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Two forms of communication beyond speech

+The first includes facial expression, personal space, gestures, eye contact, paralanguage,
use of time, and conversational silence

+The second includes the cultural spaces that we occupy and negotiate

Comparing Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

1. Recognizing Nonverbal Behaviour

-Both verbal and nonverbal communication are: symbolic, communicate meaning, and are
patterned.

- Societies have different nonverbal languages

-However, some differences between nonverbal and verbal communication codes have
important implications for intercultural interaction.

Examples: (cái examples nào mình chọn đc template thì mình simplify nó sau ha)

+When Judith was new to Algeria, where she lived for a while. One day she stood at her
balcony and waved to one of the young Algerian teachers, who was walking across the
school yard. Several minutes later, the young teacher knocked on the door, looking
expectantly at Judith, as if summoned. Because Judith knew that it was uncommon in
Algeria for men to visit women they didn’t know well, she was confused. Why had he come
to her door? Was it because she was foreign? After a few awkward moments, he left.

↔ In Algeria (as in many other places), the U.S. “wave” is the nonverbal signal for
“come here”. The young teacher had assumed that Judith had summoned him to her
apartment. As this example illustrates, rules for nonverbal communication vary among
cultures and contexts.

+ Two U.S. students attending school in France were hitchhiking to the university in
Grenoble for the first day of classes. A French motorist picked them up and immediately
started speaking English to them. They wondered how he knew they spoke English. Later,
when they took a train, the conductor walked into their compartment and berated them in
English for putting their feet on the opposite seat. Again, they wondered how he had known
that they spoke English.

↔ Nonverbal communication entails more than gestures—even our appearance can

communicate loudly. The students’ appearance alone probably was a sufficient clue to their
national identity. Their clothing as a nonverbal expression was a dead giveaway that they
were from America.

Americans French

-much more casually -less is more

-wear more colours -all about the basics
-have words written on their T-shirts and -keep their looks classic
sweatshirts
-colour-blocking and patterns layered

- When misunderstandings arise, we are more likely to question our verbal communication
than our nonverbal communication. We can search for different ways to explain verbally
what we mean ↔ In contrast, it is more difficult to identify nonverbal miscommunications or
misperceptions.

2. Learning Nonverbal Behaviour

-We learn nonverbal meanings and behaviours by more implicit socialisation

Ex: When you talk with someone you like, lean forward, smile, and touch the person
frequently, because that will communicate that you really care about him or her

- Sometimes, we learn strategies for nonverbal communication

+ Have you ever been told to shake hands firmly when you meet someone? You may have
learned that a limp handshake indicates a weak person

+ Many young women learn to cross their legs at the ankles and to keep their legs together
when they sit.

→ These strategies combine socialisation and the teaching of nonverbal codes.

3. Coordinating Nonverbal and Verbal Behaviours

- Nonverbal behaviours can reinforce, substitute for, or contradict verbal behaviours

+ When we shake our heads and say “no,” we are reinforcing verbal behaviour.

+ When we point instead of saying “over there,” we are substituting nonverbal behaviour
for verbal communication.

+ If we tell a friend, “I can’t wait to see you,” and then don’t show up at the friend’s house,
our nonverbal behaviour contradicts the verbal message.

→ Nonverbal communication operates at a less conscious level. Therefore, we often think of

nonverbal behaviours as conveying the “real” messages.

What Nonverbal Behaviour Communicate

-Every communication conveys relational messages — information on how the talker wants
to be understood and viewed by the listener.

-These messages are communicated not by words, but through nonverbal behaviour (facial
expressions, eye gaze, posture, and even our tone of voice),

- Nonverbal behaviour also communicates status and power.

Example

+ A supervisor may be able to touch subordinates, but it is usually unacceptable for

subordinates to touch a supervisor.
+Expansive gestures are associated with high status; conversely, holding the body in a tight,
closed position communicates low status.

-Nonverbal behaviour communicates deception. Some nonverbal behaviours (e.g., avoiding

eye contact or touching or rubbing the face) indicated lying

-Most nonverbal communication about affect, status, and deception happens at an

unconscious level.

→ It plays an important role in intercultural interactions. Both pervasive and unconscious, it

communicates how we feel about each other and about our cultural groups.

The Universality Of Nonverbal Behaviour

-How do culture, ethnicity, and gender influence nonverbal communication patterns?

-How universal is most nonverbal communication?

→It is neither beneficial nor accurate to try to reduce individuals to one element of their
identity (gender, ethnicity, nationality, and so on).

-We often classify people according to various categories to help us find universalities.

Example: Although we may know that not all Germans are alike, we may seek information
about Germans in general to help us communicate better with individual Germans.

Recent Research Finding

Research investigating the universality of nonverbal communication has focused on four

areas:

(1) the relationship of human behaviour to that of primates (particularly chimpanzees)

(2) nonverbal communication of sensory-deprived children who are blind or deaf

(3) facial expressions

(4) universal functions of nonverbal social behaviour.

-Chimpanzees and humans share many nonverbal behaviours:

+Both exhibit the eyebrow flash—a slight raising of the eyebrow that communicates
recognition—one of the most primitive and universal animal behaviours

+the upturned palm (Chimps have been observed using it in the wild and in captivity, to ask
other chimps to share food, for help in a fight, or to request a grooming session)

-Primates and humans also share some facial expressions.

↔However, it still remains true that communication among nonhuman primates appears to
be less complex than among humans.
-Compared the facial expressions of children who were blind with those of sighted children
and found many similarities. Even though the children who were blind couldn’t see the facial
expressions of others to mimic them, they still made the same expressions. This suggests
some innate, genetic basis for these behaviours

-Many cross-cultural studies support the notion of some universality in nonverbal

communication, particularly in facial expressions. Several facial gestures seem to be
universal

+the eyebrow flash

+the nose wrinkle (indicating slight social distancing)

+the “disgust face” (a strong sign of social repulsion)

-Recent findings indicate that at least six basic emotions—including happiness, sadness,
disgust, fear, anger, and surprise (chỗ này mình chèn emoji hay gif j nha)—are
communicated by similar facial expressions in most societies. Expressions for these
emotions are recognized by most cultural groups as having the same meaning.
Oki zị khúc này mình chèn một cái ảnh chứa đủ 6 emoji lun he
-Recent research on the universality of nonverbal behaviour has also focused on how some
nonverbal behaviour fills universal human social needs for promoting social affiliation or
bonding.

Example: according to this research, laughter is not just a message about the positive
feeling of the sender but an attempt to influence others.

-Similarly, the social purpose of mimicry is to create an affective or social bond with others.

-These behaviours that contributed to positive relationships were favoured and eventually
became automatic and nonconscious.

-Although research may indicate universalities in nonverbal communication, some variations

exist.

-The evoking stimuli (i.e., what causes the nonverbal behaviour) may vary from one culture
to another.

+Smiling is universal, but what prompts a person to smile may be culture-specific.

-There are variations in the rules for nonverbal behaviour and the contexts in which
nonverbal communication takes place.

-Example, people kiss in most cultures, but there is variation in who kisses whom and in
what contexts.

+When French friends greet each other, they often kiss on both cheeks but never on the
mouth.
+Friends in the United States usually kiss on greeting only after a long absence, usually
accompanied by a hug. The rules for kissing also vary along gender lines.
→It is important to look for larger cultural patterns in the nonverbal behaviour

-He recommends studying nonverbal communication patterns that vary with other cultural
patterns, such as values. For example, linking cultural patterns in facial expressions with
cultural values of power distance and individualism versus collectivism.

+Cultural groups that emphasise status differences will tend to express emotions that
preserve these status differences.

+Within individualistic cultures, the degree of difference in emotional display between

ingroups and outgroups is greater than the degree of difference between the same
groups in collectivistic societies.

Nonverbal Codes

Facial Expressions

-There have been many investigations of the universality of facial expressions.

-Psychologists Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen (1987) conducted extensive and systematic
research in nonverbal communication.

-They showed pictures of the Americans’ facial expressions reflecting six emotions thought
to be universal to people in various cultural groups → People in these various cultures
consistently identified the same emotions reflected in the facial expressions in the
photographs.

-However, the studies have been criticised for a few reasons.

+The studies don’t tap into universality

+The researchers presented a limited number of responses (multiple-choice answers) when

they asked respondents to identify emotions expressed.

→Their conclusion supports the notion of universality of facial expressions: basic human
emotions are expressed in a fairly finite number of facial expressions, and these expressions
can be recognized and identified universally

Proxemics
-The study of how people use various types of space in their everyday lives: fixed feature
space, semi fixed space, and informal space.

+Fixed feature space is characterised by set boundaries (divisions within an office building)

+Semi fixed feature space is defined by fixed boundaries such as furniture.

+Informal space (personal space) is characterised by a personal zone or “bubble” that varies
for individuals and circumstances.

-The use of each of these spatial relationships can facilitate or impede effective
communication across cultures

-O. M. Watson (1970), a proxemics specialist, investigated nonverbal communication

between Arab and U.S. students.

+The Arab students viewed the U.S. students as distant and rude

+The U.S. students saw the Arab students as pushy, arrogant, and rude.

→The two groups were operating with different rules concerning personal space.

-Edward Hall’s (1966) observations

-Hall distinguished contact cultures from noncontact cultures: contact cultures as those
societies in which people stand closer together while talking, engage in more direct eye
contact, use face-to-face body orientations more often while talking, touch more frequently,
and speak in louder voices. (societies in South America and southern Europe are contact
cultures, whereas those in northern Europe, the United States, and the Far East are
noncontact cultures.)

-Many other factors besides regional culture determine how far we stand from someone
(Gender, age, ethnicity, context, and topic all influence the use of personal space)

-Some studies have shown that regional culture is perhaps the least important factor.

Example: In many Arab and Muslim societies, gender may be the overriding factor, because
unmarried men and women rarely stand close together, touch each other, or maintain direct
eye contact. In contrast, male friends may stand very close together, kiss on the cheek, and
even hold hands—reflecting loyalty, great friendship, and, most important, equality in status,
with no sexual connotation.

Gestures

-Perhaps even more so than personal space, vary greatly from culture to culture

-Researcher Dane Archer (1997) describes his attempt to catalogue the various gestures
around the world with several hypotheses

1. There would be great variation.

→He drew several conclusions from his study: gestures and their meaning can be very
subtle.

-The consequences for this variation can be quite dramatic

+Example

President G. W. Bush gave the “hook ’em horns” greeting to the University of Texas
Longhorn marching band during his inauguration. The photos of this greeting got lost in
translation in Norway, where the gesture is considered a salute to Satan.
In Germany, and many other European In America
cultures

the gesture for “stupid” is a finger on the the gesture for “smart” is nearly identical,
forehead but the finger is held an inch to the side, at
the temple
 meaning “sit on this” in Sardinia and “screw meaning “way to go” in America
you” in Iran

2. Archer emphasises that gestures are different from many other nonverbal expressions in
that they are accessible to conscious awareness

3. A number of societies (e.g., the Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland) have no such gesture.

-He concludes that “We all acquired a deeply enhanced sense of the power, nuances, and
unpredictability of cultural differences”. And the practical implication of the project was to
urge travellers to practice “gestural humility”

Eye Contact

-It is often included in proxemics.

-Direct eye contact shortens the distance between two people ↔ Less eye contact increases
the distance.

-Eye contact communicates meanings about respect and status and often regulates
turn-taking.

-Patterns of eye contact vary from culture to culture

-For many Americans, maintaining eye contact is paying attention and showing respect.

+Most Americans look away from their listeners most of the time, looking at their listeners
perhaps every 10 to 15 seconds. When a speaker is finished taking a turn, he or she looks
directly at the listener to signal completion.

-However, some cultural groups within the United States use even less eye contact while
they speak. For example, some Native Americans tend to avert eye gaze during
conversation.

Paralinguistics
-Refers to the study of paralanguage—vocal behaviours that indicate how something is said,
include speaking rate, volume, pitch, and stress, among others.

-There are two types of vocal behaviour—voice qualities and vocalisations

1. Voice qualities (tone of voice) include speed, pitch, rhythm, vocal range, and articulation;
these qualities make up the “music” of the human voice.

+For example, the voice of Erik

+Speakers also vary in how they articulate sounds. For example, Chinese speakers often
sound rather musical and nasal to English speakers; English speakers sound rather harsh
and guttural to French speakers.

2. Vocalisations are the sounds we utter that do not have the structure of language. It
includes vocal cues. Also includes sounds that aren’t actual words but that serve as fillers,

+The paralinguistic aspects of speech serve a variety of communicative functions. They

reveal mood and emotion

+Paralanguage can be a confusing factor in intercultural communication. For example,

Europeans interpret the loudness of Americans as aggressive behaviour, while Americans
might think the British are secretive because they talk quietly.

Chronemics

-Concerns concepts of time and the rules that govern its use.

-Edward Hall distinguished between monochronic and polychronic time orientation.

-Monochronic

+People who have a monochronic concept of time regard it as a commodity: time can be
gained, lost, spent, wasted, or saved. In this orientation, time is linear, with one event
happening at a time. In general, monochronic cultures value being punctual, completing
tasks, and keeping to schedules.
+Most university staff and faculty in the United States maintain a monochronic orientation to
time. Family problems are considered poor reasons for not fulfilling academic obligations—
for both faculty and students.

-Polychronic

+In a polychronic orientation, time is more holistic, and perhaps more circular: Several
events can happen at once.

+Many international business negotiations and technical assistance projects falter and even
fail because of differences in time orientation.

+For example, U.S. business people often complain that meetings in the Middle East do not
start “on time”. Tasks often are accomplished because of personal relationships.
+International students and business personnel observe that U.S. Americans seem too tied
to their schedules

Silence

-Cultural groups may vary in the degree of emphasis placed on silence, which can be as
meaningful as language. The amount of silence in conversations and also the speaking rate
differ among cultures.

-In most American contexts, silence is not highly valued.

-According to uncertainty reduction theory, the main reason for communicating verbally in
initial interactions is to reduce uncertainty.

-In the American context, people employ active uncertainty reduction strategies ↔ In many
other cultural contexts, people reduce uncertainty using more passive strategies

-In a classic study on the rules for silence, researcher Keith Basso identified five contexts in
which silence is appropriate:

(1) meeting strangers

(2) courting someone

(3) seeing friends after a long absence

(4) getting cussed out

(5) being with people who are grieving

-Participants perceive their relationships vis-à-vis one another to be ambiguous and/or

unpredictable and that silence is an appropriate response to uncertainty and unpredictability.

-This same contextual rule may apply to other cultural groups.

-Communication scholar Kris Acheson acknowledges that silence in the United States has
often been associated with negative, unhealthy relationships, or with disempowerment.
For example, when women and/or minorities feel their voices are not heard.

-Certain contexts:

+In business contexts, keeping quiet is the best strategy

+In education, teachers can create a space for understanding rather than counterarguments

+In some contexts, silence is still seen as completely negative such as politics and law

Stereotype, Prejudice, and Discrimination

- Prejudice:

+ Is often based on nonverbal aspects of behavior. That is, the negative prejudgment is
triggered by physical appearances or behavior.

+ Ex: On Sep 26, 2005, in Marysville, California, Daniel J. Farris, 18, was charged with
assault with a deadly weapon, causing pain, suffering or injury to an elder or dependent
adult and hate crime for allegedly beating an elderly black man while yelling racial slurs.

+ In many instances of hate crimes, the appearance of the victims was more significant than
his specific cultural heritage.

+ Therefore, based on that, victims can often spot prejudicial behavior and people with
surprising accuracy.

+ Victims also develop imaginary “maps” that tell them where they belong and where they
are likely to be rejected.

+ If they feel uncomfortable about the places or situations, they will avoid those situtaions.

- Discrimination:

+ Behaviors resulting from stereotypes or prejudice that cause some people to be denied
equal participation or rights based on cultural group membership, such as race.

+ Discrimination may be based on race (racism), gender (sexism), or any of the othe
identities discussed in tact or exclusion from a conversation, to physical violence and
systematic exclusion.

+ Discrimination may be interpersonal, collective, or institutional.

+ In recent years, interpersonal racism has become not only more subtle and indirect but
also more persistent.

+ Ex: According to the U.S Justice Department

. Latino/a, and white motorists are equally likely to be pulled over by police.
 . Blacks and Latinos are much more likely to be searched , handcuffed, arrested, and
subjected to force or the threat of it.

. Handcuffs were used on a higher percentage of black (6,4%) and Latino/a motorists
(5,6%) than white (2%).

. Also, blacks (2,7%) and Latinos (2,4%) were far more likely than whites (0,8%) to report
that police used force or the threat of force.

Systemic Racism (also called structural or institutional racism) - racism that exists across a
society within, and between institutions/organizations across society

Semiotics and Nonverbal Communication

Questions:

Mỹ Tiên:

1) Are prejudice and discrimination the same? ĐỔI THÀNH PREJUDICE AND
STEREOTYPE
Prejudice is an attitude that can trigger abusive actions,
So while the two concepts are linked, they’re not the same. Prejudice can lead to discrimination,

but it is not the only factor in discrimination.

A stereotype is a specific belief or assumption (thoughts) about

individuals. can be positive or negative. For ex: Vietnamese

students are good at math -> not true -> struggling with it.

Stereotypes are universal. Whether or not you agree with a

stereotype the content of stereotypes is generally well-known

within in a given culture

Prejudice is a negative attitude and feeling toward an individual.

Prejudice is common against people who are members of an

unfamiliar cultural group. An example of prejudice is having a

negative attitude toward people who are not born in the United

States. Although people holding this prejudiced attitude do not

know all people who were not born in the United States, they

dislike them due to their status as foreigners.

2) Do Americans appreciate silence in communication? Why or Why not

silence is not highly valued -> awkwardness and discomfort -> negative, unhealthy

relationships, or disempowerment​

3) What do paralinguistics take into consideration?

paralinguistics take great concern on how something is said, not on

what is said”

4) In Monochronic orientation, time is regarded as what? what are the

characteristics of people in this orientation concept of time?​

people regard time as commodity - value being punctual, keeping schedules, tasks, getting

job done​

5) NÊU VÍ DỤ CỦA SIGNATURE VOICE OF A SINGER AND VOCALISATION: ERIK

AND TÂZAN'S YELL - Chi Vũ

6) Explain clearly the difference between American and French students’

appearance. - Bình Minh

Phương Nghi:

1. you've mentioned that researcher David recommends studying nonverbal

communication patterns that vary with other cultural patterns right? Can you
give us an example for that recommendation ? -> links cultural patterns in facial
expressions with cultural values of power distance and individualism versus
collectivism. In East Asian interdependent cultural contexts, emotions such as shame
and guilt appear to be conducive to building strong relationships because they
highlight flaws and shortcomings and thus promote alignment with social rules and
relational embeddedness. In contrast, anger appears to be highly undesirable in
interdependent relationships because it may threaten relational harmony.

Tú Trang:
1/ How does nonverbal communication affect the verbal message?

communication in that it can complement, reinforce, substitute, or contradict verbal

messages. Nonverbal communication influences others, as it is a key component of
deception and can be used to assert dominance or to engage in compliance gaining.

2/ Why non-verbal communication is so important? Does it work effectively at the

workplace too or only in real life?

By accurately interpreting the nonverbal cues of your coworkers, you can gain a shared
understanding of their feelings, emotions and attitudes toward certain situations. Moreover,
human bodies can subconsciously deliver messages that they are verbally not
conveying—“actions speak louder than words.”For example, a smile can indicate an
agreement.

3/ It seems that non-verbal brings many advantages, can you list some defects?

create conflict, sharing secrets and receiving a look of disapproval. Chỗ này nêu lại vd của
judith

Thành An:

1/ How do our cultural spaces affect our identities?

Our cultural spaces affect identities in a way that people are directly identified from the fact
that their culture identifies them and this may propagate the issues of corruption, bribery,
tribalism and nepotism among many others. Our cultural spaces affect our identities like the
neighbourhood where we grew up could affect our identities too. And many other things like
Regionalism, and Cyberspace.

2. What is the importance of cultural spaces in intercultural communication? - Bích

Ngọc

Cultural space is significant in this case of intercultural communication because it has the
ability to easily identify people. It can portray a sense of belonging and can promote
interrelations and cohesion. Cultural spaces are so important in international communication
because it reminds people of their core rooted values.

3/ How do postmodern cultural spaces differ from modernist notions of cultural

space?

- A postmodern cultural space exists as long as the cultural practices exist.

-