World History

The Russian revolu on

1. The Russian revolu on (1917) was an economic explosion hastened by the incompetence of the autocra c regime.
It was basically an expression of economic hardships faced by the Russian society.
2. Economic reasons
1. The industry had developed in Russia by the end of the nineteenth century but the pro ts that accrued were
con ned to few hands.
2. The workers su ered from long hours of work. They were paid low wages. Heavy nes were imposed on them and
they were treated inhumanely. The capitalists blocked factory reform while the workers tried to protest through the
strikes.
3. The condi on of the peasantry was no be er o . There was the shortage of land. The peasants carried out the
cul va on with primi ve tools and outdated methods. Further, the peasants had to bear heavy burden of taxa on.
4. Russia joined the World War I which aggravated the situa on and su erings. Although, there was plenty of food in
the country, it did not reach the ci es in su cient quan es because of the war me arrangement of transporta on.
3. War
1. As the war con nued, though, the Tsar refused to consult main par es in the Duma.
2. The war also had a severe impact on industry. Russia’s own industries were few in number and the country was cut
o from other suppliers of industrial goods by German control of the Bal c Sea.
3. By 1916, railway lines began to break down. Able bodied men were called up to the war. As a result, there were
labour shortages and small workshops producing essen als were shut down.
4. Russian army destroyed crops and buildings to prevent the enemy from being able to live o the land. The
destruc on of crops and buildings led to over 3 million refugees in Russia. The situa on discredited the government
and the Tsar.
5. Soldiers did not wish to ght such a war.
4. Thus, corrupt rule of the Czar coupled with its inability to di use economic grievances brought the revolu on.
5. Russian peasants vs France peasants
1. During the French revolu on, peasants respected nobles and fought for them. In Russia, peasants wanted the land
of the nobles to be given to them. Frequently, they refused to pay rent and even murdered landlords.
2. Russian peasants were di erent from other European peasants in another way. They pooled their land periodically
and their commune (mir) divided it according to the needs of individual families. Some Russian socialists felt that the
Russian peasant custom of dividing land periodically made them natural socialists.
6. What changed a er 1918 October revolu on
1. The Bolsheviks were totally opposed to private property. Most industry and banks were na onalised in November
1917. This meant that the government took over ownership and management.
2. Trade unions were kept under party control.
3. Land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility.
4. In ci es, Bolsheviks enforced the par on of large houses according to family requirements.
5. They banned the use of the old tles of aristocracy.
6. Russia became a one party state. The secret police punished those who cri cised the Bolsheviks.
7. Russian civil war
1. When the Bolsheviks ordered land redistribu on, the Russian army began to break up. Soldiers, mostly peasants,
wished to go home for the redistribu on and deserted.
2. Non-Bolshevik socialists, liberals and supporters of autocracy condemned the Bolshevik uprising. Their leaders
moved to south Russia and organised troops to ght the Bolsheviks. During 1918 and 1919, the greens (Socialist
Revolu onaries) and whites (pro-Tsarists) controlled most of the Russian empire.
3. They were backed by French, American, Bri sh and Japanese troops who were worried at the growth of socialism in
Russia.
4. Supporters of private property among whites took harsh steps with peasants who had seized land. Such ac ons led
to the loss of popular support for the non-Bolsheviks.
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5. By January 1920, the Bolsheviks controlled most of the former Russian empire. They succeeded due to coopera on
with non-Russian na onali es and Muslim jadidists. Coopera on did not work where Russian colonists themselves
turned Bolshevik.
8. Global in uence of Russian revolu on
1. The possibility of a workers state red people’s imagina on across the world. In many countries, communist par es
were formed like the Communist Party of Great Britain.
2. Many outside USSR par cipated in the Conference of the Peoples of the East (1920) and the Bolshevik founded
comintern (an interna onal union of pro-Bolshevik socialist par es).
3. Some received educa on in USSR’s Communist university of the workers of the East. By the me of the outbreak of
the Second World War, the USSR had given socialism a global face and world stature.
4. A backward country had become a great power. Its industries and agriculture had developed and the poor were
being fed. But it had denied the essen al freedoms to its ci zens and carried out its developmental projects through
repressive policies.
French revolu on
1. French society had 3 estates namely Clergy, Nobility and the Rest.
2. Social causes
1. About 60 percent of the land was owned by nobles, Church and other richer members of the third estate.
2. The members of the rst two estates were exempted from paying taxes to the state. The nobles further
enjoyed feudal privileges. These included feudal dues, which they extracted from the peasants.
3. The Church extracted its share of taxes called thes from the peasants, and nally, all members of the third
estate had to pay taxes to the state.
4. The rise of middle class was also a reason. Many educated people believed that no group in society should
be privileged by birth. Rather, a person’s social posi on must depend on his merit.
5. Their was moral degenera on of rst two estates, especially of higher clergy. The nobility completely
neglected their du es and degenerated into band of greedy and vicious cour ers. Monarch was not ready to
carry out the urgent reforms needed. His administra on was riddled with corrup on.
3. Economic causes
1. Long years of war had drained the nancial resources of France. Added to this was the cost of maintaining an
extravagant court at the immense palace of Versailles.
2. Unemployment and inequality rose dras cally. Wages did not keep pace with the price rise. A situa on has come
where basic needs of livelihood are endangered.

4. Philosophers
1. Another cause of the French revolu on was the e ect of the preachings of the French philosophers. Montesquieu,
Voltaire and Rousseau were the three intellectual giants of the age. The 18th century has been called as the Age of
Reason, because of the ideas expressed by the French intellectuals. They gave people an idea of new society based
upon a new philosophy of life.
2. Voltaire a acked the religion. Locke refuted the absolute right of monarch. Rousseau asserted the doctrine of
popular sovereignty. Montesquieu proposed a division of power within the government between the legisla ve, the
execu ve and the judiciary.
3. Along with the above stated idea of governance, the intellectuals emphasised on social reforms. They condemned
slavery. They also emphasised reason over prejudice.
4. The cumula ve e ect of their in uence manifested in itself in liberty, equality, fraternity, which became guiding
principles of revolu on. Without these ideas, french revolu on would have been simply an outbreak of violence.
5. They were mostly aristocrats, lawyers, business people whose lot in the exis ng order was far from unhappy. The
doctrines of the philosophers came to be used later on, during the course of the revolu on in France o en to jus fy
measures that the philosophers themselves would have opposed.
5. Post revolu on

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 1. The situa on in France con nued to be tense post revolu on years. Although Louis XVI had signed the cons tu on,
he entered into secret nego a ons with the King of Prussia. Before this could happen, the Na onal Assembly voted in
April 1792 to declare war against Prussia and Austria.
2. The revolu onary wars brought losses and economic di cul es to the people. Large sec ons of the popula on
were convinced that the revolu on had to be carried further, as the cons tu on of 1791 gave poli cal rights only to
the richer sec ons of society.
3. Poli cal clubs became an important rallying point for people who
wished to discuss government policies and plan their own forms of ac on. The most successful of these clubs was that
of the Jacobins.
4. The members of the Jacobin club belonged mainly to the less prosperous sec ons of society. They included small
shopkeepers, ar sans such as shoemakers, pastry cooks, watch-makers, printers, as well as servants and daily wage
workers.
6. Women’s revolu on
1. From the very beginning women were ac ve par cipants in the events of French revolu on. Most women of the
third estate had to work for a living. Most women did not have access to educa on or job training. Only daughters of
nobles or wealthier members of the third estate could study at a convent.
2. In order to discuss and voice their interests women started their own poli cal clubs and newspapers. The Society of
Revolu onary and Republican Women was the most famous of them. One of the main demands was that women
enjoy the same poli cal rights as men. They demanded the right to vote, to be elected to the Assembly and to hold
poli cal o ce.
3. In the early years, the revolu onary government did introduce laws that helped improve the lives of women.
Together with the crea on of state schools, schooling was made compulsory for all girls. Their fathers could no longer
force them into marriage against their will.
4. Even a er revolu on, women’s struggle for equal poli cal rights con nued. During the Reign of Terror, the new
government issued laws ordering closure of women’s clubs and banning their poli cal ac vi es. Many prominent
women were arrested and a number of them executed.
5. Women’s movements for vo ng rights and equal wages con nued through the next two hundred years in many
countries of the world. The ght for the vote was carried out through an interna onal su rage movement during the
late nineteenth and early twen eth centuries. It was nally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote.
7. Impact of French revolu on
1. The legal aboli on of the nobility, including its feudal privileges, by the Na onal Assembly in 1789. This led to
establishment of capitalism. Even the restored monarchy could not bring it back.
2. The declara on of the Rights of Man and of the Ci zen, considered one of the world’s most important statements of
universal human rights, issued just a er the aboli on of the nobility.
3. It gave the term na on its new meaning. A na on is not territory that people belong to but it is the people
themselves. From this ows the idea of sovereignty that people cons tu ng the na on are source of all power.
4. It was rst genuinely democra c Government. So planted the seeds for other democra c movements. For rst me
people such as workers, ar sans, poor peasants got equality in vo ng rights.
5. Formal separa on of church and state in 1794. This laid down the basis for separa on of state and religion and
establishment of a secular state.
6. France has abolished slavery in its colonies. And as a result Hai , an french colony, became a republic. This was the
rst republic established by the black people.
7. The Civil Code of 1804, usually known as the Napoleonic Code, did away with all privileges based on birth,
established equality before the law and secured the right to property.
8. The re-organisa on of France’s ine cient governing system into departments and communes. The establishment of
the metric system in 1793. Na onal system of schools known as lycées established in 1803. It lead to modernised
system of administar on. In India, Tipu sultan and Ram Mohan Roy were inspired from this.
9. The French revolu on had a major impact on Europe and the New World. It shaped poli cs, society, religion and
ideas by bringing liberalism and the end of many feudal or tradi onal laws and prac ces..
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8. Shortcomings of universal rights underlying the French Revolu on
1. All rights belonged to the men. Women were given no poli cal rights to vote or to hold public o ces, totally against
the principle of equality.
2. Equality also lacked among the men. Men with only certain level of income were allowed to vote.
3. Jacobins perpetuated terror in the masses which which was against the idea of liberty and freedom.
4. French began with being liberators but they ended up being conquerors thus going against their own values of
liberty and equality.
5. Slave trade considered as one of the most inhuman way of explora on for serving vested interests was carried on by
French, was a gross viola on of human rights.
9. Napoleon achievements
1. In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself emperor of France. He set out to conquer neighbouring European
countries, dispossessing dynas es and crea ng kingdoms. Napoleon saw his role as a moderniser of Europe.
2. He introduced many laws such as the protec on of private property, uniform system of weights and measures
provided by the decimal system.
3. Although the country had a na onal religion, he introduced the Napoleonic Code, which allowed religious freedom
in France.
4. The idea of democra c rights was the most important legacy of the French revolu on. These spread from France to
the rest of Europe during the nineteenth century, where feudal system were abolished.
5. Jacobin regime abolished slavery in the French colonies like Hai . This, however, turned out to be a short term
measure as Napoleon reintroduced slavery.
10. How did Napoleon fuse the old France with new France
1. Napoleon declared that he wanted to cement peace at home by anything that could bring the French together and
provide tranquility within families. He reconciled the elements of the monarchy with elements of the revolu on which
was the failed goal of Mirabeau in 1790.
2. Napoleon was largely successful in a rac ng men from all par es from ex-Jacobins to nobles, to his Government.
3. Signing the Concordat allowed Napoleon to reconcile the religious di erences which had torn France apart during
the Revolu on.
4. A general amnesty signed by Napoleon allowed all but about one thousand of the most notorious emigrants to
return to France.
5. Under Napoleon’s rule, the Napoleonic Code as a civil code for France was introduced and some of its provision like
merit based recruitment to government jobs and focus on clearly wri en law.
6. Napoleon abolished feudal system. He freed the peasants and other sec on of society from serfdom and manorial
du es. Thus the an -feudalism wave that hit Europe in 19th century owes its origin to the event in France.
11. Impact of French Revolu on was local
1. French Revolu on gave to the world the ideals of equality, fraternity and liberty. The preamble of our cons tu on
explicitly men ons these ideals.
2. This shows the worldwide impact of the revolu on but it’s spread had occurred several years a er the revolu on
and was ini ally con ned to Europe mainly because of the me frame, the circumstances of the me.
3. Monarchies were present in all the surrounding countries of France, so they tried hard to contain the spread of
ideals further.
4. Napoleon captured the power and restored autocracy within few years. Although French revolu on focused on
liberty, equality and fraternity, it denied the very rights to people a er revolu on.
5. Lack of transporta on facili es and global inter connectedness led to lack of spread of ideas.

12. Impact of Russian revolu on was Global

1. Increased interconnectedness during the 20th century led to easy spread of ideas and beliefs which was absent 2
centuries ago.

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2. Industrial revolu on reached its zenith. It’s capitalist system was exploita ve. The workers were looking for an
alterna ve and the Russian revolu on gave it to them. Communism at that me seemed appropriate, it seemed
libera ng.
3. Colonialism and imperialism were at its peak during the 20th century. People in the colonies were cri cal of
capitalism, because they thought it is what impoverished them. Communism sounded like a utopia to many countries
and they started trea ng Russia as a father na on.
4. Russia’s economic model was highly successful during ini al years, which inspired many third world countries to
take its path.
5. Leaders of communist Russia such as Lenin and Stalin ac vely gave support to communist form of Governments
across the world. Stalin even used to force to setup communist Governments in many countries. For instance,
Czechoslovakia.

Enlightenment
1. Enlightenment is a process in the history in which orthodox, supers ous and illogical thinking gave way to
reasoning and logical behaviour in every aspect of life, be it social, religious and poli cal. It made the society move
towards growth and progress.
2. Driving forces behind it
1. Explora on: Explora on of world sparked the curiosity and made Europeans ques on the old beliefs and
customs. They started enjoying the adventure in their lives.
2. Reforma on movements: Protestants like Mar n Luther started reforma on movements which ques oned the
authori es of Church, Popes
and the nobili es who were corrupt and blinded the people with orthodox beliefs and ins lled fear by penetra ng
state violence.
3. Scien c revolu on: Scien sts like Galileo and Kepler challenged the wrong concepts given by church and
introduced scien c ideas that sun was surrounded by planets, earth revolves around the sun, etc which helped
enlightening the masses.
4. Role of philosophers: People from the middle class like Locke, Immanuel Kant became the voice of the common
people and created large scale awareness among the masses through their works.
Na on state
1. A na on state is a state that has de ned borders and territory. It is a country in which the same type of people
exists, organised by either race or cultural background. People there would speak same language and share a set of
cultural and na onal values.
2. A state is a poli cal and geopoli cal en ty, while a na on is a cultural and ethnic one. The term na on state implies
that the two coincide, but na on state forma on can take place at di erent mes in di erent parts of the world, and
has become the dominant form of world organisa on.

3. A strange case of Britain

1. In Britain the forma on of the na on state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolu on. It was the result
of a long drawn out process. There was no Bri sh na on prior to the eighteenth century. The primary iden es of the
people who inhabited the Bri sh isles were ethnic ones such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. All of these ethnic groups
had their own cultural and poli cal tradi ons.
2. But as the English na on steadily grew in wealth and power, it was able to extend its in uence over the other
na ons of the islands. The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the forma on of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain meant, in e ect, that England was able to impose its in uence on Scotland.
3. The Bri sh parliament was henceforth dominated by its English members. The growth of a Bri sh iden ty meant
that Scotland’s culture and poli cal ins tu ons were systema cally suppressed.
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4. Ireland su ered a similar fate. It was a country deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants. The English
helped the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over a largely Catholic country. Catholic revolts against
Bri sh dominance were suppressed.
5. A new Bri sh na on was forged through the propaga on of a dominant English culture. The older na ons survived
only as subordinate partners in this union.
Imperialism and colonialism 1. Colonialism
1. Colonialism means the prac ce of acquiring colonies by conquest and making them dependent. This is also called as
old imperialism.
2. Neo-colonialism is the prac ce of economic exploita on and domina on of economically backward countries, by
the powerful countries.
2. Imperialism
1. The term imperialism means the prac ce of extending the power, control or rule by a country over the poli cal and
economic life of the areas outside its own borders. This may be done through military or other means.
2. Occupa on and direct rule over a country by another country is not always an essen al feature of imperialism. The
essen al feature is exploita on, with or without direct poli cal control.
3. New imperialism
1. During the ini al period of industrial revolu on, the pursuit of colonies had slowed down because colonies had
become uneconomical.
2. However, the pursuits and rivalries re-emerged in the last quarter of the 19th century. This is known as New
imperialism.
3. New imperialism resulted because of the economic system that had developed as a result of industrial revolu on.
4. During this phase a few industrialised capitalist countries established their poli cal and economic control and
domina on over the rest of the world.
4. Condi ons that helped the rise of Imperialism
1. Industrial revolu on: Need raw materials. Need new markets.
2. Protec onism: Protec onism policy by European powers have led to closing of domes c industries from
foreign goods. So investors have to nd regions other than Europe to export their produce.
3. Mercan lism: Rulers believed that the volume of world wealth and trade was rela vely constant, so one
country’s gain required another country’s loss. A colonial possession should provide wealth to the country that
controlled it.
4. Extreme na onalism: People and rulers believed that na ons greatness meant seizing colonial territory. Not
having colonies was perceived as a sign of weakness.
5. Civilizing mission: European na ons considered it was their moral responsibility to educate ignorant peoples into
higher culture and convert them to Chris anity. Hence they thought imperialism was a noble task.
6. Adventurers and explorers: They had prominent role in Europe’s taking over of Africa. They were the rst ones
to discover the unknown territories.
5. New Imperialism was a na onalis c, not an economic phenomena
1. Many colonies acquired were economically useless. Bri sh New Guinea or the German Cameroons o ered li le
economic incen ve to European countries.
2. Many na ons developed myths of their superiority over other people. They also believed that colonies will add
to their pres ge and power. For instance, Germany and Italy were jealous of Britain and France for their huge
empires. So, they also started conquering and grabbing colonies in a small way.
3. Imperialist countries took over some places in Asia and Africa because of their military or strategic importance.
They established naval bases and coaling sta ons to strengthen her overseas empire.
4. Overseas possessions were also useful because they added to an imperialist country’s manpower. Some of the
people of the colonised countries were taken into the enemy, for use in wars and conquests.
5. However, in reality, the New imperialism was as economic as it was na onalis c. Capitalist countries had to nd
new markets and buyers for the goods their industries were producing. In addi on to the markets, the imperial
powers needed new sources of raw materials to feed over growing number of industries.
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 6. The New Imperialism thus was fed on as much as na onalism as on economic forces. It was not either
Na onalism or economic considera ons alone but the two ac ng in tandem that drove the sinews of New
Imperialism.
6. Di erences between American imperialism and European imperialism
1. European imperialism in Indonesia and Indo-China is far older than the American imperialism in Philippines
(1890-1913).
2. Europeans captured these na ons from the local rulers. Whereas, America captured Philippines from Spain.
3. US ran the administra on of Philippines with the help of military government whereas there were civilian
governments in Indonesia and China. US administra on of the Philippines was always declared to be temporary,
while no such aims where there for Europeans.
4. European powers were interested in the trade of spices and other raw materials from south-east Asia. There was
no such mo ve of US in Philippines. American interest in the Philippines was the result of a desire to expand its
economic in uence into the Paci c and Asia.
5. Europeans tried to convert the local popula on to Chris anity but there was no such in Philippines because the
majority of the popula on was already Chris an.
6. Finally, America supported Philippines to defeat Japanese forces in Philippines and got libera on. Whereas in
Indo-China and Indonesia, the colonial states themselves raised the freedom struggle and won independence as a
result of their long drawn freedom struggle movements.
Mercan lism
1. Mercan lism is an economic system that prevailed during 16th to 18th century when na on states tried to
increase their wealth by promo ng their exports and limi ng imports. The strength of a na on was measured in
terms of the wealth it possessed.
2. How it gave rise to colonialism and industrial revolu on
1. To maximise their trade, countries expanded their overseas shipping and promoted naval force to protect their
vessels.
2. The lookout for new markets and new avenues led to the establishment of trading ports in di erent countries
which later became forts.
3. The growing industries back home needed raw materials and market for their nished goods. This gave rise to
con icts with the local rulers and drain of wealth from countries which later became colonies. The colonies
essen ally became source of raw materials and markets for nished goods.
4. The increasing outputs from the growth of industries needed fewer compe tors. This was done by discouraging
imports by imposing heavy du es.
3. Thus, mercan lism can be seen as an engine that led to the
development of colonial tendencies and revolu onised the industrial outputs by providing favourable trade
policies, raw materials and new markets for the na on states.
Industrial revolu on:
What
1. During the later half of the 18th century there began a series of changes which revolu onised the techniques of
produc on and methods of transporta on. These developments resulted in the rise of a new type of economy
known as an industrial economy. The term Industrial Revolu on is used to describe these developments.
2. This phase of industrial development in Britain is strongly associated with new machinery and technologies.
These made it possible to produce goods on a massive scale compared to handicra and handloom industries.

2. Why Britain
1. It had been poli cally stable since the seventeenth century, with England, Wales and Scotland uni ed under a
monarchy. This meant that the kingdom had common laws, a single currency and a market that was not
fragmented.
2. Through her overseas trade she had accumulated vast pro ts which could provide the necessary capital.

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 3. She had acquired colonies which ensured a regular supply of raw materials and a markets for export. England
developed a large shipping industry and had no problem of transporta on.
4. England had plenty of natural resources, such as iron and coal, essen al for industries. The sources of iron and
coal existed side by side and this saved England from many di cul es that other countries faced.
5. By the end of the seventeenth century, money was widely used as the medium of exchange. Salaries were paid in
cash rather than in kind. This gave people a wider choice for ways to spend their earnings and expanded the market
for the sale of goods.
6. The enclosure movement had begun in the 18th century in which big land owners consolidate their large land
holdings by buying small farms near their own proper es. So, small peasants became unemployed. Thus there was
no shortage labour force to work in the factories.
7. By 1784, there were more than a hundred provincial banks in
England, and during the next 10 years their numbers trebled. The nancial requirements to establish and maintain
big industrial enterprises were met by these banks.
8. No other country enjoyed all these advantages at this period. Some su ered from a lack of capital or natural
resources and some from an unfavourable poli cal system. While some other European countries had agrarian
economies. Many of them, such as Italy and Germany, were not even united and su ered from many economic
restric ons.
3. Co on spinning and weaving
1. Spinning of co on was so slow. But a series of technological inven ons successfully closed the gap between the
speed in spinning raw co on into yarn or thread, and of weaving the yarn into fabric. Some inven ons in co on
industry are below.
2. Flying shu le loom: It made possible to weave broader fabrics in less me and consequently called for more
yarn than could be supplied at the prevailing pace of spinning.
3. Spinning jenny: A single person could spin several threads of yarn simultaneously. This provided weavers with
yarn at a faster rate than they could weave into fabric.
4. Water frame: Produced much stronger thread than before. This also made it possible to weave pure co on
fabrics rather than fabrics that combined linen and co on yarn.
5. Mule: Allowed the spinning of strong and ne yarn.
6. Power loom: This was easy to work, stopped automa cally every me a thread broke and could be used to
weave any kind of material.
7. Co on gin: This machine made it possible to separate the seeds from co on three hundred mes faster than by
hand.
8. From the 1830s, developments in this industry concentrated on increasing the produc vity of workers rather
than bringing new machines into use.
4. Communica on
1. To expand facili es for transport by water much cheaper than overland. So, England began connec ng rivers and
lakes with canals. Canals spread to Europe and America and was a big help in providing cheaper transporta on,
especially a er steam boats came into use.
2. Canals were usually built by big landowners to increase the value of the mines, quarries or forests on their lands.
The con uence of canals
created marke ng centres in new towns.
3. The city of Birmingham owed its growth to its posi on at the heart
of a canal system connec ng London, the Bristol Channel, and the Mersey and Humber rivers.
4. In the 1830s, the use of canals revealed several problems. The conges on of vessels made movement slow on
certain stretches of canals, and frost, ood or drought limited the me of their use. The railways now appeared as a
convenient alterna ve.
5. Penny post, fast and cheap communica on by le er, began to operate in England in the early 19th century. Soon
it was adopted in other countries, including India.
5. Agriculture revolu on
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 1. The revolu on in agriculture had started before the industrial revolu on. There were changes in farming
methods to produce more food, and more importantly, to produce cash crops for the market and raw materials for
industries.
2. New farm machinery included the iron plough and harrow for breaking the ground, the mechanical drill for
seeding and the horse drawn cul vator to replace the hoe. There were also machines for reaping and threshing.
Farmers adopted intensive manuring and the prac ce of crop rota on to maintain soil fer lity.
3. With the enclosure movement, big landowners unfairly got possession of the peasant’s small holding along with
his own. The result was that the peasants were forced o the land.
4. With no other means of livelihood, they moved to the new industrial towns and ci es where they got jobs at
whatever wage the factory owner would pay. Industries thus bene ted, but at the small farmer’s expense.
China
1. Opium wars
1. The imperialist domina on of China began with the opium wars. Before these opium Wars, only two Chinese
ports were open to foreign traders. China was already a prosperous civilisa on that had invented paper, prin ng
and gunpowder. There was no demand for Bri sh goods in China. So the Bri sh had to pay back in gold and silver
for impor ng Chinese tea, silk, jade and porcelain. This led to trade de cit for Britain.
2. So, Bri sh merchant started smuggling opium from India into
China on a large scale, to cover up for their cost of impor ng Chinese goods. Bri sh east India company has already
established monopoly on the opium cul va on. But due to Chinese ban on opium, Bri sh used country traders to
ship opium to China.
3. 1st Opium war: Chinese government o cials seized an opium cargo and destroyed it. Britain declared war and
easily defeated the Chinese. The Treaty of Nanjing was signed, which forced China to pay nes to Bri sh for war
damages. Hong Kong was to be given to Britain. China had to open ve port ci es to the Bri sh traders. Chinese
government was no longer free to impose tari s on the foreign goods.
4. 2nd Opium War: Soon, England and France fought another war with China, on the pretext that a French
missionary had been murdered and again China lost. This again led to opening of several new ports to Western
trade and residence. Right of foreign travel in the interior of China. By the end of 1860s, China had to open 14 ports
to Foreigners.
2. Sino-Japan war
1. For centuries, Korea was a tributary state of China. But Korea is important to Japan because, one, it is
strategically located opposite the Japanese islands and, two, Korea’s natural resources of coal and iron. This
ul mately leads to War between Japan and China. Japan won thanks to its adopted western military technology.
2. As a result, China had to recognise Korea as an independent state and gave away Formosa, Taiwan and part of
Southern Manchuria to Japan and was forced to pay about $150 million to Japan for war damages.
3. Sphere of in uence
1. Each western country had certain regions of China reserved exclusively for their purpose only (exclusive rights to
build railway, mines etc in that region).
2. A er war with Japan, China had no money to pay war damages. So, France, Russia, Britain and Germany agreed
to give loans to China. In return for exclusive rights granted to them in some parts of territories in China. For
instance, Britain had exclusive rights over Yangtze valley, and only Russia had the right to build railways in
Manchuria. This division of China into spheres of in uence has been o en described as the cu ng of the Chinese
melon.
3. A er the economic depression of the 1890s, USA needed foreign trade to boost its economy. In China, the
American tex le manufacturers had
found markets for cheap co on goods. But United States feared that China would be completely parcelled out to
France, Russia, Germany and Britain, because of those spheres of in uences. So, US started it’s Me too policy.
4. Therefore United States suggested the policy known as Open door policy. According to this policy, all countries
would have equal right to make trade anywhere in China. Britain supported United States in this policy, thinking

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 that it would discourage the annexa on of China by Japan or Russia. Because Japan and Russia could easily send
their armies to Chinese mainland.
4. Boxer rebellion
1. China’s humilia ng defeats in Opium wars and against Japan and subsequent economic exploita on by Western
powers. The extraterritorial right was granted to the foreigners.
2. Corrup on, ine ciency of their own royal government.
3. They resented the work of Chris an missionaries, blaming them for harming tradi onal Chinese ceremonies
and family rela ons and also missionaries pressured local o cials to side with Chris an converts in local
lawsuits and property disputes.
4. This led to forma on of a secret organisa on known as Yihetuan. The foreigners called them Boxers. Boxers
violently started destroying proper es of foreigners, Chris an missionaries and Chinese converts. Although the
boxers were o cially denounced, they were secretly supported by many of the royal court.
5. A er the failure of boxer rebellion, imperialism con nued with the coopera on from Chinese warlords. Foreign
powers bought these military commanders by giving loans and in exchange the warlords granted even more
privileges to the foreign powers.
6. Thus in a period of few decades, China had been reduced to a status of an interna onal colony. Although China
was not conquered or occupied by any imperialist country, but the e ect of these developments in China were
same as any other areas which were formally colonised.
5. Western in uence
1. The beginning of western in uence can be traced back to when Jesuit missionaries introduced western sciences
such as astronomy and mathema cs. But its impact was limited. Later on, Britain used force to expand its lucra ve
trade in opium leading to the rst opium war.
2. Britain forced Indian peasants to grow opium, which was sold
illegally in China to get Gold, Silver. This was exchanged by Britain to buy tea, silk from China. This was called
Triangular trade between Britain, India and China.
3. This undermined the ruling Qing dynasty and strengthened demands for reform and change. They build a
modern administra ve system, new army, an educa onal system, and set up local assemblies to establish
cons tu onal government. They saw the need to protect China from colonisa on.
4. The Manchu empire was overthrown and a republic established in 1911 under Sun Yat-sen. His programme was
called the three principles (San min chui). These were na onalism, democracy and socialism regula ng capital and
equalising landholdings.
5. A er the death of Sun, Chiang Kai-shek emerged as the leader of the Guomindang as he launched a military
campaign to control the warlords, regional leaders who had usurped authority, and to eliminate the communists
6. The Guomindang despite its a empts to unite the country failed because of its narrow social base and limited
poli cal vision.
7. A major plank in Sun Yat-sen’s programme, regula ng capital and equalising land, was never carried out because
the party ignored the peasantry and the rising social inequali es. It sought to impose military order rather then
address the problems faced by the people.
8. The Guomindang blockade of the communists, forced CPC to seek another base. This led them to go on what
came to be called the Long March (1934-35), 6,000 gruelling and di cult miles to Shanxi.

6. Chinese revolu on in 1949

1. China was a peaceful country ll beginning of the 19th century. It was ruled by Manchu dynasty. But foreign
forces slowly started to occupy china. By the seeing the trade opportuni es in china, Bri sh was the rst one to
have started its in uence in china with the opium wars. Slowly other countries have started to occupy china.
2. The ine ciency of the Government to curb foreign intruders have led to rise of regional governments thus
dealing a blow to na onal integra on. This has led to war lord era, where power in China’s provinces was
dominated by army fac ons. The rise of communist party with various promises of land reforms, etc and
ine ciency of KMT have led to nal war.
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 7. Reasons for 1949 revolu on

1. KMT seized power in China with promises of establishing communist society, but it u erly failed in its objec ve.
It rather started suppor ng land lords and also tried to eliminate communists, which caused much resentment
among the Chinese.
2. KMT government was fully corrupt. The in a on during that me was very high. Thus people lost loyalty to KMT.
3. The most important one was ine ec ve resistance provided by KMT towards Japanese when they occupied
Manchuria in 1931. KMT felt communist were bigger threat than Japan and started moving there army towards
communist occupied areas. Thus dealing a huge blow to its reputa on.
4. The areas occupied by communists were having lesser inequali es in lands and they e ec vely carried out
various land distribu on taking land away from land lords. Finally in 1949 Communists seized power from KMT and
communist society was established.
8. Signi cance of 1949 revolu on
1. Communist Government was set up in place of a corrupt capitalist Govt of Chiang Kai Sheik supported by USA.
2. Rapid economic growth was observed with focus on agriculture and small scale industries.
3. Land reorganisa on was done and many e orts to improve working condi ons of industrial workers were taken.
4. China was taken more seriously at interna onal level due to economic and military strength. Also, there was a
shi from US led interna onal a airs to USSR.

9. Consequences of cultural revolu on

1. Brought the country to a civil war which severely hampered the progress. Students started a acking all
authori es even though they were not cri cs of Mao. Instead of uni ng people towards a shared vision, it created
con ict and chaos.
2. The money required for all these changes were diverted from industrial development, which led to a fall in
industrial output. They also restricted entry of foreign technology leading to degrada on of industrial produc on.
3. The textbooks were enriched with enlightenment of Mao and his revolu onary ideology instead of teaching
e ec ve educa on and methodology. This ruined students of job opportuni es.
4. A cult of personality was developed by Mao, which severely halted
China’s progress and plunged the country into despair.
5. Because of con ic ng ideology between Chinese communist party
and na onalist party and a ermath frac on between radical and so reformist. The democra c ideology got
suppressed and communist ideology got evolved.
Japan
1. In 1850s, US sent warships under Commodore Perry, and forced the Japanese to open their country for the
American shipping and trade (Gun- boat diplomacy). Later, Japan made similar agreements with Britain, Holland,
France and Russia. But Japan itself became an imperialist country a er the Meiji Restora on.
2. Japan and meiji restora on
1. Japan lay on the route to China which the USA saw as a major market. Also, their whaling ships in the Paci c
needed a place to refuel. At that me, only Holland traded with Japan. Perry (1794-1858) came to Japan to demand
that the government sign a treaty that would permit trade and open diploma c rela ons.
2. Till then shogun dynasty was in power in Japan. Perry’s arrival had an important e ect on Japanese poli cs. The
emperor who ll then had had li le poli cal power, now re-emerged as an important gure. In 1868, a movement
forcibly removed the shogun from power, and brought the Emperor to Edo.
3. O cials and the people were aware that some European countries were building colonial empires in India and
elsewhere. So they wanted to save Japan from such subjuga on. The government launched a policy with the slogan
fukoku kyohei (rich country, strong army). They realised that they needed to develop their economy and build a
strong army, to protect themselves from Europeans. To do this they needed to create a sense of na onhood among
the people, and to transform subjects into ci zens.
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 4. Modern educa on ins tu ons were setup. The imperial rescript on educa on of 1890 urged people to pursue
learning, advance public good and promote common interests. A new school system began to be built from the
1870s in which schooling was made compulsory for boys and girls. Tui on fees were minimal. The curriculum had
been based on western models but emphasis was also on Japanese history.
5. To integrate the na on, a new administra ve structure by altering old village and domain boundaries. The
administra ve unit had to have revenue adequate to maintain the local schools and health facili es, etc.
6. A modern military force was developed.
7. A legal system was set up to regulate the forma on of poli cal groups, control the holding of mee ngs and
impose strict censorship. Japan developed economically and acquired a colonial empire that suppressed the spread
of democracy at home and put it in collision with the people it colonised.
8. Another important part of the Meiji reforms was the modernising of the economy. Funds were raised by levying an
agricultural tax. Tex le machinery was imported from Europe, and foreign technicians were employed to train
workers, as well as to teach in universi es and schools, and Japanese students were sent abroad. Modern banking
ins tu ons were setup in Japan. To reduce popula on pressure government ac vely encouraged migra on to colonies
of Japan and to other countries too.
9. The rapid and unregulated growth of industry and the demand for natural resources such as mber led to
environmental destruc on.
10. The Meiji cons tu on was based on a restricted franchise and created a Diet with limited powers.

3. China and Japan path to modernisa on

1. The histories of Japan and China show how di erent historical condi ons led them on widely divergent paths to
building independent and modern na ons.
2. Japan didn’t go through colonisa on, it itself had colonial empires like Taiwan, Manchuria, etc. China underwent
colonial humilia on.
3. Japan followed and maintained tradi onal values like respect for elders, worship of emperor, etc along with modern
educa on system. China given up tradi onal values and sought modern ideas. The CCP and its supporters fought to
put an end to tradi on, which they saw as keeping the masses in poverty, the women subjugated and the country un-
developed.
4. Democracy was established in Japan, while China had a one party rule and demands for democracy were
suppressed brutally.
5. Japan followed west inspired capitalis c economy while China followed a socialis c path to economy.
Colonisa on in Africa
1. Although African explora on started in late 15th century but for a long me remained mainly to certain coastal
areas. This had disastrous consequences due to slave trade. During this era, Spanish were ruling Americas. During that
me, a large scale extermina on of the na ve Americans happened because they were forced to work in gold and
silver mines under inhumane condi ons and got European diseases. So slaves from Africa were brought to America.
2. Why African slaves preferred
1. Na ve American could easily run away and hide in jungles. They were familiar with the territories, knew how to
survive on local plants and animals. They could also escape and blend in as white town. Africans could neither go
home nor disguise themselves among town folks.
2. White prisoners were not immune to tropical malaria and yellow fever. African slaves had some immunity to such
old world diseases as smallpox, mumps, and measles. Hence, African labourer lived three to ve mes longer than
white labourers under the di cult condi ons on planta ons.
3. Slave trade
1. In medieval mes, Arabs had dominated the slave trade. They organised slave caravans and moved them from the
interior to the Gold and Slave coasts. Then Portuguese entered the slave trade business. Portuguese themselves also
needed Black slaves to work in their sugar planta ons of Brazil.
2. Some African chiefs also took part in this business. They sold slaves to Europeans in exchange of guns and
ammuni on, cloth, metal ware, spirits, cutlery, coins, decora ve wear, horses, salt and paper.
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 3. But then Bri sh decided to take over this business. Later, Spain gave the monopoly of slave trade to Britain.
4. Triangular trade is the term used to describe the prosperous trading cycle across Atlan c as a result of Slave trade.
European merchants purchased slaves from African chiefs in exchange of manufactured products. They sold the slaves
in the Caribbean and purchased such easily transportable commodi es as sugar, co on, and tobacco. Finally the
merchants would sell sugar, co on, and tobacco in Europe and North America.
4. Why slave trade declined a er 1850s
1. European economies began to shi from agriculture to industry. Planta ons remained pro table, but Europeans
had promising new areas for investment.
2. The slave operated American planta ons had to compete for capital and preferen al laws with tex le mills and
other industries that hired free labourers.
3. American slave socie es approached the point where they could reproduce enough o spring to meet the needs. So,
not much need for further slave import from Africa.
4. Slavery was also a hindrance if the interior of Africa was to be opened to colonial exploita on. In fact, some colonial
powers waged war against African chiefs in the pretext of abolishing slave trade, so they could establish colony there.
5. Consequences of slave trade
1. Millions of Africans were uprooted from their homes which s ed African crea vity and produc on. In the
American planta ons, they were forced to work in inhumane condi ons. Slaving and slave trading s mulated warfare,
corrupted laws. It created a class of elite rulers and traders.
2. Slave trade was the beginning of a dependency rela onship with Europe. This rela onship was based on the
exchange of Africa’s valuable primary products for European manufactured goods. This dependency con nued a er
the slave trade ended, through a colonial period and beyond.
3. In this sense, the slave trade was the rst step toward modern Africa’s current status as a region where
technological development has yet to match that of more industrialised na ons.
4. African culture mixed with Europeans and Na ve Americans. This led to new mixed races, music, literature, cuisine,
culture, religious prac ces, deep impact on American history, civil wars etc.
5. Anyways, by the me slave trade declined, the explora on of the interior of Africa had begun and prepara ons
made by the European powers to impose another kind of slavery on the con nent of Africa for the direct conquest of
almost en re Africa.
6. Why Africa was easily conquered
1. Economic might of the imperialist powers was greater than the economic resources of the African states. African
kings did not have the nancial resources to ght a long war.
2. In terms of military strength, the imperialist countries were far more powerful than the African states. Most of the
me, Africans fought with axes, bows and knives, while Europeans used a fast ring gun.
3. The African states were not poli cal united. There were con icts
between states and within states. O en these African kings sought the support of the Europeans against their rivals.
4. But on the other hand, the imperialist countries par cipa ng in the scramble for Africa were united.
7. The Scramble for Africa
1. All European countries were eager to get the maximum of African territory in the shortest possible me. O en their
compe on was about to result in a war. But in every case, they avoided war and signed agreements as to who will
get which part of Africa.
2. In 1884-85, European states organised a congress in Berlin to decide how to share out Africa among themselves. No
African state was represented at this Berlin Congress. Trea es were signed between European powers to se le
disputes over claims to African territories between themselves.
3. Most of trea es signed between African chiefs and Europeans were fraudulent and bogus. Other European powers
would accept such bogus interpreta ons. Thus African occupa on was done without any hindrance.
4. By the end of 19th century, the par on of Africa was nearly completed in this manner. This is generally referred to
as paper par on because the actual par on took much longer me (due to internal rebellions). About thirty per
cent of all boundaries in Africa are in straight lines because the con nent of Africa was par oned on paper map, in
the conference rooms of Europe.
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American revolu on
1. Mercan lism is a policy that anything which bene ed the empire (England) was good policy. England believed that
wealth was sta c and is measured by amount of gold one country possessed. So exports are preferred over imports.
2. What is a revolu on
1. A revolu on means a dras c or radical change in social, economic or poli cal life of society. Changes in poli cal and
social systems have o en been brought about by revolu ons. A revolu on can be the sudden overthrow of an
established government or system by force and bloodshed or it can also be a great change that comes slowly and
peacefully.
2. However every change of government is not a revolu on. A revolu on involves a fundamental change in the en re
poli cal system of a
country, a change in the nature of government, in the class or classes that hold poli cal power, and also in the aims of
the government.
3. People do not usually revolt against a government or a certain system unless they believe that it is no longer
possible to live in the old way. Revolu ons occur when an exis ng system becomes unbearable to a vast majority of
the people. This, in itself, makes condi ons ripe for se ng up a new system.
4. Revolu ons are contagious. Revolu onary ideas origina ng in one place may spread to other places very fast and
in uence the thinking and ac ons of peoples su ering under oppressive governments in other lands.
5. Revolu ons have played an essen al role in the development of human socie es. Without them, one kind of
system, however unsuitable for the mes it might be, would con nue for ever and there would be no progress.
3. The English colonies in America
1. By the middle of the 18th century there were 13 English colonies in North America along the Atlan c coast.
Landless peasants, people seeking religious freedom, traders, and pro teers had se led there. The bulk of the
popula on consisted of independent farmers. Infant industries had developed in such products as wool, ax, and
leather.
2. In the north there were shing and ship building industries. In the south, large planta ons like feudal manors had
grown up where tobacco and co on were grown with slave labour brought from Africa.
3. Each colony had a local assembly elected by quali ed voters. These assemblies enacted laws concerning local
ma ers, and levied taxes. However, they were under the rule of the mother country.
4. By the 18th century, the colonists found the laws which the English government imposed upon them more and
more objec onable. The idea of being an independent na on grew and developed into the revolu onary war in which
the colonists gained their independence.
4. Economic causes
1. The colonial policy of England in economic ma ers was the primary cause of resentment in the American colonies.
England’s policies did not encourage the American colonies to develop an economy of their own. The colonies were
also forbidden to start certain industries, for example, iron works and tex les. They were forced to import these goods
from England.
2. The English Parliament had forbidden them to use non-Bri sh ships
in their trade. Certain products, such as tobacco, co on and sugar, could be exported only to England. Heavy du es
were imposed on the import of goods in the colonies from other places. Thus the growth of industry and trade in the
colonies was impeded.
3. The English also angered the colonists by issuing a proclama on to prevent them from moving west into new lands.
English aristocrats had bought lands in America and got rents from the farmers. They wanted to keep the colonists as
renters.
4. English Government was burdened with debt due to incessant wars. In 1765, the English Parliament passed the
Stamp act which imposed stamp taxes on all business transac ons in the American colonies. This act aroused violent
resentment among all sec ons.
5. The colonists claimed that, since English Parliament had no representa ves from the colonies, it had no right to levy
taxes on them. The revenue from these taxes was used not in the interests of the colonies but of English.
5. Philosophers
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1. The American revolu onaries were inspired by the ideas of the French and English philosophers of the 17th century.
Locke, Harrington, Milton believed that men had certain fundamental rights which no government had the right to
infringe.
2. American thinkers, especially Thomas Je erson, were also inspired by what French philosophers were saying and
wri ng at that me. Je erson asserted the colonist’s right to rebellion, and encouraged their increasing desire for
independence.
6. No taxa on without representa on
1. The leaders in the Massachuse s colony called together representa ves from other colonies to consider their
common problems. In this Massachuse s assembly, they agreed and declared that the English Parliament had no right
to levy taxes on them. No taxa on without representa on was the slogan they adopted.
2. And they threatened to stop the import of Bri sh goods. The threat led English to repeal the Stamp Act, but
Parliament s ll insisted that it had the right to levy taxes. Then Parliament imposed a tax on consumer goods coming
into the colonies, such as paper, glass, tea and paint.
7. Boston Tea Party
1. The tax on tea led to trouble. In 1773, several colonies refused to unload the tea coming in English ships. In Boston,
when the governor ordered a ship to be unloaded, a group of ci zens, dressed as American Indians, boarded the ship
and dumped the crates of tea into the water.
2. This incident is known as the Boston Tea Party. The English government then closed the port of Boston to all trade
and precipitated the uprising of the colonies.
8. No a ec on for England in colonies
1. A lot of people had se led in the colonies when they were prosecuted on religious grounds.
2. Colonies wanted equality, whereas class di erences existed in England.
9. English policies
1. Greenville’s policy: New taxes were imposed. Naviga on acts were implemented. Direct taxes were levied. By
means of revenue collected from taxes, a permanent massive army was to be deployed in America to safeguard
colonies from French invasions.
2. Rockingham’s declaratory act: Rockingham formed Govt in England and passed an Act which declared that the
Bri sh Parliament was fully empowered to levy taxes on Americans.
10. Signi cance of the American Revolu on
1. The rst wri en cons tu on came into existence. It de nitely encouraged the tradi on of cons tu onalism.
2. It strengthened the posi on of middle classes in America and it encouraged the liberal ideas.
3. The main achievement of the American Revolu on was the establishment of a republic. This republic was, however,
not truly democra c. The right to vote was limited. Negroes, most of them s ll slaves, American Indians, and women
had no vote.
4. It was a serious jolt to the policy of mercan lism and colonialism.
5. First federal Govt was formed in the world. The concept of federalism is much suited to mul racial, mul social,
mul regional country. Later this inspired many countries including India.
6. The words of the Declara on of Independence regarding the equality of all men and the inalienable rights formed
basis for all future liberal democracies. Lafaye e, the French general who fought on the side of American
revolu onaries, was soon to become a hero of the French Revolu on.
7. By its example, the American Revolu on inspired many revolu onaries in Europe later in the 19th century. It
encouraged Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Central and South America to rebel and gain their independence.
8. Elec on laws in all states favoured men of property for many years. But progress towards democracy had begun. In
some states, state religion was abolished, along with religious quali ca ons for holding public o ces.
Uni ca on of Germany
1. In the 18th century, Germany was divided into a number of states. Some of these states were very small and did not
extend beyond the limits of a city. During the Napoleonic wars, many of these states ceased to exist. At the end of the
wars there were s ll thirty eight independent states in Germany. Among them Prussia, Wur emberg, Bavaria, and
Saxony were fairly large.
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2. Prussia was the most powerful in Militarily and in extent. It was also the most reac onary. The big landlords of
Prussia known as Junkers formed the dominant sec on in Prussian society. Prussia was also one of the leaders of the
Holy Alliance.
3. Factors behind uni ca on
1. German Language: Prior to uni ca on, over 300 dis nct poli cal en es in central Europe spoke German or some
close varia on of it. This shared language experience allowed these dis nct en es to interact and trade with one
another.
2. Trade: Many dis nct en es in central Europe traded with one another. But trading was hindered because of lack of
common currency or exchange rate. Zollverein, a customs union, was formed for abolishing internal tari s between
the units. This subdued much local feelings and replaced it by wider and stronger element of German na onality.
3. German na onalism: During the Napoleonic wars of the early 19th century, the dis nct German se lements of
central Europe bonded over their shared experience of subjuga on. With the growth of na onal consciousness the
people of these states had started demanding the na onal uni ca on of Germany, establishment of democra c
government and social and economic reforms.
4. Revolts: In 1848 revolts occurred in every German state and the rulers were forced to grant democra c
cons tu ons. To unite Germany and to
frame a cons tu on for the united Germany, a cons tuent assembly met in Frankfurt. But the assembly gave nothing
and 1848 revolt was failure.
4. Policy of blood and iron
1. Bismarck wanted to preserve the predominance of the landed aristocrats and the army in the united German state
and to achieve the uni ca on of Germany under the leadership of the Prussian monarchy. He described his policy of
uni ca on as one of blood and iron. The policy of blood and iron meant a policy of war.
2. The ul mate aim Bismarck had was the elimina on of Austria from the Germanic confedera on. So, First, he aligned
with Austria in a war against Denmark over the possession of Schleswig and Holstein. A er Denmark’s defeat, he
entered into an alliance with Italy against Austria, defeated Austria and dissolved the Germanic Confedera on. Thus
Austria was separated from other German states. The uni ca on of Germany was completed as a result of a war
between Prussia and France.
5. Policy of Coal and iron
1. German Uni ca on had seen the use of both Coal and Iron, means economic ac ons and Blood and iron, means
war.
2. Bismarck plan was to separate Austria then France and build diploma c es with other empires like Russia and Italy
to achieve uni ca on. He used the economic tools to build Prussian capabili es rst and isolate Austria on economic
front then defeat and usurp states from them.
3. Zolleverin was a free trade agreement between Prussia and other states to reduce tari barriers. Prussia led the
Zolleverin and Austria was excluded from it. This made other German states dependent on Prussia. Prussia led the
railway tracks and set up industries. Railways were used to transport soldiers quickly over large distances.
4. So, Germany uni ca on has been achieved by Blood and Iron majorly but the base has been prepared using the
Coal and Iron strategy.
Italian uni ca on
1. Like Germany, Italy was also divided into a number of states. The major states in the early 19th century Italy were
Sardinia, Lombardy, Vene a, kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Papal States, Tuscany, Parma and Modena. Of these the most
powerful was the kingdom of Sardinia. Vene a and Lombardy were under Austrian occupa on.
2. Thus the Italian people were faced with the task of expelling the Austrians and forcing the rulers of independent
states to unite. The uni ca on of Italy was bought about by many factors, which include foreign aid, able leadership
and favourable circumstances.
3. Cultural na onalism: Each one of the people had a culture, history and language of its own. But in order to protect
one’s culture, each na on should create for itself a sovereign state. Thus cultural na onalism lead to poli cal
na onalism. Consequently, these ideas could not be realised without the overthrow of the Government and
consequently na onalism turned revolu onary.
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4. Problems in uni ca on of Italy
1. Vienna congress divided Italy and destroyed its poli cal unity.
2. Vene a and Lombardy were provinces of Austria. Pope was under hegemony of Austria. So Austria directly or
indirectly controlled Italy.
3. General absence of na onal consciousness in Italy. Regionalism, localism, provincialism, dominated among the
people.
4. People were unconscious of their na onalism.

5. Young Italy
1. The struggle for Italian independence and uni ca on was organised by Mazzini and Garibaldi.
2. The movement led by them is known as the Young Italy movement. It aimed at the independence and uni ca on of
Italy and the establishment of a republic there. It was a secre ve organisa on and tried to win over the Italians by
moral and intellectual fervour.
3. Mazzini educated Italians that Italy was a na on, not a geographical expression and that the Italian peninsula,
though divided poli cally, was living unity with common heritage.
4. In 1848, as in other parts of Europe, revolu onary uprisings had broken out in Italy and the rulers were forced to
grant certain democra c reforms to the people. However, the goal of independence and uni ca on was s ll distant.

6. Italy a er the revolu on of 1848

1. The king of Sardinia had introduced many reforms in the poli cal system of his kingdom a er the revolu on of
1848. A er 1848, his prime minister, Count Cavour, took the ini a ve of uni ng Italy under the leadership of Sardinia.
2. Cavour’s policy in some ways was similar to that followed by Bismarck in Germany. Hoping to gain the support of
Britain and France, he
entered the Crimean war in 1853-56 against Russia even though Sardinia had no dispute with Russia. However,
nothing came out of this war.
3. In 1859, Cavour entered into an alliance with Louis Bonaparte and went to war with Austria. Although France soon
withdrew from the war, Austria was ousted from Lombardy, which was taken over by Sardinia.
4. Tuscany, Modena, Parma and the Papal States of the north also joined Sardinia. Vene a, however, was s ll under
Austrian occupa on. The other states that remained to be united with Sardinia were the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
and Rome which was under the rule of the Pope.

7. Uprising in Sicilies
1. Meanwhile an uprising had broken out in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Garibaldi marched into the island of Sicily
with his revolu onary ghters and liberated it from the rule of the king within three months. Then he marched to
Naples in support of the revolt that had already broken out there.
2. By the end of November 1860, the en re kingdom of the two Sicilies had been liberated. The Italian revolu onaries
were not perhaps strong enough to push the victory of the people in the Sicilies further with a view to establishing a
united republic of Italy.
3. They surrendered the former kingdom to the King of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel II, who then took the tle of King of
Italy in 1861.
4. Garibaldi, the revolu onary who had played such a vital role in the libera on and uni ca on of Italy, now re red to
lead a life of obscurity.

8. Consequences of German and Italian uni ca on

1. One of the aspects of the movements described so far is the gradual growth of poli cal democracy, that is, the ever
increasing par cipa on of people in the poli cal life of a country. The period of autocracies and privileged
aristocracies was gradually coming to an end. Alongside, there were also the movements for na onal unity and
na onal independence.

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2. These movements were victorious in Italy, Germany, and some other countries of Europe and in the Americas. In a
few more decades they were to succeed in the rest a Europe and in the recent period in most of the world. It is
necessary to remember here that the new poli cal and economic system that was emerging in Europe in the 19th
century was also crea ng imperialism.

9. Comparison between Italian and German uni ca ons

1. Time: The uni ca on movements of both countries took place at roughly the same me in the mid 19th century
and were mo vated by liberalism and na onalism.
2. Number of separate states: Italy and Germany both were divided into a number of separate states which were
ruled by despo c kings. But these states in both the countries shared a common language and a common history.
Austria was main obstacle to both the countries.
3. Napoleon: Napoleon during his conquests of Italy and Germany taught them ideas of liberalism and na onalism. In
Italy, Napoleon created a united Kingdom of Italy. As for Germany, Napoleon reduced the number of German states
from over three hundred to thirty nine. This led to na onalist sen ments in Italy and Germany which in uenced the
much of the uni ca on later.
4. Congress of Vienna: European countries at congress of Vienna divided the Italian peninsula into pe y states and
restored previous rulers. In Germany too, absolute governments were restored in all the states by the Congress of
Vienna. Such turning the clock back greatly frustrated Italian and German liberals and patriots.
5. Diplomacy and war: In achieving Italian and German uni ca ons, both Cavour and Bismarck made great use of
diplomacy and war.

10. Contrast between both

1. Zollverein which was launched by Prussia in 1818 made Prussia economically strong but also improved its rela on
with other German states. But in Italy, no customs union comparable to the Zollverein aided the movement towards
uni ca on. Only Piedmont herself, under the guidance of Prime Minister Cavour, implemented some economic
reforms.
2. Italian uni ca on supported by France and Great Britain, while German uni ca on adversed by France and Great
Britain.
3. Italian uni ca on owed much to the leadership of Piedmont and Cavour. Yet, forces from below were also
important, especially the liberals and na onalists who ra ed to Cavour and Garibaldi.
4. On the other hand, uni ca on from above was clearly the pa ern in Germany. It was achieved mainly by Prussia,
her army, her ruling Junker class, and the Junker leader Bismarck.

Policy of containment
1. Policy of Containment was a United States policy to prevent the spread of communism abroad.
2. Steps by USA
1. Marshall Plan provided nancial help to na ons so as to develop them economically and to check spread of
communism. So US invested heavily in Western Europe, Japan, Turkey and Greece.
2. Forma on of NATO to counter USSR militarily.
3. Even some historian argues that Nuclear bombing of Japan by US was a part of this strategy to deter USSR.
4. Foreign interven ons in countries like Vietnam, Angola, Korea, China etc. was made to prevent spread of
communism in those countries. It meddled in internal a airs in India and Pakistan and sided with Pakistan so as to
have a friendly neighbour beside USSR.
5. Rise of communism in China and USSR made it inevitable for USA to have strong ally in the east. So it
enthusias cally aided Japan’s development.
6. USA in coopera on with other countries gave rise to Breton wood twins to in uence nancial order in the world.
They both led to dollar diplomacy and dollar as exchange gold standard and reduced in uence of USSR.
Cuban Missiles crisis

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 1. Cuban crisis was a short confronta on between US and USSR in 1962 concerning American ballis c missile
deployment in Italy and Turkey with consequent Soviet ballis c missile deployment
in Cuba.
2. Events leading upto it
1. The failed bay of pigs invasion and the fall of the Berlin war made the score for both US and USSR equal.
2. In 1962, US spy planes discovered missile launching pads in Cuba and the US president ordered immediate
destruc on and a naval blockade to prevent Russian missiles from reaching. In de ance, Russia sent warship to Cuba
and raised the possibility of confronta on between the superpowers.
3. It ended, when Russia blinked rst and called back the ships, and in exchange US agreed to remove American
missiles from Turkey. This was the climax of the Cold war, and led to signing of the Nuclear Test ban treaty.
4. The US has agreed to remove its embargo on Cuba, which was one of the last remaining remnants of the Cold War.
Ironically, at a me of renewed Russian aggression and the symptoms of a new cold war.
3. Consequences
1. No side engaged in a full thro le hot war but the di erences between US and USSR became even stark.
2. Cold war intensi ed se ng the stage for future military and diploma c confronta ons between US and USSR.
3. Cuban communist regime was allowed to rule and it survived for long. However, Cuba-US rela ons withered.
4. Both US and USSR started expanding their ideological in uence base by making military alliances and signing
trea es.
Marshall Plan, 1948
1. By the end of World War II, Europe was ravaged by war and thus suscep ble to exploita on by an internal and
external communist threat. Fanned by the fear of Communist expansion, congress passed the Economic Coopera on
act for rebuilding of Western Europe.
2. From 1945 through 1947, the United States was already assis ng European economic recovery with direct nancial
aid. Military assistance to Greece and Turkey was being given. The newly formed United Na ons was providing
humanitarian assistance. The Marshall Plan signi cantly magni ed their own e orts and reduced the su ering and
me West Europe took to recover from the war.
3. Marshall Plan was intended to rebuild the economies and spirits of western Europe. Marshall was convinced the key
to restora on of poli cal stability lay in the revitalisa on of na onal economies. It was also aimed at blun ng the
advances of communism in that region. The program whose o cial tle was European Recovery Program.
4. Aims
1. Increasing produc on.
2. Expanding European foreign trade.
3. Facilita ng European economic coopera on and integra on.
4. Controlling in a on.
5. Results
1. Marshall Plan na ons were assisted greatly in western Europe
economic recovery. From 1948 through 1952 European economies grew at an unprecedented rate. The Marshall
Plan was very successful.
2. The western European countries involved experienced a rise in their GNP of 15 to 25 percent during this period.
The plan contributed greatly to
the rapid renewal of the western European chemical, engineering and steel industries.
3. Trade rela ons led to the forma on of the North Atlan c alliance.
4. Economic prosperity led by coal and steel industries helped to shape what we know now as the European
Union.

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Why Soviet union disintegrated
1. Economic stagna on for many years led to severe consumer shortages and a large sec on of Soviet society began to
doubt and ques on the system. Internal weaknesses of soviet poli cal and economic ins tu ons, which failed to meet
the aspira ons of the people, were responsible for the collapse of the system.
2. The Soviet Union had become stagnant in an administra ve and poli cal sense as well. Ordinary people were
alienated by slow and s ing administra on, rampant corrup on, the inability of the system to correct mistakes it had
made, the unwillingness to allow more openness in government, and the centralisa on of authority in a vast land.
3. Worse s ll, the party bureaucrats gained more privileges than ordinary ci zens. People did not iden fy with the
system and with the rulers, and the government increasingly lost popular backing.
4. Perestroika: Refers to economic reforms enacted by Gorbachev in 1987 to reform soviet’s sliding economy, but they
were not enough. There were sec ons of Soviet society which felt that Gorbachev should have moved much faster
and were disappointed and impa ent with his methods.
5. Glasnost: It means transparency in Government func oning. However, this back red as the public learned of long
standing poli cal cover ups revealing past and recent atroci es, missteps by leadership, social and health failures of
the USSR and the true extent of na onal economic problems. This further eroded support for the regime.
6. Excessive centralisa on led to growth of local na onalism grew within each of the individual republics, because of
excessive centralisa on. Many republics such as Ukraine, Belarus, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania wanted to become
independent.
7. The USSR was overly focused on military buildup, neglec ng domes c troubles that would play a major role in
bringing down the USSR. This was largely due to the perceived need to keep pace with the massive USA military build
up.
8. Sinatra doctrine in Foreign Policy.
8. Reforms ini ated by Gorbachev
1. He made foreign a airs a priority, took ini a ves for be er rela ons with china and pushed Soviet withdrawal
from Afghanistan. Gorbachev also encouraged foreign investment in soviet enterprises.
2. Freedom was given to media to cri cise the Government.
3. For the rst me, par es other than the communist party could par cipate in elec ons. Also, poli cal changes
were ini ated that led to a move towards democracy within the Communist party.
4. In economic a airs, government grip was loosened. Small scale private entrepreneurs were allowed.
Computerisa on was started which reduced the manual labour.
5. Workers were given the right to strike for be er wages and condi ons.

Why communism survived in China

1. While China had a historical uprising of the masses, namely the peasants, the Soviet Union did not have a revolu on
supported by the majority of the people.
2. Communism was deep rooted in China. This was because, puppet governments supported by the Communist Party
existed in villages during Japanese rule. They taught peasants the meaning of government, and sparked in them the
feeling of belonging and of having a stake in government. While no such deep rooted communism existed in Russia.
3. Chinese created a na onal iden ty everyone could relate to. In the Soviet Union on the other hand, there were far
too many ethnic minori es in the state. Rather than recognising that there were many ethnici es, like China did, the
soviet union rejected the ethnici es which lead to its dislike among certain people.
4. Once Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary his poli cal reforms Perestroika and Glasnost, both proved to
be major failures within the Soviet Union. China on the other hand ourished with the reforms of Deng Xiaoping. Deng
put economic reform before poli cal reform. But Gorbachev, by pursuing poli cal reform before economic reform,
inadvertently dissolved the Soviet empire.
5. China put less of an in uence on controlling the en re country, and more of an in uence on the economy. China
central Government devolved many powers to provinces, this ensured people remained happy with the
government. While, USSR was highly centralised state. It gave li le powers to various provinces. This gave rise to
resentment among various provinces.
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6. The demise of Communism in the Soviet Union was their failure to adapt to mes.

What is mandates system of League of na ons

1. Germany and Turkey were defeated in World War I. They lost all their Asian and African possessions. Wilson wanted
to give them independence but other countries want to annex them. But nally a compromise resulted known as
Mandates system. According to which, these possessions would be governed by league of na on. In other words it
was a device by which victors seized the colonies without actually admi ng that they are doing.
2. The mandates were divided into three groups on the basis of their loca on and their level of poli cal and economic
development. They were then assigned to individual allied victors (mandatory powers, or mandatories).
3. Class A mandates consisted of the former Turkish provinces of Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and Pales ne. These territories
were considered su ciently advanced that their provisional independence was recognised, though they were s ll
subject to allied administra ve control un l they were fully able to stand alone. Iraq and Pales ne were assigned to
Great Britain, while Turkish-ruled Syria and Lebanon went to France. All class A mandates had reached full
independence by 1949.
4. Class B mandates consisted of the former German ruled African colonies of Tanganyika, parts of Togo land and the
Cameroons, and Rwanda- Burundi. The Allied powers were directly responsible for the administra on of these
mandates but were subject to certain controls intended to protect the rights of the mandates’ na ve peoples.
5. Class C mandates consisted of various former German held territories that mandatories subsequently administered
as integral parts of their territory. South West Africa (now Namibia, assigned to South Africa), New Guinea (assigned to
Australia), Western Samoa (now Samoa, assigned to New Zealand), the islands north of the Equator in the western
Paci c (Japan), and Nauru (Australia, with Britain and New Zealand).

Why did ASEAN succeed where SAARC did not

1. Indonesia is the ASEAN’s largest state but it has li le in uence toward its small states. But in SAARC the power
di erences between India
and the others is very wide. India’s dominance hampered success of SAARC. This problem is o en widened by lack of
common poli cal culture.
2. Asean members had serious interstate disputes which they decided to forget. On the other hand, Saarc members
insisted that disputes be resolved rst, before economic coopera on could start. This hurt economic coopera on.
3. Pakistan and India issue always clouds the SAARC nego a ons, while no such disputes exist in case of ASEAN. In
SAARC’s case there are no formal or informal methods to prevent violent con icts like ASEAN.
4. India is feeling uncomfortable with the presence of US in SAARC nego a ons. On the other hand ASEAN engages
external powers formally through its dialogue mechanism. This created an environment for ASEAN to resolve their
disputes through interna onal arbitra on and media on. But in South Asia this is the not preferred as there is a huge
mistrust among the countries.

Socialism
1. The 19th century Europe saw development of industrialised regions, ci es and railways expanded and the industrial
revolu on occurred. Industrialisa on brought men, women and children to factories. Work hours were o en long and
wages were poor. Unemployment was a common problem. Unequal distribu on of wealth created two economic
classes and fric on between them gave birth to socialism.
2. Early Socialists cri cised the excesses of poverty and inequality of the industrial revolu on, and advocated reforms
such as the egalitarian distribu on of wealth in peaceful manner. Outlining principles for the reorganisa on of society
along collec vist lines, Saint-Simon and Owen sought to build socialism on the founda ons of planned, utopian
communi es.
3. Later in 1948, Marx and Engels disregarded the socialism of early thinkers as utopia in communist manifesto. And
he proposed his new brand of socialism which he called scien c socialism as it is based on class struggle. This brand
of socialism o en called Marxism later became more popular.

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4. Marx and Workers in England and Germany began forming associa ons to ght for be er living and working
condi ons. Many radical par es were formed in various countries but eventually most of them later turned away from
pure Marxism towards parliamentary democracy.
Represented by strong gures in parliamentary poli cs, their ideas did shape legisla on, but governments con nued
to be run by conserva ves, liberals and radicals.
5. In 1864, First interna onal united diverse revolu onary currents including French followers of Proudhon, Blanquists,
Philadelphes, English trade unionists, socialists and social democrats. Paris commune in 1871, fuelled hopes among
many and it encouraged many socialists as a sign that the working classes were ready for radical measures, but the
violence propagated by it hindered the progress of socialism.
6. To coordinate their e orts, socialists formed an interna onal body, namely, the Second Interna onal. The signi cant
achievements of the Second interna onal were its campaign against militarism and war and in asser ng the principle
of the basic equality of all people and their right to freedom and na onal independence. They expressed the
convic on that capitalism was the root cause of wars among European na ons.
7. The socialist movement had made the interna onal solidarity of workers as a fundamental principle. The socialists
in many countries had resolved to call for a general strike to prevent their countries from par cipa ng in wars. But
when the large scale war nally broke out, the workers allied their respec ve governments.
8. The idea of worker’s unity was not as powerful as na onalism. And socialism also was not a monolithic force as it
had taken di erent form in di erent countries. So there was no unity among workers of di erent countries. So in the
end the second interna onal failed in overcoming inter country rivalry.

9. Why socialism failed

1. The means to achieve the socialist goals were di erent. Some supported the revolu on for overthrowing capitalism,
others supported gradual reforms.
2. Some par es supported their imperial governments, while some were against this stand. While Socialism was
fundamentally against colonialism, some sec ons supported colonialism for development purpose.
3. Similarly, Socialism was against war, but when the WW-I broke out, almost all socialist par es supported their
na onal governments in war e orts, considering the na onal interest. This was the biggest fatal blow to the Socialist
ideology.
4. Failure of socialism, due to internal di erence, to prevent fascism from acquiring power, especially in Germany.
5. In the post WW-II, the rise of dictatorships in many socialist countries coupled with violence and totalitarianism did
much harm to socialist ideology.
6. Socialism proved to be less adap ve than Capitalism, since Capitalism successfully adopted welfare measures,
which were the main planks of socialism. This proved to be the nal nail in co n of socialism as an alterna ve to
capitalism.

Fascist regimes in Germany and Italy

1. Comparison
1. Both were intensely an -communist and because of this drew support from capitalist class.
2. Both believed in and prac ced Totalitarian regime where state controlled all aspect of life of people, so that
personal freedom is limited. Both emphasised on supremacy of state, no voice of dissent was tolerable.
3. Economically both believed in economic self su ciency of country.
4. The Leader is considered to be infallible as his every command had to be followed.
5. Both pursued aggressive foreign policy in order to distract a en on from domes c problems. Both believed in
inevitability of war to make a na on great and powerful.
2. Di erences

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 1. Racism was the most prominent di erence between Nazism and Fascism. Towards the Jews, Nazis followed the
policy of cleansing, which resulted in death of millions of Jews. Nazi believed in the supremacy of Aryan race.
Italian’s racial policy was not as ruthlessly as Nazis did.
2. Nazism spread much more deeply and widely in Germany than Fascism in Italy. Nazis were more brutal in their
oppression and violated the human rights to a much greater extent.
3. The Nazi system was more e cient and successful with respect to the goal of economic self su ciency and Hitler
was able to eliminate unemployment. In contrast, unemployment increased in Fascist Italy and thus failed to
achieve economic self-su ciency.
4. Organisa on of Nazis was strong. Hitler kept the party strong but Mussolini kept party organisa on weak to
maintain his in uence.
5. Mussolini was more successful in his policy towards church. He was able to reach an agreement with the pope in
1929.
6. Cons tu onal posi ons of Hitler and Mussolini were di erent. In Italy, the monarchy had con nued to exist and
the king played an important role in the end of Mussolini’s rule by ordering his dismissal in 1943. In contrast, there
was no authority above Hitler in Germany to dismiss him.
Bri sh vs French decolonisa on
1. Bri sh approach
1. Bri sh had a declared policy of educa ng the colonised people in
self government. When popular struggles in colonies rose to prominence, Bri sh gradually started a process of
cons tu onal reform, giving ruled people a sense of self-government although keeping the rein of power in their own
hand.
2. In India this process of reform had been going on since 1861 and nally culminated in Govt. of India Act, 1935 and
Independence of India Act, 1947. By the end of the decade of 1950s, all non-African colonies gained independence
without much bloodshed.
3. In some colonies there were a large minority of white people, which didn’t want to let go its special status. So in
these countries the process of decolonisa on took much more me like in Tanzania and Kenya.
4. Bri sh experience prepared London remarkably well for the liquida on of empire a er 1945. By a series of
measures, Britain created the Dominion system and ins tu onalised a procedure for gradually loosening control over
her possessions.
2. French approach
1. French had a policy of con nuous cultural assimila on of colonies by educa ng them in French culture. For which
they were even ready to adopt violent methods. They considered their colonies as the extension of French territory
and never wanted to give them up.
2. Unlike Britain, which took lead in the process of decolonisa on, France, in Brazzaville Declara on of 1944 made its
inten ons of not allowing liquida on of their colonial empire clear.
3. They resisted every a empt in direc on of colonial independence which is clear from examples such as Indo-China.
They were steadfast in their refusal to consider even eventual separa on at some future date a viable poli cal op on.
4. A variety of reasons may be adduced to explain the French failure to develop before 1945 any mechanism which
might have served as a bridge for the transfer of power to their colonial subjects a er the War. The most popular
explana on has been to assert that the French blindly trusted to their policy of assimila on whereby the colonies
would eventually be one with France.

Shock therapy
1. A er USSR broke out, a number of independent states emerged. The model of economic transi on in these
countries from a socialist authoritarian system to a democra c capitalist system under the in uence of World Bank
and IMF came to be known as Shock Therapy. It varied in speed and intensity but had similar features and direc on.
2. Few elements of shock therapy
1. Each country was required to shi totally to capitalist system with complete priva sa on of state assets and
collec ve farms.
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2. Countries were required to open their economies. They were to follow a free trade regime and allow Foreign Direct
Investment.
3. It also involved deregula ng the economy and a free oa ng currency.
4. Exis ng trade alliances of these countries with each other were disallowed. Each state was now to trade only with
west. Thus their economies were to be integrated with west.
3. Consequences
1. Economies further nosedived. The old system of social welfare was destroyed and subsidies withdrawn throwing
many into poverty and joblessness. It also resulted in emigra on on large scale.
2. The industries of these countries collapsed. Government held that Public sectors were greatly undervalued and sold
to general public. Since, public did not have money to buy, they eventually went into the hands of ma a. It led to the
rise of oligarchy.
3. The in a on was so high in Russia that people lost all their savings and about 1500 banks and nancial ins tutes
became bankrupt.
4. The collec ve farm system disintegrated, genera ng a food crisis.
5. The construc on of democra c ins tu ons was not given a en on as was given on restructuring economies. It
resulted in coming of autocra c regimes in many of these countries.
Conclusion: Thus, hardly any posi ve bene ts could be derived by these countries from the Shock Therapy. It resulted
in con nuous decline of their economies. These economies nally began to revive in 2000s when they adopted an
independent economic path without the interference of the western countries.

Great leap forward

1. The Great Leap Forward campaign of China in 1960s was a push by Mao Zedong to change China from a
predominantly agrarian society to an industrial society. It involved developments in both industry and agriculture, in
order to increase output and to adopt industry to Chinese condi ons.
2. Its important features
1. Communes: Units larger than collec ve farms were introduced containing up to 75000 people, divided into brigades
and work teams with an elected council. They ran their own collec ve farms and factories, carried out most of the
func ons of local government within the commune and undertook special local projects. All the works in the
communes from childcare to cooking, daily tasks were collec vised.
2. Small scale industries: Instead of aiming for large scale works of the type seen in the USSR and the West, much
smaller factories were set up in the countryside to provide machinery for agriculture. The most famous were 600,000
backyard furnaces which produced steel for the communes.
3. Successes of the campaign
1. Both agricultural and industrial produc on increased substan ally, and China was at least managing to feed its
massive popula on.
2. The communes proved to be a successful innova on. They were an e cient unit of local government and they
enabled the central government in Beijing to keep in touch with local opinion.
3. Given the country’s enormous popula on, this was the best way of making sure that everybody had a job, and it
enabled China to avoid the growing unemployment problems.
4. Other bene ts were the spread of educa on and welfare services, and an improvement in the posi on of women in
society.
4. Failures of the campaign
1. A series of bad harvests and the withdrawal of Russian aid following the breach between the two. All this, coupled
with the lack of experience among the cadres, caused hardship. Some 20 million people may have died prematurely as
a result of hardships caused by the Great Leap.
2. The Great Leap Forward caused massive environmental damage in China. The backyard steel produc on plan
resulted in en re forests being burned to fuel the smelters, which le the land open to erosion. Dense cropping and
deep ploughing stripped the farmland of nutrients and le the agricultural soil vulnerable to erosion, as well.

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3. The Great leap forward and Commune policy introduced by Mao were not great successes and China was s ll
economically stagnated. Thus, Deng Xiaoping introduced market reforms which marks a shi from communism, to a
free-enterprise system.

6. Reforms by Deng Xaioping

1. Many changes introduced during the cultural revolu on were reversed. The revolu onary commi ees setup to run
local governments were abolished and replaced by more democra cally elected groups. There was more religious
freedom and greater freedom for intellectuals.
2. Adopted market socialism as an economic system in which prices of goods would be determined by free price
system. The nature of economy changed from self-reliant to export oriented.
3. The land, although s ll o cially owned by the state, was divided up and allocated to individual peasants, who were
allowed to keep most of the pro ts. This was successful in raising agricultural produc on.
4. Huge investments were made by local provinces into the most pro table businesses locally, encouraging light
manufacturing which required less capital, brought revenues and high foreign exchange earnings and revenues on
export.
5. Rela on with technologically advance countries in the West and Japan were improved and trade with them
enhanced by purchasing machinery and advanced technologies.
6. A series of special economic zones were set up to a ract foreign companies and capitals by providing cheap land
and labour, quick and easy clearances by cu ng down red tapism.

India’s role in Apartheid struggle

1. India having gone through the long independence struggle herself, stood in solidarity with the African people in
their long and challenging struggle against apartheid.
2. Pre independence
1. Gandhiji helped a ract interna onal a en on to the issue of racism in South Africa long before UN began
considering the ma er. Also Gandhi’s ideas of non-violence, truth and civil disobedience were some common forms of
struggle against the apartheid regime. These forms inspired Mandela and other leaders of the movement.
2. Gandhiji went in a deputa on of Indians to Britain in 1909 to oppose the gran ng of self government to South
Africa under white rule.
3. Post independence
1. Nehru declared that ending colonialism in Africa is a priority.
2. India repeatedly raised the issue in UN and built up sen ment against racial discrimina on in South Africa.
Successive PMs like Indira Gandhi and Rajiv Gandhi lobbied for UN sanc ons against SA to force it to stop
apartheid.
3. India, in spite of being poor even went to the extent of giving up 5% of export trade in 1946 to demonstrate its
repugnance of racism in South Africa.
4. India gave her full support to the African States and the Organisa on of African Unity (OAU) in their ght for
independence and human rights.
5. Various leaders of South African congress were in direct touch with Indian leaders and thus got the moral
support from them.
4. South Africa’s reciprocity to India’s contribu on can also be gauged from the fact that the South African cricket
team’s rst interna onal tour a er the end of isola on in 1991 was to India. This common brotherhood among our
people can be seen even today in our growing bilateral rela ons.
5. Other countries role
1. World was horri ed by Sharpeville massacre. So, opposi on grew a er this incident.
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2. UN also placed an economic boyco on South Africa in 1962. But this proved ine ec ve as many countries did not
support it.
3. There was opposi on to apartheid from rest of the commonwealth. In 1986, commonwealth agreed on a strong
package of sanc ons against white ruled South Africa.
4. USA started trea ng its black people equally and started cri cising the South Africa. Then USA joined the fray by
stopping American loans to South Africa, to cut airlines, ban imports of iron, coal, steel, etc from South Africa.
5. Dutch, which once supported the apartheid, condemned it.
6. Other factors
1. South Africa was hit by recession in the late 1970s, and many white people were worse o . Whites began to
emigrate in large numbers and there was shortage of labour.
2. White ruled Portugal colonies of Angola and Mozambique achieved independence a er long struggle. Now, South
Africa was surrounded by hos le black states.

Colonisa on and colonial struggle kni ed Vietnam

1. Vietnam was colonised by the French. The process of colonisa on and subsequent struggle against the colonisa on
brought together the Vietnam na on.
2. Role of educa on: The French sought to strengthen their rule in Vietnam through the control of educa on by
changing local values and percep ons to impose superiority of French civilisa on. The ba le against French colonial
educa on became part of the larger ba le against colonialism and for independence.
3. Role of Religion: Vietnam’s religious beliefs were a mixture of Buddhism, Confucianism and local prac ces. Chris an
missionaries tasked by the French to reform religious ins tu ons were thus resisted by many religious movements.
Thus again it got Vietnam together.
4. Other factors
1. Colonial economic development accelerated faster communica ons which helped na onalist movements to bind
together disparate tribes and communi es.
2. During the bubonic plague, sewer workers tasked with ensuring hygiene learned collec ve bargaining and the
power of unity. Forma on of groups resis ng French domina on began.
3. French revolu onary ideal of liberty was taught by French but it was not abided by which angered na onalists.
4. In the rst decade of the twen eth century a Go-east movement became popular. Vietnamese students went to
Japan to acquire modern educa on to drive out the French from Vietnam. These na onalists looked for foreign
arms and help. They appealed to the Japanese as fellow Asians.
5. Se ng up a republic by a popular movement in China in 1911 also inspired Vietnamese na onalists.
World war was rst industrial war
1. Features of the War
1. It involved the world’s leading industrial na ons such as Britain, USA, France, Russia, Germany etc., which harnessed
the vast powers of modern industry to in ict the greatest possible destruc on on their enemies.
2. It saw the use of machine guns, tanks, aircra , chemical weapons, etc. on a massive scale.
3. Millions of soldiers had to be recruited from around the world and moved to on large ships and trains.
4. Industries were restructured to produce war related goods. En re socie es were also reorganised for war. Men
went to ba le and women stepped in to undertake jobs that earlier only men were expected to do.
5. The scale of death and destruc on a ec ng 20 million people was unthinkable before the industrial age.
Conclusion: Since these features were not found in any of the wars fought earlier, the First World War can truly be
called the rst modern industrial war.
Formal to informal colonial control
1. Formal colonial control implies direct poli cal control, subjuga on and conquest. Under it, local ins tu ons and
poli cal structures were dismantled and replaced with new ones imposed by colonial powers.
2. Informal colonial control implies indirect poli cal and economic use and control of resources of former colonies
through capitalism, globalisa on and cultural forces by the erstwhile powers. It can be said that today the new
ins tu ons imposed due to dependency of poor na ons mirror colonialism.
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3. Transi on
1. Development assistance granted by the West to the former colonies are loaded with condi onality which was
not be very favourable to the colonies.
2. Large corpora ons of other powerful countries, for example the US, also o en managed to secure rights to
exploit natural resources of developing countries at cheap prices.
3. Most former colonies have not bene ed from the fast growth the Western economies experienced in the 1950s
and 1960s using the colonies cheap raw material.
4. Thus G-77 was formed to demand a new interna onal economic order (NIEO). By the NIEO, they meant a system
that would give them real control over their natural resources, more development assistance, fairer prices for raw
materials, and be er access for their manufactured goods in developed countries markets.

American expansion in Asia

1. The nature of American expansion in Asia was mainly commercial and strategic.
2. Reasons why US needed naval ports in the Paci c
1. Asian countries and islands in the Paci c like Philippines can be used as naval bases and refuelling sta ons for
ships traveling across the Paci c.
2. Moreover, huge market, source of some of the world’s most sought commodi es like tea, porcelain, silk etc and a
network of ports to maintain the trade led to USA inroads in China.
3. USA nego ated Treaty of Wangxia in 1844 with China soon a er Britain and China fought a war. Mari me
expansion led to the proclama on of an Open door policy for China in 1899-1900, and set the stage for much
greater local involvement in local and regional poli cs and trade during the early 20th century.
4. Americans felt superior to people in other parts of the world because they believed the Chris an religion made
them morally superior. They sent missionaries to other countries to bring them into the Chris an religion.
5. A er the Spanish-American Civil war, the military was used to protect se lers and to push Na ve Americans onto
reserva ons.

US civil war
1. The Civil War was fought between the USA and eleven southern states that le the Union in 1860 and 1861 and
formed their own country in order to protect the ins tu on of slavery.
2. Role of Lincoln
1. He was elected to o ce in 1861.
2. War started with slavery as the issue but Lincoln transformed it into unity of federa on. So, he involved and
evoked the emo ons of Americans.
3. Lincoln took help of volunteers and promoted the message of story of America.
4. He was successful in ge ng the 13th cons tu onal amendment passed by persuading the Congress and he
gained huge popularity among African-Americans.
5. He took direct par cipa on in capture of Orleans, Gi ensburg. He eliminated hurdles for capitalism and made
America huge power.
3. Reasons why An -slavery war emerged
1. South slave popula on as a market for industrialist of north.
2. Independence declara on by Thomas Je erson, humanism and welfare are basic tenets.
3. France abolished slavery in Hai in 1789, Britain abolished slavery in 1773. So, it was shameful for USA to s ll
con nue slavery even a er it being abolished.
4. It was not good for USA economically to leave out almost 50% of people from economic par cipa on.
4. Important events
1. Purchase of Louisiana: It extended America from Appalachian mountains to Rockies. Created a ques on on whether
new states will have slavery or not.
2. Missouri Agreement of 1820: America was not in a posi on to face civil war, so Missouri was declared a slave state.
3. Back door policy of capitalist states: Capitalist lobby adopted back door policy for an -slave movements.
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4. Writers: Garrison published liberator. It was for an slavery movement and against slavery. Uncle Tom’s Cabin by Mr.
Stowers was also published during same me. It was an emo onal a ack describing inhuman and pathe c condi on
of slave states.

Iranian revolu on
1. The Islamic revolu onaries of 1979 did what all revolu onaries do was to overthrow an oppressive government,
seize power from the opponents, and then impose a new intrusive authoritarian regime. But just as each revolu on, it
displayed its own singulari es.
2. Similari es with other revolu ons
1. Iranian revolu ons had number of similari es with French revolu on such as coming together of a coali on of
opposi on forces to overthrow an entrenched regime viewed as illegi mate, oppressive or compliant to foreign
interests its scale and its impact, it was clearly dis nct in
its execu on.
2. Similarly, like Russian revolu on (Pu n) the cult of the leader was important in Iranian revolu on too as in the
uni ng gure of Ayatollah Khomeini.
3. The weakness of state’s leadership such as the illness of Shah and uncertainty of his generals also played a key
role thus echoing the weakness of examples such as Louis XVI in France and Tsar Nicholas II in Russia.
4. Similarly, the poli cal changes were accompanied by grave socio- economic changes in all the cases including
Iran, thus di eren a ng it from a mere rebellion.
5. Like the French and Russian revolu on the Iranian revolu on witnessed violence in the immediate a ermath
resul ng in the purge of divergent forces and rise of a uni ed state based on an ideology.

3. Singulari es
1. The party which led the revolt was a network of religious func onaries and divergent forces that were at the
forefront of the unrest. In its goal, ul mately the Iranian revolu on gave prominent place to religion and galvanised
into establishing a state inspired by the ideals of Islam.
2. In terms of execu on it was perhaps the only revolu on that did not rely on military force or guerrilla warfare, but
on poli cs. Despite its religious and tradi onal guise, it was a modern revolu on based on mass mobilisa on and
general strikes, which paralysed the economy.
Monroe Doctrine
1. The Monroe Doctrine was proposed by the US president James Monroe in 1823 as an instrument of foreign
policy which sought to put a check to the colonisa on process of Europe in America. Doctrine laid down that any
further interference or a empts to colonise the American con nents would result in an act of aggression by
America. The objec ve therefore was clearly to contain the expansion of Europe and at the same me increase
their sphere of in uence in the American region.
2. The Monroe Doctrine was strongly invoked as a crucial foreign policy element by later successors like Theodore
Roosevelt. President Roosevelt even added a new corollary, which proclaimed that only the USA had the right to
interfere in the a airs of its neighbouring countries if they were unable to maintain order of their own.
3. The expansionist policies of USA and its emergence as an
imperialist power can be seen in the instance of the US control of the Dominican Republic, the sta oning of
American troops in Cuba in 1906 to protect it from disorder. Likewise, the USA sent in troops to Nicaragua in
support of a revolt which had been inspired by American mining company and also to secure the interests of the
Americans.
4. One of the most major interven ons was in Columbia which refused to grant perpetual rights to USA over the
Panama Canal. The U.S in 1903 supported a revolt in Panama nancially and militarily resul ng in recognising a
government of their choice and full rights of the Panama Canal.

Why policy of appeasement

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 1. The other powers wanted to avoid war because they could not win such a war as they were not economically
and militarily strong. The people in Britain were against war, as they saw the damage of world war I. The
businessmen were also against a war as it would hurt their economic interests.
2. Chamberlain increased rearmament alongside the Policy of Appeasement. Some argue that chamberlain was
buying me for rearmament.
3. Many groups felt that Germany and Italy had genuine grievances. Especially in Britain, many leaders favoured a
sympathe c a tude and called for revision of the harshest clauses of the Treaty of Versailles.
4. LoN had proved to be ine ec ve and thus Chamberlain believed that a personal contact among the leaders of
di erent countries was important to make them respect interna onal law through nego a ons. He favoured the
path of diplomacy rather than of war to resolve con icts with Germany.
5. Germany was an export market to Britain and thus the Bri sh felt that the economic coopera on would be good
for both the countries.
6. Fear of Communist Russia was greater than the fear of the Nazis. Many viewed the Nazi Germany as a bu er
against the Communist expansion westward. Thus they favoured or allowed for the German rearmament.
Japanese aggression
1. There were three important acts of Japanese Aggression in this period. It invaded Manchuria in 1931, a acked the
North Eastern part of China in 1933 and ordered full invasion of China in 1937 which led to Second Sino-Japan war
(1937-45) that merged into the World War II that lasted ll 1945.
2. Invasion of Manchuria (1931): Japan was under economic stress due to the Great Depression. Its exports had
declined drama cally and there was decline in price of rice due to bumper harvest. Also Chiang Kai Shek’s in uence
was increasing in Manchuria. This threatened the Japanese interests in Manchuria. Japan had invested a lot of money
in the industry and infrastructure development projects in Manchuria since the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5. Thus
the military a acked Manchuria ignoring the reserva ons of the Japanese government.
3. Invasion of the North-east China (1933): Japanese advanced into the North Eastern regions of China in 1933. This
act had no jus ca on and was purely an act of aggression. Japan was able to occupy a large area by 1935 by taking
bene t of the civil war between KMT and communist party.
4. Full scale invasion of China (1937): A er signing the An - Comintern pact with Germany in 1936, Japan planned the
full invasion of China. Japan took a minor incident between Chinese and Japanese troops as an alibi to begin the
invasion.

League of na ons (LoN)

1. League of Na ons was designed to enforce the Treaty of Versailles and the other peace agreements that concluded
World War I. It was also intended to facilitate open diplomacy and peaceful media on to se le war disputes.
2. Success
1. ILO: The Interna onal labour organisa on was the most successful. The goals of ILO include xing maximum
working days and minimum wages, ensuring that member na ons provided for unemployment bene ts and old age
pensions.
2. Refugee organisa on: It helped the Prisoners of War in Russia to their homes outside Russia. In 1933, it helped the
Jews, who were eeing to escape Nazi persecu on, to rese le in di erent countries where they would be safe.
3. Health organisa on: It did good work in nding causes of di erent epidemics. It was especially successful in
comba ng Typhus epidemic in Russia which had the poten al to spread to the rest of Europe.
4. Mandates commission: It had the responsibility of monitoring the governance of territories given to member
na ons as Mandates.
5. Interna onal disputes: Here the League had par al success. It forced Greece to pay compensa on to Bulgaria,
when the former invaded the la er. But none of these disputes threatened the world peace.
3. Failures
1. League of Na ons came to be viewed as an organisa on of the allied powers especially of France and Britain,
setup for implementa on of unjust peace trea es, which failed to sa sfy all na ons.

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 2. The Conference of ambassadors was setup as a temporary body to resolve disputes regarding. But, it con nued
to exist even a er the forma on of the League. This hurt the legi macy and the authority of the League of Na ons.
3. The League of Na ons failed to check any viola ons of the fron ers established a er the WWI through the peace
trea es. It also failed to take rm stand on aggression displayed by Italy, Germany and Japan. For example, it
imposed only par al trade restric on on Italy a er its Abyssinia invasion.
4. The League of Na ons was not a truly representa ve organiza on. It had limited membership and USA did not
join it. This resulted in lack of funds for the League’s work.
5. It was also made to defend an imperfect treaty which su ered from biases and was prone to be broken. The
Peace trea es signed were against principle of self determina on. For instance, millions of Germans resided
outside Germany in Czechoslovakia and Poland a er the peace trea es. Similarly, many Turks were now residents
of Greece.
6. It was only Germany, which was made to disarm under the Treaty of Versailles. The League failed to convince
other major powers to disarm. Hitler used this as an excuse to quit the World Disarmament Conference. Soon, he
denounced the League of Na ons and make Germany quit it as well.
Conclusion: All the imperfec ons of the league were responsible for occurrence of 2nd major world war.

UN
1. The United Na ons is an intergovernmental organisa on formed a er WW-II to promote interna onal coopera on
and to maintain interna onal order.
2. Successes
1. UN has prevented the occurrence of any further world wars. It has also been successful in bringing some wars to an
end quickly. Ex: Iran-Iraq war, Gulf war, etc.
2. UN has been credited with nego a ng 172 peaceful se lements that have ended regional con icts. It has
successfully controlled the situa on in Serbia, Yugoslavia and Balkan areas. A number of peace missions in Africa has
done reasonably well to control the situa on.
3. UN brought all the countries together and provided for a world assembly, where delegates of 188 countries can talk
to each other. Even small countries has a chance to make itself heard.
4. It played a signi cant role in disarming the world and making it nuclear free. Various treaty nego a ons like Par al
Test Ban Treaty and Nuclear non-prolifera on treaty (NPT) have been signed under UN.
5. Demise of colonialism and imperialism on one hand and apartheid on the other had UN sanc ons behind them.
6. UN acted as vanguard for the protec on of human rights of the people of the world, universal declara on of human
rights, 1948.
7. Despite crippled by Breton Woods Ins tu ons, UN has played limited but e ec ve role on economic ma ers.
Supported the North-South dialogue and aspired for emergence of new interna onal economic order.
8. Agencies of United Na ons like WHO, UNICEF, UNESCO have keenly par cipated in the transforma on of the
interna onal social sector. Ex: elimina ng polio, small pox, ebola etc.
9. The world body was also instrumental in ins tu onalisa on of interna onal laws and world legal frame work.
Passage of various conven ons and declara ons on child, women, climate, etc, highlights the extra poli cal a airs of
the otherwise poli cal world body.

3. Failures
1. UN opinion on Hungary and Czechoslovakia were ignored by the erstwhile USSR in 1950s.
2. Israel had been taking unilateral ac on through decades in its geographical vicinity and nothing substan al has
come out ll today.
3. No empha c role in crisis of worst kinds like the Cuban missile crisis, Vietnam crisis etc.
4. The UN totally exposed in the case of US invasion on Iraq in name for the search weapon of mass destruc on.
5. Number of nuclear powers in the world has kept on increasing. UN could not control the horizontal expansion and
prolifera on of weapons and arms.

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4. Shortcomings
1. It lacks permanent army. This means that it is di cult to prevail upon powerful states to accept its decisions if they
choose to put self interest rst. USSR was able to ignore UN demands for the withdrawal of Russian troops from
Hungary and Bosnia.
2. The world body has failed to re ect the democra c aspira on of the world. Without being democra c itself, it talks
of democra za on of the world.
3. There is problem about exactly when should UN become involved during course of dispute. Some mes, it hesitates
so long that it scarcely becomes involved at all, as happened with war in Vietnam, etc. This le UN open to accusa ons
and lack of rmness.
4. UN has always been short of funds. The vast scope of its work means that it require huge resources. But it is
dependent on voluntary contribu ons from member states.
5. UN agencies seem to duplicate each other’s work. Work of WHO and FAO overlap too much.

UN and LoN
1. LoN was formed a er WW-I to provide for greater world coopera on and to se le interna onal disputes peacefully,
but it failed in stopping WW-II. UN was formed with same objec ve a er WW-II and it became much more successful
than LoN.
2. Common weaknesses
1. Cri cism of being a tool of super powers. Being subservient to powerful individual na ons.
2. Lack of permanent army of their own and thus dependence on members for contribu on of troops.
3. Veto powers of a member in Security Council.
4. UN is dependent on US funding while LoN was dependent on Britain and France.
3. Di erences
1. UN is more representa ve body with nearly all na ons being its members. LoN was less representa ve due to
lack of membership to all na ons.
2. In UN, developing countries have much more voice. While in LoN there was no say to developing powers.
3. There is much greater pres ge of the UN Secretary General as
compared to its LoN counterpart. Ko Annan (1997-2006) became very famous for his con ict resolu on ability.
4. UN focusses on human rights viola ons and socio-economic development through its organs. League of Na ons
did not include protec on to rights of an individual.
5. UN is more focused on good governance. For example, it has formulated and works with the member-na ons for
achievement of developmental targets like Millennium Development Goals.
6. UN has been able to take decisive ac on due to change in procedures as UNGA does not need unanimous vote.
Also, UNSC veto can be overruled by UNGA as per the Uni ng for Peace Resolu on of 1950.
Conclusion:UN is more important in the era of global governance and as the world has become more integrated due to
LPG and issues of global concern like environment and safety of other Global Commons.

Treaty of versailles was dictated peace

1. The Treaty of Versailles was a dictated peace as the Germans were not allowed to be part of the nego a ons. They
could only put forward their opinion and cri cism through wri ngs. All their cri cisms were ignored.
2. The clause of disarmament of Germany made it virtually impotent even for protec ng its law and order.
3. It is pre y much evident that all the imperial powers were responsible for the World War I. But the war guilt clause
was solely imposed on Germany and its allies.
4. German’s African colonies were taken away and converted into Mandates under the League of Na ons.
5. The huge war repara ons resulted in humilia on to the Germans. The amount of 6600 million pounds was too high
and was aimed at keeping Germany weak economically in the foreseeable future.
6. Austria and Hungary were reduced to very small size in terms of territory and popula on. Most of the industrial
wealth of Austria went to Czechoslovakia and Poland. They were soon engulfed by economic crisis and they had to
seek loans from League of Na ons.
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India’s support to Pales ne
1. India’s solidarity with the Pales nian people and its a tude to the Pales nian ques on was given voice through our
freedom struggle by Mahatma Gandhi. India’s empathy with the Pales nian cause and its friendship with the people
of Pales ne have become an integral part of its me tested foreign policy.
2. In 1947, India voted against the par on of Pales ne at the United Na ons General Assembly. India was the rst
Non-Arab State to recognise PLO (Pales ne Libera on Organisa on) as sole and legi mate representa ve of the
Pales nian people in 1974.
3. India was one of the rst countries to recognise the State of Pales ne in 1988. In 1996, India opened its
Representa ve O ce to the Pales ne Authority in Gaza, which later was shi ed to Ramallah in 2003.
4. Apart from the strong poli cal support to the Pales nian cause at interna onal and bilateral levels, India has been
contribu ng material and technical assistance to the Pales nian people. With the Government of India’s aid, two
projects were completed in the eld of higher educa on.
5. Under IBSA Forum’s assistance, an Indoor Mul purpose sports complex has been constructed in Ramallah. Al Quds
hospital in Gaza is in the process of reconstruc on and the process of building a rehabilita on centre in Nablus has
started.

Japanese a ack on pearl harbour

1. Reasons
1. Japan was running short of raw materials and they cast eyes on Bri sh’s Malaya and Burma which had oil and
rubber. So, Japan intended to destroy American eet in Paci c so as prevent them from stopping Japanese invasion.
2. It was hoped to buy me for Japan to consolidate its posi on and increase its naval strength before shipbuilding
authorised by the 1940 Vinson- Walsh Act erased any chance of victory.
3. It was meant to deliver a severe blow to American morale, one which would discourage Americans from entering
to a war extending into the western Paci c Ocean and Dutch East Indies.
4. Also, rela ons between America and Japan deteriorated slowly. President Roosevelt placed an embargo on oil
supplies to Japan when Japan a acked Indo-China. America also supported China during China-Japan war.

Spanish civil war

1. The Spanish Civil War started in 1936 as a domes c dispute but soon took an interna onal character. It mirrored the
poli cal disputes occurring in Europe at the me between Fascism and democracy on one hand and the opposi on to
Communism.
2. The con ict was between na onalists and republicans. The Na onalists argued that they represented the cause of
Chris anity against Communism. The Republicans argued that they were the legally elected government of Spain
which was under a ack by the fascist dictatorships.
3. At the end of the war Spanish na onalists led by General Franco successfully took control of Spain. Germany and
Italy sent aid to Franco. Germans also used Spain as a tes ng ground for their new planes tanks. The Republican
government received aid from USSR.
4. It was a prelude to World War II
1. It was the rst me there was armed con ict between fascists and communists.
2. It was the rst me the weapons of the 20th century were used in a real combat situa on.
3. The con ict caused much tension in Europe between the di erent na ons funding various fac ons.
4. There was a lot of propaganda produced and the war was much discussed, with volunteer units going to ght on
both sides. This re ected the mul -racial armies used in the Second World War.

Why superpowers needed small countries

1. A er all, with their nuclear weapons and regular armies, they were so powerful that the combined power of most
of the smaller states in Asia and Africa, and even in Europe, was no match to that of the superpowers. Yet, the smaller
states were helpful.
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2. Reasons
1. Small states provided vital resources, such as oil and minerals.
2. Their territory, can be used by superpowers to launch weapons and troops.
3. Superpowers can occupy such loca ons from where they could spy on each other.
4. Small states provided economic support, in that many small allies together could help pay for military expenses.
5. They were also important for ideological reasons. The loyalty of allies suggested that the superpowers were
winning the war of ideas as well.

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