
temperature control are lost. This is a Medical Emergency
b. Cause. Normally caused by prolonged exposure to high temperatures.
(1) Elevated or lowered blood pressure
(2) Cessation of sweating
(3) Rapid heartbeat
(4) Irritability, confusion or unconsciousness
(5) Feeling dizzy or lightheaded
(6) Rapid shallow breathing
(7) Skin is red flush, hot, and dry
d. Treatment.
(1) Move to shaded area
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(2) Loosen clothing pour water on him and fan him

(3) Slowly drink 1 canteen of water if conscious
(4) Elevate legs
(5) Seek medical assistance
(6) Transport immediately to a Medical treatment facility
e. Prevention.
(1) Follow the fluid replacement guidelines for warm weather training
(2) Implement a work rest plan for any activity in a warm weather environment.
(3) Acclimatize
Notes
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8 June 2009
Basic Mountain Casualty Evacuation

071E9018
Introduction: In mountainous environments, you will need to be able to handle emergencies.
You will be required to be a soldier, a climber, a radio operator, a forward observer, a leader and
a medic. Your ability to assess, treat, and prepare to evacuate a fellow soldier rapidly and
correctly may be the difference between life and death. Evacuation is often difficult, exhausting
and unsupported. Decide the evacuation technique by the type of injury, the length of movement
and the terrain. It is best to evacuate by air when the tactical situation and the weather permits.
It is not uncommon to find that evacuation by air is not possible. Thorough training in mountain
evacuation techniques is essential.
Perform Basic Patient Assessment in a Non-Tactical Environment.

a. Scene Safety. The first rule of rescue is "Don't become a victim." This is often overlooked
when people get involved in an emergency. Calm down. Think. Another victim is not helping
anybody.
b. Chief Complaint. The chief complaint is what the PATIENT complains of. You might see a
broken leg, but they tell you THEY are short of breath. Determining the chief complaint can help
keep you from missing something important and let you know how the patient perceives the
situation. Ask them, "What's bothering you the most?"
c. Airway.
(1) Establish an airway with C-spine control. The brain can live 4-6 minutes without oxygen.
The airway (pharynx, trachea) allows air to reach the lungs. The most common airway
obstruction in an unconscious person is the tongue. Sometimes, providing an airway is all that
is necessary and the patient may start to breathe on their own. There are several ways to
establish an airway:
(a) Head tilt / chin lift.
(b) Jaw thrust.
(c) Safety pin.
(d) J-tube.
(e) Nasopharyngeal.
Note: In trauma cases, assume there is a spinal injury until proven otherwise. The only way to
rule out a cervical fracture is with an x-ray.
d. Breathing (chest).
(1) If patient is not breathing, you will have to breathe for them: start rescue breathing at 12
breaths per minute.
(2) "IAPP" the chest: inspect, auscultate, palpate, percuss.
(3) Treat any chest wounds.
Note: Look, Listen, Feel.
e. Circulation.
(1) Check the pulse for 5-10 seconds. If the patient is hypothermic, check for 1-2 minutes.
(2) If there is no pulse, begin CPR.
(3) If there is a pulse, control any bleeding.
(4) Be ADEPT.
(a) A apply
(b) D direct pressure
(c) E elevate
(d) P pressure points
(e) T tourniquet
f. Disability (neurological).
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(1) A patient's level of consciousness is key to their condition. It reflects the status of the
brain and nervous system. It is important to note any changes or patterns.
(a) A Alert x 3: Patient knows who and where they are and what time, day or month it is.
(b) V Verbal: Patient responds to verbal stimulus.
(c) P Pain: Patient responds to slight or deep pain.
(d) U Unresponsive: Patient does not respond.
(2) State Dependent Hypnosis. Accident victims go into what is known as "state-dependent
hypnosis" and are acutely open to suggestion. This is a two-edged sword. The will-to-live or
the will-to-die can be affected by what you say.
(3) Watch What You Say. "Never say anything to an unconscious patient that you do not
want read back to you." Unconscious people can sometimes hear and remember what is said
at the scene by rescuers. Use this phenomenon for the patient.
(4) Things to Say.

(a) Avoid - "Don't worry. Everything's fine."
(b) Better -"I know you're concerned about your arm. We're going to do all we can to help
you get it taken care of."
(5) Reasons for Unconsciousness.

(a) Coma
(b) Overdose
(c) Medications
(d) Allergies
(e) Alcohol
(f) Epilepsy
(g) Infection
(h) Stroke
(i) Trauma
(j) Lightening
g. Exposure vs. Environment. At best, a patient is examined without any clothing in order to
expose all possible injuries. The patient will have to be protected from the environment. The
bottom line is if you are not looking for it, you will not find it.
h. Five-Minute Vitals. Taking vital signs can help determine the problem, the treatment and tell
you how fast you have to move. Take them at least every five minutes in an emergency and note
changes or patterns.
i. General Exam. This is a hands-on exam of the body from head-to-toe.

(1) Posture can indicate brain/spinal injury.
(a) D Deformities
(b) C Contusion
(c) A Abrasion
(d) P Puncture
(e) B Burns
(f) T Tear
(g) L Lesion
(h) S Swelling
j. History.
(1) Don't lead the patient's answers.
(a) Avoid: Is it a sharp pain?
(b) Better: Can you describe the pain for me?
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(2) Information needed (Mechanism of Injury).

O Onset
P Provokes/relieves
Q Quality
R Region/radiates
S Severity
T Time: when, chronic, intermittent, cycles
(3) Information needed (Medical History)

S Signs and/or symptoms
A Allergies
M Medications
P Past illnesses/operations
L Last meal
E Events: what happened?
Identify and Treat for Shock.

a. Shock = not enough oxygen to the cells.
(1) Oxygen Delivery Requirements. In order for the cardiovascular system to deliver oxygen
to all cells of the body, there must be three functioning items:
(a) Pump (heart).
(b) Pipes (blood vessels).
(c) Oxygenated blood.
If everything is functioning correctly, oxygenated blood is delivered to the
cells. If anything interferes with this process, oxygen is not delivered to
the cells where it is needed. The patient experiences this as "shock."
(2) Types of Shock.

(a) R respiratory: carbon monoxide poisoning, drowning, COPD, CHF, SIDS.
(b) N neurogenic: spinal damage, drugs, anaphylaxis, infection.
(c) C cardiogenic: heart attack, MI, angina pectoris.
(d) H hypovolemic: hemophage, burns, dehydration.
(e) A anaphylactic: bee stings, food reactions.
(f) M metabolic: diabetes.
(g) P psychogenic: fainting.
(h) S septic: systemic infection, TSS, toxemia of pregnancy.
(3) Body's Compensation for Hypovolemic Shock. The body will try to shunt blood to the vital
organs (brain, heart and the lungs). Everything "non-essential" is shut down.
(4) Signs and Symptoms of Shock.
Class Description
Class 1 Restlessness, anxiety, increased HR (heart
rate)
Class 2 Cool clammy skin, increased R (respiration),
increased systolic or decreased diastolic BP
blood pressure), thirst, nausea/vomiting
Class 3 Pallor, cyanosis, decreased LOC, decreased
BP
Class 4 Very low BP, carotid pulse only (if any), pupils
fixed & dilated, comatose, death
(5) The Golden Hour. If a person is in severe shock (class 3) for one hour, they will die. After
that "Golden Hour," death may come soon or in a few days.
(6) Treatment of Shock.
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(a) Treat the underlying condition

(b) Lay the patient down
(c) Elevate legs 18 inches (unless prevented by other injuries, i.e. hip fracture)
(d) Maintain temperature
(e) Reassure the patient
(f) Oxygen
(g) MAST
(h) IV
(i) Transport
Identify the Cause, Prevention and Treatment of Blisters.

a. Causes. Blisters are caused by friction that pulls the skin back and forth over underlying
tissue. Eventually, a space develops and collects fluid. The most common cause is new or ill-
fitting boots. Boots that are too loose in the instep allow the foot to slide forward when going
downhill, producing "downhill blisters" on the front part of the foot. "Uphill blisters" are common
over the heel and Achilles tendon.
b. Prevention. Wearing properly fitting boots, breaking in new boots slowly, protecting blister
prone areas (hot spots) with adhesive tape or moleskin and minimizing friction between the foot
and the boot, can avoid blisters. Friction can be reduced by keeping the foot dry with powder (to
reduce adhesion between the boot and the skin). Wearing a thick outer and a thin inner sock
(made of nylon or a similar material) will allow most of the slippage to take place between the two
socks.
c. Treatment.
(1) If the blister will not receive any more pressure, protect the blister (pad around it) and allow
the body to absorb the fluid.
Unbroken Blister-Not Likely to Break
(2) If the blister is likely to break (i.e. during a road march), drain the blister and wash the
area. Swab with povidone-iodine (check for allergy to iodine). With a sterile needle, make
a hole at the bottom of the blister. With sterile gauze pad or clean cloth, apply pressure to
drain the fluid. Often the blister will require draining several times during the first twenty-
four hour period to allow the blister roof to adhere to the base. Tincture of benzoin around
the blister will help the moleskin stick well. Cover the blister with gauze (so the roof is not
torn off later). Apply a moleskin "doughnut". More than one moleskin layer may be
necessary. Too much moleskin will cause problems.
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Draining the Blister
(3) "Hot Shots", the practice of injecting tincture of benzoin compound into a blister, creates a
much greater chance of infection and tissue damage. This procedure is not
recommended.
e. Follow-up Care. See a medic if the blister gets worse or if there are any signs of infection
(pus, redness). DO NOT perform self-care for blisters that lie deep in the skin.
Apply the Treatment for Broken Blisters.

a. Treatment. Treat a broken blister as an open wound: clean, dress and protect. Healing
is faster, pain is diminished and the risk of infection is greatly reduced when the blister
roof is preserved. If the roof is torn away, apply antibiotic ointment, cover with a non-
adherent layer and protect with a moleskin "doughnut".
b. Follow-up Care. See a medic if the blister gets worse or if there are any signs of infection
(pus, redness). DO NOT perform self-care for blisters that lie deep in the skin.
Padding a Broken Blister
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Identify the Principles of Rescue Operations.
a. First Rule. When faced with the necessity of rescuing a casualty threatened by hostile action,
fire, water or any other immediate hazard, do not take action without first determining the extent
of the hazard and your ability to handle the situation. The first rule of rescue is "DO NOT
BECOME A CASUALTY".
b. Primary Mission. The primary mission is to get the casualty to appropriate medical care
without causing further injury.
c. Three Major Steps. The rescuer must evaluate the situation and analyze the factors involved.
This evaluation can be broken down into three major steps:
(1) Identify the Task. Decide if you really need a rescue attempt. It is a waste of time,
equipment and personnel to rescue someone not in need of rescuing, to look for someone
who is not lost or risk the lives of the rescuer(s) needlessly. In task identification, attempt to
obtain the following information:
(a) Who, what, where, when, why and how the situation happened?
(b) How many casualties are involved and the nature of their injuries?
(c) What is the location of the casualties?
(2) Evaluate the Circumstances of the Rescue. After identifying the task required, you must
relate it to the circumstances under which you must work.
(a) Do you need additional people, security, medical or special rescue equipment /
skills?
(b) What is the tactical situation?
(c) What are the weather conditions?
• When considering weather, you should insure that blankets or rain gear are
available. Even a mild rain can complicate a simple rescue. Available time
diminishes with high altitude and/or in extreme cold and gusting winds.
• High altitudes and gusting winds reduce the ability of aircraft to help in
operations. Rotary wing aircraft may be available to remove casualties from
cliffs or inaccessible sites and transport to medical treatment facilities in a
comparatively short time.
(d) Is the terrain hazardous? With respect to terrain, you must consider altitude and
visibility. Uses of secure /reliable trails or roads are essential.
(e) Aircraft are vital elements of search and rescue units. You cannot use aircraft in all
rescue situations. Do not rely on their availability. Reliance on aircraft or specialized
equipment is a poor substitute for careful planning.
(3) Plan the Action.

(a) The time available can cause rescuers to alter their rescue/treatment plans. Make a
realistic estimate of time available as quickly as possible.
(b) Timely gathering of accurate information, so that an effective assessment of the
situation can be made, is essential. Once the initial investigation is complete, outline a
list of options with backup contingencies for optimum flexibility. Establish goals and
objectives for the first working periods of the mission. Apply basic principles of
emergency response during this phase.
Identify Considerations for Evacuating a Casualty.

a. General Considerations for Evacuations.
(1) Select the smoothest available route.
(2) Avoid unnecessary handling of the patient.
(3) Protect the patient from all environmental hazards (i.e. falling rock) by placing, his helmet
over his head and pad him in the litter.
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(4) When the evacuation route is long and difficult, a series of litter relay points or warming
stations should be established. Staff these warming stations with the minimum medical
personnel needed to allow proper emergency treatment. Hold any patient that develops signs
of shock during evacuation at warming station/relay point. Treat and stabilize before
continuing the evacuation.
(5) You can use skis to form expedient litters and as a substitute for the ahkio sled.
(6) Use helicopters or heated vehicles for evacuation whenever the situation, terrain and
weather permit.
(7) Augment litter teams in rough terrain.
(8) Movement of a casualty over technical routes can be easier than movement through brush
and rough terrain.
b. Special Training Requirements.

(1) Before receiving training in basic mountain evacuation, litter teams should receive
instruction in military mountaineering.
(2) Litter bearers and aid men must become thoroughly familiar with rope and mountaineering
equipment.
(3) The members of litter teams must become thoroughly proficient in the technique of
belaying and in the selection of belay points so that proper support and protection can be
given to patients and litter bearers when evacuating over difficult terrain.
c. Handling Wounded Soldiers. You may save a wounded soldier's life through the application of
the appropriate first aid measures only to lose him through careless or rough handling during
transport. Before you attempt to move the wounded soldier, you must evaluate the type and
extent of his injury. Reinforce dressings over wounds. Immobilize and support fractured bones to
prevent causing more damage.
Note: It is important to establish proper safety measures for both the casualty and the rescue
personnel.
Identify Types and Characteristics of Manufactured Litters.

a. Types and Characteristics of Manufactured Litters. Personnel involved with mountain
evacuation will encounter several litter types. The most common are the following:
(1) Poleless, non-rigid litter. The non-rigid, nylon litter is the least favored. It does not offer
much protection for injuries. There is also a substantial amount of difficult rope and knot work
involved.
(2) Standard collapsible litter. The standard collapsible litter is the most common in the
military system. It also involves substantial knot and rope work.
(3) Stokes/Mountain basket-type rigid litter. The use of the rigid Stokes litter serves to
eliminate much of the rope work used in the two previous litter types.
(4) SKED stretcher. The SKED stretcher is quickly replacing all of the above litters in the
military system.
b. Preparing the SKED for Low Angle Evacuation.

(1) Tie a double figure eight in the middle of a 30-foot long 11mm rope. Pass each end of the
rope through grommets at head of stretcher. Leave 1-2 feet between the knot and the
stretcher. Continue feeding rope through the grommets and handles all the way to the end.
Tie the ends of the rope together with a square knot. Bring the ends of the rope up over the
ends of the SKED and through the carrying handles. Tie another square knot with overhand
safeties.
(2) Tie a double figure eight at one end of a sling rope and a single figure eight at the other
end. Repeat with another sling rope. The litter bearers attach themselves to these ropes with
an auto block attached to their harness.
(3) If hypothermia is a threat, use a hypothermia wrap.
(a) Hypothermia Wrap.
Place a poncho in the bottom of the litter.
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Place a sleeping mat and then a sleeping bag on top of the poncho.
Once the patient is in, place another sleeping bag and poncho on top.
This forms a warm, water-resistant cocoon for the patient.
(4) Cervical padding should be placed around the head and neck using improvised items
such as boots, rolled up shirts, rolled up blankets, etc.
Identify Techniques Used to Ascend and Descend Slopes and Cliffs.

a. Ascending a Slope with a Litter.
(1) Main Force.
(a) To ascend a moderately steep slope that can be walked, litter bearers take their
places.
(b) Any extra bearers take their positions along the extended rope that is in the hands of
the belay man
(c) Exchange positions at each halt. Upon arrival at each belay point, place the litter on
the ground and take a new position farther up the slope.
(2) With a hauling system. Upon encountering small steep obstacles, main force is
sometimes not adequate for the task. In these situations, use a hauling system to assist the
litter bearers.
b. Descending Slopes with a Litter.

(1) One man acts as the belay man while another assists him. The litter bearers take their
positions. Use a single or double carabiner brake, depending on the slope. Ensure the rope
will not open the gates.
(2) Other personnel may help with the litter or precede the team. If preceding the team, they
can make reconnaissance, clear a trail or establish successive belay points.
(3) Take the most direct practical path. Use available trees and rocks as belay positions.
(4) Be sure to keep the casualty's head uphill with his helmet on.
c. Traversing Slopes with a Litter. If the evacuation route includes traverses, use directional
anchors to prevent the litter team from taking a "pendulum" fall.
d. Belay Method.
The belay/haul line may pass around a tree or through a locking carabiner or
pulley to keep it in line with the load ropes.
To setup a single carabiner brake:
(1) Hook two carabiners to the anchor point, opposite and opposed or
one locking carabiner.
(2) Place two more carabiners opposite and opposed in the first set.
(3) The last pair of carabiners is placed across the body of the second
pair, opposed only. Stop here for a single carabiner brake.
For a Double Carabiner Brake.
(1) Repeat step 1-3 chaining this to the single carabiner brake.
Note:
(1) This brake system is only for lowering a load.
(2) The rope must run over the solid portion of the carabiner, away from the gate. If the rope
touches the gate, it could open the carabiner.
(3) To operate the brake pull the ropes back against the carabiners.
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Skedco rigging for Low angle rescue. Double carabiner brake
Notes
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Mountain Weather
071E9061
INTRODUCTION: Weather forecasting today is as much of an art as a science. Even with all of
today’s technology, exact weather conditions cannot reliably be forecasted beyond three days.
Understanding basic weather patterns will allow you to predict likely weather conditions for
missions. Current and updated forecasts may not always be available while on extended patrols
in the mountains. You can use the weather to your advantage if you understand what is coming.
Weather Causes.
(1) Sun. The sun warms the surface of the earth unevenly. The round shape and the tilt
of the earth prevent uniform heating of the earth’s surface.
(2) Advection. Advection is the circular process of heated air at the equator expanding
and rising up into the upper atmosphere. Cooler air at the Polar Regions condenses
and sinks down to the earth’s surface.
(3) Coriolis effect. This is a complex phenomenon, which combines the rotation of the
earth with the advection process. The Coriolis effect steers wind and pressure
systems as they move from west to east in the Northern hemisphere and east to
west in the Southern hemisphere.
(4) Friction. The surface of the earth creates drag on weather systems and may
influence the direction they take as well as where and how much precipitation comes
from each system.
(5) Moisture. The atmosphere is made up of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1%
moisture. This 1% of moisture produces all precipitation.
Explain methods of measuring barometric pressure.
a. Barometric pressure. The pressure exerted by the atmosphere at any given place. The
atmosphere acts like a liquid and therefore can be measured. The most common method
of measurement is with the use of an altimeter/barometer.
(1) The altimeter/barometer is a calibrated device that measures the weight of a column
of air from the surface of the earth to the top of the atmosphere. This method is used
to determine elevation. Changes can occur in the readings as high or low pressure
systems move through your area of operation. The common technique is to watch
for changes in elevation readings when you are stationary. This will tell you the
general trend in pressure change, which can be used to predict incoming weather.
High and Low Pressure
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Identify and Understanding Cloud Types.

a. Cloud types. The height of a cloud and its’ shape in the sky can indicate incoming
weather up to about 36 hours out. Clouds can be right at the ground surface in the form
of fog or up to a height of 6 miles.
(1) Low Level Clouds. Cloud types include nimbostratus and stratocumulus 0-
6500ft. Low level clouds usually indicate impending precipitation. Precipitation
from higher clouds evaporates before hitting the ground.
(2) Mid Level Clouds. Cloud types include Altocumulus and Altostratus 6500-
20,000ft. Mid level clouds usually indicate fair weather, especially if they are
rising over time. Lowering middle clouds indicate potential storms, though
usually hours away.
(3) High Level Clouds. Cloud types include Cirrus and Cirrostratus 20,000ft +.
Cirrus clouds indicate moisture aloft and the approach of a traveling storm
system. Precipitation is often 24 to 36 hours away. As the storm approaches,
these clouds will thicken, lower, and eventually become low-level clouds.
(4) Vertical Development Clouds. These include fair weather cumulus and
Cumulonimbus clouds. Fair weather cumulus clouds have the appearance of
floating cotton balls, but given suitable conditions can develop into towering
Cumulonimbus clouds.
• Cumulonimbus clouds are often associated with powerful thunderstorms
that can last for several hours.
(5) Other Cloud Types. Lenticular Clouds. Lenticular clouds can be associated with
bad weather. Fog is caused when rain or snow dampened ground, loses
moisture through evaporation.
Cloud Types
Identify the Types of Weather Fronts.

Fronts occur when two air masses of different moisture and temperature content meet.
Understanding the differences between fronts will help your general planning and prediction.
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a. Warm Fronts. Warm fronts are associated with low-pressure systems. Cirrus clouds indicate
that a warm front is approaching. These clouds can be as far as 650 miles out in front of any
precipitation. Contrails that linger and spread out in the sky and lenticular clouds that seem
stationary over mountain tops are indicators of a low pressure or warm front moving in with in
the next 24-48 hours. When high in the mountains, pay close attention to the clouds. If you
see them building in height and getting lower to the ground you need to move to lower ground
and off exposed ridges quickly. Move to the leeward side of a mountain to avoid the worst
aspects of a storm. If possible get to the highest points of your climb early in the day to avoid
afternoon storms caused by the daily summer convection cycle found in many mountainous
areas.
Warm Front/ Low Pressure System
b. Cold Fronts. Cold fronts are associated with high-pressure systems and tend to move much
faster than warm fronts. Summer time can bring violent thunderstorms or tornadoes due to
the fast moving cold front colliding with the slower moving warm front it’s replacing.
Cold Front/ High Pressure System
c. Valley Fog. Is another indicator of high pressure.

d. Occluded Front. An occluded front combines the precipitation of both warm and cold fronts. If
it has rained for an extended period with occasional strong bursts of rain or snow, an
occluded front is most likely the culprit. Occluded fronts for the most part are fast moving
systems.
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e. Stationary Fronts. Like the name implies, these fronts are not going anywhere fast. Terrain
can create stationary fronts. The Los Angeles basin is a good example of how the mountains
that surround L.A. trap smog during a stationary front, only moving out when the stationary
front is pushed out.
Identify Weather Hazards and Safety Procedures.

a. Lightening.
b. Estimate storm distance.
c. Lightening Safety tips.
(1) Check the forecast and watch the sky.
Darkening skies, flashes of lightning, or increasing wind may indicate an
approaching storm.
(2) Use the 30/30 Lightning Rule. If the time between the lightning flash and the
rumble of thunder is 30 seconds or less (6 miles). Once inside shelter, you
should not resume activities until 30 minutes after the last audible thunder. This
is known as the 30/30 Lightning Rule.
(3) Count seconds between 'flash' and 'bang' and seek shelter when the time is less
than 30 seconds.
(4) Find safe shelter.
Sturdy buildings are the safest place to be during lightning storms. Avoid sheds,
open sided shelters, ditches, and isolated trees. Staying in a vehicle with
windows closed also offers some protection.
(5) Avoid isolated trees or other tall objects. It is better to seek shelter under a thick
growth of relatively small trees.
(6) Do not wait for rain to seek shelter.
(7) Avoid caves. Lightening can arc across the opening and follow the walls.
(8) Get out of the water. Water is a great conductor of electricity.
(9) Avoid any metal objects such as weapons, pickets or tools.
(10)Spread out and do not stay in a group
(11)Never lie flat on the ground during a lightning storm.
(12)If operating an open Gator or four wheeler and lightning is within 5 miles, STOP
riding, get off, find a ditch or other low spot and sit down.
(13)Never lie flat on the ground during a lightning storm.
(14)As a last resort, assume the lightning-safe position
If you are caught in a lightning storm and if you feel your hair stand on end, your
skin tingle, or you hear crackling noises, crouch on the ground with your weight
on the balls of the feet, your feet together, your head lowered and ears covered.
Place your ruck and weapon several meters away. Some experts recommend
placing your hands on your forehead and your elbows on your knees to create a
path for lightning to travel to the ground through your extremities rather than
through your core (heart).
d. Temperature. The temperature will drop 3-5 degrees F for every 1000 ft gained in elevation.
Rapid cooling takes effect after the sun goes down due in part to the thinner atmosphere at
higher elevations. Rock fall can occur when the sun thaws loose rock frozen during the night.
Avalanches can be triggered with rapid warming of the snow pack. Cross danger areas early
in the morning for the safest travel. Small streams crossed at night can become rushing
torrents by midday when the sun-melted snow begins flow down from above.
e. Ultraviolet rays. 85% of UV rays are reflected back skyward on snow. Sunscreen with at least
a SPF 15 rating is recommended. Sunburn can occur on the roof of your mouth, inside your
nostrils, tops of your hands and anywhere else unprotected skin is exposed. Snow blindness
damage caused by UV rays can occur in minutes with the painful effects not being noticed for
several hours after the exposure. Quality sunglasses rated for both UVA and UVB rays are
highly recommended.
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f. Wind. Many Mountains create their own weather. Wind speeds can gust over 100mph in
narrow mountain passes. The sun can cause both up slope and down slope winds on the
mountain through the heating and cooling of the atmosphere.
Use an altimeter to estimate weather trends.
a. Confirm altimeter readings at known points on a map along the route. At long halts or in
a bivouac site, record altimeter reading hourly.
b. In bivouac sites, lower elevation readings indicate high pressure moving in; conversely
higher readings indicate lower pressure. No changes in readings indicate a steady
weather trend.
c. Most altimeter watches have a function that records the last six hours of barometric
readings. Watch trends closely.
Identify the potential planning problems weather can cause.
a. The air temperature in the mountains drops an average of 4 degrees F for every 1000ft of
elevation gained. The thinner atmosphere at higher altitude allows for more direct heat
being received due to less atmospherics. In clear weather, temperature changes of 40-
50 degrees can take place between day and night time conditions.
b. Flash floods can develop from storms miles away from where you are operating. Avoid
wadis or other low depressions in flat terrain. Snowmelt can swell streams quickly. Plan
to cross streams early in the morning when possible.
c. Rock fall can occur where ice forms at night and thaws during the day.
d. Be prepared and trained to operate in whiteout conditions. In temperate climates, snow
can occur anytime of year at elevations over 8000ft. changing weather may bring strong
winds.
e. Troops need to be trained on how to wear the 7-layer system correctly to match the
mission and environment.
f. Wind chill only affects living tissue. We feel the perceived temperature from the effects of
wind and cold on exposed skin. The higher the wind speed, the faster we lose heat.
Damage to exposed skin can occur in seconds under certain conditions.
g. Keep skin protected as much as possible. Use the buddy system to check each other out
for signs of frostbite.
h. Learn to perform all job related functions with gloves on.
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Characteristics of Mountain Terrain

071E9015
INTRODUCTION: Mountainous terrain is some of the most unforgiving terrain that can be
encountered during military operations. Glaciers, cliffs, ravines and other dangerous obstacles
can be very dangerous for the uninformed. Being knowledgeable about these alpine features is a
great advantage. This lesson explains the different types of mountain terrain, different types of
glaciers and the dangers involved with movement.
Identify the Features of Mountain Terrain.
a. Mountain terrain is characterized by high peaks, deep valley and ravines, fast moving rivers,
glaciers, cliffs, steep slopes, and other hazardous obstacles. These features pose unique
challenges to the soldier operating in the mountains.
b. Mountains are defined as land masses rising more than 500 meters above the surrounding
plain. They can be single peaks, a long ridgeline, or an entire range.
c. Glaciers, cliffs, and steep terrain are particular hazards that require specialized training.
Identify Terrain Classifications.

a. Class 1. Class 1 terrain is defined as gentle slope or easy trails. This terrain is negotiated with
simple walking techniques.
b. Class 2. Class 2 terrain involves off-trail scrambling in steeper, more rugged terrain. Rarely,
use of hands may be needed to negotiate Class 2 terrain.
c. Class 3. Class 3 terrain usually necessitates moderate scrambling, with use of hands needed
for balance. Use of fixed ropes or belay techniques may be required for beginners.
Basic mountaineers may be useful to negotiate this terrain.
d. Class 4. Class 4 terrain is steeper terrain that involves belayed climbing or fixed ropes. There
is moderate to difficult scrambling which may have some exposure. Significant injury
can occur if an unroped fall occurs. Basic mountaineers are needed to negotiate this
terrain.
e. Class 5. Class 5 terrain is vertical terrain involving hands and feet at all times while moving.
This terrain is complex, dangerous ground where significant injury or death can occur
from an unroped fall. Class 5 terrain requires soldiers to be roped up, use belay
techniques, and place intermediate protection. Assault climbers are required to
negotiate this terrain.
Identify a Glacier.
a. Definition. A moving body of ice that forms on land from the accumulation and compaction of
snow, and that flows down slope or outward due to gravity and the pressure of its own weight.
b. Information.
(1) Glaciers cover 10% of the earth’s surface.
(2) A solid river of rock, snow and ice.
(3) Forms in areas where more snow falls each year than melts away during
warmer seasons.
(4) After many years of accumulation older-deeper snow forms into solid ice.
(5) Forms over hundreds of thousands of years.
Identify the Classifications of Snow.
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a. Classifications of Snow.
(1) New Snow. New snow is very dry snow that falls during periods of complete calm and
low temperatures. It is extremely light and feathery. The wind moves this snow easily.
(2) Wet Snow. Wet Snow that falls during warmer temperatures is heavier and
consolidates faster.
(3) Old Snow. Old Snow is compact and granular. It is closely associated grains instead
of individual flakes. Skiers refer to this heat-softened old snow as spring or corn snow.
(4) Firn. Compacted snow that has been on a glacier for at least a year (building block
of a glacier).
(5) Advanced Firn snow or neve. Advanced firn snow or neve is closely associated
grains of ice, separated by air spaces.
(6) Glacier Ice. Glacier Ice is composed of crystals of advanced firn snow cemented by
a film of ice. There are no air spaces between the grains and any airspace present is
within the grains themselves.
Identify the Types and Characteristics of Glaciers.
a. Glaciers. A Glacier is a mass of ice that originates on land having an area larger than 100
square feet.
(1)Two Major Types.
(a) Ice cap or ice sheet glaciers (called continental glaciers when they cover
extensive areas). Topography does not restrict the course. The thickness of the
ice controls the movement. Greenland and the Antarctic are examples of Ice
cap/ice sheet glaciers.
(b) Alpine Glaciers - There are four basic types.
• Cirque - Does not advance beyond its "bowl."
• Hanging - Forced out of its area of origin and over a cliff. It can break
off and become an ice avalanche.
• Valley - Advances down a valley.
• Piedmont - Piedmont glaciers occur when steep valley glaciers flow
onto relatively flat plains, where they spread out into fan or bulb
shapes (lobes).
(2) Characteristics of Glaciers.

(a) Zones.
• Accumulation Zone. Area that remains snow covered all year.
• Ablation Zone. Area where snowmelts off the ice in the summer
season.
• Firn Line. Line that separates the accumulation zone and ablation
zone.
Glacier Side View
(b) Snow Cover.
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• Wet Glacier. Glacier has significant snow cover. Crevasses are

hidden.
• Dry Glacier. No snow cover. Crevasses are exposed and easily
identified.
(3) Melting of Glaciers.

(a) Under the influence of sun, rain and warm dry winds, glacial ice melts on the
surface. Some ice evaporates as water vapor, passing directly from solid to gas.
Melting takes place along the edges of the glacier faster than in the center due to
friction and heat-reflection.
(b) Debris is left behind as the glacier melts.
(3) Moraines.
(a) Moraine refers to any glacially formed accumulation of unconsolidated
debris, which can occur in currently glaciated and formerly glaciated regions.
There are three types:
• Lateral moraines are parallel ridges of till deposited along the sides of
a glacier.
• Ground moraines are till covered areas with irregular topography and
no ridges often forming gently rolling hills or plains.
• End moraines or terminal moraines are ridges of unconsolidated
debris deposited at the snout or end of the glacier.
Identify Glacier Hazards.
a. Dangers. The dangers and obstacles to movement in glacial areas are crevasses, icefalls,
snow bridges and the sun.
(1) Crevasses. The ice cannot adapt itself exactly to terrain it is moving over. The glacial
ice is subjected to tremendous pressures and dragged in all directions. Crevasses
develop first as simple fissures, later as gaping rifts. The middle of a glacier generally
has the fewest crevasses. On a bend, the outside edge will have more crevasses than
the inner edge. The roped party should maintain a path at right angles to the general
trend of the crevasses. Do not forget that it is possible for the entire party to be walking
directly over a wide crevasse.
Crevasse
.
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(2) Ice falls. On the steep pitch of a glacier, ice flowing over irregularities and cliffs in the
underlying valley floor cause the ice to break into ice blocks (known as Seracs),
crisscrossed with crevasses. This jumbled cliff of ice is an icefall. The safest time for
movement through icefalls is early in the morning before sunrise.
(3) Snow Bridges. Deep snow hardened by wind can develop into a crevasse bridge.
The strength of a snow bridge varies tremendously with temperature. An arch that might
support a truck in the cold of winter or early morning may collapse under its own weight
during an afternoon thaw. Cross every bridge with caution every time. Do not assume
that because it held in the morning during the ascent that it is safe as you head down in
the afternoon.
(4) Sun. The intense sun on the open surface of a glacier is a serious hazard. At higher
elevations the hazard is greater. There is a thinner cloud layer to filter UV rays.
More harmful radiation works on the skin and eyes. The reflective qualities of the
snow magnify the effect. Take extra care to prevent sun-induced injuries.
Identify the Five Basic Rules for Glacier Travel.
a. Five Basic Rules for Glacier Travel.

(1) Always travel roped up.
(2) The belayer must be able to anchor the rope after the fall.
(3) The fallen climber must be prepared to get himself out.
(4) The belayer must be able to send down either end of the rope or another rope to the
fallen victim.
(5) The belayer must know how to rescue an unconscious climber.
Identify Techniques for Roped Glacier Travel.
a. Use of the Rope for Glacial Travel.

(1) Combinations. A roped party of two is ideal for rock climbing; though at a great
disadvantage on a snow-covered glacier. The best combination is a three-man party, tied
into a single rope. Always maintain your distance on the rope. Climbers call this
"keeping a dry rope." Always travel roped when on the snow covered part of a glacier.
Use of the rope on steep and/or heavily crevassed ice, even if free of snow, is
mandatory.
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(2) Movement. Moving on a glacier as a rope team takes practice to become efficient. A
well-trained rope team can move just as fast on a glacier as an un-roped team, but will be
much safer. Keep the rope off the snow as much as possible.
(3) Distance. You must be prepared to arrest or stop a fall into a crevasse by a team
member at a moment's notice. Ideally, if the slack is minimized between rope team
members and a correct self-arrest is immediately executed by the other team members,
the distance of the fall into the crevasse is kept to a minimum.
Recommended Distance Between Climbers on a Rope
(4) Rope Teams. Arranging Climbers on the Rope: The distance between members of a
rope team depends on many factors including the size of the element, experience, the
size of the crevasses, and team organization. Between 2 to 5 climbers can travel on one
rope, with each amount having advantages and disadvantages. The ideal distance
between climbers on glaciers with small to medium sized crevasses is 40 to 60 feet (in
Alaska or the Karakoram, larger crevasses are more common and more distance is
needed between climbers). A greater distance means there is plenty of rope to span
wide crevasses and more freedom to negotiate corners and zigzags. However, more
distance also means more slack can develop between members, more rope stretch
occurs, and communication (and coordination) becomes more difficult. In general, the
most experienced climbers will tie in on the ends of the rope team, while the least
experienced tie in the middle.
(a) Two Person Rope Teams. A two-person rope team is not recommended
unless they are extremely experienced and knowledgeable. Relying on only one
person to arrest another’s fall into a crevasse, anchor the rope, and perform the
rescue by himself or herself is very difficult, although not impossible. If a team of
two is used, they should be in the vicinity of other teams if assistance is needed.
(b) Three Person Rope Teams. Three person rope teams are the accepted
minimum for glacier travel because at least two other climbers are available to
arrest a fall and extract the victim. Three is also ideal because movement can
be more cumbersome with more members.
(c) Four or Five Person Rope Teams. The advantage of having four or five members on a
rope team is that more people could potentially hold a fall, and the least experienced
members can be "hidden" in the middle of the rope team. However, because rope team
members are spaced closer together, the potential exists for more than one person falling
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into a crevasse at the same time. Also, traveling in a four or five person rope team can
be cumbersome and slower, especially with inexperienced members.
Notes
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Soldier Load Management

071E9051
INTRODUCTION: The Soldier’s combat mission load is a crucial concern for leaders during the
planning process. Leaders must carefully consider how much to carry, how far, and in what
configuration to carry the mission’s load. Leaders must recognize the potential mission impact of
the soldier’s load, and ensure that soldiers carry what is on the mission-packing list. Rigorous
planning and inspection is important.
Conduct Soldier Load Management Guidance.
a. The Soldier’s combat load has increased 60% since WWII. Soldiers in divisional combat
elements now routinely carry 110-pound loads for extended periods. Technology
increases our lethality but also the loads we must bear in combat. Mountain terrain and
alpine weather compound the challenges of soldier load management. It is a leadership
challenge to balance these competing impairments to mission success.
b. Soldiers operating on foot in the mountains and in alpine terrain must pack light and
smart to maintain a good balance of mobility and lethality. Essentially each piece of
equipment a soldier carries must perform multiple tasks and enhance the mission through
lightening the soldiers overall load.
Identify the Considerations of Soldier Load Management.
a. Load Carrying Equipment: The following equipment is carried during combat operations
at a minimum: Individual Body Armor (IBA), individual weapons, ammunition, NVG’s,
flashlight/headlamp, first aid, water. The weight of this equipment varies, but is typically
between 30 and 50 pounds. Many soldiers modify issued LCE or purchase after market
gear to fit their body styles and mission. Ensure equipment is accessible, and there are
no pressure points when worn with an assault pack or larger rucksack.
b. Assault Pack: The assault pack comfortably carries up to 30 pounds. Adjust the waist
and sternum straps to avoid interfering with your LCE – this will reduce fatigue when
carrying heavier loads.
c. Main Pack: This is the main load hauling system. The ALICE or MOLLE rucksack,
including other civilian models, is designed to distribute the load over the hips and
shoulders to reduce fatigue. There are certain principles to observe to carry the load
most efficiently.
(1) The general principle is that lighter-weight items go at the bottom, heavier items
are at the top and close to your body. However, if you are going to be patrolling
in rough terrain or snow, pack some of the heavier items a little lower and close
to your back to bring down your center of gravity.
(2) The sleeping bag fits into the compartment found at the bottom of most internal
frame packs, and the MOLLE pack. This is one of the lightest items, and usually
only needed when stopping for the night. Ensure your bag is absolutely
protected in a waterproof bag.
(3) Keep often needed items near the top or in an accessible pocket. Some
examples of this are sunscreen, bug repellent, raingear if expecting bad weather,
snacks and water. These needed items may change depending on the season
or the weather report.
(4) Loosen compression straps while packing to get most use from the inside of your
pack. Tighten the compression straps before moving out to keep the load
stabilized and avoid shifting your center of gravity around.
(5) Avoid hanging items from the outside of the pack – these items catch on
branches, and are unnecessarily noisy.
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Ensure every item in your kit is necessary – Can you share anything with other members of your
squad (stove, filter, etc.)? Can you do multiple things with a single item? Can you live without a
few creature comforts for a short duration? Think about carrying the least amount of gear that
does the most.
Notes
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Mountain Travel Techniques

071E9001
INTRODUCTION: Soldiers moving in mountainous terrain are likely to encounter a wide variety
of terrain types and conditions. The ability to adapt and meet the demands of the terrain is often
essential to mission success. Soldiers must have the knowledge and skills to not only move
through steep rocky terrain, but also to move through deep snow conditions using snowshoes or
skis. Leaders must also understand.
Identify the fundamentals of movement and four types of terrain.
a. Fundamentals of basic mountain movement.
(1) Technique. The soldier’s weight is centered over their feet at all times. Place your
foot flat on the ground to obtain as much sole contact as possible. Place your foot on
the uphill side of grass clumps, small talus and other un-even terrain to avoid twisting
ankles and straining your calves.
(2) Pace. Pace is adapted to the terrain. The soldier maintains pace and compensates
for changes of slope or terrain by adjusting the length of his stride. A steady and
constant pace is enhanced when an interval of three to five paces is kept between
soldiers. This interval helps lessen the "accordion" effect at the end of the file. When
an effective pace is set, a unit can cover a given distance in a minimal time and be
ready to fight.
(3) Rest Breaks.
(a) During the first thirty minutes of movement an adjustment halt should be taken. Soldiers
should loosen or tighten bootlaces as needed, adjust packs and add or remove layers of
clothing.
(b) Following the first halt, a party may take a short rest every 1 to 1.5 hours. These halts
are kept short to avoid muscles stiffening (one to five minutes).
(c) Later in the march, longer halts may be necessary due to fatigue or mission
requirements. At these halts, soldiers should immediately put on additional clothing to
avoid cooling (it is much easier to keep a warm body warm than to warm up a cold one).
(d) After a long climb, a rest may be needed to revive tired muscles.
(4) Rest Step. The rest step is used for steep slopes, snowfields and in higher elevations. It
controls pace and limits fatigue by giving the lungs and legs a moment to recuperate. Pace is
kept slow and rhythmic.
(a) After each step forward, the soldier pauses briefly, relaxing the muscles of the forward
leg while resting his entire body weight on the rear leg. The rear leg is kept straight with
the knee locked so that bone, not muscle, supports the weight.
(b) Breathing is synchronized with the rest step. The number of breaths per step will change
depending on the difficulty of the climb. Steeper slopes or higher elevations may require
several breaths per step. When the air thins at altitude, it is important to breathe deeply.
Note: If side hill travel is necessary, try to switchback periodically and use any lower angle flat
areas such as rocks, animal trails and the ground above grass or brush clumps to level off the
route.
b. Four Types of Terrain.

(1) Hard Ground. Hard ground is firmly compacted, rocky soil that does not give way under
the weight of a soldier’s step. It is most commonly found under mature forest canopy, in low
brush and areas where animals have beaten out multiple trails.
(a) Ascending. When ascending, these slopes can be traversed rather than climbed
straight up. To turn at the end of each traverse, the soldier should step off in the new
direction with the uphill foot. This prevents crossing the feet and possible loss of
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balance. For small stretches, the herringbone step may be used—ascending straight up
a slope with toes pointed out. A normal progression, as the slope gets steeper, would be
from walking straight up, to a herringbone step and then to a traverse on the steeper
areas.
(b) Descending. Descending is best done by walking straight down the slope without
traversing. The soldier keeps his back straight and bends at the knees to absorb the
shock of each step. Body weight is kept directly over the feet and the full boot sole is
placed on the ground with each step. Walking with a slight forward lean and with the feet
in a normal position makes the descent easier.
(2) Grassy Slopes. Grassy slopes can be composed of small clumps of growth rather than
one continuous field.
(a) Ascending. When ascending, step on the upper side where the ground is more level
(b) Descending. When descending, the traverse technique should be used because of
the uneven nature of the ground. A soldier can easily build up too much speed and fall if
a direct descent is tried.
Note: Wet grass can be extremely slippery. The soldier must be aware of ground cover
conditions.
(3) Scree Slopes. Slopes composed of the smallest rocks are called scree slopes. Scree
varies in size from gravel to the size of a man’s fist.
(a) Ascending. Ascending scree slopes is difficult, tiring and should be avoided. All
principles of ascending hard ground and snow apply, but each step is carefully
chosen so the foot does not slide down when weighted. This is done by kicking in
with the toe of the upper foot (similar to step kicking in snow) so that a step is formed
in the loose scree. After determining that the step is stable, weight is transferred to
the upper leg. The soldier then steps up and repeats the process with the next foot.
(b) Descending. The best method for descending scree slopes is to come straight down
the slope using a short shuffling step with the knees bent, back straight, feet pointed
downhill and heels dug in. When several climbers descend a scree slope together,
they should be as close together as possible (one behind the other at single arm
interval) to prevent injury from dislodged rocks. Avoid running down scree as this
can cause a loss of control. When the bottom of the slope cannot be seen, use
caution because drop-offs may be encountered.
(4) Talus Slopes. Talus slopes are composed of rocks larger than a man’s fist.
(a) Ascending / Descending. . When walking in talus, ascending or descending,
climbers should always step on the uphill side of rocks and stay alert for movement underfoot.
Disturbing unstable talus can cause rockslides. Climbers must stay in close columns while
walking through talus so that dislodged rocks do not reach dangerous speeds before reaching
lower soldiers. To prevent rock fall injuries, avoid traversing below other climbers.
(5) Other Terrain.

(a) Snow Slopes. Snow-covered terrain can be encountered throughout the year in
many mountainous areas. The techniques for ascending and descending snow
slopes are similar to walking on hard ground, grassy slopes and scree.
(b) Thick Brush. Brush-filled gullies can provide routes and rally points concealed from
observation. On the other hand, steep brushy terrain is difficult to negotiate. Cliffs
and steep ravines are hidden traps. Blow downs and thickets can obstruct travel as
much as manmade obstacles. When brush must be negotiated, take the most direct
route across the obstacle, look for downed timber to use as raised paths or create a
tunnel through the obstacle by prying the brush apart, standing on lower branches
and using upper limbs for support.
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c. Safety Considerations. Mountain walking techniques are designed to reduce the hazards of
rock fall and loss of control. Carelessness can cause the failure of the best-planned missions.
(1) Whenever a rock is kicked loose, the warning, "Rock!" is shouted immediately near
vertical terrain. Personnel near the bottom of the cliff immediately lean into the cliff to
reduce their exposure and do not look up. Personnel more than 3 meters away from the
bottom of the cliff may look up to determine where the rock is heading and seek cover.
Lacking cover, personnel should anticipate which way the rock is falling and move out of
its path.
(2) If a soldier slips or stumbles on sloping terrain (hard ground, grass, snow or scree) he
must immediately self-arrest, digging into the slope with hands, elbows, knees and toes.
If he falls backwards, he must immediately try to turn over onto his stomach with his legs
downhill and self-arrest with hands and toes.
(3) When traveling through steep terrain, soldiers should be trained in the use of the ice axe
for self-arrest. The axe can be used to arrest a fall on solid ground, grass and scree as
well as snow. It may also be used as a third point of contact on difficult terrain. If not in
use, the ice axe is carried in or on the rucksack.
Move on Snowshoes.
a. Snowshoe Technique.
(1) Striding Technique. In taking each stride, the toe of the snowshoe is lifted forward
conserving energy by lifting no higher than is necessary to clear the snow. The tail
slides over the snow. If the front of the snowshoe catches, the foot is pulled back to
free it and then lifted before proceeding with the stride. The best and least fatiguing
method of travel is a loose-kneed, rocking gait in a rhythmic stride. Avoid stepping
on or catching the other snowshoe.
(2) Gentle Slopes. On gentle slopes, climb straight up to ascend.
(3) Steep Slopes. Ascend steeper terrain by traversing and packing a trail across it.
When climbing, the snowshoe is placed as horizontally as possible in the snow. On
hard snow, the snowshoe is placed flat on the surface with the toe of the higher one
diagonally uphill to get more traction. Traction is very poor on hard-packed or crusty
snow. If the snow is hard enough to support the weight of a person it is better to
remove the snowshoes and proceed on foot.
(4) Turning. When turning around, the best method is to swing the leg up and turn in the
new direction.
(5) Additional Considerations. Step over obstacles such as logs, tree stumps, ditches
and small streams. Take care not to place too much strain on the snowshoe ends by
bridging gaps, as the frames may break. In shallow snow there is a danger of
catching and tearing the webbing on tree stumps or snags. Wet snow will frequently
ball up under the feet, interfering with comfortable walking. Knock the snow off with a
stick or pole when possible. Although ski poles are generally not used in
snowshoeing, one or two poles are desirable when carrying heavy loads, especially
in mountainous terrain. You may cut off circulation and frostbite may occur if bindings
are too tight. During halts, bindings should be checked for fit and possible
readjustment.
b. Training. Snowshoe training requires little technical skill. You can learn the technique in a
few periods of instruction. Stiffness and muscle soreness can be expected, increasing with
loads and distances covered. A good conditioning program must be used to develop
muscles seldom used in ordinary marching. Training should be progressive, with ample time
allowed for the individual to gain proficiency, gradually increasing the distance covered and
weight carried or pulled. Train to overcome obstacles such as dense brush, fallen timber,
and ditches. Stress breaking trail with frequent changes of lead men. You can accomplish
snowshoe training concurrently with other training requiring individual cross-country
movement.
c. Employing and Carrying Weapons on Snowshoes.
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(1) The purpose of using skis or snowshoes in combat is to speed up the movement of
individuals over deep snow. This also exposes them to hostile fire for the shortest
possible time. Individuals using snowshoes may keep them on through all phases of
the attack.
(2) As friendly forces approach the effective range of enemy weapons, they move by fire
and maneuver. Individuals proceed by short rushes on foot, on skis, or on
snowshoes, whichever is most feasible. When rushing on foot or on snowshoes, the
weapon should be readily available for action.
(3) When contact with the enemy is not expected, carry your individual weapon across
your back with the sling over either shoulder. Keep the butt at the side of or attached
to your rucksack (if carried). When contact with the enemy is imminent, sling the
weapon around your neck and in front of your body. When you establish contact with
the enemy, carry your weapon in both hands so the weapon is readily available for
action.
(4) Under conditions where the depth of the snow is less than 20 inches (50cm)
snowshoes might slow you down. Leave snowshoes in the attack position if an
attack on foot seems more efficient. After you seize the objective recover snowshoes
and bring them forward.
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Anchors
071E9039
INTRODUCTION: Anchoring systems are fundamental to mountaineering. In a mountainous

environment, you will be required to establish rope installations to aid personnel and equipment in
their mobility. Without these rope installations, mobility is drastically reduced due to the rugged
terrain. Establishing strong anchors is key to these installations.
Identify considerations of natural anchors.

a. Natural Anchors. Natural anchors should be considered for use first. They are very strong and
often simple to construct with minimal use of equipment. Trees, boulders and other terrain
features are already in place and simply require a method of attaching the rope. However, natural
anchors should be carefully studied and evaluated for stability and strength before use.
Sometimes the climbing rope is tied directly to the anchor, but under most circumstances a sling
is attached to the anchor and then the climbing rope is attached to the sling with a carabiner(s).
b. Trees. Trees are the most widely used of all natural anchors. They must be carefully checked
for suitability.
(1) In rocky terrain, trees have a very shallow root system. Pushing or tugging on the tree to
see how well it is rooted can check this. Anchor low to prevent excess leverage on the tree.
(2) Use padding on soft, sap producing trees to keep sap off ropes and slings.
Trees Used as Anchors
c. Boulders. Boulders and rock projections make ideal anchors. The rock can be firmly tapped
with a piton hammer to ensure it is solid. Loose rock formations are not stable. Talus and scree
fields indicate that the rock in the area is not solid. Pad all areas around the rock formation that
could cut the rope or sling.
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Boulder/Rock Projection Used as an Anchor
d. Chockstones. A chockstone is a rock that is wedged in a crack because the crack narrows
downward. Chockstones should be checked for strength, security, crumbling and should always
be tested before use. All chockstones must be solid and strong enough to support the load. They
must have maximum surface contact and be well tapered with the surrounding rock remaining in
position.
(1) Chockstones are directional. They are secure when pulled in one direction but may pop
out if pulled in another direction.
(2) A creative climber can often make his own chockstone by wedging a rock into position and
tying a rope or sling to it.
(3) Slings should not be wedged between the chockstone and the rock wall since a fall could
cut the sling.
Chockstones
e. Rock Projections. Rock projections often provide suitable protection. These include blocks,
flakes, horns, and spikes. If rock projections are used, their firmness is important. They should be
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checked for cracks or weathering that may impair their strength. If any of these signs exist, the
projection should be avoided.
Rock Projections
f. Tunnels and Arches. Tunnels and arches are holes formed in solid rock and provide one of the
more secure anchor points because they can be pulled in any direction. A sling is threaded
through the opening hole and secured with a joining knot or girth hitch. The load-bearing hole
must be strong and free of sharp edges (pad if necessary).
g. Bushes and Shrubs. If no other suitable anchor is available, routing a rope around the bases
of several bushes can use the roots of bushes. As with trees, the anchoring rope is placed as low
as possible to reduce leverage on the anchor. All vegetation should be healthy and well rooted to
the ground.
Identify Single Point Anchor Techniques.

a. Slinging Techniques. There are many methods used to attach slings or cords to a natural
anchor. Whichever method is used, the knot is set off to the side where it will not interfere with
normal carabiner movement. The carabiner gate should face away from the ground and open
away from the anchor for easy insertion of the rope.
Note: When a locking carabiner cannot be used, two carabiners are used with gates opposite and
opposed. Correctly opposite and opposed gates should form an "X" when opened.
Figure 5
Correctly Opposed Carabiners
(1) Single Loop Method. Drape the sling over the anchor. Untying the sling and routing it
around the anchor and then retying is still considered a single loop method.
(2) Double Bight Method. Wrap the sling around the anchor and connect the two ends
together with a carabiner(s).
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(3) Girth Hitch. Tie the sling around the anchor with a girth hitch. Although a girth hitch
reduces the strength of the sling, it allows the sling to remain in position and not slide on the
anchor.
(4) Overhand. To prevent tri-loading of a carabiner or if you want to keep the webbing in
position, you can tie an overhand.
Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8

Single-Loop Method Double-Bight Method Girth Hitch
h. Anchoring With the Rope.

(1) Direct. The climbing or installation rope can be tied directly to the anchor using several
different techniques. This requires less equipment, but also sacrifices some rope length to tie
the anchor. The rope can be tied to the anchor using an appropriate anchor knot such as a
bowline, three-loop bowline or a rerouted figure eight. Round turns can be used to help keep
the rope in position on the anchor.
(2) High Strength Tie off. The high strength tie off is used to anchor the rope on high-load
installations such as bridging. The wraps of the rope around the anchor absorb the tension of
the installation and keep the tension off the knot and carabiner. The anchor is tied with a
minimum of two wraps to absorb the tension. The rope is wrapped from top to bottom. A fixed
loop is placed into the end of the rope and attached back onto the rope with a locking
carabiner.
Figure 9
High Strength Tie-Off (AKA Tensionless Anchor)
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Identify Artificial Anchors.

a. Artificial Anchors. Artificial anchors become necessary when natural anchors are unavailable.
Choosing and placing good anchors requires a great deal of practice and experience. Artificial
anchors are available in many different types such as pitons, chocks, bolts, SLCDs, ice screws,
deadmen, and snow pickets. Anchor strength varies greatly. The type used depends on the
terrain, equipment, rock and ice quality and the load to be placed on it.
b. Pitons. Pitons have been in use for over 100 years. Although still available, pitons are not
used as often as other types of artificial anchors due primarily to their impact on the environment.
Most climbers prefer to use chocks, SLCDs and other artificial anchors rather than pitons
because they do not scar the rock and are easier to remove.
(1) Advantages.
(a) Depending placement, pitons can support multiple directions of pull.
(b) Pitons are less complex than other types of artificial anchors.
(c) Pitons work well in very thin cracks.
(2) Disadvantages.
(a) During military operations, the distinct sound created when hammering pitons
is a tactical disadvantage.
(b) Due to the expansion force of emplacing a piton, the rock could spread apart
or break causing an unsafe condition.
(c) Pitons are more difficult to remove than other types of artificial anchors.
(d) Pitons leave noticeable scars on the rock.
(e) Pitons are easily dropped if not tied off when being used.
(3) Piton Placement. The proper positioning or placement of pitons is critical. A properly
sized piton for a rock crack will fit one-half to two thirds into the crack before being driven
with the piton hammer. This helps ensure the depth of the crack is adequate for the size
piton selected. As pitons are driven into the rock the pitch or sound that is made will
change with each hammer blow, becoming higher pitched as the piton is driven in.
(a) Test the rock for soundness by tapping with the hammer. Driving pitons in soft
or rotten rock is not recommended. When this type of rock must be used, clear
the loose rock, dirt and debris from the crack before driving the piton completely
in.
(b) While it is being driven, attach the piton to a sling with a carabiner (an old
carabiner should be used, if available) so that if the piton is knocked out of the
crack, it will not be lost. The greater the resistance while driving the piton, the
firmer the anchor will be. The holding power depends on the climber placing the
piton in a sound crack, and on the type of rock. The piton should not spread the
rock, thereby loosening the emplacement.
Note: Pitons that have rings as attachment points might not display much change in sound as
they are driven in as long as the ring moves freely.
Note: Eye protection should always be worn when driving a piton into rock.
Note: The proper use and placement of pitons, as with any artificial anchor, should be studied,
practiced and tested while both feet are firmly on the ground and there is no danger of a fall.
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Piton Placements
(4) Removing Pitons. Attach a carabiner and sling to the piton before removal to eliminate
the chance of dropping and losing it. Tap the piton firmly along the axis of the crack in
which it is located. Alternate tapping from both sides while applying steady pressure.
Pulling out on the attached carabiner eventually removes the piton.
Piton Removal
(5) Types and Characteristics of Pitons. Most pitons are classified as blades or angles,
although there are several other shapes and sizes.
(a) Blade Pitons. Use vertical pitons for flush, vertical cracks; horizontal pitons
for flush, horizontal cracks; wafer pitons for shallow vertical or horizontal cracks.
(b) Angle Pitons. Use angle pitons for wide cracks. Place them with the open
side down in horizontal cracks and against either wall in vertical cracks.
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c. Chocks. Chock craft has been in use for many decades. A natural chockstone, having fallen
and wedged in a crack, provides an excellent anchor point. Sometimes these chockstones are in
unstable positions, but can be made into excellent anchors with little adjustment. Chock craft is
an art that requires time, technique and practice to master. Imagination and resourcefulness are
key principles to chock craft. The skilled climber must understand the application of mechanical
advantage, vectors, and other forces that affect the belay chain in a fall.
(1) Advantages.
(a) Tactically quiet installation and recovery.
(b) Reusable unless severely damaged.
(c) Light to carry.
(d) Easy to insert and remove.
(e) Minimal rock scarring as opposed to pitons.
(f) Sometimes can be placed where pitons cannot (expanding rock flakes where
pitons would further weaken the rock).
(2) Disadvantages.
(a) May not fit in thin cracks, which may accept pitons.
(b) Often provide only one direction of pull.
(c) Practice and experience necessary to become proficient in proper placement.
(3) Placement. The principles of placing chocks are to find a crack with a constriction at
some point, place a chock of appropriate size above and behind the constriction and set
the chock by pulling down on the chock loop. Maximum surface contact with a tight fit is
critical. Chocks are good for a single direction of pull.
(a) Avoid cracks that have crumbly (soft) or deteriorating rock. Some cracks may
have loose rock, grass and dirt, which should be removed before placing the
chock. Look for a constriction point in the crack and then select a chock to fit it.
(b) When selecting a chock, choose one that has as much surface area as
possible in contact with the rock. A chock resting on one small crystal or point of
rock is unsafe. A chock that sticks partly out of the crack is dangerous. Ensure
that the chock has a wire or runner long enough; extra ropes, cord or webbing
may be needed to extend the length of the runner.
(c) Parallel-sided cracks without constrictions are a problem. Chocks used in this
situation rely on camming principles to remain placed. Weighting the placement
with extra hardware is often necessary to keep the chocks from dropping out.
Chock Placements
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(4) Testing. After seating a chock, test it to ensure it remains in place. A chock
that falls out when the climber moves past it is unsafe, dangerous and offers no
protection. To test it, firmly pull the chock in every anticipated direction of pull.
Some chock placements fail in one or more directions; use pairs of chocks in
opposition.
d. Spring-Loaded Camming Devices (SLCDs). The SLCD is a spring-activated camming device.

It was developed to provide reliable placements in cracks where ordinary chocks are difficult or
impossible to place, (i.e. parallel-sided cracks, flaring cracks and cracks under roofs). A SLCD
can be placed quickly and be very convenient (saving time and effort in places where protection
is needed and ordinary chocks would be tricky and time consuming to place).
Spring Loaded Camming Devices
(1) Placement. SLCDs are easy to place. Just hold it like a hypodermic syringe,
pull the trigger, place it in the crack and release the trigger.
(2) Removal. Pull the trigger and gently remove.
(3) Misc.
(a)There should be as much surface area as possible between the
camming lobes of the device and the rock.
(b) Avoid placing the lobes on small crystals.
(c) The cams should always be placed between 1/3 and 2/3 of its
expansion range. If the bar must be pulled all the way back to get it into
the crack, it may be impossible to remove. Use a smaller size.
(d) Do not place the SLCD any deeper into the crack than necessary. It
may be impossible to reach the trigger for removal.
(e) When placed behind flakes or in deep cracks, SLCD have been
known to "walk up" into the crack out of reach, as a result of rope action.
SLCD should be extended with a runner in such placements.
(f) SLCDs should always be placed so the direction of pull is parallel to
the shaft or it can rotate and pull out.
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(e) SLCDs produce tremendous force on the rock when loaded. The
rock around the placement must be solid. Avoid placements behind thin
or loose flakes.
e. Bolts. Bolts are used where cracks are not available.

(1) Bolts provide one of the most secure means of establishing anchors. The rock should
be inspected for evidence of crumbling, flaking, cracking and can be tested with a
hammer. Placing a bolt with a hammer and a hand drill is a time-consuming and difficult
process that requires drilling a hole in the rock deeper than the length of the bolt. This can
takes up to 20 minutes for one hole in hard rock. Battery powered or even gas-powered
drills can be used to greatly shorten drilling time. However, their size and weight can
make them difficult to carry.
(2) A hanger and nut are placed on the bolt; the bolt is inserted and then driven into the
hole. A climber should never hammer on a bolt to test or "improve" it, since this
permanently weakens it. Bolts should be used with hangers, carabiners and runners.
(3) Some bolts are available in which the sleeve is hammered and turned into the rock
(self-drilling), which bores the hole. Split bolts and expanding sleeves are the most
common types of bolts. Surgical tubing is useful in blowing dust out of the holes. Nail type
bolts are placed by driving the nail with a hammer to expand the sleeve against the wall
of the drilled hole.
Note: Safety glasses should always be worn when placing bolts.
Bolt with Expanding Sleeve
f. Snow and Ice Anchors.
(1) The ice axe: The ice axe can be a superb anchor in suitable snow conditions. However,
oftentimes snow is either too hard or too soft for an ice axe anchor to be effective. Other
anchors must be found.
(2) Snow pickets: Snow pickets are stakes, angled or T-shaped, made of aluminum with holes
drilled along its length for carabiner attachment. They can be used as stakes or buried in the
snow as deadmen (see deadmen). They are made in a variety of lengths to suit snow
conditions.
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(3) Deadmen: A deadman is a rectangular aluminum plate. Bury or pound a deadman in the
snow at an angle approximately 45-degrees away from the direction of the load. A steel cable
with a loop in the end to clip into, runs perpendicular from the plate toward the belayer. Set
the deadman in the snow. Arrange the suspension to pull harder on the inner end. The
harder it is loaded, the deeper it is buried when loaded. This sounds like it provides absolute
security in very soft snow, but there are some problems. If a deadman is not set at the proper
angle, it can pull out. It can dig into the snow until it hits ice or an old hard crust that causes it
to glance off and pull out.
(a) When working in soft snow, bury the deadman as deep as possible. In hard snow it is
necessary to hammer the plate in or to cut a suitably shaped slot. Remember; do not
disturb the snow between the plate and the direction of pull except to cut a slot for the
cable. Cut this narrow slot in all types of snow. Viewed from above, the wire must be at
right angles to the plate. If possible, test-load the anchor to ensure proper seating.
Snow Deadman
(4) Other deadman-type anchors. Bury an ice axe or picket horizontally across the slope as
deep as possible and tie in to the middle of the shaft with a prusik knot. A pack stuffed into a
hole and then buried can also make a good anchor.
(5) Snow / Ice Bollard. The bollard or horseshoe anchor is the most valuable. This
constructed "horn" is simple and efficient. The major drawback is construction time.
Bollard
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(a) The strength of a bollard depends on its size and to the hardness of the snow or ice.
Even in soft snow a properly constructed bollard can hold hundreds of pounds, and on ice it
can be so strong that the rope is the weak link.
(b) A bollard on ice needs to be only one foot in diameter, but on soft snow, is must be
broader and deeper. Ten feet across and eighteen inches deep. If the snow is
compactable, you should pack it down before you cut a groove for the rope. Do not leave
any slack in the anchor rope and make sure you shape the slot like the head of a
mushroom so that the rope cannot jump out.
(6) Ice screws: Use ice screws to establish anchor points. Ice screws are threaded and are
placed into the ice by hand and then turned like a screw.
(a) Clear away any rotten ice before placing a screw, and angle the screw a few degrees
away from the direction of pull. It is possible to place a foot long screw in just a few
seconds. It is ideal to place the ice screw so that the hanger is flush with the surface of the
ice.
Ice Screws/Picket
(b) To use multiple screws or pitons in a load-sharing anchor, join them together using the
same techniques as you would for rock anchors. Space the screws offset to avoid
fracturing the ice.
(7) V-threads. A properly placed V-thread is stronger than a screw because the surface area
of the ice supporting your weight is much greater than that of the threads on an ice screw.
They take practice to construct and get good at, but once learned are invaluable as anchors.
To place a V-thread:
(a) Find the area of solid ice that has the least air pockets or cracks through it.
(b) Place the longest screw you can in the ice, at an angle and location that will allow you
to drill another screw to meet the first hole. It is sometimes easier to leave the first screw
partially in the ice so you can use it as a gauge for the correct angle and location for the
second screw. You will be able to see the second screw intersect the hole from the first.
The two holes should be 4-6 inches apart for maximum strength.
(c) Push a piece of cord or webbing through one hole and pull it out the other with the
thread tool. A thread tool is a 12-inch section of coat hanger bent into a hook on one side
and a loop for hanging a carabiner on the other side.
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(d) Tie the ends of the cord together with a joining knot. If the hole is shallow, cracked, or
in hollow ice, move and try again.
Identify Earth Anchors.

a. Earth Anchor.
(1) Dead-man. A "dead-man" anchor is any solid object buried in the ground and used as
an anchor. An object that has a large surface area and some length to it works best.
Large boulders can be used, as well as a bundle of smaller tree limbs or poles. As with
natural anchors, ensure timbers and tree limbs are not dead or rotting and that boulders
are solid. Equipment, such as skis, ice axes, snowshoes, and rucksacks, can also be
used if necessary. In extremely hard, rocky terrain a variation of the dead-man anchor
can be constructed by building above the ground. The sling is attached to the anchor,
which is set into the ground as deeply as possible. Boulders are then stacked on top of it
until the anchor is strong enough for the load. Though not as strong as when buried, this
method can work well for light-load installations as in anchoring a hand line for a stream
crossing.
Figure 10
Dead-man Anchor
(2) Picket holdfast. The picket holdfast is easier to construct but will not hold as well as
the dead-man. Drive pickets (at least 2 meters long and 8 cm in diameter) one meter into the
ground and 1 to 2 meters apart. Align one behind the other, each 90 degrees to the direction of
pull. Tightly lash the head of each picket (except the last one) to the base of the one behind. Tie
the anchor to the base of the picket closest to the load.
Identify Vehicle Anchor Considerations.
a. Vehicles can oftentimes be used as anchor points for many situations rather quickly
provided there is sufficient access. Care must be taken to ensure that parking brakes are
applied and wheels are adequately chalked. One must also make certain that
appropriate attachment points are selected and care is taken to protect all rope and
webbing from sharp edges. Always be cautious and conservative when using vehicles as
anchors for any technical rope work.
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Tie Down Points
Use Caution When

Using Pintle Hitch
Bumper
Clevis Hitch
Tie Down Points

Sling Load
Points
Do Not Use
Brush Guard
Around Tire
From the Top
Clevis Hooks Bumper
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Identify Considerations of Equalizing Multiple Point Anchors.

a. Multiple Anchor Systems. Joining the strength of many single anchor points together may be
necessary when the individual anchors are not substantial enough for the load on their own. You
may construct these systems with natural, artificial or a combination of both types of anchors. The
preferred technique is called pre-equalized. For use the direction of pull must be reasonably
predictable.
b. Angles. The angle formed by the rope or runner going to the load effects the weight
distribution to the anchors of a dual anchor arrangement.
Figure 23
Effects of Angles on Anchors
Identify Methods of Equalizing Multiple Point Anchors.
a. Pre-equalized Systems. With an endless loop clip one strand through a carabiner in
each anchor. Pull a bight down between each anchor and adjust all the bights in the
direction of force. Tie them off with a double figure eight loop.
b. Pre-equalizing two natural anchors such as trees oftentimes does not require the use of
carabiners at the anchor. To use this method simply attach one end of a cord or short
length of rope to one tree with a bowline, then attach the other end to the other tree in the
same way. Then grasp the rope in the direction the anchors will be loaded and tie a
double figure of eight loop. Ensure angles are appropriate.
Pre-Equalized Anchor
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Identify Techniques for Rappel Anchors.
a. Non-Retrievable Rappel Point.

(1) Rappels less than ½ The Rope Length. Double the rope and tie a three-loop bowline
around each anchor. Use correct anchor knot for selected site (i.e. three loop bowline,
two-loop figure eight, MOR clove hitch with bowline, etc).
(2) Rappels Greater Than ½ the Rope Length. Use two ropes. Tie the end of the rope off
correctly. Repeat with the second rope.
(3) Place knots at ends of rope to prevent from rappelling off.
b. Retrievable Rappel Point.

(1) Retrievable Rappels Less Than ½ the Rope Length.
(a) Place the middle of the rope around or in the anchor.
(b) Tie a figure eight knot at both ends of the rope to avoid rappelling off the end.
(c) Use both sections of the rope to descend.
(d) When finished, pull on one section of the rope to retrieve.
(e) If the rappel rope catches on something when pulled and one end is out of reach,
you have the choice of leaving the rope or climbing unroped to free it. To avoid
this, the first person untangles the rappel ropes while descending and those
following will attempt to do the same. Before the last person comes down,
someone pulls one end of the rope to make certain it can be retrieved easily.
(2) Retrievable Rappels Greater than ½ the Rope Length.
(a) Join the ends of two ropes together with a double figure eight with 12-18" pigtails.
Tighten each strand of rope individually.
(b) Place the joined ropes around the anchor with the joining knot offset.
(c) When you reach the bottom of the rappel pull on the end of rope that has the
joining knot.
(d) Pull the rope steadily so the free end will not whip and wrap around anything.
Call "ROPE" loudly before the rope falls. When the top anchor is set back from
the edge, take the end of the rope to be pulled and walk away from the cliff to
lessen the angle of the rope and allow it to be pulled more easily.
Note: Keep track of which rope is "clean" and which rope has a knot tied in it.
Rappel Anchors Chart
Anchor Type Training Site (2 fixed lines) Retrievable

Tree anchor, < half rope Triple bowline at tree Middle of rope at back of tree
length
Multi-point anchor, < half rope Double Figure of Eight clipped Middle of rope clipped into
to carabiners at hotpoint hotpoint
Tree anchor, > half rope 2 ropes, each tied off with 2 ropes joined with joining knot
length bowline at tree just offset from tree
Multi-point anchor, > half rope 2 ropes, each tied with double 2 ropes joined and clipped to
length Figure of Eight clipped to carabiners at hotpoint, joining
carabiners at Hotpoint knot just offset from hotpoint
Notes
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
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High Altitude Illness and Prevention

071E9023
Introduction: Units operating in mountainous regions are exposed to a variety of injuries and
illnesses. The more time you spend in mountainous environments, the more you need to be self-
sufficient. Decentralized operations in mountainous environments means that you will be
required to perform many tasks without guidance and direct assistance of higher echelons. Your
ability to assess, treat, prepare and evacuate a fellow soldier rapidly and correctly may be the
difference between life and death.
Identify Acclimatization Considerations.
a. Acclimatization and Conditioning. Training in mountains of low or medium elevation 5,000 to

8,000 feet does not require acclimatization procedures. Poor physical condition will decrease
performance even at low altitudes. All non-acclimated soldiers display some altitude effects
above 8,000 feet.
b. Acclimatization. When you can live and function physically and psychologically, you are
acclimated to that elevation. The acclimatization process begins when you arrive at the higher
elevation. If the change in elevation is large and abrupt, some soldiers will suffer the symptoms
of acute mountain sickness. Disappearance of symptoms (4-7 days) does not suggest complete
acclimatization. The process continues for weeks or months. Attempts to acclimatize beyond
17,000 feet results in a degradation of the body greater than the benefits gained.
Identify Acclimatization Methods.

a. Deployment to High Elevations. There is no way to shorten the acclimatization process and
the absence of acclimatization hampers operations. The following measures are important:
(1) Ascend by Stages. Spend 2 or 3 days at each stage, beginning at 8,000 feet and
subsequent stages of 2,000 to 3,000 feet increments, will insure that the ultimate
destination is reached. By this time, a considerable degree of acclimatization will have
occurred, mountain sickness greatly reduced and the operational potential greatly
increased.
(2) Pre-treatment. Pre-treating soldiers with Carbonic Anhydrate inhibitors such as
acetazolamide (Diamox) will reduce the incidence and severity of acute mountain
sickness.
(3) Local Acclimatization. Begin acclimatization in CONUS or another safe area before
deployment to the operational area. Deploy to the operational areas by rapid transport
once acclimatization is complete.
(4) Rest Cycle. If troops are moved directly to high altitudes, the first 3 to 5 days must be a
period of relative inactivity.
(5) Nutrition. Plan for and ensure sufficient caloric intake at higher elevations to
accommodate increased work output.
(6) Water. Danger from dehydration is as high in mountain regions as in hot dry areas. Plan
on at least 4 quarts per day when in bivouac and 6 quarts per day when active. Boil
water and snow from an unknown source for a minimum of 1 minute to kill bacteria and
microorganisms.
Identify High Altitude Medical Problems.
a. High Altitude Medical Problems. Medical problems associated with high altitude include
several uncomfortable and life threatening conditions. All are primarily the result of a decreased
oxygen concentration in the blood caused by the lower atmospheric pressure at high altitude.
Altitude illness does not occur on the highest mountains only. More people are more affected
between 8,000 and 12,000 feet than at higher altitudes. Many examples confirm that not only
altitude and rate of climb, but also the length of stay and the effort expended, decide whether an
individual will or will not have some kind of altitude illness.
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Identify Acute Mountain Sickness.

a. Acute Mountain Sickness.
(1) Definition. Acute Mountain sickness is a temporary illness.
(2) Cause. Rapid ascent over 8,000 feet in elevation.
(3) Signs and Symptoms.
(a) Sickness, sluggishness, headache.
(b) A headache is the most distressing symptom and may be severe. Even
when a headache is not present there is a loss of appetite.
(c) Nausea occurs even without food intake.
(d) Vomiting may occur and will contribute to dehydration.
(e) Despite fatigue, a soldier will be unable to sleep.
Note: The symptoms usually develop and increase to a peak intensity by the second day, then
gradually subside over the next several days. The headache may last until the soldier returns to
lower elevations. Most soldiers WILL experience some degree of Acute Mountain Sickness at
elevations above 8,000 feet.
(4) Treatment.
(a) Consists of relieving the headache with non-aspirin substitutes.
(b) The patient should wear sunglasses since bright sunlight seems to
aggravate the headache.
(c) Reassure the soldier.
(d) Encourage fluids and light foods in small frequent amounts.
(e) Moving the soldier lower 2,000 to 3,000 feet may alleviate the symptoms.
(5) Prevention.
(a) Acclimatization.
(b) Moving at progressive staged ascent, slows assumption of physical
activity.
(c) Protection from cold.
(6) Misc.
(a) We are subject to this sickness at altitudes as low as 8,000 feet.
(b) Incidence and severity increase with altitude and when transport to high
altitudes is rapid.
(c) Indications are that substantial disability and ineffectiveness can occur in
50 to 80 percent of troops rapidly brought to altitudes in excess of 12,000
feet.
(d) At lower altitudes or where ascent to altitudes is gradual, the lessened
severity of the sickness will allow a majority to carry out assignments
with moderate effectiveness, although with some discomfort.
(e) Arrival at high elevations 8,000 to 14,000 feet commonly feels well for
the first few hours. A feeling of exhilaration or well being is not unusual.
There may be an initial awareness of breathlessness upon exertion and
a need for frequent pauses to rest.
(f) Breathing irregularities can occur, particularly during sleep. Individuals
who become aware of these changes may exhibit some apprehension.
(g) The true onset of symptoms begins 4 to 12 hours after arrival at the
higher altitude.
Identify Sleep Hypoxia.
a. Sleep Hypoxia.
(1) Definition. A slight drop in arterial hemoglobin oxygen saturation occurs due to a
decrease in the rate and depth of breathing.
(2) Cause. Decrease in arterial oxygen during sleep.
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(3) Signs and Symptoms. Inability of many individuals to sleep well at high altitude. It
may also explain why headache and other symptoms of acute mountain sickness are
more severe during the night.
(4) Treatment. Diamox can relieve the severity of sleep hypoxia.
(5) Prevention. None.
(6) Misc. During sleep at sea level, a slight drop in arterial hemoglobin oxygen
saturation occurs due to a decrease in the rate and depth of breathing. During sleep at
high altitude, the decrease in ventilation of the lungs is more marked, fluctuates widely
and arterial oxygen saturation may reach very low levels.
Identify High Altitude Pulmonary Edema.
a. High Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE)

(1) Definition. HAPE is a swelling and filling of the lungs with fluid caused by rapid
ascent. It occurs at high altitudes and limits the oxygen supply to the body.
(2) Cause. Rapid ascent to heights over 8,000 feet.
(a) Progressive dry cough that becomes productive with frothy white or pink
sputum.
(b) Cyanosis or the turning blue of the face, hands, and feet will occur and
will become more intense.
(c) Most victims have the symptoms of acute mountain sickness. The early
pulmonary difficulties may not be primary or striking.
(d) Closely observe personnel with acute mountain sickness for increasing
ill feeling, labored breathing, repeated clearing of the throat, and
development of the dry cough and an increase of difficult and labored
breathing at night.
(e) In rapidly progressive cases, the onset of respiratory difficulty may be
quite sudden, associated with a choking feeling and rapid deterioration.
(f) Oxygen Saturation < 80-85% (Determined with pulse oximeter).
(4) Treatment.
(a) Prompt treatment consisting of rest, warmth and oxygen.
(b) Immediate evacuation to lower altitudes 3,000 feet by air if possible.
The patient should not be allowed to descend on foot, as physical work
accelerates HAPE.
(c) Medical personnel should consider administering morphine for the
systemic vasodilatation, Furosemide (Lasix) given orally as a diuretic,
Nifidipine (Procardia), a calcium ion flux inhibitor, decreases contractility
and oxygen demand and Diphenhydramine (Benadryl) which alleviates
the histamine response that increases mucosal secretions.
(d) If immediate descent is not possible, place patient in a hyperbaric
chamber if available (Gamov bag) to increase atmospheric pressure.
(e) If untreated, HAPE will become irreversible and lead to death. You can
expect recovery in cases that are recognized early and treated promptly.
(f) Individuals who have had a previous attack of HAPE are more prone to
have subsequent attacks.
(5) Prevention.
(b) Moving at a progressively staged ascent slows assumption of physical
activity.
Note: A program of acclimatization, as indicated under acute mountain sickness can largely
prevent HAPE. Immediate descent is the BEST treatment for HAPE.
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(6) Misc.
(a) High altitude pulmonary edema is the most dangerous of the common
types of altitude illness.
(b) HAPE is encountered exclusively at high elevations and
characteristically occurs in individuals experiencing mountain sickness.
(c) HAPE is characterized by high mortality.
(d) Incidence and severity increase with altitude.
(e) Except for acclimatization, there is no known resistance or immunity.
(f) Cases are rare on the day of arrival and infrequent after the fourth day.
There are few cases after more then ten days at altitude.
(g) The incidence of HAPE is much less frequent than that of mountain
sickness.
(h) Factors contributing to HAPE include: a history of prior high altitude
pulmonary edema, a rapid or abrupt transition to high altitude, strenuous
physical exertion, exposure to cold and anxiety.
(i) A drop in the concentration of oxygen in the blood results, eventually
causing cyanosis, impaired cerebral function and finally death by
suffocation.
Note: Depending upon the ease versus hazards of evacuation, the use of rest, warmth and
oxygen may be preferable to a hasty evacuation to lower elevations.
Identify High Altitude Cerebral Edema.
a. High Altitude Cerebral Edema (HACE)

(1) Definition. HACE is the accumulation of fluid in the brain, which results in swelling,
and a depression of the brain function that will result in death.
(2) Cause. Rapid ascent to heights over 10,000 feet aggravated by overexertion.
(a) Rare below 10,000 feet.
(b) A severe headache seen lower is an early form.
(c) Takes several days to develop but rarely comes on swiftly.
(d) Characterized by increasing headache, poor judgment, auditory or
visual hallucinations, in coordination, stumbling walk (ataxia),
drowsiness, coma and death.
(4) Treatment. Descent is mandatory, urgent and often the only effective treatment, as
well as rest, warmth, and oxygen.
(5) Prevention.
(b) Moving at a progressively staged ascent slows assumption of physical
activity.
(6) Misc.
(a) Cerebral edema develops over the course of a few days. It is quite
unlikely to happen on Mount Rainier where altitude exposure is usually
limited to two days and maximum sleeping altitude is 10,000 to 11,000
feet.
(b) It is not uncommon in the Everest region where altitude exposure is at
least seven days and maximum sleeping elevation varies from 16000 to
18000 feet (possibly even higher).
Note: Immediate descent is the ONLY treatment for HACE.
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Identify High Altitude Retinal Hemorrhage.
a. High Altitude Retinal Hemorrhage.

(1) Definition. Hemorrhages within the eyes at altitude.
(2) Cause. Retinal hemorrhages may develop at altitudes as low as 9,000 feet they are
common above 16,000 feet. They are asymptomatic unless in the macular region and
resolve rapidly. Small hemorrhages may also occur under the nails, in the kidneys, and in
the brain.
(3) Signs and Symptoms. Small hemorrhages in your eyes. Possible decrease in vision.
(4) Treatment. Require no treatment. Resolving while the climber remains at high
altitude. Permanent damage is uncommon, but has been reported.
(5) Prevention. None.
Identify High Altitude Systemic Edema.
a. High Altitude Systemic Edema.

(1) Definition. Swelling of tissues at altitude.
(2) Cause. Mechanism unknown, but presumably similar to fluid retention in AMS.
(3) Signs and Symptoms. Swelling of feet, hand, eyelids and face. Nuisance but
harmless/clears up upon descent.
(4) Treatment. Treat with diuretics or descend.
(5) Prevention. None. Avoiding salt may help.
Identify Fluid and Nutritional Requirements While Operating at Altitude.
a. Energy requirements for soldiers operating at elevations above 8,000 feet will
increase 15-50% over that needed at sea level for comparable exertion, depending on
the elevation and type of mission. Soldiers should expect to expend up to 6,000
calories per day depending upon the temperature, altitude and physical activity.
Operations at altitude in rough terrain require mental toughness and physical stamina.
Hydration and appropriate (adequate) calorie intake is essential for maintaining peek
operating performance. Leadership and individual preparation for sustaining operations
in a high-altitude environment is essential.
b. High Altitude Hydration Requirements.

(1) Factors That Cause Dehydration.
(a) Increased urinary output due to cold diuresis.
(b) Water loss from the lungs from increased ventilation of cold dry air.
(c) Sweating from increased physical exertion.
(d) Vomiting and diarrhea, especially in the first few days at altitude.
(e) Water purification and water resources may be unavailable or limiting.
(2) Considerations for Proper Hydration.

(a) Maintain a sustainable water requirement of a minimum 5 quarts per soldier
per day
(b) Drink water consistently throughout the day as tolerated.
(c) Maintain hydration especially when first arriving at altitude, this may decrease
the effects of AMS.
(d) Soldiers will not “feel” the urge to drink, although the water requirement has
increased.
(e) Water purification must be available. Boiling water may be limiting as the fuel
requirement to boil water increases with altitude (longer boiling times).
(f) Water will freeze as the temperatures decrease. Consider insulating
containers for hydration systems.
(g) Water gathered from local sources must be considered contaminated and
appropriate purification methods should be used.
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(h) Cold Weather Rations (RCW) require water to rehydrate food contents. Water
is also required for food absorption within the body, so adequate water should be
ingested with a dehydrated meal.
NOTE: Proper hydration in a high-altitude environment is critical to soldier sustainability and

mission success. It is very easy to become dehydrated as the urge to drink decreases with
altitude. Dehydration exacerbates the effects of altitude, environmental injuries, increases fatigue
and impairs judgment.
c. High Altitude Calorie Requirements.

(1) Adequate Calorie Intake.
(a) Soldiers can be expected to burn between 4,500 – 6,000 calories per day
while operating in a high-altitude environment.
(b) Suggested daily energy allowances (4,500 calories) for high-altitude
operations can be consumed in 4 MREs’ or 1 Ration, Cold Weather (RCW). The
RCW requires about 3 quarts of water to rehydrate all of the food contents. As a
rule of thumb it requires about 2 pounds of food per soldier per day (excluding
packaging) to sustain caloric intake for energy expenditure while at altitude. A
high-carbohydrate diet is desired as it will replace muscle energy stores and
keep blood sugar levels balanced. A low blood sugar level combined with the
effects of altitude can lead to disorientation, confusion and lack of coordination.
(c) Calorie intake should be in the ratio of 60-65% carbohydrates, 20-25% fat, 10-
15% protein.
(d) Drinking carbohydrate-loaded beverages can be easily tolerated and helps to
ingest calories and remain hydrated. 400-600g of carbohydrates per day (60-
70% of dietary energy) is suggested for optimal performance. This is difficult to
achieve unless soldiers consistently drink carbohydrate-loaded beverages or
snack on easily digested high-carbohydrate foods. The first 24-72 hrs after
arriving at a higher elevation may produce nausea and vomiting. Warm,
carbohydrate based fluids are well received and can help with energy and fluid
requirements if solid food cannot be tolerated.
EXAMPLES:
§ Carbohydrate Beverages include Beverage Base Powders,
Electrolyte Packets found in MRE and RCW, Gatorade, PowerAde,
Cider, Cocoa, Sweet Tea etc…
§ High-Carbohydrate foods include Cereals, Crackers, Fig Newtons,
Breads, Dried Fruits, Granola Bars, Bagels, and Pastries etc…
(e) MREs’ and RCWs’ provide adequate protein requirements for operations at
altitude. A high fat diet is discouraged as the energy requirements for metabolism
are increased. If high fat foods are desired consume them with high carbohydrate
foods. MREs’ and RCWs’ provide enough vitamins and minerals that
supplementation is not needed.
NOTE: Everything is harder at altitude. It will take discipline and constant monitoring to maintain
proper food and fluid intake throughout the day. Meals should be eaten warmed if applicable and
“snacking” should be encouraged throughout the day. Bring foods that you know you like to eat
because your appetite will diminish as you gain altitude.
Notes
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Rappelling in Mountainous Terrain

071E9011
INTRODUCTION: Rappelling is a technique to get soldiers down steep, slippery or hazardous

terrain safely. Terrain will determine which technique to use.
Perform a hasty rappel.
a. Hasty Rappel.
(1) Face sideways to the anchor and place the rope across your back. Your elbows
trap the rope over your back.
(2) The hand nearest to the anchor is your guide hand, and the other, your brake.
(3) Lean out 90’ from the rock.
(4) To stop, bring your brake hand across your chest and turn toward the anchor. It
is easier and faster than the other methods, especially when the rope is wet.
Perform a Body Rappel.

a. Body Rappel.
(1) Face the anchor and straddle the rope.
(2) Pull the rope from behind, run it around either hip, diagonally across the chest,
over the shoulder and to the brake hand opposite the shoulder.
(3) Lead with the braking hand and face slightly sideways. Do not cross your feet.
Keep the other hand on the rope above you as a guide, not a brake.
(4) Lean out at a 90-degree angle to the rock. Keep your legs spread and your back
straight.
(5) Turn your collar up to prevent rope burns on the neck. Use articles of clothing as
padding where needed.
(6) To brake, lean back, pivot on uphill foot, turn towards the anchor and bring
downhill hand up and across the chest at the same time.
Perform a Seat Hip Rappel.

a. Seat Hip. This method has little friction and is fast. Keep loose clothing or equipment away
from the carabiner.
(1) Face the anchor.
(2) If right handed, stand with the rope to your right; if left handed, to the left.
(3) Take slack from the anchor side. Bring the ropes around the spine of the
carabiner (forming a round turn) and place them into the gate. If a single rope is
used, repeat to place two round turns around the spine.
(4) Ensure the rope is snapped in correctly or the results could be fatal.
(5) Facing sideways, descend using your upper hand as the guide and the lower as
the brake.
(6) Grasp the rope by the brake hand with the thumb pointing down and toward the
body. Hold the brake hand behind and slightly above the hip.
(7) Brake by tightening your grip and pressing the rope against your body. Stay in
an "L" shape body position and make a smooth descent.
Perform a Rappel Using a Rappel Device.
a. Rappel Device. This has more friction and is slower than using a carabiner. Keep fingers and
loose clothing away from the rappel device.
(1) Place a locking carabiner through the waist and the leg connector strap of your
harness.
(2) Face the anchor. If right-handed, stand with the rope to your right; if left-handed, to
the left.
(3) Hold the rappel device with the slots toward you. Place a bight of rope through the
slot.
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(4) Attach the small hole or cable of the rappel device and the bight of rope into the
locking carabiner.
(5) Descend by using your upper hand as the guide and the lower hand as the brake.
Grasp the rope in your brake hand with your thumb pointing up and towards the
device. Hold your brake hand slightly above the hip.
(6) Brake by closing your hand around the rope.
(7) Keep an "L" shaped body position. Make a smooth descent.
Note: Do not let the rope abrade the harness.
Perform a Rappel Extending the Rappel Device.

a. Extending the Rappel Device. There are times when the friction device needs to be further
away from the body (rappelling with a self-belay).
(1) Girth hitch a piece of webbing correctly through the harness or place a double bight
through the same area.
(2) At the end of this webbing, place a locking carabiner and the rappel device. The
rappel device should remain within arms reach.
(3) Place the rope correctly through the rappel device.
Note: Be extremely careful when rappelling over sharp projections. The extension on the friction
device is especially vulnerable to abrasion.
Note: The extended rappel device may catch on the surface when going past an overhang. Pay
close attention to avoid this.
Perform a Self-Belay Rappel (rappel device with a Self-Belay).

a. Use A Self-Belay When A Bottom Belay Is Not Feasible.
(1) Girth hitch a piece of webbing correctly through the harness.
(2) At the end of this webbing, place a locking carabiner and a rappel device. The rappel
device should remain within arms reach.
(3) Place the rope correctly through the rappel device.
(4) Place a pearabiner in the harness.
(5) Place an auto block on both ropes and secure this into the pearabiner in your
harness (see figure 5).
(6) Make sure that the auto block cannot touch the rappel device when loaded.
(7) Feed the rope from below the rappel device with your guide hand. This may seem a
little awkward at first, but with practice, it becomes quite efficient.
Perform a rappel bottom belay.

a. Areas with Little Chance of Falling Rock (Fireman Belay).
(1) Assume a position at the base of the lane, approximately one pace away from the
wall.
(2) Ensure that there is at least 10 feet of rope on the ground.
(3) Grasp the rappel ropes with both hands. You should be able to stop the rappeller
quickly, but your grip should not impede him.
(4) If the rappeller yells "Falling," immediately stop the rappeller by pulling downward on
the rappel ropes.
(5) Do not wear gloves unless otherwise directed by the Safety OIC/NCOIC. Wear
gloves only if weather conditions warrant.
(6) Focus your attention on the rappeller at all times and maintain constant visual and
audible contact.
(7) Wear a helmet to prevent injuries from falling objects.
(8) Give all commands loud and clear. Do not look up or down if "ROCK" is yelled. Look
directly into the cliff.
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Perform Proper Rappelling Commands.

a. Communication. Soldiers at the top of a rappel must be able to communicate with those
at the bottom.
Rappeller Belayer Meaning

Lane (number), on rappel The rappeller has been inspected
and is ready to rappel.
Lane (number), on belay. The belayer has both hands on
the rope and is ready to belay.
"Rock/Ice" The belayer looks directly into the
cliff. Do not look up.
"Falling" The belayer pulls down on both
ropes to stop the rappeller from
falling further.
Lane (number), off rappel The rappeller is safe and all
equipment is off the rope.
Lane (number), off belay. The belayer is no longer holding
onto the rope.
b. Tactical. Consider radios, hand signals and rope signals. One person on the top of the
lane can feel when the rope is unweighted in order to hook up the next rappeller. The
use of one belayer for the entire element will eliminate confusion and commands.
Hasty Rappel Body Rappel Seat Hip Rappel Extended Device
Notes
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Fixed Ropes
071E9019
INTRODUCTION: A fixed rope is a rope anchored in place to assist soldiers in movement over
difficult terrain. As terrain becomes steeper or more difficult, fixed rope systems may require
intermediate anchors along the route. The addition of harnesses, ascenders and other technical
gear makes fixed rope.
Identify types of fixed ropes.
a. Simple Fixed Rope. A Simple fixed rope is a single line secured at the top. Static ropes are
preferred for this system. A knotted hand line, rappel lane or a prusik ascent lane could be
classified as simple fixed ropes.
b. J-Line. A J-line is another type of fixed rope that is secured at the bottom of the slope as well
as the top. Ensure there is sufficient slack in the rope to add dynamics in case of a fall.
Unlike the Simple Fixed Rope, a dynamic rope is preferred.
c. Simple Fixed Rope with directionals. A simple fixed rope with directionals is secured at both
ends and clipped into carabiners at intermediate anchor points to allow for direction changes.
d. Complex Fixed Rope. A complex fixed rope is secured at both ends and at intermediate
points along the route.
Fixed Ropes Diagram
Install a complex fixed rope (Starting From the Top).

a. Route Requirements.
(1) Suitable routing to avoid obstacles and make travel as easy as possible.
(2) Availability of anchors (natural & artificial).
(3) Protected route (from rock, icefall and potential avalanches).
(4) METT-TC.
(5) The route must have safe loading and unloading platforms.
b. Top Down Complex Fixed Rope.

(1) The installer must find a way to safely reach the top. Some options are:
(a) Use a fixed rope previously established by a trained assault climber.
(b) If the route is safe, climb it without rucksack while trailing the installation rope,
installation will be attached to the installer.
(2) On the top of the cliff or slope, build a suitable anchor and secure the top end of the
installation rope.
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(3) Descend the route using the method most appropriate for the terrain.
(a) Use the rope as a hand line on moderated terrain.
(b) Hasty rappel on Class 3 and 4 terrain.
(c) Rig for an extended figure eight descender rappel with an auto block self-belays on
Class 5 terrain.
(4) During the descent, establish intermediate multi-directional anchors and secure the
installation rope using one of the following:
(a) Double figure eight.
(b) Middle of the rope clove hitch.
(c) Middle of the rope prusik.
(5) Secure the rope to the bottom anchor.
c. Maintenance Responsibilities. The installing unit is responsible for maintaining the fixed rope,
policing the route and protecting the rope with padding. Inspect anchor points routinely. The
using unit will report any discrepancies they note to the installing unit for immediate correction.
Complete daily maintenance checks on the installation during periods of low traffic volume. If the
traffic volume is high, inspect/service more frequently.
Complex Fixed Rope
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Install a complex fixed rope (Starting From the Bottom).

a. Route Requirements.
(1) Suitable routing to avoid obstacles and make travel as easy as possible.
(2) Availability of anchors (natural & artificial).
(3) Protected route (from rock, icefall and potential avalanches).
(4) METT-TC.
(5) The route must have safe loading and unloading platforms.
b. Bottom up complex fixed ropes installation. (3rd and 4th Class terrain only)
(1) The installation rope is back stacked with the bottom end anchored and the top end
secured to the Soldier.
(2) The Soldier climbs the route trailing the installation rope, builds an anchor and
proceeds to construct a top down fixed rope (reference learning step 1).
c. Maintenance Responsibilities. Inspect anchor points routinely. The using unit will report
any discrepancies they note to the maintaining unit for correction. Complete daily
maintenance checks on the installation during periods of low traffic volume. If the traffic
volume is high, inspect/service more frequently.
Move on fixed ropes.

a. Movement. The number of independent sections built into the fixed rope limits the number of
soldiers that can travel safely. An independent section is a section of rope that is anchored at
both ends. The complex fixed rope is the only fixed rope that has independent sections spaced
along the length of the rope.
b. Equipment Requirements. Determine the type and amount of equipment needed for fixed rope
travel by considering the following:
(1) Type of fixed rope used.
(2) Terrain.
(3) Soldier's prior mountaineering training.
(4) Soldiers load.
c. Methods.
(1) Hand over Hand.
(a) The hand over hand method is the simplest to use and requires no equipment.
(b) This technique is limited to use over simple fixed ropes on easy terrain where a fall
would not be life threatening.
(2) Double Headed Safety.
(a) The double-headed safety method is the simplest method to travel over a J-Line,
Complex or Simple Fixed Rope with directional. This method involves having
two safeties at full arm's length with a single non-locking carabiner in each.
Keep the two carabiners attached to the rope at all times unless moving past an
intermediate anchor.
(b) To move past an intermediate anchor, clip one carabiner at a time above the
anchor. When both carabiners are above the anchor, continue movement.
(c) A fall while traveling on this setup will be stopped by reaching the anchor below
you. Do not use this method when a hard fall could occur.
(d) Tie a square knot around the waist above the hips, tie a figure eight knot at the
end of the tails within arms reach and insert a non-locking carabiner in the fixed
loop of the figure eight.
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Double-Headed Safety
Equipment Needed:
1 - 15 ft sling rope.
2 - Non-locking carabiners.
(3) Two Carabiner Method.

(a) The two-carabiner method is used while wearing a harness. This method
utilizes two pieces of tubular webbing, girth hitched into the harness with a
carabiner in each within arms reach. Keep the two carabiners attached to the
rope at all times unless moving past an intermediate anchor.
(b) To move past an intermediate anchor, clip one carabiner at a time above the
anchor. When both carabiners are above the anchor, continue movement.
(c) A fall while traveling on this setup will be stopped by reaching the anchor
below you. Do not use this method when a hard fall could occur.
Two Carabiner Method
Equipment Needed:
1 - Harness or material for an improvised harness.
2 - 1 X 24 inch tubular webbing.
2 - Non-locking carabiners.
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(4) Single Prusik Method.

(a) Use the single prusik method to move over lower angled terrain on simple fixed
ropes. To use this technique use one three-wrap prusik with a double-double
figure eight attached to a locking carabiner at full arms length.
(b) Use the single prusik method to move over J-Lines and Simple Fixed ropes with
directionals. This technique uses one three-wrap prusik with a double-double
figure eight attached to a locking carabiner and one safety with a non-locking
carabiner, both at full arm's length. Keep the prusik above the carabiner while
you move so the carabiner will not make contact with the knot and possibly
move it.
(c) To move past intermediate protection, clip your safety into the anchor point of the
intermediate protection. Unclip the fixed rope from the intermediate anchor to
allow the prusik to slide past. Re-clip the fixed rope to the anchor. Move your
safety below the prusik on the fixed rope and continue traveling.
Equipment Needed:
1 - Harness or material for
an improvised harness.
1 - Locking carabiner.
1 - 15 ft utility cord.
1 - 24 inch runner.
1 - Non-locking carabiner
Single Prusik Method
(5) Ascender-Carabiner Method.

(a) The ascender-carabiner method is the fastest way to travel up vertical and near
vertical terrain. The setup includes one ascender and one safety with carabiner.
Both are at full arm's length. While traveling, the carabiner is below the
ascender until an intermediate anchor is reached.
(b) To move past the intermediate anchor, clip the carabiner above the anchor on
the fixed rope and then move the ascender above the carabiner on the fixed
rope.
Equipment Needed:
1 - Harness or material for
1 - Ascender.
3 - 1 X 24 inch runners.
1 - Non-locking carabiner.
1- Locker
Ascender-Carabiner Method
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(6) Prusik Ascent. Use the prusik ascent system to ascend simple fixed ropes in steep or
overhanging terrain.
(a) Tie a middle of the rope prusik with a 7mm utility cord on the climbing rope.
(b) No more than arm's length away, tie a doubled double figure eight.
(c) Insert a locking carabiner into the tie-in portion of the harness.
(d) Insert the doubled double figure eight into the locking carabiner.
(e) Tie the second middle of the rope prusik on the rope below the first prusik.
Tie a figure of eight within 6 inches from the prusik. From the double figure
of eight, run each running end to each foot.
(f) Tie a fixed loop in each end. Keep the fixed loops snug around your foot
with either a girth hitch or an overhand slip. The best length for the leg
prusik is to have the prusik at waist level, with your feet in the fixed loops.
Be especially careful when wearing crampons not to cut the cords.
(g) Attach a non-locking carabiner into the locking carabiner that is in the
harness.
Note: Tying the prusik ascent system while wearing the improvised climbing harness is the same
as with a commercial harness.
Equipment Needed:
1 Harness or material for Prusik Ascent Rigging
2 7mm X 15 foot cords.
3 Non-locking carabiners.
1 Locking carabiner.
2 24 inch tubular webbing.
b. Ascending.
(1) Slide the top prusik up the rope as far as possible.

(2) Place all of your weight on the top prusik by slowly leaning back.
(3) Lift your legs as high as possible and slide the leg prusik up to the top prusik.
(4) Stand up on the leg prusik stirrups and repeat the process.
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(5) For safety, tie a double figure eight in the climbing rope below the leg prusik. Clip the
figure eight into the non-locking carabiner that is in the locking carabiner in the harness
tie in point.
(6) Approximately every 10 feet, tie another figure eight knot and replace the previously tied
one in the non-locking carabiner. Be sure to clip in the new double figure eight before
taking the old one out.
(7) Untie the old figure of eight knot.
c. Overhangs. This procedure is difficult because your body is pressing the rope against the
steep face. If there are no handholds or footholds, pass the prusiks over the lip of the overhang
by pulling out and sliding up at the same time or by tying a new prusik above the lip, attaching to
you and removing the original lead prusik from the main climbing rope. If the lip of the overhang
is not uniformly horizontal, it may be possible to slide the rope to the side where the lip is highest.
Then the knot is moved up to the high point of the lip. When the knot is moved back towards the
lower part of the lip the knot will be above the lip. If this does not work it may be possible to get a
shoulder between the rope and the steep face and get the knot above the lip.
d. Rucksack Removal.
(1) Girth hitch a piece of webbing through a load-bearing portion of your pack frame to pre-rig
your ruck.
(2) Attach a carabiner to the webbing.
(3) To discard the rucksack, attach the girth hitched piece of webbing to the rope below your
prusiks. Then remove the rucksack slowly and let it hang.
(4) Pull up the rucksack after completing the climb.
Note (a) The end of the rope must be attached to the soldier to use this technique.
(b) These procedures can be rough on the hands and you should have gloves available.
(c) Prusik up static ropes to avoid the stretch of dynamic ropes.
d. Communications. It is imperative for soldiers to use proper communication while moving on a

fixed rope. Only one soldier at a time will move on a simple fixed rope. When a soldier is moving
on a fixed rope and clears an independent section he must inform the next soldier (either above
or below) that he is CLEAR.
Notes
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Water Procurement
071E9030
INTRODUCTION: Maintaining fluid balance is a major problem in the mountains. The sense of
thirst is dulled by high elevations despite the greater threat of dehydration. For extended
missions procuring water from the environment is absolutely necessary but mountain water
should never be assumed to be safe for consumption. Possessing the knowledge to collect and
treat water is a vital part of preventing dehydration and illness in you and your soldiers.
Identify Biological Contaminants.
a. Virtually all surface waters are microbiologically contaminated. There are three
types of disease-causing microorganisms: protozoa, bacteria, and viruses. A
1992 study found that 97% of U.S. rivers and lakes contain one or both of the
protozoan parasites giardia and cryptosporidium. Since microorganisms are
impossible to see, you are taking a chance of getting sick every time you sip
straight from a stream or lake.
b. Protozoa: Protozoa are the largest of the waterborne bugs measuring in the one-
micron range. Giardia and cryptosporidium are the most infamous of the group.
The infective cysts and oocysts of protozoa are extremely robust and can survive
for months in a water source. They thrive in domestic and wild animals as well as
humans. Cryptosporidia oocysts are known for their resistance to chemical
treatment. Most disinfectants are ineffective, and the few that are require long
dwell times to do the job.
c. Bacteria: Bacteria are an order of magnitude smaller than protozoa measuring in
the 0.2 micron range. The most well known bacteria are E. coli; others include
Campylobacter, Salmonella, and Shigella. Bacteria are not as hearty, surviving in
water only for weeks instead of months. However, unlike protozoa and viruses,
which require a host to multiply, some bacteria can grow in water and so can be
found in higher numbers than protozoa and viruses. Bacteria, like protozoa, are
often carried by both animals and humans. Because of this, many water sources
are contaminated with bacteria. Beware especially of sources near agricultural
operations.
d. Viruses: Some notorious waterborne viruses are poliovirus, hepatitis, and
Norwalk. Currently, poliovirus only occurs in a few of the poorest countries.
Waterborne viruses are very resilient and can survive for months in water.
Viruses are generally species-specific; in other words, those that infect animals
do not infect humans and vice versa. Because of this and the well-maintained
sewage systems in developed countries, not as many water sources are
contaminated with viruses. In developing countries with little or no sewage
control, the opposite is true. However, as more and more people head for the
great outdoors, more rivers, lakes and streams are at risk of viral contamination.
Identify Chemical Contaminants.

a. Filters and purifiers provide microbiologically safe drinking water. The carbon
in the filters and disinfectant of the purifiers will adsorb or react with chemical
contaminates such as herbicides, pesticides, and volatile organic compounds
(VOCs). However, filters or purifiers will not protect you from high chemical
concentrations or heavy metal contamination. Do your best to avoid water
sources such as mining tailing ponds or those near agricultural operations.
Identify Treatment Techniques.

a. Filters work by physically removing infectious agents from the water. The organisms vary
tremendously in size, from large parasitic cysts (Giardia and Entamoeba histolytica 5-30
µm), to smaller bacteria (E. coli 0.5 x 3 µm, Campylobacter 0.2 x 2 µm), to the smallest
viruses (0.03 µm). Thus, how well filters work depends to a great extent on the physical
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size of the pores in the filter medium.

b. Filters have the advantage of providing immediate access to drinking water without
adding an unpleasant taste. However, they suffer from several disadvantages: micro
cracks or eroded channels within the filter may allow passage of unfiltered water, they
can become contaminated, and no filters sold for field use are fine enough to remove
virus particles (Hepatitis A, rotavirus, Norwalk virus, poliovirus, and others). In addition,
they are expensive and bulky compared to iodine. Alas, many travel filters are inadequate
even to reliably remove E. coli, the most common infectious
c. How to use a water filter
(1) Connect open end of Inlet Hose to Inlet Hose Barb.
(2) Before first use, pump 1-2 liters of water through filter (1-2 minutes) to purge residual
carbon dust before attaching to a clean water container.
(3) Put Inlet Cage under water.
(4) Adjust Inlet Float to keep Inlet Cage between bottom sediments and water surface.
(5) Begin pumping until water enters Pump Head and flows out of Housing
(6) Place a clean container under the filter
(7) Begin pumping until water enters Pump Head, fills Housing, and begins to flow out of
filter.
(8) Pump the Handle to filter water
(9) Packaging of a filter
(10)Remove Inlet Cage from water.
(11)Pump the Handle to purge filter of any remaining water.
(12)Rinse and air-dry Ceramic Element completely (3-5 days) before storage.
(13)Attach Clean Side Cover onto the bottom of the filter to prevent contamination.
(14)Wind Inlet Hose around Housing.
NOTE: There are many filters on the market become familiar with your model and its operation.
Identify Water Chemical Treatments.

a. Chemical disinfection of water depends on the killing of bacteria, Giardia and amoeba
cysts, and viruses by the chemical. Halogens (chlorine and iodine) are most commonly
used. The important points are that the killing effectiveness of the chemical is dependant
on concentration of the chemical, temperature of the water, and contact time. Decreased
concentration (better flavor) or decreased temperature (inevitably the case in the
mountains) requires a longer contact time for disinfection. Sediment (cloudy water)
increases the need for halogen. Bear in mind that adding flavor crystals to your water will
use up the halogen and should only be done AFTER the recommended contact time for
disinfection. Remember: "Add Flavor Later."
(1) Chlorine has been used for several centuries for water disinfection. The most
common objection to it is the flavor, though there have been some suggestions
that it is unreliable in killing Giardia cysts in the commonly used concentrations.
(2) Halazone tablets are convenient and inexpensive, but have several
disadvantages. Due to its chemical formulation, reliable disinfection in all
conditions requires 6 tablets per liter for 1-hour contact, resulting in poor flavor
(Backer 1995). The tablets rapidly lose effectiveness when exposed to warm,
humid air.
(3) Superchlorination-dechlorination - a two-step method is somewhat inconvenient,
and the chemicals needed are destructive to clothing and gear if spilled, but it is
highly effective and results in nearly flavorless water. High concentrations of
chlorine are initially developed, and then in a second step removed by the
addition of peroxide.
(4) Iodine has been used to disinfect water for nearly a century. It has advantages
over chlorine in convenience and probably efficacy; many soldiers find the taste
less offensive as well. It appears safe for short and intermediate length use (3-6
months), but questions remain about its safety in long-term usage. It should not
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be used by persons with allergy to iodine, persons with active thyroid disease, or
pregnant women. If issued iodine treatment tablets are not available, 10%
Povidone-Iodine (Betadine®) can be used in the concentration 4 drops/liter.
NOTE: Iodine and other halogens appear to be relatively ineffective at killing cyclospora, a
troublesome diarrhea-causing bacteria seen in Nepal only in the late Spring and Summer
months. At these times it may be reasonable to pre-filter water to remove the large
cyclospora (about the size of Giardia cysts), and then treating with iodine.
Use Heat to Treat Contaminated Water.

a. Heat kills microorganisms, and virtually all enteropathogens are readily killed at
temperatures well below the boiling point. The process of heating water to a boil makes
it hot enough long enough to disinfect it, even at elevations as high as Everest Base
Camp (references 1, 2). There is no need to boil water for 5 minutes, 10 minutes, or 20
minutes, as some guidebooks recommend! Bringing water to a boil is adequate for
disinfection.
Identify Field Expedient Water Sources from Moving Water.
a. Select a site that is not down stream from a settlement or heavily used farmland. Look for the
clearest water possible. When operating in a glaciated area be aware of using glacial run off this
can contain very fine slit that will clog filters. Even when treated, sediment will cause you to get
sick.
Identify Field Expedient Water Sources from Standing Water.

a. Search for water that is clear and free of sediment and algae. Avoid collecting water from the
bottom of this type of site to cut down on the amount of foreign matter in the water.
Identify Field Expedient Water Sources from Snow and Ice.

a. Look for clean white snow. When setting up camp mark off a place that every one will
collect snow for melting to help avoid accidental contamination of the site. You will still
need to bring the water to a boil to purify it because many microorganisms can survive in
a frozen state. Avoid discolored snow that has obvious contaminants – i.e. yellow snow.
Perform Techniques to Avoid Cross Contamination.

a. Collection container needs to be different from the storage container. Cross
contamination is a large concern with filters because they only filter the water, not the
container.
Perform Techniques for Proper Container Selection.

a. Storage containers should be clean and tight sealing and able to hold boiling water. You should
have enough storage space to hold a days worth of treated water. Wide mouth openings are
easier to fill with boiling water.
Notes
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Altimeter Land Navigation

071E9012
INTRODUCTION: The altimeter/barometer is a very useful tool for mountain navigation. You
can find your altitude, interpret the weather in your location, pinpoint your exact location, check
your progress and identify terrain features. Your ability to use the altimeter correctly will greatly
enhance your opportunity for success during mountain navigation.
Define the Altimeter/Barometer.
a. Altimeter / Barometer. The Altimeter/Barometer can provide readings of elevation above and
below sea level and barometric air pressure in inches of mercury or millibars. The altimeter reads
in feet or meters. Many versions exist.
Identify the uses of the altimeter/barometer.

a. An altimeter will aid you in the following:
(1) Locate your position.
(2) Route planning.
(3) Monitor your rate of ascent or descent.
(4) Interpret the weather in your location and monitor changing weather fronts.
Identify altimeter specifications.

a. The following list includes general specifications of an altimeter.
(1) Range. The range is the lowest reading possible (usually below sea level) to the
highest reading possible (usually up to 30,000 feet).
(2) Accuracy. Different altimeters will sense elevation change at varying accuracy and
from +/- 10 feet to +/- 30 feet.
(3) Scale Units. The altitude scale can be either in feet or meters and the barometric
pressure scale can be in inches of mercury (Hg) or millibars (mB).
(4) Field Display. The altitude will be displayed in either a digital or analog format
depending on the device.
NOTE: There are many different types of altimeters available. Check with the manufacturer for
your device’s specifications.
Measure the altitude differences using the altimeter.

a. Use the altimeter to measure difference in elevation during movement.
(1) Set your altimeter to a certain elevation.
(2) Climb or descend to another elevation.
(3) Re-check your altimeter.
(4) The difference between your first reading and the second reading is the number of
feet gained or lost in elevation.
(a) Examples of using altitude differences;
• At the start of a foot march your altimeter indicates 2000 feet. Now
you read 2480 feet. You have climbed 480 feet (2480 feet – 2000 feet
= 480 feet).
• If it has taken you 2 ½ hours to gain the first 1500 feet of a 3000-foot
climb and you know that the trail will continue at the same roughness
and grade, you will not be far off in estimating your arrival at the peak
about five hours after you start. It is advised to add time for longer rest
stops.
b. Rate of ascent/descent. Sometimes it helps to decide whether to continue to climb or to turn

back, by checking the rate of ascent. For example, during a climb you have been keeping an
hourly check on time and elevation. It has taken your team 4 hours to climb 3,000 feet, an
average of 750 feet per hour, but the actual rate of ascent has been declining with each hour. In
fact, the team gained only 500 feet in the past hour, compared with 1,000 feet the first hour. Your
destination is at an elevation of 8,400 feet, and an altimeter reading shows the team is now at
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6,400 feet. Therefore, you can predict that it will take at least 4 more hours to get to your
destination. Take your rate of ascent and combine it with the weather, time of day, condition of
the team. This will give you the data on which to base a sound decision on whether to proceed or
turn back.
Measure the elevation readings above sea level using the altimeter.
a. Measuring and using elevation above sea level.
(1) Adjust. Adjust your altimeter/barometer to show true height above sea level using
supplied altimeter instructions.
(2) Starting Point. Set the altimeter accurately at your start point. As you gain or lose
elevation, the height indicated will be your elevation above sea level.
(3) Resetting. This is an important technique for maintaining accurate altimeter readings.
Regularly reset your altimeter at points of known elevation, because its accuracy depends
on the weather.
(a) A change in weather is accompanied by a change in air pressure, which can
cause an error in the altimeter reading. As one rises, the other drops and vise
versa.
(b) A change in barometric pressure of 1 inch or mercury corresponds to a
change in altitude reading of roughly 1,000feet.
• For example, if overnight the air pressure decreased by 0.2 inch (7

millibars), the altimeter could show a reading of about 200 feet more
than it did the previous night, even though the actual elevation has
remained the same. Even during apparently stable conditions, an error
in elevation reading of 100 feet per day is not uncommon.
(c) When you are following your progress on a topographic map, you can read
the height of any point you can identity by looking at the contour lines and there
should be many opportunities to reset your altimeter.
(4) Use. Using the altimeter you can relate readings to elevations of contour lines on the
map to verify your progress on your planned route.
(5) Resection. Many soldiers rely on resection to fix their position. In the woods or at
night it is often impossible to get two bearings on two identifiable points. With an altimeter
recently reset you can get the same results using modified resection.
• Example: You are moving through the woods or traveling on a trail

shown on the map. Through the trees you spot the fire tower on a
nearby mountain. Your compass gives a bearing of 30 degrees. Your
altimeter reads 4000 feet. You must be on the contour line that
indicates 4000 feet elevation. Simultaneously you have the fire tower
on the back azimuth of 30 degrees (210 degrees). Draw the back
azimuth or place the compass on the map so one edge of its' base
plate points at the fire tower. In this example you crossed a contour
line with another position line on the map. You can probably think of
many such lines; trails, creeks, compass bearings, roadways, marked
game management boundaries and power lines. One rule always
applies; you fix your position most accurately with two position lines
that cross at right angles.
b. Route Planning. The knowledge of your elevation above sea level, gained from your altimeter,
can also help you in route planning. For example, a soldier needs to return to a cache at the
3600-foot level. Instead of entering the woods at the foot of the mountain and walking uphill to
reach 3600 ft, he can enter the woods at the 3600-foot level of the road that he is on and find a
level route to his cache.
Interpret weather using the altimeter/barometer.
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a. Reading the Altimeter.

(1) You can make use of your altimeter/barometer as a highly accurate weather
barometer by following these procedures.
(a) Stationary. Check you are altitude reading. If the barometric pressure
changes so will your altitude reading. Example: You initially have a reading of
2500 ft. Four hours later you have a reading of 2000 ft. Since the reading is now
500 ft lower and you did not move, you can assume that fair weather is expected.
(b) Underway. If you find it necessary to readjust the altitude at known point then
you can assume that the barometric pressure is changing. Example: At known
points you keep having to decrease your altimeter reading to match the altitude
of your known point. Since the altitude continues to read high you can assume
that foul weather is expected.
b. Applying the altimeter reading to general weather forecasting.

(1) If you have a situation where the air pressure is rising, it suggests that fair weather is
expected.
(2) If you have a situation where the air pressure is falling, it suggests that foul weather is
expected.
Identify the differences between an altimeter and a GPS.

a. The altimeter determines elevation by measuring the weight of a column of air (air pressure)
either electronically or mechanically. A GPS determines elevation through the
triangulation of 4 or more satellites.
b. A GPS requires 4 satellites at a minimum for an accurate elevation reading. Mountainous
terrain, poor weather, and thick overhead cover can mask satellite signals preventing a good
reading.
c. The fact that GPS uses triangulation of satellites to measure elevation, not air pressure, means
that they have no use as a weather prediction tool. Changing air pressure is the key for weather
prediction.
NOTE: Care should be taken when using GPS to pinpoint exact elevations. Mathematical
variations in the software of some types of GPS devises can produce variation of 100 to 200 foot
discrepancy in elevation. The horizontal accuracy is not necessarily equal to the vertical
(elevation) accuracy
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Avalanche Awareness and Rescue

071E9034
INTRODUCTION: Each year avalanches claim more than 150 lives worldwide, a number that is
steadily rising. Thousands more are injured. For soldiers operating in mountainous terrain,
having the basic knowledge about how to avoid avalanche areas, what types of weather and
terrain signs to watch for and what to do if you or others are caught in one is vital to mission
success.
Identify the Factors Leading to Snow Avalanches.
a. Occurrence. Avalanches occur when the weight of accumulated snow on a slope exceeds
the cohesive forces that hold the snow in place. This usually requires elements of the four
main factors: terrain, weather, snow and humans.
b. Terrain Factors.
(1) Slope Angle. Slopes as gentle as 15o have avalanched. Most avalanches occur on
slopes between 30o and 45o. Slopes above 60o often do not build up significant
quantities of snow because they are too steep. As with most rules there may be
exceptions. Evaluate any slope above 30o for stability before movement. Use an
inclinometer to estimate the slope angle. Construct a field expedient inclinometer from
two equal length ski poles. Mark one pole at the exact center. Join the unmarked pole to
the midpoint of the marked pole at a 90o angle. Place the tip of the marked pole on the
slope. If the tip of the unmarked pole touches the slope, the angle is approximately 30
degrees.
Slope Angle Field Expedient Slope Profile
(2) Slope Profile. Dangerous slab avalanches are more likely to occur on convex slopes, but
may occur on concave slopes. The trigger for an avalanche on a concave slope may
come from the flat ground below the slope.
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Slope Profile
(3) Slope Aspect. Snow on north facing slopes is more likely to slide in midwinter. South
facing slopes are most dangerous in the spring and on sunny, warm days. Slopes on the
windward side are generally more stable than leeward slopes. Leeward slopes tend to
form dangerous cornice formations.
(4) Ground Cover. Rough terrain is more stable than smooth terrain. On grassy slopes or
scree the snow pack has little to anchor to. Boulders and trees act as anchors to help
hold the snow in place.
c. Weather Factors.
(1) Temperature. When the temperature is very low, settlement and adhesion occur
slowly. Avalanches that occur during extreme cold weather usually occur during or
immediately following a storm. At a temperature just below freezing, the snow pack
stabilizes quickly. At temperatures above freezing, especially if temperatures rise
quickly, the potential for avalanche is high. Storms with an accompanying rise in
temperature can deposit dry snow early, which bonds poorly with the heavier snow
deposited later. This creates an unstable snowpack. Most avalanches occur during
the warmer midday. Due to temperature fluctuations.
(2) Precipitation. About 90 percent of avalanches occur during or within twenty-four
hours after a snowstorm. The rate at which snow falls is important. High rates of
snowfall, 1 inch or greater, especially when accompanied by wind, are usually
responsible for major periods of avalanche activity. Rain falling on snow will increase
its weight and weakens the snowpack.
(3) Wind. Sustained winds of 15 mph and over transport snow from the windward aspect
of the slope and forms wind slabs on the lee slopes.
d. Snow Factors.
(1) Unstable Snow Layers.
(a) New snow greater than 1 foot.
(b) Crusty, wind packed or iced layer next to soft snow.
(c) Loose, cold snow.
(d) Buried surface hoar.
(e) Depth hoar occurs deep in the snow pack and may act like ball bearings.
(f) Hollow spaces.
(g) Settled snow under a crust or water runoff above a crust.
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e. Human Factors.
(1) Weight/Overloading. Most victims trigger the avalanches that kill them.
(2) Vibration. Passing helicopters, heavy equipment and explosions have triggered
avalanches.
Identify the Types of Snow Avalanches.

a. Types of Snow Avalanches. There are two types of snow avalanches: loose snow (point)
and slab.
(1) Loose Snow. Loose-snow avalanches start at one point on the snow cover and grow
in the shape of an inverted V. Occurrences:
(a) Dry Loose-snow avalanches occur at all times of the year in the mountains.
They happen most frequently during the winter snow season. They often fall as
many small sluffs during or shortly after a storm. This process removes snow
from steep upper slopes and either stabilizes lower slopes or loads them with
additional snow.
(b) Wet loose-snow avalanches occur in spring and summer in all mountain ranges.
Large avalanches of this type, lubricated and weighed down by melt water or
rain, can travel long distances and have tremendous destructive power. Coastal
ranges that have high temperatures and frequent rain are the most common
areas for this type of avalanche.
(2) Slab Avalanches. Slab avalanches occur when cohesive snow begins to slide on a
weak layer. The fracture line where the moving snow breaks away from the snow
pack makes this type of avalanche easy to identify. Slab release is very rapid.
Although any avalanche can kill you, slab avalanches are considered more
dangerous than loose snow avalanches. Occurrences:
(a) During or shortly after a storm when slopes are loaded with new snow at a
critical rate. The old rule of never travel in avalanche terrain for a few days
after a storm still holds true.
(b) Most victims trigger the avalanche that kills them. As slabs become harder,
their behavior becomes more unpredictable; they may allow several people
to ski across before releasing. Many experts believe they are susceptible to
rapid temperature changes. Packed snow expands and contracts with
temperature changes. For normal density, settled snow, a drop in
temperature of 18 F would cause a snow slope 300m wide to contract 1 inch.
Early ski mountaineers in the Alps noticed that avalanches sometimes
occurred when shadows struck a previously sun-warmed slope.
(c) At higher elevations, because of different weather conditions, instability can
persist for many days. Slabs release between storms without warning.
(d) Formation. Soft slabs form over widespread areas during heavy storms, are
associated with moderate wind speeds, high humidity, and rimed snow
crystals. Hard slabs tend to form on lee slopes. It usually requires low
temperatures and wind blown snow. Frequently, hard slabs form over a
weak layer of depth hoar, which fails to support the slab. This accounts for
the characteristic hollow feeling and the drop of a few centimeters when the
slab fails.
Perform Snow Pit Analysis.

a. Snow Pits.
(1) Dig a 2m x 2m pit across the fall line, 4-5 feet deep (or deep enough to get to the
likely bed surface). Dig the snow pit on the suspect slope (this should be done while on
belay incase the slope avalanches) or a slope with the same sun, angle, elevation and
wind conditions. Snow deposits may vary greatly within a few meters due to wind and
sun variations. (On at least one occasion a snow pit dug across the fall line triggered the
suspect slope). Once the pit is complete, smooth a side with a shovel and examine the
layers.
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• Lightly flicking a woolen glove across the snow face, or better still,
brushing with a paintbrush will etch out the hard and soft layers. You
may find many layers that reflect minor variations in wind, temperature or
humidity. You are only concerned with layers that are unusually hard and
unusually soft.
• In conditions close to 32 degrees F find the temperature of the snow.

You are looking for snow that is within a degree or two of the freezing
point. This is the layer that might slide as a wet snow avalanche. Look
for clusters of large, wet, non-cohesive ice grains. Water seeping
through the snow pack and freezing in the colder layers underneath
cause ice lenses. Their presence does not necessarily mean the snow
pack is in a weak condition. The chance of wet snow avalanching does
increase as the temperature of the snow around the ice approaches 32
degrees F.
(2) After examining the layers, do a shovel shear or sliding wedge test. Use the same
spot that the data pit was dug. Dig out the data pit with the shovel and then isolate the
column with the saw or cord. Place a shovel behind the column and pull with equal force
to see where the weak layer is. Insert a ski pole about one meter up the fall line from the
snow pit and centered. Use a length of avalanche cord about two meters long. Pass it
around the uphill side of the ski pole, to form an equal sided triangle (including the snow
pit as the base), saw down through the snow pack.
Snowpit
Identify the Deliberate Triggering of Avalanches.

a. Deliberate Triggering of Avalanches. Having the experience and knowledge of what causes
avalanches and how to avoid them can also be applied to the deliberate triggering of
avalanches. The ability to use the terrain to your advantage acts as a force multiplier and
combat enhancer.
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(1) Use.
(a) Force Protection. A thorough map recon and terrain analysis prior to the
mission will identify potential avalanche slopes. To prevent friendly troops
from avalanche danger, these slopes could be triggered ahead of the main
body by various techniques if the tactical situation permits. Look for slope
profile and slope angle.
(b) Denying the Enemy Key Terrain. Mountainous terrain is characterized by
fewer avenues of approach (especially for vehicles) and steep narrow
passages. Triggering avalanches can slow down or deny the enemy
access through steep mountain passes. In WWII, the Norwegians severely
limited the Germans movements through the Norwegian mountains by
deliberately setting off avalanches.
(c) Offensive Operations. Enemy elements can be ambushed and/or isolated by
deliberately triggering avalanches. This technique was successfully used
against the Soviets in Afghanistan. Once the Soviet elements were isolated
and trapped, much smaller forces easily destroyed them.
(2) Principles.
(a) Location. Understanding what can cause an avalanche and where they are
likely to occur, you can best select the location to trigger it. Choose a point
of maximum tension in the snow pack to detonate the charge. Maximum
effectiveness is achieved with a detonation about 1 m above the snow pack.
The next best option is on the surface of the snow pack and the least
effective is in the snow pack. Placing charges on cornices above avalanche
prone slopes can be very effective. The fragmentation effect of placing near
rocks or boulders can also multiply the effect.
(b) Triggering. The best technique for triggering an avalanche will depend on
many factors. The best technique is the one that delivers enough detonation
force as accurately as possible.
§ Anti-tank/Recoilless Weapons.
• Advantages. Very accurate.
• Disadvantages. Limited range. Accuracy depends on clearly
seeing the target.
§ Mortars.
• Advantages. Deliver a large amount of explosives to the target.
Rounds can also be airburst for maximum effectiveness.
• Disadvantages. High winds can affect accuracy due to its high
trajectory.
§ Artillery.
• Advantages. Ideal due to its long range. Ability to deliver
massive amount of explosives. Capability of airburst rounds.
• Disadvantages. Requires skilled FO to get to an area where he
can observe.
§ Improvised Explosives. Small charges of C4 (1-2kg) with a time fuse are
very effective if placed correctly.
• Advantage. Very effective, accurate and can be done from the
top of the slope.
• Disadvantage. Smaller charge requires an accurate placement.
§ Hand Grenades. Fragmentary or concussion grenades would be used
similar to improvised charges.
• Advantage. Effective for areas where indirect fire is
inappropriate.
• Disadvantage. May require exposing the soldier employing the
grenade to a greater risk than indirect fire techniques.
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(c) Time. The best times are during or immediately after a heavy snowfall,
during the heat of the day or when the slope is exposed to the sun or after a
rain or thaw.
Reduce the Risk of Avalanche.

a. Protective Measures.
(1) Avoidance. Avoiding known or suspected avalanche areas is the easiest method of
protection.
(2) Stabilization. Triggering the suspect avalanche slope before movement usually will
stabilize it. Suspect slopes are sometimes shot at with artillery or detonated with
explosives. Belayed skiers are often used after the explosives.
(3) Barriers. Barriers similar to tank obstructions are often placed in avalanche prone
areas to anchor snow to the slope.
(4) Personal Safety. Remove your hands from ski pole wrist straps. Release rucksack
waist and chest straps. Detach ski runaway cords. Prepare to discard equipment.
Put your hood on. Close up your clothing. Prepare for hypothermia. Turn on
avalanche transceivers. Deploy avalanche cord. Make avalanche probes and
shovels accessible.
(5) Group Safety. Send one person across at a time, with the rest of the group watching.
All ski in the same track.
b. Route Selection.
(1) Always allow a wide margin of safety when making your decision. The safest routes
are on ridge tops, slightly on the windward side; the next safest route is out in the
valley, far from the bottom of slopes.
(2) Avoid cornices from above or below. Should you encounter a dangerous slope,
either climb to the top of the slope or descend to the bottom. Well out of the way of
the run-out zone. If you must traverse, pick a line when you can traverse downhill as
quickly as possible. When you must ascend a dangerous slope, climb to the side of
the avalanche path and not directly up the center.
(3) Take advantage of dense timber, ridges or rocky outcrops as islands of safety. Use
them for rest stops. Spend as little time as possible on open slopes.
(4) Since most avalanches occur within twenty-four hours of a storm and/or at midday,
avoid moving during these periods. Moving at night is tactically sound and may be
safer.
c. Stability Analysis. Look for nature's billboards on similar slopes and the one you are on.
(1) Evidence of Avalanching. Look for recent avalanches on similar slopes.
(2) Look for signs of wind loading or wind-slabs.
(3) Fracture Lines. Avoid any slopes showing cracks.
(4) Sounds. Beware of hollow sounds (a "whumphing" noise). They may suggest a
radical settling of the snow pack. "People trigger avalanches that bury people. If
these people would recognize the hazard and choose a different route, they could
avoid the avalanche."
React to an Avalanche.
a. Survival. If caught, you must fight for your life.
(1) Discard Equipment. Equipment can injure or burden you. Discarded equipment will
be an indicator as to your position.
(2) Stay on Top. Swim or roll to stay on top of the snow. Work toward the edge of the
avalanche. If you feel your feet touch the ground, give a hard push and try to pop out
onto the surface.
(3) Going Under. As your head goes under the snow, shut your mouth, hold your breath
and position your hands and arms to form an air pocket in front of your face. Many
avalanche victims suffocate by having their mouths and noses plugged with snow.
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(4) Beneath the Surface. When you sense the slowing of the avalanche, you must try
your hardest to reach the surface. Several victims have been found quickly because
a hand or foot was sticking above the surface.
(5) Stopping.
(a) The snow sets up like cement, and even if you are only partially buried, it
may be impossible to dig yourself out. Do not shout unless you hear rescuers
immediately above you. In snow, no one can hear you scream.
(b) Don't struggle to free yourself. You will only waste energy and oxygen.
(c) Try to relax. If you feel yourself about to pass out, do not fight it. The
respirations of an unconscious person are shallower, their pulse rate declines
and the body temperature is lowered, all of which reduce the amount of
oxygen needed.
b. Search Analysis.
(1) Analysis. Analysis of the avalanche path can reveal the location of a victim. There
are three zones to consider.
(a) Starting Zone. Victims are not usually found in the starting zone. A victim's
position in the starting zone will have a bearing on his final location. If you
see a fellow soldier get caught, watch him to give you a clue to where to start
searching.
(b) Avalanche Path. The snow along the edge of the path will move slower than
the center. If the path curves, the snow traveling the longer radius will move
slower than the shorter radius. Slower snow areas in the area directly above
an obstruction and all areas of heavy snow deposit are likely places to find a
victim.
(c) Run-out Zone. This is where the avalanche slows and stops. This is where
the largest deposits of snow are found and is most likely to hold victims.
(2) Probable Location. To plot a victim's most probable location, you must consider
several things:
(a) Point Last Seen (PLS).
(b) Equipment Clues.
(c) If you have the PLS, the avalanche path and clues you can draw a line to
figure out the victim's probable path.
c. The Avalanche Transceiver.

(1) Transceiver. The operating frequency is the world wide standard of 457 kHz. There
are many different types of transceivers. Most operate with an audio mode and visual
display. Check transceivers individual specifications.
(2) Function Checks. At the start of each day, check your avalanche transceivers
(a) Reception. One member, with his unit on transmit, moves out from the rest
of the group. He stops only when the remainder of the party-their units
switched to receive-can no longer hear the signal.
(b) Transmission. The main group now switches their units to transmit, while the
person out in front switches to receive. In turn, each party member moves
toward the checker and continues past until out of range.
(3) Locating Victims.
(a) Lookout. Do not become a victim. Post a lookout to warn of new avalanches
in the same area. If the lookout warns of another avalanche, everyone must
immediately turn his transceiver to transmit.
(b) Location. Decide the most probable victim location.
(c) Get On Line. Spread the searchers on line at thirty meters intervals. Insure
everyone is set to receive at full volume. Move forward, maintaining the
interval. Each searcher works independently.
(d) Avalanche Transceiver. The avalanche transceiver has been designed to
make searching as simple as possible. The stronger the signal, the more
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LED’s (inside the arrow) light up and the louder the sound. The large LED
above the range dial is the range LED (some transceivers use distance to the
victim in the visual display). The distances that are shown on the range
scale are not exact measurements but they are a good gauge of the
searching distance.
(e) Induction Search Pattern.
Search patterns begin when you first receive a signal. At this point LEDs will
be faintly flashing. From this point, always hold the beacon horizontal with
the arrow pointing away from you. Slowly rotate the beacon from side to side
to determine the direction of the strongest signal – (most lights, loudest
sound).
Once direction is determined precede in a straight line until the range LED
flashes. Continue increasing the sensitivity of the beacon as the search area
becomes smaller.
At this point you will conduct a pinpoint grid search pattern. This is nothing
more than placing the beacon close to the snow surface, moving it from side
to side and forward and backwards to locate the strongest signal.
When the strongest signal is determined, quickly spot probe the area up to a
meter wide for the victim’s location. Due to the depth of burial the pinpoint
search may have to be done in a higher setting.
Induction Search Technique Diagram
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Avalanche Transceiver Components
d. Avalanche Cord.
(1) Avalanche cord is a lightweight, bright colored cord. Avalanche cord is obtained in
100-meter lengths.
(2) Insure the cord is tied securely to the individual. Allow the cord to trail. During an
avalanche, the cord has a high probability of surfacing. Follow the cord to the victim.
e. Probing. Probing is the oldest and least efficient method of searching for an avalanche
victim. To coarse probe an area 100 meters by 100 meters, using twenty probers with
manufactured probes, it would require about four hours and the success ratio is
approximately 70%. A single trained soldier using an avalanche transceiver can search the
same area with a success ratio of 98%.
(1) Coarse Probe. Used for immediate search of victim.
(a) Probers are spaced along a line, hands on hips, elbow to elbow. Place your
feet about shoulder width apart. A string line to align the probers is helpful.
(b) A single probe pole insertion is made between the feet.
(c) On signal from the probe line commander, the group advances one-step and
repeats the single probe.
(d) Use only these two signals for the complete sequence: "DOWN PROBE" and
"UP PROBE" and "ADVANCE". By adhering to these commands, the leader
can look along the probe line when the probes are down and instantly spot a
"high" probe. A "high probe" will show a possible location for the victim. It is
important to adjust the signals to a rhythm that enforces a maximum
reasonable pace. Strict discipline and firm, clear commands are essential for
efficient probing. The probers work silently.
(2) Fine Probe. Fine probe is used to recover a body.

(a) Space the probers the same distance as for the coarse probe.
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(b) Each man probes in front of his left foot, then in the center of his straddled
position, and finally in front of his right foot.
(c) On command, the line advances one foot and repeats the probing sequence.
Chance of Survival Rate Chart
a. Shovel Crews and Trenching.

(1) Shovel crews assist the probers, relieving them at intervals and digging in likely
spots.
(2) Trenching is for body recovery if a fine probe fails. Before deciding to trench consider
the dangers at the avalanche site plus the exceptional effort that trenching requires.
Trenches are dug parallel to the contour, down to ground level or to undisturbed
snow at intervals of two meters. Digging begins at the run out zone and proceeds
uphill. Space the shovel teams along one trench. Throw the snow from one trench
into the one just completed.
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Avalanche Checklist
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Hauling Techniques
071E9022
INTRODUCTION: When working in the mountains it may be necessary to raise a heavy load
using mechanical advantage. The loads may range from equipment to injured personnel.
Hauling a load increases the force on all the components of the system, and requires more time
and equipment. There are many different ways to increase your mechanical advantage based on
how much advantage you need and the equipment you have available.
Identify site selection criteria.

a. Site Selection Criteria. Site selection is governed by many different factors:
(1) Working Platform. Make sure that the loading and unloading platforms are free of loose
material, no sharp edges are present and that they are large enough for hauling operations. The
loading / unloading platforms are easily accessible and provide a safe working area.
(2) Personnel. Keep soldiers away from the edge until a safety rope is in place (if appropriate).
(3) Terrain.
(4) Equipment.
(5) Load.
(6) Anchors. Make sure that anchors are available and suitable to handle large amounts of
force.
(7) Tactical situation.
b. Hauling Systems. There are many different hauling systems, ranging from main force
(everybody grabbing one end of the rope and hauling) to power winches. One type of hauling
system is the Simple 3:1 System, otherwise known as the Z Pulley.
Construct a simple 3:1 hauling system.

a. Hauling system theory.
(1) In theory, the mechanical advantage is 3:1, meaning it takes 1 lb. of force to raise a 3 lb.
load. In reality, the actual mechanical advantage is less than the 3:1 ratio because of friction.
Pulleys offer less friction, and therefore higher mechanical advantage, than carabiners. Use
pulleys if available.
(2) The less friction in the system the closer to the theoretical mechanical advantage. Friction
is caused by:
(a) Rope running through carabiners.
(b) Load rubbing against a rock wall.
(c) Condition of the rope.
b. Construction of the Z-Pulley System.

(1) Attach the rope to the load. Make sure that the attachment point is load bearing and the
rope is correctly attached to it directly or with locking carabiners.
(2) Anchor Point.
(a) Establish an anchor point
(b) Attach the rope to the anchor
(c) If needed safety yourself to it (i.e. when working near a cliff edge).
(3) Anchor Prusik (AP), also called the Ratchet. Construct the anchor prusik.
(a) Pull up all of the rope until you feel the load.
(b) Place the load rope into a locking carabiner in the anchor.
(c) Tie a prusik on the load rope and secure the two free ends to the anchor point on a
separate carabiner using a munter mule.
Note: The munter/mule knot is used in case the load is stuck and needs to be released for
lowering.
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(4) Moveable Prusik (MP) also called the Tractor.

(a) On the load rope, tie a prusik as close to the edge as the loading platform and
available rope allow.
(b) Tie a doubled-double figure eight with the utility cord, as close as possible to the
prusik.
(c) Place a locking carabiner into the doubled-double figure of eight.
(d) Route the running end of the rope coming from the anchor point through this locking
carabiner.
Note: You can use two non-locking carabiners, with the gates opposite and opposed instead of
the locking carabiner in the AP or MP, or preferably high-efficiency pulleys to maximize
mechanical advantage.
b. Procedural Points.
(1) You lose mechanical advantage once the MP contacts the AP.
(2) Locate the anchor far back from the edge for more area to pull.
(3) Pull all ropes as parallel to the load rope as possible.
(4) Pull the load slowly, loosen the AP. When the MP is close to the AP, set the AP and move
the MP as far down the rope as possible.
Note: Close the system at the end of the haul or when you need to walk away by attaching a
figure 8 knot to the carabiner in the anchor.
c. Caution Measures.
(1) When using hauling systems and mechanical advantage, it is possible to overload anchors
and equipment.
(2) Mechanical advantage reduces your sensitivity to the load and any damage that may be
occurring from load on rock.
(3) Protect the rope from edges to avoid abrasion and to reduce friction.
Use a Simple 3:1 Hauling System.

a. Z-Pulley as a hauling system.
(1) Hauling equipment.
(a) Use static rope if available.
(b) Use directionals to route the load rope properly, avoid contact with the rock or ground
if possible.
(2) Hauling/assisting/rescuing personnel.
(a) Use static rope if available.
(b) Ensure the system is closed at all times, with no more than the possibility of a 10-15
foot fall.
(c) Be aware of the loss of load sensitivity to avoid hanging up the load.
b. Z-Pulley as a tightening system.

(1) High-Line crossing.
(a) Use the Z-Pulley if the loading platform is small during a river crossing or a High-Line
crossing.
(b) Once the system is tight, leave both the AP and the MP in place, with the tension held
by the progress capture prusik and close the system.
(c) See High-Line, 071E9024
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Simple 3:1 Hauling System
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Environmental Effects on Weapons

071E9038
INTRODUCTION: The functioning and employment of infantry weapons is greatly affected by cold
temperatures, harsh mountain conditions, and extreme mountain terrain. To properly care for your
weapon and effectively engage targets under a variety of adverse conditions you must consider the
mountain environment.
Identify Environmental Factors Affecting Weapons Function.
a. Factors Affecting Weapons Functioning.
(1) Lubricants. In warmer climates lubricants are not given much thought, just pour it on and fire
away. In extremely cold climates lubrication is important for the proper operation of your
weapon. A common problem is sluggishness in the operation of weapons. Stoppage or
sluggish action of firearms results from normal lubricants thickening. Use LAW (NSN 9150-
00-292-9689) to lube weapons in colder temperature. (Refer to each weapon’s TM for what
temperature to apply LAW, as it varies) LAW helps moving parts slide better in cold than
CLP or LSAT.
(2) Condensation. Condensation forms on weapons when they are taken from the extreme cold
into any type of heated shelter. Condensation is often referred to as "sweating". The
moisture freezes when you leave the heated area. Internal parts may freeze to one another
causing stoppages. For this reason it is best to leave weapons outside during freezing
temperatures. When left outside, weapons should be readily accessible, but sheltered where
ice and snow will not get into the working parts, sights, or barrel. When weapons have to be
taken inside for cleaning, the condensation or sweating process, once started, will continue
for approximately one hour. It is recommended to wait until this sweating process has
concluded (approximately 1 hour) before cleaning the weapon. Inside the shelter, a weapon
should be kept near the floor to minimize condensation. When enemy contact is imminent,
the interior climate of troop compartments of transportation systems (especially aircraft)
should be maintained close to freezing (32°F). This prevents overheating of troops dressed in
the cold regions uniform. It also prevents moisture from condensing and refreezing on
weapons as troops debark into the cold from warm aircraft and vehicles. Soldiers and aircraft
crews must exercise caution when loading soldiers after periods of heavy exertion. Sweat
buildup and body heat of soldiers loaded on an aircraft can cause extreme and rapid fogging
of the aircraft's windshields, blocking pilot vision. Soldiers preparing for extraction should
ventilate their uniforms and remove as much body heat buildup as possible.
(3) Breakage and Malfunctions. Breakage and malfunctions occur as the extreme cold causes
metal and plastic to become much more brittle than normal. Breakage generally occurs early
in firing while the metal is warming, and parts expand rapidly and unequally. After a weapon
has been fired, the heat it has generated can cause condensation to form. This condensation
again may freeze. This or freezing of moisture from sweating or an accumulation of snow or
ice in the weapon also causes malfunction and stoppages. Careful handling of weapons
when moving through snow and ice covered woods and allowing weapons to warm up by
firing initially at a slow rate eliminate many of the problems. Additionally, soldiers must be
aware that the metal can cool to the point where it must not be touched by bare hands.
(4) Visibility. Visibility may be difficult as a result of firing weapons in temperatures below -20F.
As the round leaves the weapon, the water vapor in the air is crystallized creating minute ice
particles. The ice particles produce ice fog. If the air is still, the fog can remain along the
gunner's line of sight for several minutes. When faced with this problem, fire at a slower rate
and/or relocate to another firing position. In anticipation, always prepare supplementary firing
positions, which will cover assigned sectors of fire.
(5) Emplacement. Most crew-served infantry weapons need a natural "base" or gun platform to
fire accurately. In warmer climates, the ground provides a solid base and yet has enough
resilience to act as a shock absorber. In winter, a soft snow "base" gives under the recoil of
the weapon. If the weapon is emplaced on solid frozen ground, there is no give. The
weapon absorbs all the shock of firing. This shock may result in breakage. The slippery
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surface of the frozen ground may allow the weapon to slide. If the snow is not too deep, and
time is available, tripods and/or base plates should be dug in. To solve this problem in deep
soft snow, the improvised use of snowshoes, skis, sleds and/or field expedient platforms is
recommended. Mortar base plates must still be dug in. Sandbags filled with compacted
snow will help to stabilize the firing platform. Success can be achieved by setting the mortar
base plate within a discarded tire.
(6) Snow and Ice. To keep snow and ice out of the weapon, some type of cover is required.
Improvised covers are easily made from ration packet material. Any type of material can be
used, even plastic bags.
(7) Ammunition. Cold weather can materially affect the accuracy of weapons and the
performance of ammunition. Ammunition should be kept at the same temperature as the
weapon and should be carried in bandoleers with additional ammunition carried in the
pockets of the outer parka. Magazines must be cleaned of all oil and preservatives and
checked frequently. Ammunition should not be lubricated. When brought from a cold area
into a warm space, ammunition will sweat. Any ice and condensation must be removed. To
prevent these problems, leave ammunition outside when moving inside for short periods of
time. The performance of ammunition is also affected by the cold. The burning rates of
various types of propellant charges are affected by severe cold. Weapons zeroed under
temperate conditions, or with ammunition that has been warmed, will fire low in extreme cold.
This is a result of the propellant charge burning slower due to the cold. Generally,
ammunition provides poor fragmentation in snow. VT fuse-type ammunition is better in snow-
covered terrain. Impact-detonated ammunition penetrates the snow, decreasing its
effectiveness.
(8) Machine Guns. Machine guns (MGs) break and malfunction at a high rate in cold weather.
Gun crews must carry extra sears and bolt parts. One common malfunction that occurs early
in firing is short recoil (bolt does not recoil fully to the rear). The prescribed immediate action
for the particular weapon should be applied. As the metal warms, the problem will diminish. A
second type of malfunction is caused by the freezing and hardening of buffers. This in turn
causes great shock and rapid recoil, thereby increasing the cyclic rate. When this happens,
parts usually break. Condensation causes parts to freeze. All internal parts and friction
surfaces of MGs should be coated with LAW. These weapons have fewer malfunctions when
fired cold and dry if sub-zero lubricants are not available. Firing should consist of short, two-
or three-round bursts fired at close intervals. Since ice fog greatly impairs the gunner’s vision
along his line of sight, crews must prepare two or three alternate gun positions. After
changing barrels, if the hot barrel is laid directly on snow or ice, it may warp or disappear in
deep snow. A tarp or poncho keeps barrels from warping or disappearing.
(9) Back Blast. The cold increases the back blast effect of all recoilless-type weapons by a
factor of at least three. Since the back blast areas are significantly increased, all personnel
must be instructed to plan for this hazard when fighting or training with recoilless-type
weapons.
(10)Cold Weather Hand Gear. When soldiers wear mittens, the speed in handling and firing
weapons is reduced. However, this is not an excuse for not wearing hand protection. Under
extreme cold, bare flesh freezes instantly to weapons. For extended operations in extreme
cold, armorers should remove the trigger guards.
Identify Effects of Temperature on Weapons.

a. Effects of Cold on Various Types of Weapons.
(1) Rifles. The M-16/M-4 has a very close tolerance on its moving parts. It is vital that the M-16
be cleaned of all oil and grease and then re-lubricated with a light coat of oil. If possible,
cleaning is best done inside a warm room or tent. CLP is recommended for cleaning. (CLP
must be kept warm in extreme cold. Carry it in a shirt pocket to keep fluid.) The use of
standard LAW is recommended for lubrication below 10F. Apply a light coat of LAW to all
functional parts. Ammunition should not be lubricated. The M-16 performs satisfactorily
under extreme temperature conditions provided the magazines are free of firing residue. Be
sure to clean the tops of magazines between firings. Care must be taken not to accidentally
fire the weapon when inserting gloved fingers into trigger guard areas. To prevent moisture
condensation and freezing, soldiers should keep the weapon covered when moving from a
warm area to cold area to allow gradual cooling. Soldiers should always attempt to keep the
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weapon dry. Under combat conditions, it is necessary to unload or hand-function the weapon
every 30 minutes to prevent freezing of functional parts. To insure proper functioning,
soldiers should keep the insides of magazines and their ammunition wiped dry. Moisture will
freeze and cause malfunctions. Remember when you go into heated spaces to leave
ammunition and magazines in the cold. Additional measures necessary for reliable
functioning are:
(a) Tape the butt plate to prevent the vent hole in the upper butt plate screw from
becoming plugged with snow/ice and for a non-slip surface for firing.
(b) Tape the stock to provide camouflage and prohibit the stock from falling apart if
broken.
(c) Tape the ejection port cover to eliminate the metallic sound of its opening.
(d) Tape the hand guards to prevent snow from packing in around the barrel, to
camouflage the weapon, to prevent it from falling apart if broken, and to deaden the
sound.
(e) Place a cover over the muzzle of the weapon to prevent snow/ice from plugging the
bore.
Note: Anything placed over the muzzle must be able to be fired through.
(f) Tape the pistol grip with the folding trigger guard in the lowest position to prevent it
from closing and for a non-slip grip.
(2) M-240B Machineguns. Machineguns can have a high rate of breakage and malfunction in
cold weather because of so many moving parts. The parts most affected are the sear and
bolt. Gun crews must carry extra parts. One common malfunction, occurring early in firing is
called short recoil. (The bolt does not recoil fully to the rear). The prescribed immediate
action for the particular weapon should be applied. As the weapon warms, this problem
diminishes. A second malfunction is caused by freezing and hardening of buffers. This
causes great shock and rapid recoil, increasing the cyclic rate. The gun may continue to fire
on its own. If this happens, something will give, and generally parts break. Remove all
lubricants on the gun itself and re-lubricate with CLP/LAW. If near or below –35F are
expected, CLP should be replaced with a light coating of LAW (LAW is good until -65F).
Hand function the unloaded weapon every 30 minutes to prevent parts from freezing
together. Start out with a slower rate of fire and increase as the parts of the weapon warm
up. Semi-permanent firing platforms may be constructed by attaching ski pole baskets or a
snowshoe to the bipods to support the weapon. A firing platform can be constructed from
ration boxes or other available material. The barrel may be damaged if when changing you
place a hot barrel directly into the snow. Condensation will cause parts to freeze. Two or
three alternate gun positions should be prepared in advance.
(3) Grenades. No particular problems exist in the use of hand grenades other then their
diminished effectiveness when detonated under snow. Some precautions are necessary for
throwing hand grenades by personnel wearing Arctic Hand Gear. Hand gear must be
completely dry. Handling of snow and ice may result in grenades freezing to the wet hand
gear. Hold the grenade near the neck of the fuse when removing safety pins to avoid having
the grenade slip or turn. Place the grenade so the safety lever rests between the first and
second knuckles of the thumb to ensure a sensitive feeling of the safety lever.
(4) M203 40mm Grenade Launchers. The M203 can be susceptible to breakage from the cold.
Cold temperatures can cause the plastic handgrip to contract. Sudden changes in
temperature, like bringing it into a heated tent, can make the handgrip crack and break. The
problem is particularly bad in sub-zero conditions. Prevent this problem by wrapping the
weapon in a poncho or blanket before bringing it inside. This allows the handgrip to warm up
gradually and prevent cracks. Use tape on the slide release to provide a non-slip grip, and
the barrel to provide a non-slip grip and provide camouflage. Place a cover over the muzzle
of the weapon to prevent snow from plugging the barrel. Like hand grenades, the grenade
itself will lose much of its effectiveness when detonated under snow. You may experience a
higher proportion of duds. Additionally, some reduced range is noticeable due to slower
burning rate of powder in cold weather.
(5) Mortars. There are very few breakable parts on a mortar, but firing pins may get brittle and
break. Emplacement is an important consideration. Position the base plate to prevent
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sliding. The base plate may crack due to the combination of brittle metal and the tremendous
shock when a round is fired. The frozen ground has no resiliency. The base plate and other
bracing parts of the weapons absorb the entire shock of firing. Place brush matting under the
base plate. This field expedient reduces the possibility of a cracked base plate. Make the
matting just thick enough to act as a shock absorber. If the matting is too thick the weapon
may bounce out of the position when fired. Provide the weapon with a solid, yet resilient,
shock-absorbing base. When handling mortars you must touch bare metal. Keep gloves
and/or mittens on to avoid touching the metal surface with unprotected skin. Breathing on
sights can cause fogging. Muzzle and sight covers should be used when not firing to prevent
snow and ice from entering. Lube with LAW instead of GPL when the temperature drops
below 10F. Wipe the inside of the bore before you go into the cold. Cover cartridges until
they are ready to be fired. Keep fire control instruments in their cases. The cases cushion
the delicate optics against the shock of the cold. Never bring fire control instruments directly
from the cold into a warm place. The sudden change in temperature cracks optics and lets
condensation form inside the instruments. Leave the instruments in some place sheltered –
but unheated – where they can gradually warm before you bring them inside. When bringing
your mortar inside, wait at least one hour before cleaning and lubricating it. That lets the
mortar stop sweating and lets you wipe out all moisture. There are no lubrication or ice fog
problems. Malfunctions are infrequent.
(6) M-249 Squad Automatic Weapon (SAW). The SAW performs well at low temperatures. As
with other automatic weapons, the SAW should be fired at a slow rate until it is warm.
Lubricate with CLP until below -10°F. If temperatures below this are expected then lubricate
using LAW.
(7) M-2 .50 caliber Heavy Machine Gun. Clean weapon of all grease and oil with CLP/LAW.
Apply tape only to spade grips and cocking handles. Place a prophylactic over the muzzle
and a weapons cover over the entire weapon if mounted on a vehicle mount. If the weapon
is being carried in a sled, cover the muzzle. Gunners should check frequently for ice buildup
and remove any accumulation. Periodically the gun should be cycled manually. Continue to
use CLP to lubricate even at extremely low temperatures. Also remember that the spare
barrel for the .50 cal is treated the same as the M-240B spare barrel. The only difference is
that the hot barrel will either require a full-length pad or place it in the sled.
(8) M-60 Similar effects as that of the M-240B
(9) MK-19 Lubricate lightly to moderately with LSAT, LSA, or GMD (never CLP). In cold
weather (0 to -25°F), use LSAT, LSA, GMD, or LAW. In extra cold weather (-25°F and
below), use LAW.
b. Proper Maintenance of Squad Weapons.

(1) Weapons function under extreme conditions provided they are properly maintained. Normal
lubricants thicken in cold weather. Strip weapons completely and clean with a dry cleaning
solvent if available to remove all lubricants and rust prevention compounds.
(2) Insure that snow and ice do not get into the working parts, sights, or barrels of weapons even
a small amount of ice or snow may cause weapons malfunction. Use muzzle and breech
covers. Examine the weapon carefully before firing. Pay particular attention to the barrel. If
the barrel is obstructed it may burst when fired. Remove all snow on the outside as often as
necessary. Snow on the outside of the weapon may find its way inside creating problems.
(3) Prevent condensation from forming on weapons. Upon entering a heated area store the
weapon close to the floor where it is cooler. Make every effort to remove condensation as
soon as possible. The moisture will turn to ice as soon as you go outside if you allow it to
stay on the weapon. Ice may seriously affect the operation of the weapon. Manually operate
the weapon until it warms. Leave weapons out doors, in racks or in unheated shelters if
security permits. Sweating may continue for more then an hour.
(4) If a weapon freezes, warm it slowly. Move the working parts carefully until they are unfrozen.
Remove all visible ice and snow and work the action if warming is not possible. Remove ice
from the barrel with warm lubricant if you cannot find a place to warm the entire weapon.
(5) Do not let the hot parts of the weapon touch the snow when firing. The snow will melt and
upon cooling, forms ice. Do not lay barrels on the snow. Rapid cooling may warp them.
c. Effective Employment of Indirect Fire in Snow Covered Terrain.
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(1) Even the lightest snow has a tremendous smothering effect on fragmenting munitions. Make
maximum use of airbursts with time and proximity Variable Time, Controlled Variable Time
(VT/CVT) fuses.
(2) Observation and fields of fire: Because of their high angle trajectory and ease of movement,
mortars provide the most responsive indirect fire for covering dead space in mountainous
terrain. If artillery is used you may need to request high angle to engage targets in defilade.
This will however decrease its maximum effective range to 12,000 meters. The dominating
heights in the mountains generally permit excellent long-range observation. The rugged
nature of the terrain will frequently produce significant dead space at mid-ranges. Rapidly
fluctuating weather with frequent periods of high winds, snow, freezing rain, or even fog will,
in many cases limit visibility. Low cloud cover at higher elevations may neutralize the
effectiveness of observation posts. To provide visual coverage of the battle area it may be
necessary to establish several OPs laterally, in depth, and at varying elevations.
(3) Fields of fire, like observation, are normally excellent at long ranges. Dead space is a
specific problem at shorter ranges. Use mines, obstacles and indirect fire to cover dead
space.
(4) White Phosphorous (WP) is standard for marking for Close Air Support (CAS). However in
snow-covered terrain this can be almost impossible to see without thermals. Illumination
rounds with a VT/CVT fuse are preferred as the pilot will still be able to see the round burning
on the ground.
d. Storage of Squad Weapons in a Cold Tactical Environment.

(1) Snow, low temperatures, thaws, limited storage space, and the increased problems of
transportation increase storage problems. Space in any shelter is limited. Only store items
affected by cold or which must be readily available. Leave weapons outside to avoid
condensation. Insure that weapons left outside are properly secured.
(2) Place weapons on a rack or in a pit when stored outside. Make every effort to protect the
weapons from the elements. If the weapons are racked, make sure the muzzles are down.
e. Effects of Cold on Ammunition.

(1) Small Arms Ammunition. The effect of the cold on small arms ammunition is minimal.
Velocity is lowered slightly, which causes the round to drop slightly. To overcome this:
(a) Battle sight zero all weapons when they arrive in the cold weather operating area.
(b) Range estimation will come with experience. Use tracers if the tactical situation
allows.
(c) Increase ammunition allocation. Because of the effects of cold weather clothing,
differences in range estimation, and the effect of the cold on the human body,
marksmanship will be reduced. Consequently, ammunition allocations must be
increased.
(2) Mortar Ammunition. The effect of snow will decrease the ammunition’s effectiveness. To
combat this use variable time fuses set to trigger above ground. Ammunition allocation will
also have to be increased. Dud rates are much greater and must be planned for. The snow
will also absorb much of the effect of functioning mortar rounds.
(3) Artillery Ammunition. Artillery ammunition will be affected by the cold with a result of about
100 meters short for every 1,000 meters of range. Fire Direction Control (FDC) can
compensate if a precision registration is done prior. Illumination rounds may malfunction and
fail to open. However, functioning rounds will be more effective because of reflection off the
snow pack. Deep snow will absorb the bursting radius. When firing on frozen ground with
little or no snow cover, the effects of artillery rounds will be enhanced. Family of Scatterable
Mines (FASCAM) may be used to cover mountain passes or to block the movement of a
fleeing enemy. Although rarely used, these mines self-destruct and can be emplaced over
snow covered terrain
(4) Guided/Unguided Antitank Missiles. All antitank missiles are designed to function properly at
temperatures down to –20°F. However, at lower temperatures their accuracy will decrease
because of the following:
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(a) The effects of the cold on a soldier’s ability to function. The firing hand may feel
numb due to the cold and heavy mittens/gloves. Practice wearing anti-contact gloves
will aid but not eliminate this problem.
(b) Optical sights fog immediately if breathed on. Gunners should wear masks when
firing.
(c) Ice fog requires antitank gunners to prepare multiple positions if temperatures drop
below -2O°F. These positions should be 100m to 200m apart and pre-stocked with
ammunition.
(d) The wire guidance system shorting out can cause runaway missiles. Wet snow
makes contact with the wire through a break in the coating or by a break from
extreme cold.
(e) Battery failure can cause misfires.
f. Engineer Considerations.
C-4 loses its stickiness and is hard to mold in colder temperatures. Snow can be used by engineers as
temporary barricades / obstacles. Slower burn rate for explosives / time fuse. MDI becomes hard to work
with MUST BE KEPT DRY! Many units will not use MDI as its reliability will be questioned, and many
soldiers are not trained to operate in those environments.
g. Temperature.
The higher the temperature, the less dense the air is. If the soldier zeros at 60°F and he fires at 80°F, the
air is less dense, thereby causing an increase in muzzle velocity and higher point of impact. A 20°F
change equals a one-minute elevation change in the strike of the bullet.
h. Humidity.
Humidity varies along with the altitude and temperature. Consider the change in altitudes. Problems can
occur if extreme humidity changes exist in the area of operations. That is, when humidity goes up, impact
goes down; when humidity goes down, impact goes up. Since impact is affected by humidity, a 20%
change in humidity equals about one minute.
Note: Temperature and humidity data is only for M852 168gr match ammo for the 7.62. These numbers
will vary for 5.56 M118LR and 7.62 link.
i. Altitude/barometric Pressure.
Since the air pressure is less at higher altitudes, the air is less dense. Thus, the bullet is more efficient
and impacts higher due to less drag. The approximate effect of change of the point of impact from sea
level to 10,000 feet if the rifle is zeroed at sea level. Impact will be the point of aim at sea level. For
example, a rifle zeroed at sea level and fired at a range of 700 meters at an altitude of 5,000 feet will hit
1.6 minutes high.
Range (Meters) 2,500 Feet Above Sea 5,000 Feet Above Sea 10,000 Feet Above
Level Level Sea Level
100 .05 .06 .13
200 .1 .2 .34
300 .2 .4 .6
400 .4 .5 .9
500 .5 .9 1.4
600 .6 1.0 1.8
700 1.0 1.6 2.4
800 1.3 1.9 3.3
900 1.6 2.8 4.8
1000 1.8 3.7 6.0
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Identify Effects of Altitude on Weapons.

a. Altitude: Air is less dense at higher elevations, which produces less drag, giving you a higher impact
on the target. The effects are minimal and may help offset the traditionally colder temperatures
that are experienced at altitude.
Range
(Met
ers) 2,500(FT) 5,000(FT) 10,000(FT)
100 0.05 0.08 0.13
200 0.1 0.2 0.34
300 0.2 0.4 0.6
400 0.4 0.5 0.9
500 0.5 0.9 1.4
600 0.6 1 1.8
700 1 1.6 2.4
800 1.3 1.9 3.4
900 1.6 2.8 4.8
1000 1.8 3.7 6
Angle Calculation.
a. In the Mountains a soldier is required to accurately determine distance. This skill set is often
overlooked in an urban environment. While operating in the Mountains targets will be much further.
Instead of firing from rooftops it will be hilltops. Instead of across a parking lot it will be across a valley. To
properly adjust elevation on your weapon system, the soldier has to be skilled in various range estimation
techniques. In most cases it will be hasty. If time permits additional methods should be used to determine
accurate range. Most practice firing conducted by the soldier involves the use of military range facilities,
which are relatively flat. However, as a soldier being deployed to other regions of the world, the chance
exists for operating in a mountainous or urban environment. This requires target engagements at higher
and lower elevations. To most soldiers, targets looked down upon will seem farther. On the other side
when looking up the soldier will tend to underestimate the distance. Unless the soldier takes corrective
action, bullet impact will be above the point of aim. How high the round strikes is determined by the range
and angle to the target. The amount of elevation change applied to the optic or sights of the rifle for angle
firing is known as slope dope.
Angles and Cosines: The cosine is a trigonometry function to angles. The first step in getting a
cosine is to get the angle. There are several methods to find the angle.
1. Clinometer. This instrument is specifically made to measure angles. The easiest

to acquire and most common is the Silva Ranger compass, with an internal
clinometer. Simply hold it up to your eye, line up the flat edged based of the
instrument case on the same path to the target, and read the angle where the
North seeking pivot arm rests.
2. M2. This is a compass found in all mortar platoons and artillery batteries, used to
lay gun lines. It has the capability of measuring angles. Look through the peep
sight to the target and manipulate the arm until the bubble is centered in the
level. When the bubble is up, read the angle.
3. Standard Map Protractor. First, in the center of the protractor, install a piece of
string to act as the angle reading line. (The end of the string may need to be
weighted) Then lay the protractor on the barrel or scope with 90 degrees in the
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direction of the target. Aim at the target and read the angle from the string.
4. Half-moon protractor with pivot arm. Place the flat end of the protractor up, and
flat plain. Next use the pivot arm to mark the angle of the rifle barrel, or aim the
pivot arm at the target. Where the pivot arm crosses the protractor, read the
angle.
5. Plumbing Tools- Various tools are available to obtain angles designed for
plumbers at hardware stores to obtain angles
6. The “Angle Cosine Indicator,” is a simple tool for soldiers in mountainous

terrain, and utilized to obtain their corrected for gravity distance to target. The
ACI is a vault solid, water resistant precision instrument; quiet and made from
aircraft grade aluminum, which is anodized in a flat black color. The Co-Sine
numbers are Laser Engraved onto the body in five (5) degree increments. The
lens is shatter proof, shock proof and resistant to chemicals such as acetone and
cleaning solvents. It is completely mechanical, there are no batteries to fail, no
electronics to fail. A mounting bracket is available for a rail system.
7. Laser Range Finder. The laser range finder is the most accurate of all methods.
Unfortunately most rangefinders do not give slope distance, just line of sight. You
as the shooter will still have to calculate the angle and adjust your dope
accordingly. Exceptions to this include, the Leica Viper Vector IV available
through the system. With capabilities of over 5000 with the inclinometer. Or the
Leopold RX, and the Bushnell elite series. Both of these have a built in
inclinometer that offer true ballistic ranges. The lasers have a 1500Y capability
and offer true ballistics to 800Y.
Angles affect the size of the target at any range or angle. It does not become obsolete at a certain
distance or angle. The round could still strike a target if the target is large enough and at closer ranges.
Once the angle is obtained, look on the angle cosign chart (below) and use the cosine number that
matches the angle in the following formula.
Angle Cosine Angle Cosine Angle Cosine

0 1 32-33 0.84 55 0.57
1-8 0.99 34-35 0.82 57.5 0.53
9-11 0.98 36-37 0.80 60 0.50
12-14 0.97 37-40 0.78 62.5 0.46
15-16 0.96 41 0.75 65 0.42
17-18 0.95 42 0.74 67.5 0.38
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19-20 0.94 43 0.73 70 0.34

21-22 0.93 44 0.72 72.5 0.30
23 0.92 45 0.70 75 0.26
24 0.91 46 0.69 77.5 0.215
25 0.91 47 0.68 80 0.17
26-27 0.89 48 0.67 82.5 0.13
28 0.88 49 0.65 85 0.09
29 0.87 50 0.64 87.5 0.045
30-31 0.86 52.5 0.605
D. Cosine Formula: The cosine adjusts for the angle giving the distance in which the round
will actually be affected by gravity. The elevation setting is set for the flat ground
distance. It does not adjust the actual trajectory, this makes it work for all calibers and
velocities and any type of weapons system. The cosine formula is as follows.
The actual range X cosine = flat ground distance
Example: For an estimated (actual) range of 366 yards at a 34-degree angle.

The cosine for a 34-degree angle is .82
366 yds. X .82 = 300 yds.

(See diagram 1)
The actual range of 366 yards will be used for windage and time of flight formulas. The
flat ground distance of 300 yards will be used for the elevation.
E. Milliradian Range Estimation: It has been shown before that the mil relations formula
becomes inaccurate after approximately 700 yards due to the human eye not being
capable of accurate reading of targets the height of a man or smaller past that range. It is
highly recommended that at least two methods of range estimation techniques be used at
all times. When taking a vertical mil reading there is one more step to getting an accurate
distance. The soldier has to take into consideration on how he sees the target in the mil
dots and plane of the scopes crosshairs when at an angle. The target will shrink in size
as the angle increases. (See diagram 2)
This angle of target distortion will only affect a vertical mil reading. It will not affect a
horizontal mil reading as long as the target’s surface to be read is facing the soldier and
not turned to one side causing a horizontal angle distortion.
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The formula for a vertical mil reading is:
The vertical mil reading range x cosine x cosine = flat ground distance NOTE: Large
numbers in mils and target height due to paper size.
Example: Target size = 60 yds Mil reading = 152 Initial range = 395
Note: Initial range determined by mil relation formula
The estimated range of 395 yds at a 29-degree angle
The cosine for 29 degrees is .87
1. 395 x .87 = 343 yards 2. 343 x .87 = 299 yards
The first cosine is used for the actual distance, as the cosine adjusted for the angle of the
target already. The distance of 343 yards will be used for windage and time of flight
formulas. The second cosine is going to be the flat ground distance used for all settings
of the elevation. The distance of 299 yards is the distance the bullet is affected by gravity.
The angle of the scope does not have to be adjusted for, due to the crosshairs are at the
angle of the target.
NOTE: See diagram 2 item A
* The range estimation of 395 yards is due to the vertical distortion of the target as seen
through the plane of the scope. This is a distorted distance. By multiplying this distance
by the cosine of 29 degrees (.87), we end up with 343 yards. This is the actual
undistorted distance from the shooter to the target. Therefore, to get the flat line (gravity
or map) distance we must again multiply 343 yards by the cosine of 29 degrees (.87).
This will give us the undistorted flat line distance to be dialed on the elevation turret of the
scope. Remember, this method (dist x cos x cos) is only used when using a vertical mil
reading for range estimation at angles.
F. Pythagorean Theorem: this can be used when the soldier knows two of the distances and
needs to locate the third. This can be used on terrain, but is especially useful in urban
environments.
2
1. The formula is: A² + B² = C
Since C is already known, we must find the value of B
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2 2
2. The formula to find the B value is: B = Square root of (C -A )
3. Add in letter values: B = Square root of ((361x361) –(200x200))

B = Square root of (130,321 - 40,000)
4. Subtract A from C to get the B² value: 130,321 – 40,000 = 90,321
5. Find the square root of 90,321 = 300.5
6. The distance for B and the flat line distance = 300.5 yards
Diagram 3
G. Finding the flat ground distance with a protractor. There is one last method to get the flat
ground distance using just a protractor, paper, pencil, and the actual range. This should
be used in case there is no way to get the cosine of the angle from either a cosine sheet
or a calculator. This method is accurate as long as the measurements are exact, this is
also the biggest disadvantage due to the fact it is difficult to get accurate measurements.
This is designed to at least get an accurate as possible flat ground distance, rather than
just guessing in the case of not having cosines available.
1. The first step is to find the range through any range estimation technique.
2. Find the angle with the protractor.
3. Draw a straight line such as line A in Diagram 4.
4. Place the center of the protractor on Point 1 and draw a line of the angle such as
the line from Point 1 past Point 2. Example: 30°
5. With the 1:25,000 graph of the protractor (or the largest graph as possible, the
larger the graph the more accurate it will be), mark the actual distance from Point
1 to Point 2. (Point 2 is the actual distance from point 1). Example: 1000 yards.
6. Now measure the distance with the graph from point 2 to point 3. Example: 860
yards.
7. This will give the flat ground distance for elevation.
8. If a vertical mill reading was used to get the actual distance, then the distance
from point 2 to point 3 will be used for windage and time of flight formulas and
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steps 5 through 7 must be done again using the distance from point 2 to point 3
as the actual distance.
9. The new actual distance will be used for elevation settings. Example: 740 yards
Identify the Effects of Snow Fortifications on Ammunition.

a. Introduction. Digging into completely frozen ground is a formidable task to an infantryman. It is
approximately ten times faster to build above ground snow positions than to dig in frozen ground to
obtain the same degree of protection. Traditional fighting and protective positions in cold regions can
be excavated with combined methods using hand tools, excavation equipment, or explosives.
However, excavation in frozen ground is extremely difficult and hand tools may be of little use. Heavy
equipment use is limited by traction, maneuverability, elevation, and the tactical situation. Explosives
are an expedient option, but require larger quantities than in normal soil and are again limited in
tactical situations. With proper training and leadership, there may not be a need for "digging in" for
combat on snow-covered terrain.
b. Factors. There are many factors that will determine how effective snow fortifications will be in
protecting their occupants; the snow's age, temperature, density, hardness, grain size, presence of
debris, etc. The most important factor however, is its density, (or it's mass per unit volume) which
affects how deep a bullet or shell fragment will penetrate. Snow density will directly affect how thick
or how much snow is needed to stop a given projectile. Before looking at the construction and
characteristics of defensive position made of snow, a basic understanding is needed of snow
densities and properties.
(1) Snow density is given lb/cu ft (pounds per cubic foot) or g/cm3 (grams per cubic centimeter3).
The conversion is 1 g/cm3 = 62.3 lb/cu ft, or .016 g/cm3 = 1lb/cu ft. 1m = 100 cm = 39.4 in = 3.3
ft.
(2) Snow density can vary from .20 g/cm3 for relatively lightly packed snow to .91 g/cm3 for ice. The
following are guidelines for various densities of snow:
Snow Density g/cm3 Description

<.18g/cm3 light, fluffy, cold snow
.18 - .34 g/cm3 increase in density from simple shoveling
.4 g/cm3 milling snow with a snow removal machine (from
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.34g/cm3 )
.4 g/cm3 below this density, snow as little strength
.4 - .45 g/cm3 shoveling snow and giving a few "blows" with

shovel
.5 g/cm3 limit of density achievable in the field
Note: .4 to .44 g/cm3 is the usual range for fortification construction.

Note: Can become denser in the field if water is added after compacting (this is not usually practical in
the field)
Note: .55 g/cm3 limit to packing for well-graded, milled snow
c. The following table shows snow penetration for various types of projectiles. Note how the distance
varies depending on the density of the snow, the type of projectile used, and the source of the data.
Snow Density g/cm3 Projectile Penetrations (ft) Required Minimum

thickness (ft)
.2 5.56mm 3.8 4.4
.2 7.62mm 13 15
.2 small arms and shell 13.1
frags
.4 small arms and shell 6.6
frags
.3 - .5 bullet, frags, simu. frags 1-4
.3 - .4 grenade frags 2 3
.3 - .4 5.56mm 2.3 2.6
.3 - .4 7.62mm 5.2 6
.43 7.62mm 5 5.8
.36 12.7 -14.5mm 6.4 7.4
.46 70mm HEAT 14 17.5
.5 70mm HEAT 8.7 13
.44 - .56 90mm HEAT 11.2 14.5
.4 5.56mm* 3.3
frozen snow/small 4-5
arms/water mix shell
frags
.91 (ice) small arms/shell frags 3.25
ice crete small arms/shell frags 1
* = 1000 rounds fired

into 25 X 25 cm area
Note:
• These materials degrade under sustained fire.
• Penetration characteristics of former Warsaw Pact ammunition do not differ significantly from
US counterparts.
• Figure given for HEAT weapons are for Russian RPG-7 (70mm) and US M67 (90mm) fired
into machine packed snow.
• High explosive grenades produce small, high-velocity fragments, which stop in about 2 feet of
packed snow.
• Effective penetration from direct fire is independent of delivery method, including newer
machine guns like the Russian AGS-17 (30mm) or US Mk19/M75 (40mm). Only armor
penetrating rounds are more effective.
d. Standard above Ground Positions. If the soil is frozen to a significant depth, the soldier equipped with
an E-tool and ax will have difficulty digging a fighting position. Under these conditions, (below tree
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line) snow and wood are often the only natural materials available to construct fighting positions. The
fighting position is dug at least 20 inches deep, up to chest height, depending on snow conditions.
Ideally sandbags are used (filled with packed snow) to reinforce the interior walls for added protection
and to prevent cave-ins. If sandbags are not available, a lattice framework is constructed using small
branches or, if time permits, a wall of 3-inch logs is built. A platform of plywood, timber or snowshoes
is constructed to the rear of the frontal protection to provide a solid base from which to employ the
weapons. Overhead cover is offset because of the difficulty of digging both the firing and protective
positions together in the snow. The protective position should have at least 3 feet of packed snow as
cover. The fighting position should have snow packed 8 to 9 feet thick for frontal, and at least 2 feet
thick for side protection. Packed snow, rocks, 4-inch diameter logs, or ammunition cans filled with
snow are sometimes used to complete the frontal and overhead protection, as well as side and rear
parapets.
e. Alternative above Ground Positions.
(1) Individual Fighting Position in Snow. Positions for individuals are constructed by placing
packed snow on either side of a tree and extending the snow parapet 8-9 feet to the front.
The side and rear parapets are constructed of a continuous snow mound, a minimum of 2-
feet wide, and high enough to protect the soldier's head.
(2) Snow Trench with Wood Revetment. In deep snow, trenches and weapon positions are
excavated to the previously described dimensions. However, unless the snow is well packed
and frozen, revetment is required. In snow too shallow to permit the required depth of
excavation, snow walls are usually constructed. The walls are made of compacted snow,
reinforced, and at least 6.5 feet thick.
f. Snow and Ice Crete. Soil and snow deposits that have been excavated can be mixed with water
(when available) and placed around the excavation as additional fortification. As this soil freezes, it
will form what is commonly referred to as ice-crete or snow crete, which affords excellent protection
against small arms fire. If available, ice crete can be made into solid blocks by using ammo crates or
MRE boxes as molds, which are, removed once the ice crete freezes. Snow or ice-crete is best used
on the inside of the positions next to the occupant because it acts as an effective stopper once the
round is slowed down and tumbled through the less dense snow on the outside of the position. It is
also more brittle and will degrade quicker if exposed to sustained direct fire.
g. Other Materials. Firing positions in snow can also be reinforced with local materials such as ice,
wood, branches or gravel. Sandbags, ammo cans or grain bags filled with snow are also effective in
reinforcing the walls of the position. Even small amounts of rocks or sticks can be effective when
packed in snow or made into the ice-crete molds. The debris will cause the round to tumble, which
severely limits the penetration of the round.
h. Indirect-fire Rounds and Grenades. Heavier projectiles, artillery shells, mortar rounds, hand
grenades, and rifle grenades are also seriously affected by snow. If explosive rounds like these are
fired or thrown into snow-covered terrain, they will almost never detonate at the snow surface level
with maximum effectiveness. Instead, they detonate either at the surface of the ground underneath
the snow or, at best, within the snow cover. The fragmentation effect circle is very small compared
with free surface bursts; it may be reduced as much as 70-80% and the fragments will only travel a
few meters in the snow. Unless the round falls almost directly on the target, the target will probably
survive. The degradation effect of a snow cover may be significant even if it is as shallow as 18-20
cm. It follows that warfare requires significantly more ammunition when conducted on snow-covered
ground in winter than it does in summer. The fuse action of explosive rounds aimed at, and hitting,
artificial protecting structures such as ordinary snow berms causes the rounds to explode within them.
The rounds that fly through them are usually duds. Generally, an area bombarded with flat-trajectory
fused explosive ammunition becomes "dud-infested".
i. Anti-tank Weapons. Modern armor-penetrating ordnance based on shaped charge effects, such as
artillery, recoilless rifle rounds and probably Russian RPG-7 antitank grenade, perform very poorly if
the armored vehicles, tanks, or armored personnel carriers are protected by a layer of snow. It has
been observed that the snow triggers the fuses. The metal jet forms before reaching the armor,
disperses its energy in the snow, and becomes harmless. A tank in ambush or guarding an object of
tactical importance may become immensely more secure if quickly covered with shoveled snow. One
meter of reworked snow would be enough to protect against high explosive antitank ammunition
(HEAT) with shaped charge action.
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j. Snow Fortification Dimensions. Minimum dimensions of a properly constructed snow fortification that
will effectively stop small arms fire up to 7.62mm should be 8 feet long by 4 feet high by 4 feet wide and it
should be in a wedge shape. The wedge shape helps deflect the rounds and is a very important part of
the construction. As a general rule, the more consolidated the snow is the more effective it will be at
stopping rounds. The less consolidated the snow the less effective it will be at stopping rounds. If
resources are available it is critical that you put other materials such as sticks in the snow as well as
because it gives the snow fortifications more stopping power. Average penetration from our personal field
test (non-scientific) with snow fortifications built to the dimensions described above has been 3 to 4 feet.
Our non-scientific data differs from the scientific data, which shows dramatic changes of penetration from
the different snow concentration.
Snow Fortification Diagram
Notes
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Animal Packing
071E9050
INTRODUCTION: From horse drawn chariots 3800 years ago, to Special Forces teams on horseback in
Afghanistan, the use of animals in war has always been a force multiplier. Knowing the basics of how to
select, pack and care for pack animals can mean the difference between mission success and failure in
the mountains.
Identify pack animal use considerations.

a. Infrastructure considerations. In many developing countries, road systems are generally in poor
condition. Spring run off, landslides and the lack of money and equipment to maintain road
systems can bring wheeled and tracked vehicles to a complete stop. Resupply by air is often
hampered by weather, PZ and LZ limitations and lack of air asset availability. This can create the
need to use an assortment of pack animals when it comes to transportation requests. Being
prepared to use locally obtained pack animals to bring materials through otherwise impassable
roads and terrain, will allow you to continue to bring the fight to the enemy.
b. Animals in theater. The last pack animal unit in the U.S. Army was disbanded in 1953. Units will
not bring pack animals into theater. Another option is to acquire animals from the local population.
Knowing how to choose animals that will perform the job for the task required is important to
ensure mission success.
Identify parts of pack animals.

a. Nomenclature. There are five main parts to the animal. They are the following: head,
neck, back/barrel, front quarters, hindquarters.
b. Conformation. Conformation describes what goes into the selection process for
determining what a good pack animal should look like with regard to size, shape, height,
weight and dimensions. Good conformation is marked by a steady intelligent mind, short
strong neck, well-defined withers, large muscular chest, and a short, straight, well-
muscled back and loins. Knowing what to look for in an animal will allow you to avoid sick
or weak animals that would otherwise compromise your mission.
c. Selection. Avoid any animal that looks weak or frail. Drugs may have been administered
before your arrival to improve the animal’s looks or condition. Old scars and open
wounds are a sign of hard use and poor treatment. Protruding rib and hipbones are signs
of an undernourished animal. If the animal looks dubious at first glance, do not use it.
Acquiring pack animals.
a. Bargaining. Avoid going into a village and choosing the first animals you come across. Talk with
the elder and let him know your needs. Closely inspect the animals. Take pictures of the animals
for further study later. Haggling is often part of local culture. The price you agree on will affect the
price for others trying to acquire animals in the future. Do not accept the animals that day if
possible. Some may have been drugged to hide an injury. One technique is to arrange to pick
them up the following day, but wait two days before coming unannounced. Have the same
animals gathered up, then compare. Any drugs given the first time will have worn off by the time
you come back.
b. Interpreters. Insure that the interpreter is telling the elder what you are saying and not any more.
Load planning factors and considerations.
a. Planning. Check within the unit to see if any one has experience working with horses. These
individuals can assist the local animal owner with handling the animals through out the
movement. It is recommended that two people be assigned for every ten animals for control
purposes. Cross load equipment in case of attack. For security reasons, if packing ammo or other
sensitive items, those animals should be handled by U.S. personnel only.
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b. Packing. All items to be loaded should be planned out so that each pair of bundles are balanced
to within 5 lbs of each other and placed on the animal at the same time. This will ensure that the
load rides evenly on the animal. Placing loads should be done as quickly as possible. The goal
should be to take no longer than 30 minutes to load all the animals. Begin the movement
immediately after the last animal is packed.
c. Leading. Never coil the rope around your hand. Hold loose bights to prevent you from being
caught in a loop if the animal runs. Be aware of your surroundings at all times to prevent injuries.
Maintain firm control if leading an individual animal. Stand at or just in front of the animal’s head.
d. Loads. In general the total load place on an animal should not exceed 25% of the weight of the
animal. For small horses and donkeys the average load is about 80 - 100 pounds. Consideration
for the condition of the animal, durability of native pack equipment, terrain, and distance to be
covered should be factored into the load plan weight.
Identify pack load considerations.

a. Building a load. Loads should be constructed so the load does not injure the animal or spill out
the contents. The basic items needed for building a load can be varied. Blankets, canvas tarps,
ponchos (light loads), sleeping bags, rucksacks and duffel bags all can be used to haul
equipment.
b. Mantee bundle. The mantee is an 8’ x 7’ piece of 12 to 18oz canvas or similar sized material. Laid
flat on the ground, the load is placed in the center so that the corners of the mantee bisect it. The
sides are tucked in and folded over the load followed by the ends. Tension must be maintained
while folding to ensure a tight final product.
c. Tying off. A 3/8“diameter rope 36 feet long with a small fixed loop at one end is needed to tie up
the mantee. Bring the rope around the long axis of the load and bring the running end of the rope
through the fixed loop. Pull this back on its self as tightly as possible. Make a series of half
hitches around and down the load roughly 1/3 the distance at a time. Secure the end of the rope
with a tightly dressed down half hitch. Place any remaining rope under the wraps to hold it
secure.
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Mantee bundle
d. There are 2 types of commercially manufactured saddles. The Sawbuck saddle and the Decker
Saddle. More than likely you will not be deployed with animals and tack, but you may be able to
purchase some tack prior to your deployment.
e. Tack can be made from sling ropes, LBE/LCE, and Canvas with initiative and imagination.
Sawbuck frame Decker frame
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Identify the characteristics of horses, mules and donkeys.
a. Horses. Almost any horse used for riding can be used for packing. If you are on horseback, your
pack animals should be horses in order to maintain the mobility of the mounted element. Horses
carry about 65% of their weight on their front legs. This makes them less suitable for rough terrain
or downhill movement. Horses are more skittish to loud noise and sudden movements. They are
also more prone to foot problems than other pack animals.
b. Mules. Mules are the hybrid product of a male donkey and a female horse. Mules are sterile and
cannot be bred. Mules carry about 55% of their weight on their front legs giving them better
balance and footing than horses in rugged terrain. The term “stubborn as a mule” stems from the
mules strong sense of self-preservation. If a mule thinks it will be injured it will refuse to go any
further no matter how much persuasion is used. Mules form very close bonds with horses,
especially mares. It is good practice to have at least one mare with a mule pack. The mules will
willingly follow a bell mare. Even while grazing at night, mules will not venture far from the mare.
Harsh treatment of these animals will lead to control problems later on. Mules will respond to an
untrained handler better than a horse. Pound for pound, you will get more work out of a mule than
a horse. An adult healthy mule will be able to carry a two hundred pound load all day.
c. Donkeys. Donkeys evolved in the desert. Their bodies are very efficient at conserving water, even
pulling excess moisture from their dung before voiding it. Their tough compact hoofs handle sand
and rock well. They do not sweat as much as horses due to having a smaller muscle mass. Large
ears help to dissipate heat and can locate sound direction very well, alerting you to unseen
danger. Like mules, they will instinctively attack any canines deemed a threat. They have a
digestive system that is able to break down and get nutrients from almost anything. Donkeys also
have a strong sense of self-preservation. Donkeys range in size from 36” to 56” high at the
shoulder.
Identify animal feeding considerations.

a. Feeding. Feeding pack animals in theater will create logistical problems if there is not enough
natural forage to be found. Animal field rations are determined by their weight. A 1000 lb mule will
require 14 lbs of forage and 10 lbs of grain each day. A 400 lb donkey will need 12 lbs of forage
and 2 lb of grain. These amounts will increase with a heavy workload. Half of the amount is
usually given in the morning and the other half at the end of the workday.
b. Free-range food. To meet the animal’s daily requirements, a pack animal left to feed on its’ own
will need a grazing area large enough to feed for six hours with out having to lift its’ head to look
for and move to more food. Flakes of hay should be in some kind of manger to keep it off the
ground to prevent mold and debris from contaminating the feed.
c. Water needs. Water is critical to the animals ability to digest its’ food and maintain its’ health. A
mule will require between 4-8 gallons per day (gpd), a donkey 2.5 – 5 gpd and a horse 8-12 gpd.
These amounts are a daily total; the animals should be allowed a portion of this amount several
times a day. A fast pace or hard exertion should be delayed for about a half hour after watering
on the march to avoid digestive disturbances, which could kill the animal.
Identify animal health considerations.
a. Animal health. Animals acquired in theater will more than likely be tired and beat down already.
Your job will be to select the best animals available to accomplish your mission. In general,
injuries above the animal’s knees are treatable because of more muscle tissue and blood supply.
Suture kits and medicated salve (Bag Balm) for cuts and abrasions are likely all you need.
Wounds below the knees are more problematic. Poor blood supply, difficulty keeping the wound
clean, and the constant motion prevent easy wound care.
b. Medicine. In general anything used to treat a wounded soldier can be used for animal wounds.
Medics should carry heavy weight sutures, medicated salve and several rolls of 4” vet wrap.
c. Destroying stock. There are four main ways to destroy stock.
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(1) Striking between the ears with a heavy blunt object. Make an imaginary x between the
animals’ ears and eyes. Strike where they meet. Having the animal secured will greatly
increase your chances of success.
(2) Cutting the throat on the lower 1/3 of the neck to sever the jugular vein.
(3) Shooting, make an imaginary x between the animals’ ears and eyes. Shoot from close
range.
(4) Turn the animal loose. Let nature take its’ course. This is the least preferred option due to
prolonged animal suffering and the animal may follow the herd.
Notes
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Climbing Techniques
071E9010
INTRODUCTION: Military mountaineering provides access to otherwise inaccessible mountainous

terrain. Soldiers skilled in mountaineering techniques can accomplish essential missions in difficult
terrain. They can serve as guides, observers, snipers, patrols, security elements and assault team
members. It is important to be able to climb steep rock faces safely while using a smooth, economy of
motion. The objective is to get to the top of the steep terrain using as little energy as required.
Concept of a Top Rope Belayed System.

a. A Top Rope Belayed system is one in which both members of a climbing team tie into one end of
a climbing rope. In most cases both rope ends are on the ground and the rope runs up to the top
of the cliff or climb and passes through carabiners in a pre-established anchor point. This
enables one soldier to climb while the other soldier takes in rope via a mechanical belay in order
to keep the rope tight in the event of a fall. This system also enables the belayer to lower the
climber back down to the ground after completing the climb.
b. A Top Rope system is a training tool only. It allows soldiers to learn the fundamentals of
tying in and belaying in climbing and to practice individual climbing techniques without the
consequences of a long leader fall or unroped fall on steep terrain. Also, practicing these
skills on steep, challenging terrain will promote competence and confidence on relatively
easier terrain.
Tying into a Rope.

a. Introduction. There are many different ways to tie into the end of the climbing rope. The terrain and
equipment available will dictate which method of tie-in you will use.
b. Tying directly into the rope.
(1) Bowline. The bowline is a simple and effective way to tie into the end of the rope on terrain when
a fall is very unlikely. This can be tied around the waist or around the chest underneath the arms.
Pros:
• Fast, uses only a rope.
• You have full use of your upper body with no restricted movement.
• You can carry a rucksack without interference.
Cons:
• Damage to the internal organs (kidneys) and the spine if you fall.
• Possibility of strangulation by diaphragm compression if you hang
suspended.
• You will invert if wearing a pack.
(2) Bowline on a Coil. The bowline on a coil is an effective way to tie into the end of a climbing rope
on terrain when a slip is likely.
Pros:
• Uses only the climbing rope.
Cons:
• Can cause damage to vital organs in a long fall.
• Strangulation by diaphragm compression will occur if you hang
suspended for a long period.
• Uncomfortable when used for long period.
• Chance of inverting if wearing a heavy pack.
• Uses a lot of rope.
c. Use of a harness.
(1). Commercially Manufactured Seat Harness. Commercially manufactured harnesses are used
when falls are very likely, you will be hanging in your harness for a long period of time or be working
extensively in vertical terrain. There are many commercially manufactured harnesses available. A
manufactured harness is more comfortable, easier to use, and safer than the field expedient harness.
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Use only UIAA approved harnesses. You can use a commercially manufactured seat harness with or
without a chest harness.
Pros:
• The climber is less restricted in the seat harness.
• Comfortable.
• Able to distribute the force of a fall over a large percentage of the body.
• Able to hang for a long period of time.
Cons:
• Chance of inverting if wearing a heavy pack.
• Chance of failing if buckles are not double passed.
• Can be expensive.
Figure 1 Figure 2
Waist Tie-In Waist Tie-In Inversion
(2). Field Expedient Harnesses. There are many methods to make field-expedient harnesses using
webbing, rope or cord.
Pros:
• Comfortable.
• Able to distribute the force of a fall over a large percentage of the body.
• Able to hang for a long period of time.
Cons:
• Need 22 feet of 1 inch tubular webbing, rope or cord.
• Needs to be tied correctly for comfort and safety.
• Chance of inverting if wearing a heavy pack
(3) Chest Harness
Pros:
• Used in conjunction with a seat harness will prevent inverting if wearing a
heavy pack.
• Able to put on or remove when needed.
Cons:
• Need webbing or an extra sling rope and an extra locking carabiner.
• Need to tie the harness correctly to prevent suffocation.
• Convert if wearing a heavy pack.
• Can make adding or removing clothing layers difficult
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Figure 3
Combination Harness
d. Tying into the Harness. The preferred method of tying-in to a manufactured or expedient harness is
directly to the harness with a rerouted figure eight knot.
(1) Field Expedient Seat Harness.
(a) Find all of the wraps of the waist belt and the leg connector strap.
(b) Tie an in line figure of eight knot in the climbing rope.
(c) Route the rope down behind all of the wraps in the waist belt, under the leg connector strap
and then up.
(d) Finish the rerouted figure of eight.
(2) Manufactured Seat Harness
(a) Grasp the waist belt and the leg connector strap.
(b) Tie an in line figure of eight knot in the climbing rope.
(c) Route the rope down behind the waist belt, under the leg connector strap and then up.
(d) Finish the rerouted figure of eight.
AMWS Safety Note: You will tie into the harness only one-way (through the waist belt and the leg
connecter strap).
AMWS Safety Note: You will tie into the harness only one-way (through the four tie in points).
NOTE: Conduct a check on learning and summarize the learning activity.
Identify Fundamentals of Movement.

a. General. Study the climb to make sure you select the best route and have the necessary equipment.
b. Visually Climb the Route. Visually climb the route first. This allows you to move efficiently and plan
exactly how to use each hold.
c. Climbing in Balance. Stand erect with your body weight directly over your feet. Use your hands for
balance. Use your skeleton to support your weight. A beginner leans in and hugs the rock. An upright
stance improves footing by developing maximum friction and balance.
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Figure 1
Climbing in Balance
d. Descents. Face out when the going is easy, sideways when hard or face in when difficult. Use the
lowest possible hand holds.
Figure 2
Descending
e. Three-points of Contact. Always maintain three points of support to enhance stability and security.
Use two feet and one hand or one foot and two hands while the remaining limb moves to the next hold.
f. Controlled Motion. Move with economy of effort to avoid fatigue. Try to push up with the legs instead of
pulling with the arms. The more you use your legs, the longer your arms will last. Keeping hands at head
level saves arm strength and permits you to lean away from the rock to see holds (extremely important
when down-climbing steep rock). Avoid excessively high steps or long reaches. Use intermediate holds
when available. Jumping to reach a hold can be a disaster. You may miss the hold; it may be loose or
illusionary. Try to press down rather than pull up. Seek natural body positions, rather than awkward,
tiring ones.
g. Actions if Falling. Sound the command "falling." Do NOT grab the rope. Push yourself away from the
rock and keep your hands out toward the rock to protect yourself.
h. Movement on Slabs. Precise friction and balance are the only means of staying on the rock.
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Identify the Types and Use of Holds.

a. Use of Holds. Choose holds for stability, convenience and size. If questionable, test with a blow from
the hand or foot. Avoid using knees and elbows because they are easy to injure and offer very little
stability. You can use the "change step" when traversing (hop with one foot and replace it quickly with the
other). You should test all holds by applying weight gradually. Most handhold become footholds as you
move up the rock. There are six basic holds.
(1) Push Holds. Push holds are pushed down upon and help the climber keep his arms low, but
are more difficult to hold onto in case of a slip. They are often used in combination with a pull
hold.
Figure 3
Push Holds
(2) Pull Holds. Pull holds are those pulled down on and are the easiest holds to use. They are
also the most likely to break. This is the most commonly sought handhold. The climber grasps
the edge of a crack; corner or knob then leans slightly away from the hold while stepping upward.
On small holds, the fingers form to fit the rock. A larger hold, preferably sloping inward, becomes
a true handhold for the entire hand. The best and most comfortable of these are referred to as
"jugs”.
Figure 4
Pull Holds
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(3) Foot Holds. On steep slopes, keep your body vertical; make use of small irregularities in the
slope to aid friction. Footholds less than 1 ½ cm wide may be sufficient for intermediate holds,
even when they slope out. Footwork in rock climbing is essential. Place feet carefully in the
desired position and do not move them. Do not thrash about in hopes of finding something better.
With marginal footholds it is mandatory not to rotate or move your foot once it is in place. Even a
small change in position may cause your boot to slip. If wearing stiff boots, turn the foot sideways
to get the stronger inside edge of the boot and foot on the hold. In very flexible boots or rock
shoes, the foot may have to point uphill with the boot sole "smeared" or "covering" the small hold.
If muscles are under too much strain for too long a time the leg may begin to vibrate. "Sewing
machine leg" can be very annoying and dangerous. The best way to stop this vibrating is to
change position by moving on, lowering the heel or straightening the leg.
Figure 5
Foot Holds
(4) Friction Holds. Friction holds are solely dependent on the friction of hands or feet against a
relatively smooth surface with shallow holds. They are difficult to use because they give a feeling
of insecurity. The inexperienced climber tries to correct this by leaning closer to the rock. This
movement actually increases his insecurity. They often serve well as intermediate holds. Some
give needed support during movement to another hold, but would not hold if you stopped.
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Figure 6
Friction Holds
(5) Jams. Jamming is wedging fingers, hands, arms, feet, knees, legs and/or any other portion of
the body into cracks and lodging them securely enough to bear weight. Jamming or crack
climbing is less instinctive, but often more secure than other types of holds. Each movement
should be very deliberate. Thrashing about and desperate pawing at the rock are useless and
tiring. Before moving a hand or foot, look ahead, select a prospective place, then move the hand
or foot to the new jam position and lock it in place. Cracks come in all sizes, from narrow to wide.
Figure 7
Jam Holds
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(6) Combination Holds. The holds previously mentioned are considered basic and from these
you can use any number of combinations and variations.
(a)Chimney Technique. The chimney climbing technique exerts cross pressure between
the back and the feet, hands or knees. Insert the entire body into a crack in the rock. By
using both sides of the opening and possibly all types of basic holds, move up the crack.
These techniques rely on the friction maintained by cross pressure with the body.
Maintain as many points of contact as possible.
Figure 8
Chimney Climbing
(b) Stemming. Use the cross pressure of two hands, two feet, one hand and one-foot,
etc. Stemming is most commonly used in corners and wide chimneys. This is a good
resting position.
Figure 9
Stemming
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(c) Lie Back. A lie back is done by leaning to one side of an offset crack with the hands
pulling and the feet pushing against the offset side.
Figure 10
Lie Back
(d) Pinch Hold. Pinch a rock protrusion between the thumb and fingers.
Figure 11
Pinch Hold
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(e) Underclings. Underclings allow opposing pressure between hands and feet.
Figure 13
Underclings
(f) Mantling. Mantling is done by two push holds at once to raise the body onto a ledge
when there are few available footholds. Try to use your legs as much as possible, to help
the upper body.
Figure 14
Mantling
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Demonstrate Flat Footing, Self-Arrest, and Glissading Techniques.

a. Flatfooting With Crampons (French technique).
(1) Ascending.
(a) Cane Position.
• When walking on moderate surfaces of 0-15 degrees, widen your stance slightly
more than normal walking to avoid snagging a crampon point.
• As the degree of angle increases on the slope, your feet are shifted outward to
relieve stress on ankles and calves.
• When the slope gets steeper (moderate, 35-50 degrees) turn sideways so your
feet face across the slope.
(b) Cross Body Position.

• To take a step, lift the downhill (outside) foot in front of and above the uphill
(inside) knee, into the "out-of-balance" position.
• Return to the "in-balance" position. Bring the lower (inside) foot up behind and
place in front of the outside foot.
• Keep your body weight over your crampons.
• Plant the axe about an arms length ahead of you each time before you move
another two-steps.
Figure 6
Cross Body Position
(c) Changing Direction.

• From the position of balance, place the axe directly above your location.
• Move your downhill foot forward into the out of balance position, to the same
elevation as the other foot pointing slightly uphill.
• Return to the in balance position by moving your foot that is still pointing in the
original direction to above and in front of your other foot.
Figure 7
Changing Position
(d) Anchor Position.

• Grip the axe shaft near the spike with your outside hand. Swing the axe in a
smooth arc engaging the pick above and slightly in front of your head.
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• Keep the shaft parallel to the slope.

• With the other hand, take hold of the axe head in the self-arrest grasp.
• Pull down and step up to a new in-balance position. Maintain a gentle outward
pressure to lock the axe in the ice by setting the teeth.
Figure 8
Anchor Position
(e) Foot Seat (in balance position).

• Move the outside (lower) foot up and underneath the buttocks with the toes
pointing straight down.
• Sit down on that foot.
Figure 9
Foot Seat
(2) Descending.
(a) Duck Walk (Cane, cross-body).
• Point your toes downhill. Bend your knees. Hold your axe in the cane position.
• Splaying the feet out will relieve some strain on the calves and ankles when the
angle of the slope increases.
• Hold the axe in the cross-body position for greater security.
(b) Flatfooting (Support position).

• As the slope increases, use the axe in the support position.
• Hold the shaft roughly parallel to the slope, pick uphill and spike downhill.
• Rest the pick tip and spike on the ice.
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Figure 10
Duck Walk (Cane, cross body)
(c) Axe in the Banister Position.

• From a position of balance, swing the axe downhill, setting the pick end as far
below as possible.
• Pull outward gently to set the teeth. When you pass below and beyond your axe,
push in on the axe to release the point. Repeat as you continue down.
Figure 11
Descending (Axe in banister position)
(d) Descend diagonally (Axe in Anchor Position).

• Turn your feet sideways and descend diagonally. Use the axe in the anchor
position.
• The axe is swung using the outside hand swinging from the shoulder, setting the
pick low and to the front.
• Rotate the shaft as you pass below it.
Figure 12
Descending Diagonally (Axe in anchor position)
Glissading. Whenever possible, gentle, moderate and even some steep slopes should be descended by
the glissade.
Ideal snow for glissading is solid enough to provide support, but softened on the surface. If the surface is
rough, there will be too much friction and you will not be able to slide effectively even on steep slopes.
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(1) Basic Glissade Methods: Standing, Crouching and Sitting.

(a) Standing Glissade. The technique is similar to skiing.
The standing glissade is the hardest to learn.
Keep your feet together with knees bent forward slightly to act as shock
absorbers.
Center your weight over the balls of your feet. If you rock too far forward you will
trip.
Center the weight on your heels to slow down.
Adjust your body position in relation to the slope to keep your weight centered.
You can slow down by rocking back on your heels and even stop by turning your
feet sideways and skidding.
Turning is the best speed control.
Rotate the upper body, legs and feet, toward the desired new direction.
Roll your knees and ankles toward the turn.
This will angle your boots onto the edges and carve the turn.
Unweighting will help on high-friction snow or low-angle slopes.
Crouch-and-spring-up to unweight.
You can sometimes turn on the downhill side of small bumps and let the terrain
do the work.
(b) Crouching Glissade.

Use the crouching glissade if the slope is too steep to do a standing glissade.
This technique is glissading sitting on your heels to keep the center of gravity low
and close to the snow.
It gives good balance and means you do not have as far to fall or as awkward a
position to recover from if you do fall.
In a crouch you have much less control over turning and the foot brake is less
effective. Your entire position is less dynamic and versatile.
You can use the spike of the axe as a brake.
Should you fall, you are closer to self-arrest.
(c) Sitting Glissade.

Use a sitting glissade when the snow is too soft to slide on with your feet.
Sit down on the snow slope.
Use the spike of the ice axe as a rudder to control your speed.
If self-arrest is needed, always roll towards the head of the ice axe.
Figure 17
Glissading Techniques
Self Arrest.
(1) With one hand, grip the head of the axe; hook that thumb under the adze.
(2) Grasp the shaft near the spike with your other hand.
(3) Hold the axe diagonally across your body with the adze away from your shoulder and the
spike next to the opposite hip.
(4) You must force the pick of the axe into the slope to self-arrest.
(5) Force the pick into the snow with the axe head no higher than the top of your shoulder (if it is
higher it will be hard to hang onto).
(6) Arch your body so that your weight is on your toes and the axe pick.
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(7) Force your body to arch and bear down on the pick. If you forget, the spike will catch in the
snow and wrench the axe out of your hands.
(8) Spread your feet for balance. You are stable on three points of support: the axe and both
feet. If your feet are on the snow while you are wearing crampons you may flip over backwards.
Use your knees instead of your feet if you are wearing crampons.
Figure 16
Self-Arrest
Demonstrate Steep Snow/Ice Climbing Techniques.

a. Front- Pointing With Crampons. The addition of two front points in 1932 made it possible to attempt
pitches more than 70 degrees.
(1) Crampon Placement.
(a) Trust your crampons the first few times you get on the ice, especially if the conditions
are cold and brittle.
(b) It is not necessary to repeatedly kick your foot against the ice. Many beginners kick
too many times for each foot placement. One or two firm well-placed kicks will do it.
(c) Set the foot quickly and then transfer the weight quick to it. So pick the best spot-an
old pick hole, a flat or concave surface or tiny ledge and place your front points in it.
(d) Kick the spot aggressively and accurately once or twice to set the front points.
(e) Drop your heels to relax your calves and seat the secondary front points, giving a
stable tripod. (f) When you are climbing thin ice or rock, set the front points on rock
edges or in cracks when possible and hold your foot steady to keep the points from
slipping.
Figure 13
Proper Vertical Crampon Placement
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b. Ascending with an Axe.

(1) Low Dagger Position.
(a) Hold the axe by the adze in the self-belay grip.
(b) Push the pick into the snow about waist high.
(2) High Dagger Position.

(a) Hold the axe in the self-arrest grip.
(b) Drive the pick into the snow (dagger-style) over your head.
(3) Front Pointing (Axe in the Anchor Position).

(a) Hold the axe near the spike and swing as high as possible.
(b) Ascend until you hold the adze in the anchor position.
(c) Continue to ascend until you hold the adze in the low dagger position.
Figure 14
Vertical Tool Placements
c. Ascending with two ice axes (Ice Tools). In 1966, a curve was added to the pick of a short handled ice
axe. These made it possible to attempt ice over 90 degrees.
(1) Wrist Loop.
(a) Make the wrist leash loop large enough for the hand to fit through easily. This helps
hold the hand in position on the axe.
(b) Attach the loop to the shaft above the correct hand position. This will keep the hand
and shaft together whether or not the fingers are locked around the shaft. Using a wrist
loop set up this way allows you to hang from an ice tool without fatiguing your forearms.
(2) Tool Placement.

(a) Stagger your tool placements, instead of placing them side by side.
(b) Plant one tool, move both feet evenly, lock off on this tool and then advance the other
tool.
(c) Move both feet again and reset the first tool.
Note: This way you make big, efficient moves on each tool placement and keep the picks spread apart so
a fracture plate of ice cannot take out both picks.
(3) Body Position.

(a) Good body position will maximize the weight on your feet and conserve upper body
strength. (b) Keep your feet shoulder width apart or slightly less, to reduce the tendency
to “barn door” to one side.
(c) Use several short steps, rather than high steeping, to reduce the stress on your
quadriceps although high steeping can be necessary occasionally to get pass bulges.
(d) Always keep your weight over your feet.
(e) Trust your feet and move steadily and confidently.
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Figure 15
High and Low Dagger Positions
(4) Removing a Stuck Tool.

(a) Try to remove it in the reverse of the motion used to set it.
(b) Loosen the placement by rocking the tool up and down.
(c) If this fails, release your grip on the tool and try to knock it loose by hitting up against
the adze or hammer with the palm of your hand.
Note: Never remove a tool by moving it side to side because the pick may break.
Notes
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Communication in a Mountainous Environment

071E9014
INTRODUCTION: The US Army has significant technological advantages over our enemies.
Communications is essential to pass on intelligence and battle updates, as well as to exploit our military
capabilities. However, a mountainous cold weather environment works as an equalizer in combat by
reducing communication capabilities. Understanding how to use different types of communication and
field expedient antennas in a mountainous environment can mean the difference between mission
success and failure.
Limitations of communications in the mountains.
a. Communicating in the mountains is a challenge since there are few ideal spots for communication. FM
radios, which are line of sight systems, frequently cannot communicate because their signals
are absorbed by terrain folds and features. If all the force is on the same side of the mountain
and the mountain forms a bowl, FM communications are usually possible. However, radios
located on the same side of the mountain at different altitudes have difficulty communicating
because of intervening terrain and communications dead space. If the force is deployed on the
same side of a mountain, which curves out, communications, are especially difficult. Even FM
radios located on the summit of the mountain have difficulty communicating with radios located
further down the mountain slope due to dead space.
b. Communication sites must be carefully selected–and often become key terrain. When line-of-sight
communications in mountains are possible, communications are excellent, but there are few sites where
line-of sight is possible to all other elements in the net.
c. There are often only three solutions–move the radio either to where it can communicate, set up a radio
retransmission site or relay messages across the net.
Types of Communication in the Mountains.
a. Single Channel Ground and Airborne Radio System (SINCGARS)
1. The Single-channel Ground and Airborne Radio System (SINCGARS) family of frequency modulation
(FM) radios is good for the control of battalion and smaller-sized units operating in a mountainous
environment (see FM 6-02.32 and FM 6-02.18). If available, hands-free radios, such as helmet-mounted
radios, are an excellent means of communication for small unit tactics and close-in distances, particularly
while negotiating rugged terrain. In colder environments, shortened battery life greatly reduces the
reliability of man packed systems that rely on constant voltage input to maintain maximum accuracy.
2. Since even a small unit may be spread over a large area, retransmission sites may be needed to
maintain communications and increase range. These sites require extensive preparation and support to
ensure the survival of personnel and the continued maintenance of equipment. Retransmission systems
are often placed on the highest accessible terrain to afford them the best line-of-sight; however, through
simple analysis, these locations are often predictable and make them more vulnerable to enemy
interdiction. The importance and difficulty of maintaining adequate communications in mountainous
terrain requires commanders to devote additional resources for the protection of these limited assets and
operators skilled in the proper use of cover and concealment, noise and light discipline, and other
operations security (OPSEC) measures.
3. Physical range limitations, difficulties in establishing line-of-sight paths due to intervening terrain, and
limited retransmission capabilities often make it difficult to establish a brigade and larger-sized radio net.
However, commanders can, if within range, enter subordinate nets and establish a temporary net for
various contingencies. In the mountains or if the mobile subscriber equipment network is not yet fully
developed, commanders should consider the increased need for the improved high frequency radio
(IHFR) family of amplitude modulation (AM) radios and single-channel tactical satellite communications
terminals for extended distances.
b. Satellite Telephones/ SATCOM: Satellite telephones are excellent for emergency communications in
the mountains. Advantages include lightweight, mobile enroute communication; can penetrate foliage,
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and virtually unlimited range. These systems have there limitations also, batteries are very limited, they
are difficult to encrypt, and are not always available in every unit especially at smaller unit levels.
c. Audio, visual and physical signals: Audio, visual and physical signals can be quick and effective if
SOPs are established prior to the operation. Leaders can use simple audio signals, such as voice or
whistles, to locally alert and warn. Sound travels farther in mountain air. Although this effect may increase
the possibility of enemy detection, interrupting terrain, wind conditions, and echoes can restrict voice and
whistle commands to certain directions and uses. Like audio signals, visual signals such as pyrotechnics
and mirrors have limited use due to enemy detection, but may work for routine and emergency traffic at
the right time and place. Blowing sand or snow, haze, fog, and other atmospheric conditions may
periodically affect range and reliability. Units should use hand and arm signals instead of the radio or
voice whenever possible, especially when close to the enemy. A tug system is a physical method of
signaling between members of a roped climbing team. However, tug systems are often unreliable.
Separate tug lines can be installed in static positions by tying a string, cord, or wire from one position to
the next. Soldiers can pass signals quietly and quickly between positions by pulling on the tug line in a
prearranged code.
d. Aircraft: Using Command and Control (C2) aircraft can assist in overcoming ground mobility restrictions
and may improve communications of units on the ground. In the mountains, terrain masking, while
making flight routing more difficult, may provide the degree of protection needed to allow an increased
use of aircraft. To avoid radar or visual acquisition and to survive, C2 aircraft must use the same terrain
flight techniques employed by other tactical aviation units. This flight method often degrades FM
communications and reinforces the requirement for radio relay or retransmission sites.
e. Landline communications: Landline communications in the mountains can also pose serious problems.
The time needed emplace and remove field cable lines can be doubled and the amount of line needed
can be doubled. Wire lines are laid along roads, river valleys, and other accessible areas of terrain. It is
much harder for personnel manning line elements and those that service, guard and protect field cable
communication lines to find their bearings in the mountains.
f. Line of site radio communication: Line of site radio communication is generally the preferred method of
communication but is not always an option in the mountains. Because of the effects of irregular terrain
patterns, cold, ice, and dampness on communications equipment line of sight communication is not
reliable at any great distance without precise planning and extensive coordination.
g. Messengers: The use of messengers is a possible means of communication but is usually a last resort
if nothing else will work. Messengers should be trained climbers, resourceful, familiar with mountain
peculiarities, and able to carry their own existence load. During the winter, advanced skiing skills may
also be required. Messengers should always be dispatched in pairs. Vehicles may also be employed to
maintain messenger communications when conditions of time, terrain, and distance permit.
h. Relay transmission: Relay transmission can be moderately effective as a means of communication.

This is very time consuming and often the message is not relayed accurately.
i. Retransmission: Retransmission sites can greatly assist in maintaining and increasing range of
communications in the mountains. These sites require extensive preparation and since the retransmission
team must work away from the main body, it must have enough personnel to protect itself and haul all its
gear to the retransmission location. Batteries, antennas, guy wires, rations, water, weapons, ammunition
and personnel gear are heavy. These retransmission teams need to constantly relocate to keep up with
the main body despite the fact that the main body will generally be moving over easier terrain.
Retransmission systems are often placed on the highest accessible terrain to afford them the best line of
sight; however, through simple analysis, these locations are often predictable and make them more
vulnerable to enemy interdiction.
Field Expedient Antenna Definitions.
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a. Knowledge of field expedient antennas will enable the soldier to establish lines of communication in
mountainous areas with limited vehicle access and where traditional communication equipment cannot
feasibly be carried. The types of field expedient antennas will vary with terrain and mission requirements.
(1) Omni-directional. Radiating energy equally well in all directions, the omni-directional antenna is
used when it is necessary to communicate in several separate directions at once. It will also receive in all
directions.
(2) Bi-directional. Antennas produce a stronger signal in two favored directions while reducing the
signal in other directions. Tactical bi-directional antennas are usually sloping wires and dipoles. It
creates nulls in the areas not receiving energy. These antennas have to be positioned correctly (by
azimuth) in order for them to work.
(3) Directional. Similar to the bi-directional antenna except it has one of its transmission lobes cut off.
Many bi-directional antennas are made directional by the addition of a resistor that sucks up the second
lobe.
(4) Antenna Gain. Gain is the term used to describe how well an antenna radiates power. It is
necessary to know what the gain of an antenna is being compared to before two antennas can be
compared. In some cases, an antenna is said to have gain compared to an isotropic antenna and the
gain is expressed in dBi.
(5) Patterns. Antenna patterns graphically show the radiation for a specific antenna.
(6) Insulators. Insulators prevent the energy being transmitted from the RT of the radio from escaping
out of the end of the wire that you are using as an antenna. If the radio’s energy goes out of the end of
the wire, your transmission goes nowhere. Tie the end of the wire of the expedient antenna to an
insulator and your transmission energy is safe.
(7) Resistors. Resistors make antennas directional and are ideal for expedient antennas. They draw
energy from the RT towards it and then shoot it off in the transmission. Ideally you want a resistor with
the wattage of ½ of the max of the radio you are using it on and 600-800 ohm. You can add resistors
together to add them together or subtract from each other. Each color band on fabricated resistors
represents a certain ohm factor.
(8) Grounding. Grounding performs two functions. First, it provides a path for electrical discharge
into the earth to prevent shock to the operator or damage to the equipment. Secondly, it
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enhances radio signal strength and helps eliminate static. The major consideration for a good
ground is the ground stake. A good metal-to-metal connection must be made to complete the
path for the ground. Select the ground rod and drive it into the earth. Ensure that there is a bare
metal surface to connect the ground strap. Connect the other end of the strap to the ground
terminal on the radio to complete the ground path.
Considerations for Maintaining Antennas in the Mountains.

a. Antenna icing, a common occurrence at high elevations, significantly degrades communications. Ice
may also make it difficult to extend or lower antennas, and the weight of ice buildup, combined with
increased brittleness, may cause them to break. Antennas should have extra guy wires, supports,
and anchor stakes to strengthen them to withstand heavy ice and wind loading. All large horizontal
antennas should be equipped with a system of counterweights arranged to slacken before wire or poles
break from the excess pressures of ice or wind. Soldiers may be able to remove wet snow and sleet
that freezes to antennas by jarring their supports, or by attaching a hose to the exhaust pipe of a vehicle
and directing the hot air on the ice until it melts. However, soldiers must exercise great care to ensure that
the antenna is not damaged in their attempts to dislodge the ice.
b. Ground rods and guy wires are often difficult to drive into rocky and frozen earth. Mountain pitons are
excellent anchors for antenna guys in this type of soil. In extreme cold, ropes can be frozen to the ground
and guys tied to these anchor ropes. Adequate grounding is also difficult to obtain on frozen
or rocky surfaces due to high electrical resistance. Where it is possible to install a grounding rod, it should
be driven into the earth as deep as possible or through the ice on frozen lakes or rivers. Grounding in
rocky soil may be improved by adding salt solutions to improve electrical flow.
Notes
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Additional Height Construction

071E9044
INTRODUCTION: In certain situations, additional height might be needed to properly load or unload your
rope installation. A bipod or tripod might need to be constructed to provide this additional clearance.
Identify the equipment needed to construct a bipod.

a. Bipod Equipment. Construct a bipod large enough to allow sufficient clearance and strength for any
intended load.
(1) You need two sturdy poles. The exact size of the poles depends on the type of load and
location of the installation.
(2) Three or four 18-foot utility cords (the number depends on the diameter of the poles and the
width of the finished bipod).
Note: The average size bipod pole should be at least 3 inches in diameter and 9 to 12 feet in length.
Poles are stronger if they are fresh cut and green. Avoid dry poles as they are brittle and can snap under
extreme loads.
Construct a bipod for additional height.

a. Construction.
(1) Horizontal Wraps.
(a) Place the two poles in position, as they would be in the finished installation and mark
the apex on both poles.
(b) Make sure the bipod is high enough.
(c) A bipod out of proper alignment can cause a dangerous collapse of the system.
Attempt to find natural pockets in which to place the base of the bipod poles.
(d) Place the poles side by side.
(e) Tie a clove hitch with a utility cord around the left pole, (standing at the base of the
poles, facing the top) 3 inches above the apex marking.
(f) Leave 18 inches of pigtail.
(g) Place the locking bar on the outside edge of the pole. The 18-inch pigtail will exit to
the left.
(h) Wrap the rope a minimum of six times horizontally around both poles, wrapping down
from the clove hitch. All wraps will be made as tight as possible.
(i) It may be necessary to join another cord to the first by using a square knot secured
with overhand knots. This knot will be positioned on the outside of one of the poles to not
interfere with the vertical wraps made next.
(j) On the last horizontal wrap around the pole to which the clove hitch is not tied, pass
the cord up between the poles.
Figure 1 Figure 2
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Initial Clove Hitch Initial Vertical Wrap
(2) Vertical Wraps.

(a) Lift the right pole and spread the legs to the finished width before wrapping.
(b) Make a minimum of four vertical wraps around the horizontal wraps.
(c) The wraps may cross each other to ensure tightness (See figure 3).
Note: Ensure you count wraps on both sides of poles. One side will have less than the other will.
Figure 3 Figure 4
Last Wrap Before Square Knot Apex Complete
(3) Square Knot Tie-off.

(a) On the last vertical wrap, pass the rope between the poles above the
horizontal wraps.
(b) Tie it off with a square knot to the section of rope coming from the clove hitch.
(c) The ropes should be so tight that overhand knots cannot be used to secure the
square knots in the normal manner. Use overhand knots tied in the tails (See figure 4).
(4) Spreader Rope. A spreader rope is necessary to prevent the bipod from collapsing when
pressure is applied at the apex.
(a) Tie a utility cord(s) as low as possible to both poles with a clove hitch and a
bowline.
(c) If one utility cord is not long enough, join two cords together (See figure 5).
Figure 5
Spreader Rope
Identify the equipment needed to construct a tripod.
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a. Tripod Equipment. Construct a tripod large enough to allow sufficient clearance and strength for any
intended load.
(1) You need three sturdy poles. The exact size of the poles depends on the type of load and
location of the installation.
(2) Three or four 18-foot utility cords (the number depends on the diameter of the poles and the
footprint of the finished tripod).
Note: The average size tripod pole should be at least 3 inches in diameter and 9 to 12 feet in length.
Poles are stronger if they are fresh cut and green. Avoid dry poles as they are brittle and can snap under
extreme loads.
Construct a tripod for additional height.

a. Construction.
(1) Horizontal Wraps.
(a) Place the three poles in position, as they would be in the finished installation and
mark the apex on both poles.
(b) Make sure the tripod is high enough.
(c) A tripod out of proper alignment can cause a dangerous collapse of the system.
Attempt to find natural pockets in which to place the base of the tripod poles.
(d) Place 2 poles side by side.
(e) Tie a clove hitch with a utility cord around the left pole, (standing at the base of the
poles, facing the top) 3 inches above the apex marking.
(f) Leave 18 inches of pigtail.
(g) Place the locking bar on the outside edge of the pole. The 18-inch pigtail will exit to
the left.
(h) Wrap the sling rope a minimum of six times horizontally around both poles, wrapping
down from the clove hitch. All wraps will be made as tight as possible.
(i) It may be necessary to join another cord to the first by using a square knot secured
with overhand knots. This knot will be positioned on the outside of one of the poles to not
interfere with the vertical wraps made next.
(j) On the last horizontal wrap around the pole to which the clove hitch is not tied, pass
the cord up between the poles.
(2) Vertical Wraps.

(a) Lift the right pole and spread the legs to the finished width before wrapping.
(b) Make a minimum of four vertical wraps around the horizontal wraps.
(c) The wraps may cross each other to ensure tightness (See figure 3).
Note: Ensure you count wraps on both sides of poles. One side will have less than the other will.
(3) half-hitch around right pole and add a third pole wrap same way as steps one and two.
(4) Tie off

(a) On the last vertical wrap, pass the rope between the poles above the horizontal
wraps.
(b) Tie it off with a square knot to the section of rope coming from the clove hitch.
(c) The ropes should be so tight that overhand knots cannot be used to secure
the square knots in the normal manner. Use overhand knots tied in the tails (See figure 4).
Notes
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High Lines
071E9024
INTRODUCTION: During your missions in mountainous terrain, there will be times when you have to
move personnel and equipment across ravines, water obstacles, or up and down a vertical face. A
properly constructed high line will save you energy and time moving potentially heavy items up, down or
over rugged terrain.
Identify Safety Considerations.

a. Soldiers.
(1) Use no more than three soldiers to tighten the rope. Using more personnel can over tighten
the system and possibly cause failure.
(2) Keep personnel away from the edge until a safety rope is in place.
b. Loading and Unloading Platforms.

(1) Make sure that the loading and unloading platforms are free of loose material, no sharp edges
are present and that they are large enough for high line operations.
(2) The loading / unloading platforms are easily accessible and provide a safe working area.
c. Anchors.
(1) Make sure that the anchors are available and suitable to handle large amounts of force
created by the tightening system.
(2) Protect the ropes from abrasion.
d. Artificial Height.
(1) Bipod poles are sufficient size (diameter and length) to support the load and clear the
loading/unloading platforms.
e. Belays.
(1) Use a relay man if the belayer cannot see the load the entire length of the system.
Identify Site Selection Criteria.

a. Anchor. Near and far anchor are available.
b. Loading and Unloading Platforms. Easily accessible platforms that provide safe working areas. The
ideal platform at the near anchor allows construction of the high line without the use of artificial height.
c. Clearance. Allow for space between the load and the rope for easy hauling of troops and or
equipment.
d. Bi-pod Location. Where to locate the bipod (if needed), sufficient area to build, load and operate the
system.
Identify the Equipment Needed to Construct a High Line Traverse.

a. Equipment Required for Construction. (Numbers and lengths may vary due to type and method of
installation.)
(1) Static installation ropes.
(2) Locking carabiners.
(3) 1 inch tubular webbing.
(4) 7mm utility cords
(5) Non-locking carabiners.
(6) If it is necessary to gain additional height to clear obstacles construct a bipod. You may
locate the bipod at either the loading or the unloading platform. This will require additional
equipment.
Anchor the Installation Ropes.
a. Secure the Installation Ropes.

(1) Secure the installation rope to the far anchor with an appropriate method.
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Note: The height of the anchor depends on the loading/unloading platforms.
Construct the Tightening System.

a. Tightening System.
(1) Create an appropriate 3:1 mechanical advantage tightening system.
(2) If the working platform is large enough, and there are trees for anchors, use the transport
tightening system in the following manner:
a. Route the running end of the installation rope around or through the anchor.
b. Place a figure eight slip in the installation rope as far away from the near anchor as
possible, creating a 12-inch bight. Place a half hitch at the midpoint of the bight. Place a
locking carabiner in the bight.
c. Route the rope through the carabiner, working from the inside to the outside. Route the
running end back to the anchor. Have no more than three soldiers tighten the system.
d. Take the running end of the tightened static rope around the near anchor creating a
minimum of one round turn.
e. After the round turn, take up a large bight of rope.
f. Pass this bight under the first rope and over the second rope tying two half hitches with
the bight.
Near Side Anchor
The high line can also be tightened using the Simple 3:1 Hauling System. This utilizes additional
equipment, but is particularly useful when there is limited space between the nearside and the
cliff edge, or when a multi point anchor is used. See Hauling Systems lesson, 071-9015.
Secure the installation line at the anchor with a Munter mule knot and overhand back up.
Construct and Attach the Carrying sling.

a. Carrying Sling: A Carrying sling is one method used when transporting personnel on a High Line; it
can be modified as necessary for transporting equipment.
(1) Construct a Carrying Sling.
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(a) Join the two ends of a piece of webbing with a water knot.
(b) Place a locking carabiner on the high line and place the webbing into it. Ensure the joining
knot is offset and not touching the locking carabiner.
(c) Place another locking carabiner in the webbing to attach the load. Use a pulley if available.
(d) The webbing can be shortened by clipping both ends into the locking carabiner on the high
line. The other locking carabiner can now be placed into the two bights. (double up the webbing).
(2) Attach the Belay Rope.

(a) Attach a belay rope to the locking carabiner on the high line. Use a fixed loop (double figure
of eight) and a locking carabiner.
Note: Attach a tag line to the carry sling (from the far side anchor), if the high line is near horizontal to
pull the load across.
Note: Use two separate installation ropes (for training) and a locking carabiner when moving soldiers.
Construct and Operate the Belay.

a. Construct the Belay / Lower.
(1) Belay Rope. Insure the belay rope is routed from the top of the backstack pile.
(2) Anchor.
a. Build a suitable anchor.
b. The anchor for the suspension traverse can be used or create another separate
anchor just for the belay.
(3) Belay Method.
a. The belay/haul line may pass around a tree or through a locking carabiner or pulley
to keep it in line with the main installation ropes.
b. Lower the load using an appropriate friction device. The single carabiner brake
provides sufficient friction for up to a 500 lb load.
(4) Single Carabiner Brake.
a. Clip a locking carabiner into the hot point of the anchor. This orients the rest of the
carabiners correctly.
b. Clip two non-locking carabiners, opposite and reversed, to the first locking carabiner.
c. Feed a bight of rope from the top of the stack, going directly to the load, through the
two horizontal opposite and reversed carabiners.
d. Slide two carabiners, opposite only, across the horizontal carabiners, and under the
bight of belay rope.
Note: This brake system is only for lowering a load.
Figure 11
Single Carabiner Brake
b. Operate the Belay / Lower. Whenever a load is lowered down or across a high line, use a belay to
control the load. Slowly belay the load. Use the following type of belay system.
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(1) Soldiers. Two soldiers are needed to operate the belay. One is used for rope organization
and the other operates the brake when needed.
(2) Position the Belayer. Position the belayer so he can see the load as it moves down. If the
terrain blocks the view of the belayer, set up a relay.
Perform Load Attachment.

a. Attachment of Soldiers.
(1) Attach the carry sling to the soldier by clipping the locking carabiner to the soldiers harness.
Safety: Make sure that the soldier holds onto the carry sling and not the tightened ropes.
b. Attachment of Equipment.
(1) Attach the carry sling to the load by clipping the load into the locking carabiner.
(2) Make sure that the load is balanced and tied together correctly.
Operate a High Line: Lowering.

a. First Load. The first load should be a non-critical load. Belay this load to within 2 meters of the
bottom anchor.
b. Mark the Position. Mark the position on the belay rope by tying a double figure eight. This will limit
the travel of the belay rope. Attach the double figure eight to an anchor so loads cannot hit the bottom
anchor.
Operate a High Line: Raising.

a. Hauling System. Replace the carabiner brake system on the belay rope with a Simple 3:1 Hauling
System with anchor prusik. Be aware that you reduce your sensitivity to the load when the 3:1
mechanical advantage is in the system. Keep the hauling line and the load rope as close to parallel as
possible.
Note: You cannot raise a load with a carabiner brake
Note: All techniques described in this chapter may be altered for various situations and applications. The
information here will give you a basis to work from.
Notes
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Vertical Danger Areas

071E9020
INTRODUCTION: When conducting terrain analysis we plan for likely enemy avenues of approach. This
being said you will learn to use unlikely avenues of approach to avoid enemy detection and more
effectively accomplish your mission. Places like Riva Ridge in WWII and operations in Afghanistan have
shown us the need for safe and effective operations in vertical and mountainous terrain.
Identify the Types of Vertical Areas.

a. Assessment. The first and most important aspect is assessing the VDA. The lead element must
make an accurate assessment of the terrain. Once this has been done it should be passed back
to leaders to decide the next course of action. This will depend on several aspects and is driven
by METT-TC. In some cases it may be more advantageous to bypass difficult terrain. In most
cases that will depend on your prior training and threat level. Prior Intel can be obtained through
Map recon, Ariel photos, and local guides. This however does not take the place of an on the
ground assessment of the terrain. Many topographical maps do a poor job of accurately depicting
the terrain. Weather and seasonal conditions can greatly affect this as well, what might be
passable terrain for a squad traveling light during the day under favorable conditions, could be a
different situation for a company in poor weather under lowlight conditions. In most cases the
terrain can be broken up into three categories. Easy, Moderate, and Hard.
b. Easy. This is considered up to and including third class terrain. Movement in this terrain could be
as simple as changing a movement formation to needing a simple fixed rope to move up or down
(knotted hand line or hasty rappel). It should only take minimal amounts of additional gear, if any.
The additional time should be minimal to the patrol and might not require any technical
mountaineering skills. This terrain should be able to be negotiated without belays. In most cases
a fall would not cause death but may cause bodily injury and a potential evacuation situation.
c. Moderate. This is considered exposed third to fourth class terrain. Movement in this terrain could
range from the use of a simple fixed rope to that of complex fixed ropes. In most cases it would
require technical mountaineering skills. It may require personnel preparation and proper
movement techniques of all members of the patrol. It would require the knowledge of some
members of the patrol on suitable anchors, and the skills to install a system. One or more Level I
or Level II Mountaineers would be required. Much of this would depend on the size of the element
being moved, amount of personnel preparation, number, and complexity of systems being
installed. It may require the use of belays to get one or more lead climbers through steep terrain.
It is important for leaders to accurately asses the groups’ ability and training.
d. Hard. This is exposed fourth or fifth class terrain. Movement in hard terrain might require use of
a complex fixed rope, high line with a haul system, rappel or any variation the installation team
requires. This would require Level II or III mountaineers. The use of advanced mountaineering
skills is required and knowledge to safely install these systems is paramount. In most situations a
fall would result in death. Leaders should use the knowledge and experience of the patrol
members before making movement decisions. In many cases this terrain can be bypassed. The
time it may take for installation, movement, and recovery is often underestimated, and could
adversely affect the mission. With proper training, equipment, and risk assessment this terrain
can be your best option for movement. It is often lightly defended, but will also leave your element
heavily exposed while under attack.
Identify Recon and Security Emplacement.
a. Recon/Security Emplacement. In some situations both recon and security emplacement will be done
together. Depending on the type of area it may be as simple as going to a short security halt to allow
scouts time to secure high ground. It may also be complex enough to be planned as an objective and
require the use of an ORP. In some cases this would be done like the recon you would conduct to
cross a LDA. Like that of a stream crossing you may, or may not have the ability to break contact if
compromised. It is critical that leaders use this time to task organize personnel and equipment.
b. Recon. Regardless of the type a suitable recon should be done to ensure the area is safe to continue
movement or to allow for the installation of systems. This should be done in similar fashion as that of
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a stream crossing, or LDA, with subtle differences. Like a stream crossing you need to recon down
the cliff head, but ensure you do not get too close to the cliff head as you may be exposed to enemy
small arms fire from above. You should also, terrain dependent stay far enough away from the cliff
head to observe it but have the ability to break contact if necessary during this phase.
c. Security Emplacement. For easy terrain you might just go from a traveling over watch to bounding
over watch. In most situations involving installations, you will need both Left and Right Security and
Cliff Head security.
(1) Left and Right Side or Near Security. Similar to the security LDA the left and right security should
have an automatic weapon and equally important a M203. This will ensure they can cover dead
space above. In most cases, terrain will dictate how close to place these soldiers. Keep in mind
they should not be placed to close to the cliff head, as they may be exposed to fires from above
or down the cliff head. Alternate firing positions may need to setup to engage Targets on the cliff
head. When developing a soldier load plan it may be advantageous to have these soldiers carry
ropes and drop them prior to taking security positions. In most cases they will be the last
personnel to move across the LDA and will be available to assist the installation team in rope
recovery.
(2) Cliff Head Security. Cliff head security is equally important and one of the ways this differs from
an LDA. Cliff Head security should be placed close enough to actively scan and engage the Cliff
Head. They also should be far enough to break contact after providing cover fire. The use of
optics and Sniper teams/Squad Designated Marksman greatly enhance the effectiveness of cliff
head security.
(3) Covering Dead Space. If available Forward Observers should be preplanning missions to
suppress enemy positions in the event that the element is attacked while on the LDA. Close
attention should be paid to the area directly behind the Cliff Head and areas exposed to the cliff
face. If any substantial elevation change is present it should be expressed to the FDC.
(4) Topside or Far Side Security. Once the topside has been cleared elements may choose to use
topside security. They would be set up similar to that of Left and right side security on the
nearside. The difference is that they would want to be close to the VDA to allow contact with the
nearside, and the advantage of an elevated position.
Identify the Role of the Installation Teams.

a. Installation Team Responsibilities. Depending on the type of system the installation team may
vary from a level I-III. Regardless of their level the team that installs the system should maintain
and monitor it during its use. This is important to the flow of personnel and the possible
degradation of the instillation. This will depend primarily on three factors Proficiency, Equipment,
Complexity.
1. The Proficiency of the Team. It is important that sustainment training be continued on
technical mountaineering tasks. Mountaineering is a perishable skill and the level that
your team is at will be relevant to the amount of training and rehearsals conducted.
Untrained soldiers may still be able to clear a building. Untrained soldiers cannot install
and over see mountaineering tasks. Like any other additional task an installation team
needs to rehearse different scenarios on an ongoing basis. In mountaineering you are
limited to your own imagination and vision of how the installation should work. One lead
climber may have a more effective way of installing a system even though other systems
may be safe. These issues will only be found out through training and experience. In
most cases a team can support a squad. A Squad can support a platoon and a platoon
minus a company. It is the responsibility of the lead climber team to train the element on
movement techniques and use of the types of systems they may encounter.
2. Equipment Available. It is important that the gear be distributed among the team so as it
is easily deployable and accountable. Even if the proficiency is high it is important that
the team train with minimal gear. Ensure that follow on troops have the proper gear
needed to negotiate the system and the proficiency to move on it. Extra equipment can
get heavy and it is important to find multiple uses for equipment. Stay current on new
gear, climbing gear is constantly getting lighter and stronger. Be aware of equipment that
has only one use and if another piece of gear has more functions than use it. The
addition of extra gear can greatly reduce your movement capability.
3. Complexity of the System. The higher the proficiency of your team the more options you
have available. The complexity of the system may greatly reduce your ability to move
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quickly, quietly, and effectively through the mountains. If your team is comprised of only
level I soldiers you still have the ability to move through difficult terrain. You will be limited
in your options for movement.
b. Actions During installation. It is the responsibility of the installation team to safely negotiate the
obstacle. They may also be responsible for clearing the far side. Tactics will change depending
on the complexity of the system and the amount of additional gear that has to be carried. On
Easy or Moderate terrain they will most likely be armed with M-4’s, and clear the far side. On
difficult terrain they may have to switch out weapons and climb with just an M-9 or nothing. When
making these modifications your SOP’s may need to change to allow follow on troops to clear
areas. When clearing the far side ensure provisions are in place if contact is made. Rappels if
applicable are already in place and your prepped to move on them etc.
Preparation of Personnel and Equipment to Cross a Vertical Danger.

a. Duties in the Security Halt/ORP. By direction of the Installation team you must begin to prep
personnel and equipment. Movement techniques will differ depending on the system being used. In
some cases it may require little or no prep. Other times advanced ascending or descending
techniques may be used. It is imperative that one or more members of the Lead team supervise the
prep. There are several options for movement techniques. See Fixed Ropes 170-9019 ELO C.
Movement over fixed Ropes for detailed descriptions.
b. Slinging/Packing Weapons in most cases the weapons will be slung or. Options will vary depending
on the soldier’s personal equipment and weapon system. If the weapon is to be slung only, make
sure it is done to soldiers’ side. A weapon slung in front will generally scrape the ground/cliff and hit
the soldiers’ knees. It is unrealistic to think that soldiers will be able to return effective fire while
moving on a system. The best COA for a soldier who takes fire on the system is to take immediate
cover, and hastily get up or down the system. Soldiers in over watch positions should increase fires
until the system is clear to facilitate this action.
c. Discrepancies of Follow-on Troops. It is imperative that Personnel Loading follow on troops on the
system do not have to correct discrepancies. This will disrupt the flow and result in a longer exposure
period on the vertical danger area. Although the Lead team may have installed a well-planned and
efficient system. If they fail to properly prep and pre inspect personnel they will have a poor execution
of the movement. All corrections should be made in the security halt/ ORP. It is important that the
installation team relays any potential hazards to movement to the members in the Sec halt/ORP. This
will also allow ample time to change setup if need be to the follow-on soldiers.
Identify Movement Techniques of Follow-On Troops at a Vertical Danger Area.

a. Prior to movement. The element should be briefed on any major requirements to negotiate the route.
In most cases this will be done at the ORP. If changes have been made to the route that were not
previously briefed this too should be made apparent. Accountability of personnel will be on the
element being moved. In most cases this will be done at the loading site on the near side.
b. Task Organization. Unlike crossing a road if contact is made you may not be able to break contact. In
most cases you will have to stay and fight. It is important for the Element being moved to insure that
the proper leadership is available on both sides if contact is made. It is also important to try to keep
Fire team/Squad integrity whenever possible during movement. Depending on the size of the element
and number of lanes being used. It may be more feasible to scatter team members along the lanes so
they will all reach the far side at a similar time. This will allow better command and control. It also
keeps a variation of weapon systems if the need arises. This becomes even more important if the
element is hit at the beginning or end of the movement.
c. Establish a Release point. To often soldiers will have the tendency to congregate at the nearside
loading platform. This can be compounded on a more technical route.
d. Responsibilities of the Lead team During Movement. Key areas should be manned by the lead team
during movement. These positions will vary from installation and depend greatly on the size of the
element and the technicality/potential hazards of the route. Positions may include:
(1) The nearside loading platform. This is generally the most important position. It should be manned
by the person who installed the system. This will also generally be the most experienced Lead
Climber. This is the last chance to brief soldiers on the route and potential troublesome portions
of it. This position should not be changed as the element moves through as it is also the chance
at a final inspection. This position should control the pace at which personnel are moving on the
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system. They should set a pace that the system can operate and should have contact with the
release point.
(2) The far side-unloading platform. Another important position is the Far side-unloading platform.
This soldier can help Follow-ons to stow climbing equip, recover paced gear or weapons, and
give tactical guidance and orientation to continue the mission. Like the loading platform this can
be an area that soldiers have a tendency to congregate. In most cases it will be a member of the
Lead team. It can be a better choice to use a senior member of the patrol depending on the
tactical situation and guidance to be given.
(3) Along the installation. Installations can range greatly in complexity. In some cases installations
may be very long in length, and require guidance or assistance through multiple sections. A lead
team member might use an existing anchor point, or establish separate positions to work from.
This soldier should be placed as to assist follow ons, help in communications, and advice on rock
fall, and overall system flow. It is important this soldier does not impede the movement of the
follow-ons or overload a single anchor point.
Conduct Installation Recovery Procedures.

a. Recovering the System. The last step is recovering the system and continuing the mission. In most
cases the team that installed the system will also recover it. Proper care and organization should be
made during recovery. Ropes should be kept neat and all gear accounted for. Some Lead Teams
may opt to back stack ropes in rucksacks as opposed to coiling them. This will allow them easily
deployable ropes if needed later. Often a poor recovery is made and equipment is disorganized or
unaccounted for.
b. Responsibility’s of The Lead Team.
(1) Recover System
(2) Account for Equipment
(3) Return as a member of the Patrol.
c. Responsibility’s of The Element.
(1) Aid in recovery of equipment (if needed)
(2) Recover and stow personal gear used during movement.
(3) Continue the patrol.
d. Installation Stays in Place. In most cases the system will be recovered. This should always be
attempted as you may need it later in the mission, and mountaineering equipment may be difficult to
replace. There are certain times the equipment will stay in place. If the Threat level is high enough
that risk of recovery outweigh the benefit than the equipment may have to be left. If this is done you
should render the equipment unserviceable, or unusable. This would include cutting lanes ascended
or tying off the bottom of a rappel after its use. Another situation may involve using the system later in
the mission. If the Objective is close enough to the VDA that in may need to be used for exfiltration, it
may be left. The downside is this should not be left unattended and without security. This would be a
potential ambush point.
Example: Crossing a Vertical Danger Area Annex.
1. SITUATION:
A. Enemy Forces (Mountain Proficiency, Cold Weather Skills)
1. Weather
2. Terrain
a. Ground Composition- (Rock, Talus, Scree, Snow-Ice)
b. Terrain Assessment- (Easy, Moderate, Hard)
c. Snow Depth and Avalanche Hazards- (Overlay)
d. Ground Slope and Vertical Obstacles
B. Friendly Forces-(Assault Climbers Technical Skills, SQI-E, Mountain Training, Soldier
Load and Mountain Equipment)
C. Attachments and Detachments-(Assault Climber Teams, Sniper Team (over-watch),
etc...)
2. MISSION:
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3. EXECUTION:
A. Concept of Operation
1. Maneuver
a. Easy Terrain (Class I and II). Slow movement terrain. Consider ease of
movement, night movements, weather, walking surface and soldier load.
Recommended systems and movement techniques:
1. Simple Fixed Rope Installed (when needed)
2. Hand Line (knotted) for ease of movement (for assistance)
3. No system if terrain allows
4. Descending techniques (hasty or body rappel)
5. Harness not required
b. Moderate Terrain (Class III and IV). Slow moving technical terrain. Consider
soldier movement techniques and technical equipment. Recommended
systems and movement techniques.
1. Simple or complex fixed ropes
2. Ascending methods:
a. Double-headed safety line (safe and fast when viable)
b. Mechanical ascenders (safe not fast)
c. Hand over hand method (fast not safest)
d. Prusik safety (simple fixed rope only)
3. Descending techniques (hasty/body rappel, belayed rappel, rappel devices:
figure 8, ATC) terrain dependent.
4. Harness required (field expedient or manufactured)
c. Hard Terrain (Class V). Extremely slow movement. This terrain will require
technically proficient installation teams and technical gear. Preparation to move
over this vertical surface will take time. Recommended systems and movement
techniques.
1. Complex fixed ropes
2. Installation team preparation (lead climber team)
3. Ascending techniques
a. Two mechanical ascender method (safe but gear intensive)
b. Prusik ascent method (slow but not gear intensive)
c. Mechanical ascender with prusik back-up (safe not fast)
d. Mechanical ascender with single point attachment back-up (safe and
easiest)
4. Hauling system for personal equipment and team gear (high-line)
5. Descending techniques (belayed rappel, rappel device)
6. Harness required (field expedient or manufactured)
2. Fires- (FDC needs elevation of targets)
3. CASEVAC PLAN
B. Tasks to Combat Units
1. Elements
2. Teams- (Installation, Recovery, Loading, Unloading)
3. Individual- (Lead Climbers, Installers, Anchoring)
C. Tasks to Combat Support Units
D. Coordinating Instructions
a. Task-Organize Installation Team
b. Security Emplacement-(Left-Right, Cliff-head, Sniper Tm Over-watch)
c. Type of Installation System- (Special Equipment, # of Lanes)
d. Method and Order of Movement- (Simple/Complex Fixed Rope, Haul System)
e. Alternate Plan- (Fixed Rope Hazards, Alternate Movement Techniques)
f. Actions on Enemy Contact- (During Movement over VDA)
1. Far Side
2. Near Side
3. Elements Moving on VDA
g. Marking Release Point and Cliff-head (Top and Bottom)
h. Near and Far Side Rally Points
i. Link-up Plan- (Follow on Units)
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j. Consolidation Plan- (Near side and Far side)

k. Recovery Plan
l. Rehearsal Plan
m. Time Schedule
4. SERVICE AND SUPPORT:

A. Classes of Supply
B. Transportation
5. COMMAND AND SIGNAL:

A. Command
1. Location of Patrol Leader- (Far Side)
2. Location of Assistant Patrol Leader (Near Side)
3. Location of CP
B. Signal-(FM, Tug-Lines, Runners, Commands for moving on ropes)
6. SAFETY
Notes
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Mountain Bivouac Operations

071E9089
INTRODUCTION: The selection of bivouac sites in northern areas requires careful consideration. Winter
mountain operations pose problems that do not exist in other types of environments. When operating in a
cold weather environment, especially when the temperature can drop from 10º-15º F to negative 40º-50º
F in a matter of a few hours, it can be extremely life threatening if you are unable to quickly and properly
erect a shelter. It is equally important to get your soldiers into a warm environment. The Arctic 10-man
tent is used by squad size elements in a cold weather environment.
Identify site selection factors.

a. Area of Operations. Your mission dictates your area of operation. Enemy activity determines the
likelihood of contact. Take both security and defensive posture into consideration. The AO site may
be used for future operations. High ground is often preferred for defense but at times is disregarded
in favor of cover and concealment or more suitable ground conditions.
b. Cover and Concealment. Cover and concealment from air and ground observation is essential for the
bivouac area. Forested areas pose few problems in comparison to areas above the tree line.
Operations above tree line or at altitude may offer less cover and concealment. Bivouac may need to
be established below tree line to support operations conducted above tree line.
c. Wind Protection. Protection from the wind is a prime consideration. Depending on your area of
operations bivouac site selections may vary due to the unpredictability of winds at elevation.
d. Ground Condition. The condition of the ground is important. In warm conditions bivouac should be
located on hard ground. In snow-covered terrain avoid digging to the ground, as this may collect
water due to the thawing of the snow, or rain. A layer of snow should be left for ground insulation,
comfort, and absorption of water. The depth that is dug in will vary depending on the site selection
and snow depth.
e. Construction Materials. Construction materials play an important part in the selection of a bivouac.
When making a reconnaissance of the area, consider such things as the availability of firewood,
water procurement, and snow for snow shelters.
Identify bivouac locations.

a. Forests. Most forests in cold regions provide excellent bivouac sites. Forests provide many natural
materials such as boughs for insulation, firewood, and camouflage construction materials. They often
provide excellent concealment against enemy air and ground observation. Coniferous (cone-bearing)
trees provide better protection from wind and better insulation material than deciduous forests.
b. Marshy Ground. You may find good sites when the ground is frozen that would otherwise be
unsuitable. Although surrounding areas may be frozen, swampy areas may not freeze due to warm
water springs or gases. These usually provide poor facilities for the bivouac sites.
c. Open Terrain and on Frozen Bodies Of Water. Carefully choose sites on open ground. Some of the
problems of an open ground site are strong winds, drifting snow and poor concealment. When
possible, pitch tents where they are sheltered by natural windbreaks. Windbreaks may consist of
depressions in the ground or ridges on the ice. A visual inspection will indicate the degree of drifting,
direction of the wind and suitable protected areas. Construct snow walls in areas where natural
windbreaks do not exist. Snow walls provide protection from winds and small arms fire. In areas with
high winds, snow gathers rapidly on the lee side. It is necessary to clear the sides and tops of the
tents periodically to prevent the weight of the drifting snow from collapsing the tent. The entrance to
the shelter should face downwind. This prevents the snow from blocking the exit and cutting off the
ventilation. When on frozen lakes be aware that water may rise above the ice as it expands and
pressure cracks are formed. In some cases this may not be avoided as pressure cracks/ridges may
provide the only cover and concealment available. When on rivers be aware that heavy currents may
cause drastic changes in ice thickness in relatively close areas. Although the center may be stable,
pay close attention to the outside edges where the current is usually heavier. Water levels may
rise/drop throughout the year this may cause the ice to be unstable along the edges, and in shallow
areas.
d. Mountainous Terrain. Mountainous regions often have strong turbulent winds, cold temperatures and
general lack of concealment above the timberline. The wind overhead creates an extensive lee near
the mountain. The overhead lee resembles the dry space behind waterfalls caused by water having
such speed that it shoots over the edge of the cliff and descends in a curve. An inland wind blowing
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50 miles an hour may not strike the ground for several kilometers after passing the edge of a cliff or a
very steep slope. Such a lee is an attractive bivouac site from the standpoint of wind protection.
Note that such a lee area is often an area of maximum snow deposit. The requirement to constantly
dig out vehicles, walkways, and weapons positions may offset the wind free advantages of a lee site
during snowfall or snow blowing weather. Avalanche hazard areas must be avoided. Cold air is
heavier than warm air and frequently settles in valleys. If tactically feasible it is better to establish a
bivouac up the hillside above the valley floor and below the timberline.
Procedures for establishing a mountain bivouac.

a. Establishing a Bivouac.
(1) General. Setting up a bivouac is based on a SOP which enables the commander to control
the bivouac area, keep it protected and camouflaged, and maintain personnel ready to fight.
Devote minimal time to pitching and striking shelters. Bivouacking in a routine manner allows
rest, more time for daily movement, establishing an effective security system, defense of the
bivouac site and making preparations for the continuation of the operation.
(2) Unit Leader Responsibilities. When entering the bivouac site, the unit leader should:
(a) Post security.
(b) Check the bivouac site.
(c) Determine exact locations providing the best natural shelter and camouflage.
(d) Designate an area from which construction material and firewood will be obtained.
(e) Select of a water point, or marking off the snow area to be utilized for water.
(f) Designate latrine and garbage disposal sites.
(g) Designate a site for weapon and ski racks. Temporary placement for weapons and
equipment must be arranged until the bivouac has been established.
(h) Break a minimum number of trails between the tent site and area assigned for
firewood and construction material, water point, and latrine.
(i) Maintain camouflage and track discipline at all times.
(3) Organization and Work Assignments.

(a) Clear and level the shelter sites. In winter, dig the snow to ground level or pack it
down with skis, snowshoes or tracked vehicles.
(b) Pitch tents.
(c) Cut, trim and haul trees and boughs for construction of improvised shelters and
bough beds (when tents are not available).
(d) Construct of improvised shelters best suited to the area concerned.
(e) Construct of windbreaks.
(f) Build weapon and ski racks. Give special care to the protection of weapons from the
elements.
(g) Construction of field latrines and garbage disposal sites.
(h) Prepare a water point.
(i) Gather and cut firewood.
(j) Start fires and prepare hot drinks for all individuals.
(k) Upon completion of shelter construction, start a warm meal.
(l) Maintain and emphasize cleanliness, tidiness, and teamwork.
(m) Prepare defensive positions, break and mark a trail from the shelters to the positions.
(n) Maintain a duty roster for exterior guards, fireguards and similar assignments.
(o) Rotate individuals on all jobs on a daily basis.
(p) Assign specific sleeping areas for all individuals in accordance with the duty roster.
(q) Upon establishing the bivouac, removing the exterior guard when the parent unit has
taken over the security of the area.
(r) Inspect the area; examine the security, camouflage, cover, weapons, skis, sleds,
vehicles and the condition of the men and their equipment.
(s) Outline and rehearse battle drills in the event of attack.
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Bivouac site activity.

a. The reality of a mountain bivouac is that the majority of your time will be spent preparing your site.
The key to keeping soldiers focused once you have reached your destination is to keep them warm
and keep everyone busy.
(1) Arrival Sequence.
(a) Designate a latrine area
(b) Designate each team site and begin stomping out a level area approx. 8 x 8 feet then
let the snow settle for about 20-30 minutes.
(c) While that snow is settling begin setting up the tents. On windy nights you will want
to construct walls. After all the tents are set up, dig out the vestibules.
(d) Once the tents are up and the vestibules are dug, have everyone start unpacking.
Unpack only what you need and put your sleeping pads, bags and anything else they
will need for the night in their tent.
(e) By this time your kitchen area should be settled so start digging, leave about a 3 x 3-
foot "table" in the center; pack all of the snow you dig out around the perimeter of the
pit and construct snow walls.
(f) Start cooking and melting snow for water.
(2) Sleeping Sequence.

(a) After dinner fill your water bottles for the next day with hot fluids and place them in
your bag to pre warm it (make sure soldiers are using Lexan bottles and remind them
to crank down on the lids to prevent spills).
(b) Pre-warm yourself (do some jumping jacks and empty your bladder).
(c) It is usually a good idea to get situated in the tent one at a time.
(d) Take your boots off in the vestibule, brush off excess snow from the shells. Remove
the liners and place the liners inside of your sleeping bag. Place the shells under
your sleeping bag on top of your sleeping pad.
(e) Place your Gore-Tex layer between your pad and bag, spread flat and even.
(f) Tell everyone to take any damp cloths, their boot liners, and anything they want warm
in the morning into their bag with them and sleep with it against the trunk of their
body.
(g) Encouraging everyone to sleep with a hat and to urinate when they have the urge
rather than holding it.
(3) Departure Sequence.

(a) It is usually best to get organized one at a time.
(b) Wake up, dress, and pack all of your equipment inside the tent.
(c) The first out of the tent starts boiling water for breakfast.
(d) Shake out your sleeping bag and let it dry in the sun or place it into a stuff sack. If
your are staying overnight, leave your sleeping bag in the tent.
(e) Once the water is boiled, shut down the stove as soon as possible to let it cool before
you pack it to leave.
(f) Tear down the tent, shake out, and divide the components between the soldiers.
(g) Knock down snow walls and fill in positions.
Establishing a bivouac on a glacier.

a. Location. When locating a bivouac site or a gathering area where the team might need to unrope, at
least one person will need to "probe" the area for hidden crevasses. The best type of probe will be the
manufactured collapsing probe pole, at least eight feet in length. Other items could be used but the
length and strength of the probe is most important. Other rope team members will belay the probers.
The prober is "feeling” for a solid platform to place the tent by pushing the probe as hard and deep as
possible into the surface. Probing should be in 2-foot intervals in all directions within the site.
b. Probe the Area. If the probe suddenly has no resistance while pushing down, a crevasse is present.
Attempts to outline the crevasse can be futile if the crevasse is large. Normally, the best decision is to
relocate the proposed bivouac area far enough away to avoid that crevasse. (Sometimes only a few
feet one way or the other is all that has needed to reach a good platform.) Probe the tent site again
after digging to the desired surface. Mark boundaries with wands, skis or poles.
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c. Platform. Occasionally while probing, increased pressure will be noticed without reaching a solid
platform. The amount of snowfall may be such that even after digging into the snow, the probe still
does not contact a hard surface. Try to find a solid platform.
d. Unroped Movement. There should be no unroped movement outside the probed/marked areas. If a
latrine area is needed, probe a route away from the bivouac site and probe the latrine area. If a
dugout latrine is necessary, probe again after digging.
e. Multiple Tent Sites. Multiple tent sites can be connected, which keeps tents closer together. Probe all
areas between the tents if you plan to move in those areas. Closer tents will make communicating
between tent groups and rope teams easier.
f. High Winds. If there is a chance for severe storms with high winds construct snow walls to protect
the tent site. The walls can be constructed from loose snow piled on the perimeter, or blocks can be
cut from consolidated snow layers. In deep soft snow, digging three or four feet to find a consolidated
layer will result in enough snow moved to build around the tent site.
(1) For block construction, move the soft snow from the surface into the wall foundation areas.
(a) Cut blocks approximately 1 by 1 by 2 feet, and constructs the walls by interlocking
the blocks with overlapping placements. The walls should be slightly higher than the
tent. At a minimum, build walls on the windward side of the tent site.
(b) Snow walls can also provide shelter from wind for food preparation.
(c) Walls should be as far away from the tent as they are high in case of collapse.
Identify Bivouac Discipline Procedures.

a. Shelter Discipline.
(1) The first man entering a finished shelter arranges all the equipment in its proper place. Place
the stove, water can, firewood, tools and rations in the most convenient place by the door of
the tent. In a snow shelter, a special storeroom may be dug for these items.
(2) In low temperatures, weapons should be left outside on improvised weapon racks in order to
avoid condensation. Commanders MUST insure that weapons left outside are properly
secured, (e.g., providing security guards or securing the weapons in an unheated shelter).
(3) Brush hoarfrost and snow off your clothing and equipment before entering the shelter. This
helps keep the clothing and equipment dry and the shelter clean.
(4) To live comfortably in a shelter is not easy. Individuals are usually crowded and must keep
their equipment orderly and out of the way of other occupants of the shelter.
(5) Carefully supervise the use of fire and lights in the shelter. Security, fuel economy and the
prevention of fire and asphyxiation are essential. When wood is available, burn it in the
stoves in place of gasoline. Fill and light lamps outdoors. Make a stand or bracket for lamps
or candles. Place them where they are least likely to be knocked over. Extinguish all sparks
on the tent or lean-to at once. No smoking in the tent.
(6) Accomplish as many tasks as possible before retiring in order to conserve time in the
morning. Clean all eating utensils, melt snow, fill canteens or thermos bottles, and check all
weapons.
(7) Upon breaking the bivouac in the morning pack all personal equipment, consume warm
drinks and breakfast, and accomplish last-minute details prior to resuming the march.
b. Heat Discipline and Fire Prevention.

(1) Heat discipline presents a problem during periods of extreme cold. Avoid overheating the
shelter. It causes individuals to sweat and increases the fire hazard.
Combine cooking and heating. Melting snow and ice uses large amounts of fuel. Use water
from other sources if available. Temporary shelters have very little insulation and allow a
great deal of heat loss. Heating the shelter not only allows you to get a good nights rest it
allows the drying of clothing and gives you the means to provide warming liquids to those
performing duties outside of the shelter throughout the night.
(2) Fire prevention is extremely important. The combination of low humidity and the drying effect
of continuously heated shelters are conducive to fire. Shifts in wind and the accumulation of
frost or soot in the stovepipe may lead to backfiring of flaming fuel into the shelter. Excessive
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spilling of fuel containers, lamps, and candles creates additional hazards. Stamping of feet to
shake off snow or frost may cause stoves and small heating units to spill and spread fire.
Strict enforcement of all regulations is necessary in order to decrease the fire hazard.
Common sense in the handling of all kinds of fires, fuels, and flammable materials is
essential. An alert fireguard must be on duty in each shelter at all times when a fire is
burning. Consult applicable technical manuals prior to operating tent stoves, cooking stoves
or gasoline lanterns. Place a base made from green logs under the stove if the snow has not
been shoveled to the ground. Use fire reflectors to provide more warmth, and to keep the
stove from melting into the snow. Check all stovepipes frequently. Clean the stovepipes daily
when burning wood to maintain the proper draft and avoid excessive sparking. Stoves
burning petroleum fuels at low temperatures tend to accumulate more soot. It is better to turn
the stove off in mild weather than to run it at low settings. Guard against forest and ground
fires when the ground is dry and bare. Coniferous forests are highly flammable during the
summer season. Ground fires can burn for months in muskeg and are extremely hard to put
out. Always dig a fire ditch before lighting any fire. Use a base of green wood, gravel, or
rocks under the fire. The fire must be made on high ground when the forest is dry. Before
leaving always be sure the fire is completely out.
c. Drying Clothes.
(1) Keeping dry is important in low temperatures. At times it is impossible to avoid sweating.
Drying clothes and footgear is a necessity. Use every opportunity to dry your clothing. When
drying clothes outside at an open fire, place clothing/footgear upwind from the fire, to avoid
the sparks and smoke. Check clothes frequently. Do not leave drying clothes unattended.
Clothing should never be placed too close to the fire or stove in the shelter. Leather items
are extremely vulnerable to extreme heat. Clothing being dried in the shelter should be hung
on the drying lines.
The Tent, 10-Man Arctic, is equipped with strong hooks at the inside peak for suspending
lighter weight clothing for drying. Ensure the roof vents are open and clear of obstruction to
allow for maximum airflow.
d. Sleeping Arrangements in Bivouac.

(1) When arranging the sleeping procedures for a tent or improvised shelter, the position of every
man is planned. Each man must know where his relief is sleeping; therefore, the floor space
is occupied by the individuals in accordance with the duty roster. The number one man
sleeps next to the door; the relief is easily located without waking up all occupants. The
systematic sleeping arrangement will also permit exit from the tent in an organized manner in
case of alert.
(2) Ground insulation is very important. Often the occupants may have to improvise insulation
using all available material. Packboards, snowshoes, man-hauled sleds, and empty cartons
may be used. In timbered areas, evergreen boughs are especially suitable. On the tundra,
dry lichen, grass, or shrubs provide effective insulating material. To make a bough bed, one
single bed is constructed for all; the size varies with the number of persons. For improvised
shelters, logs approximately 8 cm (3") in diameter are pegged or fitted around the bough or
grass bed. This helps to keep the boughs in place. If material and time permit, a 15 to 30 cm
(6" to 12") thick-shingled bed made from spruce, fir, or balsam boughs gives excellent
insulation and provides a soft mattress.
(3) The tactical situation dictates whether or not to use sleeping bags. The amount of clothing
you wear while sleeping on a bough bed or in a sleeping bag can be best judged by
experience and will depend on temperature and the tactical situation. As a minimum, remove
clothing (to include boots) when using a sleeping bag. Place clothing not being worn beneath
you for additional insulation and instant availability. In an emergency it may be necessary to
dress in the dark. In the morning remove all ice and frost from the bag and ventilate it before
rolling. Thoroughly dry sleeping bags when time permits.
(4) If the situation permits, remove your boots when sleeping in a heated tent without a sleeping
bag. Use your parka like a blanket, and loosen your clothing. Your rucksack doubles as a
pillow.
(5) If the tactical situation does not permit the use of a complete sleep system one alternative is
to use just the seven layer clothing system. Layer seven can be used as a substitute for the
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sleeping system under certain circumstances. If wet weather is a concern the bivy sack may
be used as a protective outer layer. This lightens a soldiers load, and provides the ability to
stay clothed and ready to fight on short notice.
e. Choosing Bough and Firewood Areas. The areas for cutting boughs and firewood should be
immediately designated when a bivouac site is selected.
(1) Bough Area. The area for cutting boughs for bedding as well as for construction of
improvised shelters should be common to all individuals in the group. It should be selected in
a dense area of woods in which springy, unfrozen boughs are available, and should not be
too close to the bivouac site. It is advisable to use sleds for hauling material to the shelter
site. For camouflage and track discipline, only one well-concealed trail is used. When cutting
boughs, the unnecessary felling of trees should be avoided because trees lying on the
ground can be easily observed from the air. Instead of felling trees, only the lower branches
should be used.
(2) Firewood Area. It is advisable to have the fire wood area nearby the area designated for
bough cutting so that the same track can be used. Dry, dead hardwood trees make the best
firewood. If no dead trees are available, green birch trees may be chopped; they possess
excellent burning qualities even when frozen. The top parts of dead trees should be burned
during the daytime, as they give off lighter colored smoke. The lower part of the trunk has
more resin and tar, and burns better, but makes more and much darker smoke.
f. Storage of Weapons, Skis and Snowshoes. Storage problems in winter are increased by snow, low
temperatures, thaws, limited storage space, and the increased problems of transportation. Space in
any shelter is limited. Only items which are affected by cold, or which must be immediately available,
should be stored inside. All other stores must be concentrated, well marked, covered, and left
outside. On the other hand, some perishables, which are difficult to preserve in summer, may be kept
during the winter months in a natural "deep freeze" over an extended period of time. In areas where
permafrost exists, a hole can be dug or blasted out and then covered with insulating material, such as
boughs. A constant low temperature can thus be maintained.
(1) Weapons Pit. In wooded terrain a weapons pit may be built from poles placed in a horizontal
position and covered with boughs. When boughs are not available, various other materials
such as empty cardboard boxes, tent or sled covers, waterproof bags or ponchos can be
utilized to protect the weapons from rain, dust, and falling or drifting snow. By digging a
shallow pit, with a poncho (boughs or ration case cardboard may be used) on the bottom and
the other half of the poncho over the top. Two ski poles (one at each front corner) should be
placed to mark the pit in the event of a snowstorm or drifting snow.
(2) Ski Pit. Care of skis in the field is highly important because unit and individual mobility
depends upon them. If left lying directly on the snow in the bivouac area, the bindings and
running surfaces will freeze and render the skis unusable for long periods of time, or they
may be entirely lost under drifting snow. Therefore, skis and the ski poles are placed in a ski
pit. The pit is constructed by laying a poncho (boughs or ration case cardboard) in a shallow
hole. All the skis and all but four poles should be laid on the poncho in the same order as the
rucksacks. When all of the skis and the remaining poles are in place cover the equipment
with the other half of the poncho or another poncho. A ski pole should be placed at the front
two corners to mark the pit in the event of a snowstorm or drifting snow.
(3) Sleds. Sleds are placed on their sides or on end outside. If loaded sleds are left on the
snow, sticks, poles, or branches are laid under the runners to prevent them from freezing to
the snow. Heavy cargo sleds, 1-ton or larger, must be placed on top of heavy poles or logs
due to the fact that sled runners remain hot after extensive usage and tend to settle into the
snow and become frozen, making movement of the sled difficult.
g. Vehicles. Vehicles are driven under a big tree or into the lee of a shelter or snowdrift. Vehicles
should be parked so that the least amount of snow can get into the engines and parked on brush,
logs, dry ground, or other surfaces not liable to thaw from heat of tires and tracks and refreeze.
h. Ammunition and Fuel. Ammunition and fuel are stored separately outside. Ammunition boxes should
be stacked off the ground in a dry place and covered with canvas or boughs. In order to locate stacks
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if snow-covered; a pole should be erected near them. Boughs or poles are placed under fuel
containers to prevent them from freezing to the snow.
i. Field Sanitation.
(1) Waste Disposal. Field sanitation in colder regions is based on the same principles as in
temperate climates. The extremes in climate and weather, however, make the problem more
acute. The wastes that present constant and real problems are human waste, garbage, and
trash.
(2) In bivouac areas, pit or "cross-tree" type latrines are used for the disposal of human waste.
One latrine will usually serve the needs of individuals occupying 3 to 4 shelters, or a unit of
platoon size. The latrine is placed downwind from the bivouac, but not so far from the
shelters as to encourage individuals to break sanitary discipline. Ration boxes or similar
material should be used to collect waste. A urinal, designated for each shelter, should be
located within 4 to 5 meters (4 to 5 yards) of the shelter. A windbreak of boughs, tarpaulins,
ponchos or snow wall should be constructed to protect the latrine from the wind.
(3) When breaking bivouac, the human waste that has accumulated in the latrine will be burned
or buried. All closed latrine sites, tactical situation permitting, will be clearly marked.
(4) Trash and Garbage Disposal. In winter the edible portion of food waste may be collected in
receptacles and disposed by burial in the snow at a safe distance from the bivouac. Every
effort should be made to burn the bulk of the trash and garbage. During seasons and in
locations where bears are found, all edible garbage should be burned to avoid attracting
bears to campsites. All trash and garbage dumps should be marked with appropriate signs to
warn troops who might occupy these disposal sites at a later time. Strict camouflage of all
trash and garbage is essential. Dark trash on the white snow is easily seen from the air. The
enemy may see glittering tin cans or bottles. Trash and garbage should be placed under any
available cover and camouflaged with snow, branches, or other materials.
Identify the Ahkio Sled.

a. Description.
The Ahkio is the light infantry squad's primary means of transporting tents and other sustainment
equipment in a cold weather environment. In addition to its' primary function of transporting the tent
group equipment, the ahkio is excellent for transporting weapons, rations, ammunition, casualty
evacuation and provides a stable firing platform for crew-served weapons in deep snow.
b. Characteristics.
(1) Three-runner sled.
(2) Maneuvered easily over a variety of snow and terrain because of its boat like shape.
(2) Weighs 38 pounds with an attached canvas cover.
(4) It is 88" long, 24" wide and 8" deep.
(5) Maximum load capacity of 200 lbs.
c. Towing.
(1) Four men tow it. This is done by means of a harness and single trace assembly. It is towed
for short distances over prepared trails during an approach march or similar type movement.
(2) The sled and equipment can be transported by tracked vehicles using tow bars and towed
behind the vehicle.
Safety Note: The Ahkio/Tent/Stove Group contains many potential hazards. Pioneer tools and sharp
metal on stove parts may cut personnel or their equipment. Liquid fuel can cause instant frostbite. Fuel
vapors are highly explosive. Carbon monoxide is a deadly gas, even in low concentrations, and is
particularly dangerous because it is odorless. Ensure soldiers always fill and light stoves at least ten feet
from their shelter. All stoves require ventilation when they use them in confined spaces. Ensure they
avoid over pumping the fuel cell on the squad stove. If a leak develops in the stove, extinguish the flame
and repair the stove immediately.
Identify the 10 Man Arctic Tent.
a. General Characteristics.
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(1) This six-sided pyramidal tent supported by a center pole accommodates ten soldiers with
their individual equipment. When necessary, it can accommodate additional personnel. It may
also be utilized as a command post, aid station or storage shelter.
(2) The tent has a liner and two doors, each of which is provided with a series of toggles and
loops around their outer edges. When additional space is required, these toggles and loops allow
two or more tents to be joined together with unrestricted access from one to another. For warmer
climates there are flexible plastic screen doors for protection against insects.
(3) A snow cloth is attached to the bottom of the tents' sidewalls. It is used to seal the tent to the
ground in order to conserve heat in exposed or wind swept areas. This is accomplished by
placing insulating material such as spruce boughs, brush, cardboard or other suitable material
between the ground and the snow cloth, then weighting the snow cloth with snow, dirt, logs, etc.
to keep it in place.
(4) The tent is ventilated in four locations by built-in ventilators on opposite sides near the apex
of the tent.
(5) Four drying lines are rigged inside the tent, on which personnel can hang wet clothing and
equipment.
(6) The total weight of the tent, liner, telescoping center pole and tent pins is approximately 76
pounds. It is quite bulky and very heavy.
Identify the Space Heater Arctic.

a. Space Heater Arctic (SHA) NSN 4520-01-444-2375
(1) The SHA provides heat in a range 15,000 to 25,000 BTU’s per hour. It is designed to be
used in small to medium size shelters in moderate to arctic conditions. The SHA operates with
various types of liquid or solid fuel.
Identify the Safety Procedures of the SHA Stove.

a. Safety Considerations.
(1) Never leave a stove running unattended.
(2) Turn the stove off if leaving, even for a short period of time.
(3) Make sure all fittings on the stove fit tightly.
(4) Keep the stove level at all times to spread an even flame on the burner plate. This can be
accomplished by placing a piece of wood or an MRE sleeve under the stove legs and #1
stovepipe.
(5) Protect the gas hose from being pulled on or coming into contact with the stove.
(6) Do not use excessive force on the drip valve or the hose fittings. Too much pressure at these
points will damage the threads and the stove will be useless.
(7) Check the rate of fuel flow at regular intervals. The drop in fuel will change the rate fuel in the
burner plate burns.
(8) If the stove goes out accidentally, close the drip valve and wait for the stove to cool down
before relighting.
(9) Store all fuel supplies outside the tent to prevent an explosion.
b. Emergency Procedures for the SHA.

(1) Wake up occupants of the tent and set fuel ON/OFF control to OFF.
(2) Use fire extinguisher as needed.
(3) Remove fuel can from tripod.
Note: When disassembled for transport, all of the components with the exception of the stove board will
fit inside the stove body, reducing the space required to pack the stove in the ahkio.
Identify the Parts of the Squad Stove (MSR XGK).
a. Description. The XGK single burner stove is a cooking unit. The stove operates on white gas,
kerosene, unleaded auto gas, and aviation gas or jet fuel, and diesel with a jet change. Stove will fit in a
1.5-liter cook pot.
b. Dimensions and Weight.

(1) Weight (empty): 13.2 oz.
(2) Weight Packed: 17.2 oz.
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(3) Burn Time: White Gas per 20oz. canister 109 minutes; Diesel per 20oz. canister 170
minutes.
Assemble the Squad Stove (MSR XGK).

a. Setting up the XGK Stove.
(1) Fill fuel bottle to fill line only. (Air space is necessary for fuel expansion.) Insert pump into fuel
Bottle and firmly tighten. Close the control valve, then stroke plunger. (Less fuel requires more
strokes/pressure).
(2) Rotate the stove legs and pot supports. Place stove on the center of heat reflector.
(3) Insert the fuel line into pump. With fuel bottle on its side, control valve points up. Secure the catch
arm on fuel pump groove. Keep fuel line straight for safety.
b. WARNING NOTES.
(1) An overheated fuel bottle can explode and burn or injure you. Keep it away from heat sources,
such as the stoves burner. Separate burner and fuel bottle with the windscreen. Large cookware reflects
excessive heat: Never use cookware with a diameter greater than 10 inches. Never operate stove with
empty or dry pots. Never use aftermarket heat reflectors or diffusers.
(2) Relighting a warm stove can result in large flames that can burn you. Never light a warm
stove. Let the stove cool 5 minutes before relighting. Accessible parts may be very hot. Never
move a hot or burning stove.
(3) Keep any reserve fuel supply outside shelter and at least 10 feet away from the stove.
(4) Leaking or spilled fuel can ignite and burn you. Before every use, look for fuel on the fuel bottle,
pump, fuel line, and burner. If you see or smell fuel, do not light the stove. See Troubleshooting. Never
disconnect the fuel line, pump, or fuel bottle when the stove is in use or fuel will leak, ignite, and burn you.
(5) Provide adequate ventilation when using the stove in confined quarters. Burning gasoline will
cause formation of odorless, poisonous carbon monoxide and lead oxide gases.
(6) Avoid over pumping the stove before lighting. Excess pressure within the tank may cause
fuel to leak or flow too fast through the valve assembly.
(7) If a leak occurs, shut off the flame immediately and repair the leak. On the spot repair of
leaks should be confined to tightening of packing nut or replacement of the gasket only.
(8) After using the stove and the flame is extinguished, allow the stove to cool.
(9) This stove can ignite combustible materials. Keep combustibles at least 4 feet away from the
top and sides of a burning stove. This stove is for cooking food and boiling water only. Never use
it for any other purpose. When temperatures are below -24o C (-10o F), O-rings can be stiff and
prone to fuel leakage. Use extreme caution in subzero temperatures.
(10) In very cold weather or when melting snow, the incomplete combustion of fuel may produce
odorless, poisonous carbon monoxide gas. You must have adequate ventilation despite outside
temperatures.
(11) Do not handle fuel without proper hand wear.
Operate the Squad Stove (MSR XGK).

a. Operating Instructions.
(1)Release only 1/2 tablespoon of fuel. Open control valve turn and let fuel flow for 3 seconds.
Close control valve. Look for fuel in burner cup and on priming pad. Light fuel A brief soccer ball
size flame is normal.
(2) Wait for preheat flame to reduce in size. Open 1/2 turn and wait for steady blue flame. Slowly open
control valve.
(3) Set up windscreen. Use windscreen to improve performance in all conditions. Leave a 1” gap
between windscreen and pot for optimal performance. Maintain fuel bottle pressure. To maintain
performance add 10 strokes every 10 minutes.
b. Squad Cook Set. The squad cook set is used with the stove to make a one burner-cooking outfit. The
cook set consists of two nested cooking pots and a frying pan. The cook set should only be used to melt
snow and heat water. Do not heat food or other beverages in the cook set, which creates a mess and
contaminates the cook set for drinking water. To melt snow for drinking water, always start with a small
amount of water in the cook set.
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Perform Ahkio Loading Procedures.

a. Loading the Ahkio.
(1) You must load the ahkio with one end heavier then the other. Proper weight distribution is
essential when packing the ahkio.
(2) The light end becomes the front and the heavier end the rear. This weight distribution aids in
maneuvering. Keep the load low and streamlined.
(3) Heavy items should be placed in the bottom and slightly to the rear of center.
(4) Loading lighter equipment toward the top will prevent the ahkio from becoming top-heavy.
(5) The load should be packed in a manner, which results in the lowest possible profile to avoid
a top-heavy condition.
b. Packing the Ahkio.

(1) Clear the ahkio of all items. Clear the sled of snow and debris.
(2) Place all tent pegs in the bottom center of the ahkio. Place the stove board on top of these
items.
(3) Place the Space Heater Arctic (SHA) on top of stove board.
(4) Repair kit placed behind stove.
(5) Place tent cover over the stove.
(6) Water and gas cans go to the rear of the Space Heater Arctic (SHA) with caps up and
opposing. This creates the "heavy" end.
(7) Center pole placed alongside SHA stove.
(8) Fire extinguisher placed along opposite side of SHA stove.
(9) Rope harnesses and miscellaneous light equipment are placed to the front.
(10) Cooking sets are placed in front of the water and fuel cans.
(11) All remaining equipment (except shovels) placed in front of sled.
(12) Tent is spread on top of all equipment from front to rear.
(13) Load the pioneer tools and snow shovels on top of the tent, wrapped in the tent cover.
(14) Load adjusted so center of balance is low and rear of center.
(15) Load adjusted to maintain a low profile
(16) Tools such as shovels, axes, saws and machetes should be packed on the sides or top for
easy access when breaking trail or clearing bivouac sites.
(17) Once all equipment has been placed into the ahkio, the canvas cover is folded over the load
and the lashing ropes are secured to each other with the lashing hooks, tightened and secured.
c. Equipment. The amount of equipment carried in the Ahkio depends on the mission, weather and
terrain. Carefully plan ahkio loads to insure the best balance between sufficient equipment and
ease of handling. Hauling an overloaded Ahkio tires troops rapidly. Unfortunately, combat
situations often dictate overloading the Ahkio beyond its rated capacity.
Identify the Parts of a 10 Man Arctic Tent.

(1) Snow Cloth.
(a) Tuck the flap under and cover it with gear in wet-cold conditions.
(b) Fold flap out and cover with snow in dry-cold conditions.
CAUTION: IF THE SNOW CLOTH IS SPREAD INSIDE THE TENT, IT WILL PREVENT PERSONNEL
FROM ROLLING OUT IN THE EVENT OF A TENT FIRE.
CAUTION: NEVER ALLOW THE SNOW CLOTH TO FREEZE TO THE GROUND. IN THE EVENT OF A
FIRE, PERSONNEL MUST BE ABLE TO ROLL OUT FROM UNDER THE WALLS OF THE TENT.
THERE WILL NOT BE ENOUGH TIME FOR PERSONNEL IN THEIR SLEEPING BAGS TO GET UP
AND FILE OUT OF THE TENT DOOR.
(2) Ventilation.
(a) Ventilators, near the peak of the tent, allow the tent to "breathe." Make sure you
check these ventilators often and keep them open.
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(b) Construct a draft channel under the tent wall behind the stove. The stove draws
fresh air from outside the tent through the channel.
(c) Without proper ventilation a tent is a definite liability. Carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide produced from breathing and operating the stove will accumulate in the tent.
Moisture will form inside the tent and the fire will not burn if the tent is airtight.
WARNING: Use of Carbon monoxide detectors is mandatory-Carbon monoxide is a deadly gas, even in
low concentrations, and is particularly dangerous because it is odorless.
(3) Shelter Discipline.

(a) When a shelter is finished, the first man entering it will arrange all equipment.
(b) Place the water can, firewood, tools and rations in the most convenient place (dig a
separate storeroom for these items in a snow shelter).
(c) The opening for the stovepipe in the tent controls the location of the stove.
(d) Brush hoarfrost off clothing and equipment before entering the shelter. This will help
keep clothing dry and the shelter clean.
(e) Shelter living is not easy. Personal space is very limited. You must keep all
equipment orderly and out of the way of other occupants. Reduce movement in and out
of the shelter.
(f) Carefully supervise the use of fire and lights. Plan for security, fire prevention, and for
asphyxiation.
(g) Practice fuel economy, burn wood when it is available.
(h) Fill and light all stoves and lanterns outside the shelter.
(i) Make a stand or bracket for lamps or candles.
(j) Extinguish sparks on the tent at once.
(k) No smoking in the shelter.
(l) Accomplish as many tasks as possible before retiring to conserve time in the morning
(i.e. maintain all weapons, clean all eating utensils, melt snow and fill canteens or
thermos bottles).
(m) Plan carefully to eliminate any delay in movement once the order is given to strike
the bivouac and move out.
(4) Heat Discipline and Fire Prevention.

(a) Do not overheat the shelter.
(b) There are many ways to save fuel. Combine cooking and heating. Melting snow
and ice uses large amounts of fuel. Use water from other sources if available.
(c) Use liquid fuel sparingly and burn wood when available.
(d) Drying wet clothing and providing hot drinks are also necessary throughout the night.
(e) Fire prevention is extremely important. Common sense in the handling of all kinds of
fires, fuels and flammable materials is essential.
(f) An alert, wide-awake, fireguard will be on duty at all times when men are sleeping
and a fire is burning.
(g) It is important that everyone becomes completely familiar with tent stoves and
lanterns.
(h) Be careful when lighting any liquid fuel stove. A flare up can set the tent on fire.
(i) Clean all stovepipes frequently. Clean every day to maintain a good draft and avoid
fires in the stovepipe if you are burning wood.
(j) Stoves burning petroleum fuels accumulate more soot when operated at low settings
because of cooler pipe temperature.
(k) It is often better to turn the stove off in mild weather than to run it at low settings.
(l) Ensure the fire is out and the fuel is off before leaving the stove.
Strike a 10 Man Arctic Tent.

a. Remove all equipment from tent.
b. Brush off any excess snow or frost from both the inside and the outside of the tent.
c. Center pole removed and adjusted to shortest length.
d. Tent and liner doors zipped shut.
e. Corner eave lines adjusted to full length.
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f. All other tent lines extended to full length, rolled and secured.
g. Tent pins and door poles retrieved and accounted for.
h. Snow, ice and/or dirt removed from the tent.
i. Tent folded accordion style.
(1) Lift the peak and one corner of the tent off the ground. Then bring the next corner.
(2) Repeat placing and one corners together until the panels have been folded into an accordion
pleat.
(3) While bringing the corners together, make sure the inside liner is folded smoothly alongside
the tent.
(4) Lay the tent down, even out the folds and place the tent lines into the tent.
(5) Fold the top half down to the eave, and then fold the bottom up and over the eave.
j. Six corner eave lines daisy chained together
k. The ten-man arctic tent is ready for movement in the ahkio.
Move With the Ahkio.
a. General.
Towing a loaded ahkio is arduous work; teams must be rotated frequently to prevent soldiers from
becoming exhausted and to prevent them from sweating through their clothing, which will expose them to
a cold weather injury. Generally, snowshoes are preferred for soldiers who will have to pull an ahkio over
snow-covered terrain, especially if the snow depth exceeds one foot. Ski poles are recommended as an
aid to balance.
b. Trail Breaking. The lead element will have the additional mission of breaking trail if snow and
vegetation require.
c. Movement Techniques.
Winter Arctic weather and snow covered terrain means movement using snowshoes and frequently
pulling an ahkio. This requires a modification of normal movement techniques.
(1) Types of Movement.
(a) Modified Traveling Overwatch with Ahkio.
In the modified traveling overwatch, the squad leader and the team pulling the
ahkio drop back with the attached weapons.
On contact, the ahkio pullers will release themselves from the ahkio to support
the lead team by fire and /or maneuver.
(b) Modified Bounding Overwatch with Ahkio.

The ahkio team with the squad leader and attached weapons supports from the
overwatch position as the lead team moves forward to the next position.
The lead team occupies the second overwatch position as the ahkio team moves
forward.
The ahkio team establishes overwatch in the second position and then
designates the next position for the lead teams bound.
Note: The ahkio never passes in front of the lead team. The squad leader rotates the team pulling the
ahkio as necessary.
Note: The wedge is modified so that not more than three individuals break trail
Note: You can use this optional method in all the formations that include an ahkio.
Construct an Improvised Shelter.

a. Environment and Equipment. Your environment and the equipment you carry will determine the type of
shelter you can build. You can build shelters in any area. Wooded areas usually provide the best location,
while barren areas have only snow as building material. Wooded areas provide timber for shelter
construction, wood for fire, concealment from observation, and protection from the wind. Shelters made
from ice or snow usually require tools such as ice axes or saws. Things to consider when building a
shelter:
(1) You expend a lot of time and energy to build a shelter.
(2) Ventilate an enclosed shelter.
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(3) Always block a shelter's entrance, to keep the heat in and the wind out. Use a rucksack or
snow block.
(4) Construct a shelter no larger than needed. This will reduce the amount of space to heat. A
fatal error in cold weather shelter construction is making the shelter so large that it steals body
heat rather than saving it. Keep shelter space small.
(5) Never sleep directly on the ground. Lay down some pine boughs, grass, or other insulating
material to keep the ground from absorbing your body heat.
(6) Never fall asleep without turning out your stove or lamp. Carbon monoxide is a great danger.
It is colorless and odorless. Always check your ventilation. Even in a ventilated shelter,
incomplete combustion can cause carbon monoxide poisoning. Usually, there are no symptoms.
Unconsciousness and death can occur without warning. Sometimes, pressure at the temples,
burning of the eyes, headache, pounding pulse, drowsiness, or nausea may occur. The one
visible sign of carbon monoxide poisoning is a cherry red coloring in the tissues of the lips, mouth,
and inside of the eyelids. Get into fresh air at once if you have any of these symptoms.
Note: In extreme cold, do not use metal, such as an aircraft fuselage, for shelter. The metal will conduct
away from the shelter what little heat you can generate.
b. Snow Cave.
(1) Choosing a Site for the Snow Cave. Choosing the site for the snow cave, a site free of any
avalanche danger should be selected. Look for a drift near ridges or trees. A depth of at least 4 or
5 feet is helpful to start with. Many areas do not have this depth of snow available. To overcome
this problem, snow must be formed into a large pile. This pile should be designed large enough to
accommodate the number of people that the shelter will house. To form the snow pile, begin
moving snow onto a site that will provide a flat and stable base. Continue adding snow until a
rounded pile is formed at least 4-5 deep and as long and wide as it needs to be for the number of
people it will accommodate. It is better to start with more snow than you think you might need.
The newly formed pile needs to be left undisturbed for at least an hour before any digging is
attempted. This time allows the snow crystals to begin to bind together and gives the snow cave
strength and stability. This binding time varies depending upon the type of snow, the moisture
content, and the air temperature. It is possible that in some conditions, such as granular or corn
snow that the snow crystals will require a longer time to form this bond and in some cases not
form a bond at all. In these situations other types of shelters need to be considered. When using
this method, smaller shelters will be easier to build. If there is a large number in a group, it will be
more effective to build several smaller caves. Heavy digging can be done with a large scoop
shovel. Smaller avalanche shovels work well also. In an emergency situation where a shovel is
not available, use whatever you can improvise, including your hands. A small cooking pot, a
snowshoe, ski or even a signal mirror will work. Try to arrange the entrance to the cave so that it
is on the leeward side of a slope. This will offer additional protection from the wind.
(2) Tunneling In. In deep snow begin by digging a trench downward into the snow. As you dig
place the snow that is being removed from the trench onto the roof area of the cave. In these
conditions make the trench as deep as you are tall. The next step is to begin tunneling in. At a
point at about knee level make the entrance. Make the tunnel slightly wider than your body. If the
terrain and snow depths are adequate, tunnel at a slight upward angle. Ideally the cave end of the
tunnel should be at least a foot above the entrance; this will help prevent warm air from escaping
the shelter. If possible make the tunnel the length of your body. At the upward end of the tunnel
hollow out a space as large as your body. Moving the snow becomes a major task at this point.
Use the shovel in front of your body to dig in. As you move forward use your feet to move the
snow into the tunnel and out of the entrance. Now you are ready to begin shaping the cave.
(3) Shaping the Snow Cave. The minimum thickness of the cave walls should be 12 inches. The
thicker the walls the more stable the structure and the better it will insulate. The ceiling and the
walls of the shelter should be dome shaped and smooth and should be large enough for you to sit
upright. Try to eliminate any sharp edges or ridges on the walls and ceiling of the cave. Initial
shaping can be done with a shovel to do the bulk of the work. Final shaping is best done with a
gloved hand. This shaping will prevent water-dripping problems as the temperature in the cave
rises.
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(4) Finishing Touches. An elevated sleeping platform is the most important feature you can add
to your shelter. This allows you to be nearer the warmer air in the upper part of the cave. Another
necessary feature is the ventilation hole that can be made with a stick, ski pole or other object.
This hole should be made in the top and be about 2 inches in diameter. This helps to eliminate
carbon monoxide if stoves or candles are used and carbon dioxide build-up from your own
breathing. Check the vent hole at regular intervals to prevent it from becoming clogged. Leaving a
stick or ski pole in the hole is a good idea. To clear the vent holes just wiggle the inserted object.
Make a shelf for a candle. Once lit, a candle can increase the air temperature in a small cave by
as much as 20 degrees or more. Others shelves and platforms can be created for gear and
equipment. The entrance to the cave can be blocked with a snow block, pack or other gear. This
will help to reduce air movement and increase the temperature inside.
Note: On occasion during the construction of a snow cave, especially in granular snow, a collapse can
occur. It is a good practice to build caves in teams of two. During the construction, one person should
always remain on the outside. In case of a collapse the outside person can then rescue the person
digging. It is uncommon for a snow cave to collapse after construction, especially after the temperatures
drop at night. The cold temperatures tend to increase the overall strength of the shelter.
Note: The ceiling of a snow cave can drop as much as 1-2 inches per day. This occurs because of normal
settling of the snow pack. During a heavy storm the settling can increase drastically. When this occurs
just reshape the inside of the cave. Always keep your shovel or digging device next to you in a snow
cave. After a storm you may need to dig your way out.
c. Emergency Snow Caves. In an emergency, snow caves can be created quickly by digging into a snow
bank or drift. Eliminate the tunnel and dig a compartment so that it is large enough inside for you to sit
upright. Place your pack in front of the entrance hole. Use evergreen bows or other natural materials to
insulate yourself from the ground. Use your pack as an emergency bivy sack and light at least one
candle. If you use a candle make sure you have a vent hole or adequate ventilation. If you think people
will be out searching for you, make the site as visible as possible from the ground and the air by placing
clothing, sticks or stomping an unusual pattern in the snow. Remember when you are inside the cave
your ability to hear what is happening outside will be reduced to almost nothing.
Figure 1
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Snow Mound Shelter
d. Snow Trench. A snow trench can be built very quickly and will shelter two people. At least 3-4 feet of
reasonably level snow is required.
(1) Start by digging a slot about shoulder width and a little shorter than a sleeping bag.
(2) While one person digs, another can build a wall around the windward end with the excavated
snow.
(3) Dig straight down until the trench is 3-4 feet deep. There will now be room for two people to
sit in the trench.
(4) Insulating mats can be used as the floor.
(5) If you have skis with you the roof can be made by lying two ski poles across the trench then
sliding a pair of skis into a bivy bag and placing this across the poles. Use snow to hold the ends
down. Get in and out of the trench by lifting one corner of the roof and sliding in.
(6) If you are going to spend the night, dig out the sides at the bottom to make slots you can slide
your legs into so you can stretch and lie down.
(7) The size of the trench is determined by the size of your roof. If you have a double size bivy
bag or a tent flysheet you can dig a bigger trench and stretch the roof out, weighing down each
side with snow and perhaps using upright poles or skis as roof supports from inside. Such a large
trench will hold more people than the grave type, but the roof is much more vulnerable to
collapse.
(8) A small trench will be warmer than a big one and quicker to dig.
(9) Overall, if your need is to get out of the wind quickly, several trenches are better than one
large one. If it looks like your stay will be prolonged, a more solid roof can be put on a snow grave
by using snow blocks to make an A-frame-style roof.
(10) When you leave a snow trench, fill it in and stamp the snow down.
Figure 2
Snow Trench Shelter
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8 June 2009
Figure 3
Snow Trench Shelter
e. Snow Block and Parachute Shelter. Use snow blocks for the sides and parachute material for
overhead cover. If snowfall is heavy, you will have to clear snow from the top at regular intervals to
prevent the collapse of the parachute material.
f. Lean-To Shelter. Construct this shelter in the same manner as for other environments; however, pile
snow around the sides for insulation.
g. Fallen Tree Shelter. To build this shelter, find a fallen tree and dig out the snow underneath it. The
snow will not be deep under the tree. If you must remove branches from the inside, use them to line the
floor.
h. Tree-Pit Shelter. Dig snow out from under a suitable large tree. It will not be as deep near the base of
the tree. Use the cut branches to line the shelter. Use a ground sheet as overhead cover to prevent snow
from falling off the tree into the shelter. If built properly, you can have 360-degree visibility.
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8 June 2009
Figure 4
Snow Cave Shelter
Wind and Lee Side Diagram
Notes
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8 June 2009
Mountain Operations
071E9013
INTRODUCTION: The US Army has a global area of responsibility. The contemporary strategic
environment and the scope of the US component dictate that the US Army is prepared for a wide range of
contingencies anywhere in the world. The variety of possible missions makes the likelihood of US
involvement in mountain operations extremely high. Approximately 38 percent of the world’s landmass is
classified as mountains. The US Army must be prepared to deter conflict and defeat aggression in this
mountainous terrain. Throughout history, armies have been significantly affected by the requirements to
fight in the mountains. In southwest Asia, the borders of Iraq and Turkey come together in mountainous
terrain with elevations of up to 3,000 meters. Major mountain ranges present many challenges to military
operations. Mountain operations require special equipment, special training, and acclimatization.
Identify considerations of terrain.

a. Mountainous terrain impacts:
(1) Mobility
(2) Movement times
(3) Effectiveness of some weapons
(4) Supply operations
(5) Hazards and risks
(6) MEDEVAC operations
(7) Line of site communications
(8) Synchronization
(9) Command and control
b. Operational terrain levels.

(1) Level 1 Terrain: Level I terrain is located at the bottom of valleys and along the main lines of
communications. At this level, heavy forces can operate, but maneuver space is often restricted.
Light and heavy forces are normally combined, since vital lines of communication usually follow
the valley highways, roads, and trails.
(2) Level II Terrain: Level II terrain lies between valleys and shoulders of mountains. Generally,
narrow roads and trails, which serve as secondary lines of communication, cross this ridge
system. Ground mobility is difficult and light forces will expend great effort on these ridges,
since they can easily influence operations at Level I. Similarly, enemy positions at the next level
can threaten operations on these ridges.
(3) Level III Terrain: Level III includes the dominant terrain of summit regions. Although summit
regions may contain relatively gentle terrain, mobility in Level III is usually the most difficult to
achieve and maintain. Level III terrain, however, can provide opportunities for well-trained units
to attack the enemy from the flanks and rear. At this terrain level, acclimatized soldiers with
advanced mountaineering training can infiltrate to attack lines of communication, logistics
bases, air defense sites, and command infrastructures.
(4) Commanders and planners must clearly understand the effect the operational terrain levels have
on maneuver and how it influences the other. They must identify and control dominant terrain at
each operational level to facilitate maneuver. They must also think, plan, and maneuver
vertically.
c. Route selection based on terrain analysis.

(1) Enemy situation
(2) Time available
(3) Skill of troops
(4) Equipment available
(5) Natural obstacles
(6) Weather
(7) Compartmentalization effect of terrain
(8) Military crest
d. Compartmented terrain
(1) Difficulties with compartmented terrain
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8 June 2009
(2) Ability to switch axis of advance

(3) Mutual support between axis
(4) Ability to conduct a coordinated battle
(5) Decreases the Commander’s mobility
(6) Planning based on timetables
(7) Establishing of boundaries between units
(8) Effects line of sight communications
(9) Places a high emphasis on junior leaders
e. Reconnaissance
(1) Route Reconnaissance
(2) Map Recon
(3) Overhead Imagery
(4) Scope of Ground Reconnaissance
(5) Time / Distance Planning
Note: Add 1 hour for every 300 meters of ascent and 1 hour for every 600 meters of descent.
Mounted movement
(1) Effects on mounted movement.

(a) Severe limitations
(b) Security
(c) Recovery capabilities
(d) Harsh road conditions cause frequent breakdowns
(e) Extensive PMCS and planning required
f. Terrain summary.
(a) Terrain has a significant impact on all aspects of operations
(b) Significantly impacts all movement
(c) Units that have mountain mobility skills can use the terrain to their advantage to achieve surprise
Identify considerations of weather.

a. General Characteristics of mountain weather
(1) Two Climate Zones: High and low elevation
(2) Variety of local climates
(3) Erratic weather patterns
(4) Precipitation more on windward side
b. Temperature at higher elevations

(1) Normal temp drop of 3-5 degrees/1,000’
(2) 40+ degree difference between sun and shade
(3) Rapid heating and cooling
(4) Chilled air drains downward
(5) Temperature Inversions
(6) Winter: usually warmer during a storm
(7) Wind Chill
c. Bad weather
(1) Indicators of bad weather (24-48 hrs)
(a) Gradual lowering of clouds
(b) Increasing halo around sun or moon
(c) Increase in humidity or temperature
(d) Decrease in barometric pressure
(e) Strong winds (blowing snow off peaks)
(2) Considerations
(a) May need early resupply
(b) Adjust for lack of CAS / Aerial MEDEVAC
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8 June 2009
(c) Drop to lower elevation as needed
Identify considerations of altitude.

a. Effects of altitude
(1) Proportion of oxygen in air decreases as a soldier ascends
(2) Decrease in oxygen can cause:
(a) Altitude sickness
(b) Reduced physical performance
(c) Reduced mental performance
(3) Best Remedy: Acclimatization
b. Acclimatization
(1) Acclimatization allows the body to adapt to the effects of low oxygen saturation
(2) Factors affecting acclimatization:
(a) Altitude
(b) Rate of ascent
(c) Duration of stay
(d) Level of exertion
c. Hasty acclimatization
(1) Acetazolamide (Diamox) helps accelerate acclimatization
(2) All soldiers, particularly leaders and medics, must know signs of all types of altitude sickness
(3) Allow for decreased physical performance
(4) Be prepared to MEDEVAC soldiers with altitude sickness
(5) Nutrition and hydration helps significantly
Identify considerations for employment of indirect fire.

a. Employment of indirect fire
(1) Due to decentralized nature of mountain operations, junior leaders must be highly
Proficient
(2) Higher dud rate
(3) Smothering effect of snow reduces fragmentation (time or proximity fuses make maximum use of
air bursts)
(4) Range is decreased by cold weather
(a) Slower propellant burn rate
(b) Cold air is more dense
(5) Range can be increased at altitude, due to thinner air
(6) Odd wind patterns caused by mountains can affect trajectory
(7) Range estimation more difficult in areas of significant relief
(8) May need to creep rounds rather than bracket (due to terrain)
(9) Use high angle on targets in defilade
Identify considerations for close air support.

a. Close Air Support
(1) Terrain restricts air avenues of approach and egress
(2) Terrain and shadows make target detection and identification difficult
(3) Helicopter gun ships may be more effective than fixed wing CAS
(4) At higher elevations rotary wing A/C may be effected adversely (may not receive rotary wing
aircraft over 10,000 ft (pilot’s discretion))
(5) Target marking considerations
Identify considerations for helicopters in the mountains.

a. Helicopters in the mountains
(1) Early coordination with aviation
(2) Higher altitudes can effect:
(a) Number of pax the A/C can carry
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8 June 2009
(b) The range of the aircraft

(3) Availability of landing/pick-up zones
(a) Weather
(b) Condition of LZ (brown out/white out)
(c) Surrounding terrain
Identify considerations for MEDEVAC.

a. Medevac
(1) Rough terrain evacuation
(a) Patient packaging for cold weather
(b) Light weight/improvised litters
(c) Lowering/raising systems
(d) Equipment availability
(2) Anticipate altitude sickness / MEDEVAC
(3) CCP planning
Redundant COAs
Notes
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8 June 2009
Field Expedient Aerial Resupply

071E9069
th
INTRODUCTION: After Operation Anaconda in March of 2002, AAR notes from the 10 Mountain
Division indicated that the lack of a preplanned aerial resupply made the Soldiers situation on the ground
pretty desperate during the battle of Takor Ghar. A formal request for resuppy takes time, planning,
personnel and dedicated equipment. During a firefight you may have few, if any of these items available
to you. Having a preplanned resupply staged, inspected and ready for immediate use, made up from
expendable multi use gear, may be the difference between success and failure.
Methods of field expedient resupply.

a. Poncho Parachute. Constructed by attaching lengths of 550 cord to a poncho at the grommet
points. The individual lines are then brought together and secured to a light bundle. Poncho
parachutes have an average 70% success rate in delivering the resupply items on target and
undamaged. Tests should be conducted to determine the correct maximum weight that the
poncho will support to increase the chances of success.
b. Speedball. Constructed simply by filling a duffel bag or similar sized container with resupply items
and securing the contents inside. When over the DZ the bag is kicked out the door. Speedballs
have a high rate of failure for delivering resupply items undamaged. Speedballs tend to burst
upon impact with the ground and scatter the contents over a large area.
Field Expedient Sling Load (F.E.S.L.). Uses basic mountaineering equipment to construct a multi-use
resupply kit. 1.
Inspect Components.
a. Carabiner, locking. One per duffel bag. Steel or aluminum can be used. All carabiners used will
be rated to at least 22Kn. Inspect to make sure the gate locks and there are no rough edges or
burrs that would damage ropes placed into it.
b. Duffel bag. Each bag used in the system needs to be carefully inspected. All stitching needs to be
thoroughly looked at. Ripped stitching, tears or holes can cause the bag to fail in the air. Check
the grommets at the opening as well, all should be present. There should be no evidence of the
grommet pulling away from the fabric. Discard the bag if it fails to meet these criteria.
c. Static Rope. One Kernmantle static rope, rated to a minimum of 6000lbs breaking strength will be
needed for each F.E.S.L. system. Inspect the rope for cuts, kinks, worn areas and melting from
friction. Damaged ends can be cut off. If ropes need to be tied together to make a longer length,
use a figure eight bend. Use heat to melt the cut end to prevent fraying. Rope that is old, dirty or
excessively stiff, used for vehicle extraction or other non-standard use should not be used.
Length of rope will be determined by height of tree canopy or slope of mountainside. Minimum
length of the load rope is determined by the distance from the aircraft load hook to 15 feet beyond
the tip of the tail rotor blade or the crew chief’s recommendation. The longer the line the more
stable the bags will fly.
d. 550 cord. Minimum of 10-12 feet of 550 cord is needed per duffel bag.
e. Sandbags. Sandbags should be of the plastic woven type. These are used to break the load
down into smaller components and allow troops to carry loose boxes of ammo etc. more
efficiently. Sandbags should be free of any large tears or holes that would allow the contents to
spill out.
Identify the capacities of the duffel bag.

a. Duffel bag capacity. Each Duffel bag can hold one of the followings:
36 MREs (approximate weight 66lbs)
3 cases of 5.56, linked ammo in plastic drums (approximate weight 225lbs)
3 cases of 7.62, (8) 100round boxes per sandbag (approximate weight 225lbs)
3 cases of 5.56 packed by bandoleer (approximate weight 200lbs)
70 (1) liter water bottles (approximate weight 152lbs)
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8 June 2009
Construct a load rope.

a. Load line. At one end of the load line that will be attached to the Helicopter, tie a figure of eight
knot. The loop will be around 8 to 10 inches in diameter after dressing the knot down. Take 100
mph tape and make several wraps around the loop to stiffen it up.
b. After determining the length of rope you will need, at the opposite end from the double figure
eight knot that will attach to the helicopter, tie another double figure eight knot. This will be the
first load loop. Approximately one duffel bag lengths away tie the next load loop. Continue tying
figure eight knot load loops a duffel bag distance apart until you have enough for your needs up
to a maximum of three load loops. The load loop diameter should be around 8 -10 inches in
diameter. Dress all knots down tightly. When suspended, the lower bags should hang as close to
the upper bags as possible.
c. If the PZ is too small to allow the load rope to be fully extended prior to flight, make a series of
bights between the top most bags and the figure eight that attaches to the Aircraft to take up the
excess. Place a single wrap of 100mph tape around the center of the bights. (One wrap will break
at 80lbs pull when the load is lifted.) The lowest load loop will be at the end of the load rope. The
load rope will be attached to the helicopters cargo hook while the aircraft is on the ground. If not
then a static discharge wand will be used during hook up
NOTE: While CONUS you will need to attach the figure eight loop to the helicopters cargo hook using
the 10,000lb apex fitting to comply with Ft. Rucker safety regulations. All loads will be within the safe
load carrying limits of the particular aircraft used.
Attach duffel bags to load rope

a. Prepare duffel bags. When all equipment / resupply items have been removed from their original
packing crates and ammo cans, repackage into sand bags if warranted and place these into the
duffel bags. This will make further distribution at the final destination more efficient.
b. Securing the duffel bags. Take a 4’ long piece of 550 cord and route it twice through all the
grommets of the duffel bag. A small hole will need to be made in the fabric of the grommet that
has the wire clip. Draw the cord down tightly and tie it off with a square knot with safeties. Place
a locking carabiner around four strands of the 550 cord (They should be opposite of each other).
Attach the locker to the load loop. Do not over tighten the gate on the locker. Orient the locker so
the locking barrel is down, this prevents vibration from unscrewing the locker. It is not necessary
to use the clip sewn to duffel bag to close the top.
c. Load loop Limits. A maximum of three duffel bags per load loop is recommended, more makes
handling difficult.
d. Take a 6’ long piece of 550 cord, in one end tie a small fixed loop.
e. Route it around the middle of the duffel bag, through the carrying handle and under the shoulder
straps, capturing the load rope. Pull the shoulder straps down tight, but do not tape or tie them
up. Route the free end of the 550 cord through the fixed loop and pull it back it against its self.
This prevents the centrifugal force from spinning the bags out during flight. Secure the end with
4or 5 half hitches.
Prepare and Load Fuel / Water Cans.

a. Fuel / water cans. Containers should be placed in pairs and have 2-3 wraps of 100mph tape
around the middle of them. Join the ends of a 4’ piece of 550 cord in a square knot with
overhand safeties forming a loop. Double it up and route it through the handles of the containers
so that the cord is not exiting in between the handles of the two cans. This will prevent vibration
and friction from damaging the 550 cord. Each pair of cans will be attached to the lowest load
loop with a locking 12mm carabiner. Fuel / water cans should always be the lowest load on the
system.
NOTE: Pilots should never drag the bags as holes can be worn through quickly. Load rope is attached to
the aircrafts cargo hook while it is on the ground. The entire load should be suspended several feet above
the ground to insure the load hangs straight before leaving the PZ. Use static discharge wand if unable to
attach load while helicopter in on the ground. Loops stiffened with 100mph tape make for quick hook ups.
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8 June 2009
Remove Load from Load Line.

a. Recovering loads.
(1) Each duffel bag will be set up to be removed separately from the others on the load line. By
unscrewing the locking carabiner and removing it from the load loop followed by cutting the
550 cord around the middle of each duffel bag. The bags can be removed from the load line
and out of the area by one or two people. They can then be repacked on animals, or further
dispersed as needed.
(2) If one site is being resupplied, as soon as the lowest bag / can are on the ground, the rest of
the load can be released.
(3) If multiple sites are being resupplied, then the individual loads are attached so that the top
most load loop will have the bags marked as the first to be removed and so on down the
load rope. This allows the weight to stay low and fly with the best aerodynamics.
All equipment used in the F.E.S.L. system should be provided by the receiving unit. All equipment used
can be used again or not. F.E.S.L. was designed so that gear normally used in sling load operations; A-
22 cargo bags, sling sets, reach pendants, Apex fittings etc. would not need to be returned. In addition,
with the normal crates and ammo cans already discarded, the items delivered are ready for immediate
use.
Notes
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8 June 2009
Confined Space Exploration and Clearing

071E9009
INTRODUCTION: Confined spaces are found on the current battlefield in the form of wells, caves,
collapsed buildings, and water and waste systems. Learning the skills needed to safely operate in and
properly clear these danger areas will enhance your unit’s ability to operate in varied types of terrain.
Identify Characteristics of a Confined Space.
a. Confined spaces can be technically challenging due to the environment in which they occur. Confined
spaces are often narrow and constricting preventing easy access. They are usually either unlit
or poorly lit so soldiers must provide their own light source. Finally, confined spaces often
contain hazardous materials in liquid or gas form, which can be harmful or fatal to soldiers.
b. Vertical confined spaces are usually found in the form of abandoned wells or cave entrances. These
spaces are often used to cache weapons or other hostile material. Wells must be checked for
booby traps as well as poisonous gasses prior to sending in a soldier.
c. Horizontal confined spaces are found in cave systems and structure collapses. These spaces must be
thoroughly checked for stability prior to entering.
Identify the Tactical Considerations of a Confined Space.

a. Enemy situation
b. Mines, Booby Traps, IED’s
c. Depth
d. Water
e. Actions at the Well
f. Clearing Techniques
g. Special Equipment Considerations
Identify Confined Space Anchoring Considerations.

a. Vehicles provide easy anchoring possibilities for a hauling or lowering system. Ensure the vehicle
wheels are chocked securely, and sharp edges are padded.
b. Use additional height to create a high directional to safely lower and raise a soldier into the space.
This can be a tripod, and existing tree/structure, or a vehicle parked closely.
c. Natural anchors such as trees, rocks, and earth anchors may be used if available.
Identify Confined Space Belay Techniques.

a. Body Belays are a quick method to assist a soldier entering a less than vertical space when solid
anchors are unavailable. Realize that body belays only prevent a slip from becoming a fall – stopping an
accelerating soldier with LCE and weapon will be very difficult.
b. Mechanical Belays such as the Munter Hitch are used when there is a good anchor and the soldier can
climb down and up the space unassisted.
c. High friction lowering systems, such as the carabiner brake, can be used for vertical to overhanging
wells or when the entering soldier is carrying extra heavy equipment, such as air monitoring equipment or
demolition equipment.
d. Hauling Systems complement lowering systems – the support team must be able to construct a
mechanical advantage system to quickly raise the soldier out of harm’s way.
Perform Individual Movement Techniques in a Confined Space.

a. Single Line Rappelling can be used if the soldier wants to control his own descent. Give extra care
padding edges as there is no redundancy with a single rope. Either a top belay with a second rope or a
self-belay must be used to have hands free capability.
b. There are various ascending methods available. Prusik ascent is a simple method, although slow and
fatiguing. Pre-tie your stirrups to speed the process. Another choice is using two mechanical ascenders
if available. This method is much faster and less tiring.
Notes
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Army Mountain Warfare School

Ethan Allen Firing Range

Military Mountaineer Course

ARMY MOUNTAIN WARFARE SCHOOL

Telephone (Comm.): (802) 899-7202/7205

I will always place the mission first.

I will never accept defeat.

I will never quit.

I will never leave a fallen comrade.

I am an expert and I am a professional.

I am a guardian of freedom and the American way of life.

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Welcome and Comments

“Training Mountain Warriors!”

1. Wear helmets when working on or near vertical surfaces.

(a) Stay on marked trails unless otherwise directed by an instructor.

(a) Reduce your litter prior to packing it.

6. Leave What You Find.

(a) Avoid damaging trees and plants.

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Basic Mountaineering Equipment

INTRODUCTION: Many different manufacturers produce mountaineering equipment. Each item

Identify Kernmantle Ropes.

Identify Types of Webbing.

General rules of rope care.

Perform Maintenance Procedures for Rope and Cord.

Perform Maintenance Procedures for Carabiners.

Perform Maintenance Procedures for Belay/Rappel Device.

Perform Maintenance Procedures for Ascenders.

Identify Breaking Strengths of Equipment.

Note: 1 kN = 225 lbs.

ITEM BREAKING STRENGTH

Identify the Features of a Commercially Manufactured Harness.

PMCS a Commercially Manufactured Harness.

Note: If you note any of these problems, replace the harness.

Maintain an Ice Axe.

(3) Ice Axe Parts.

(1) Daily PMCS.

(2) Repair. None. Turn in when needed.

Note: DO NOT use power grinders to sharpen your crampons.

Maintain Ski Poles.

b. Ski Poles - Adjustment.

c. Ski Poles - Maintenance.

Maintain Artificial Ice and Snow Protection.

Perform Racking Techniques for Individual Climbing Equipment.

b. Racking the Equipment.

c. Equipment Order (all placed on the black piece of webbing).

a. Basic Knot Considerations.

No Knot: 100% Overhand: 60% to 65%

a. Terms used in rope work.

FIGURE EIGHT BEND.

CLOVE HITCH: End of rope (EOR).

CLOVE HITCH: Middle of the rope (MOR).

Middle of the Rope Clove Hitch

DOUBLE FIGURE EIGHT.

FIGURE EIGHT SLIP KNOT.

MIDDLE OF THE ROPE PRUSIK.

END OF THE ROPE PRUSIK.

REROUTED FIGURE OF EIGHT.

Place tubular webbing inside locking